A biblical cyclopaedia : or, dictionary of eastern antiquities, geography, natural history, sacred annals and biography, theology, and biblical literature, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments

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"To God the Father, God the Word, God the Spirit, we ptVT forth mosf humDie and
beany supplications, that He, remembering the calamities of mankind flkd the pilgrimage of this
our life !n which we wear out days few and evil, would please to open to us new refreshments
out of the fountains of His goodness for the alleviating of our miseries. This also we humbly
and earnestly beg, that human things may not prejudice such as are divine; neither that from
the vnlocking of the gates of sense, and the kindling of a greater natural light, anything of
incteduli^ or intellectual night may arise in our minds towards divine mysteries. But rather
that by our mind thoroughly cleansed and purged from fancy and vanities, and yet subject.
and perfectly given up to the Divine Oracles, there may be given up unto faith the things that
are faith's. Amen." — Lord Bacon.

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BIBLICAL CYCLOPEDIA;

OK.

DICTIONARY

OF

Eastern Antiquities, Geography, Natural History, Sacred Annals and

Biography, Theology, and Biblical Literature,

nxusniATivs of

THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.

BDITBD BY

JOHN EADIE, D.D., LL.p.^

rXOFBSSOR of BIBUCAL LITBRATURB and BXBGBSIS to THB UNITBO PlOlMrrBRIAN CH

With Maps and Pictorial Illtistratio7isv: V

DRAWN FROM THE MOST AUTHENTIC SOURCES.

** The diMxrveries which in one age were confined to the studious and enlightened few, become, in the nex:.
the established creed of the learned, and, in tiie third, form part of the eleoientory principles of education.

DUGALU STEWAR f.

Twelfth Edition^ Revised Throughout and Enlarged,

: LONDON:

CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, STATIONERS' HALL COURT.

1870.

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PKIWTKD BT BKLL AXD BAtM.
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PEEFACE.

The First Edition of this book was published §k 1848, and twenty-four thousand
copies have been sold in the interval, — more than a thousand every year. The .
Work has been altered and re-touched from time to timd ; but being stereotyped,
no thorough emendation and enlargement could be made. It was thereTore
judged necessary to submit it to a complete revisal— correcting several errors,
pving fresher geographical details, and retrenching not a little which haA become
superfluous, in order to insert over 300 new articles, with numerous additional
cuts. So that this New Edition is not a mere re-issue ; for the changes, small
and great, are so numerous and important that it might be almost called E
new production.

The Work retains its original character. It is strictly a Biblical Cyclopaedia,
confining itself to the illustration of Scripture. The extraneous topics of Biblical
Literature are only introduced so far as they bear directly upon the evidences,
structure, and interpretation of the Word of God. Information of this nature has
l>een copiously employed — ^not arranged, indeed, under separate heads, but
brriu;2:ht foru'ard as occasion served, to confirm or explaia my observations
made on the style, allusions, and history of the sacred oracles.

The Work, both originally and in its present form, has been prepared on the
following general principles : —

I. Almost no word is introduced as the subject of an article wbiob is not found
in the canonical books of the common English translation of the Bible; and
one passage at least is usually cited in which the word occurs. Of course,
Euch words as Apocrypha, Antelope, Apocalypse, Deluge, are excluded ; but
all necessary information will be found under othar heads, such as Scripture,
Hart, RevelatioH, I^oah. Any other rule would be too indefinite for practical
application ; but wm have made an exception in favour of two or three words,
such as VOBAj for its Hebrew names, Sela and Joktbbel, are not familiar to
ordinary readenb

II. Scarcely any word is introduced simply for the purpota of defining it,
unless it lifli a peculiar Scriptural use or signification.

TIT. Whatever could be regarded as sectarian by any denomination of eyangelical
Christians is scrupulously excluded, especially in all that relMf» *• *^al and
government. • *

Vi " PREFACE. *

IV. The leading articles embrace each, as far as practicable, the various topics
that properly fall under it. For example, under the word Dwellings will be found
the principal facts in relation to the structure of Eastern houses, as the court, roof,
tinndowSf doors, parlours, chambers, &c., so that the artidle is in itself a concise
history of the subject. The various topics are generally distinguished, however,
by putting the principal words in italics, thus enabling the reader to select them
at pleasure. So of the articles Arms, Book, Burlal, Clotiies, Cmrist, Feasts,
Jesus, Hebrews, Measures and Weights, Sacrifices, Scripture, War, Wine, &c.

Our distinctive purpose has been to give a popular view of Biblical subjects upon
an accurate and scientific basis, embodying the results, but usually dispensing
with the forms, of learning and criticism. The diffusion of sacred knowledge, even
though it be divested of those minutias and technical accompaniments which
interest i!he scholar, and are the proofs of thorough skill and disciplined erudition,
is yet a work which one may earnestly covet, for the Bible is essentially a People's
Book. In unison with such a view, it is the main design of this Dictionary to give
full and attractive Biblical knowledge to parents and teachers of youth — to aftord
sound and necessary assistance to the ordinary readers of the Book of God.

Such being the panciples on which it has been constructed, this Biblical Cycle
psBdia does not come into direct competition with any Work bearing a similar title.
It occupies an independent position, and contains many exegetical notes not to be
found in any existing dictionary. Assistance has been sought from every available
quarter; and the source has usually been named, whenever such a name may be
supposed to add weight or authority to the quotation. Many excellent Dictionaries
have been published; and we may refer to the able and erudite volumes of
Galmet, Winer, Kitto, Herzog, Smith, Fairbaim, the quarto published by Cassell
without the editors* names, and to the less learned and popular productions of
Brown, Watson, Buck, Jones, Bastow, &c., and other compilers of theological and
ecclesiastical Cyclopaedias.

Biblical science has not been stationary. Travellers are returning from the
East laden with spoils. The lonely rock-hewn structures of Petra, the moun-
tains and wadys of the Sinaitic peninsula and desert, the hoary monuments of
Egypt, the great palaces of Babylon and Nineveh, of Persepiflis and Shushan, are
now presented to us in vivid form, confirmatory and illustratiTa of the facts and
scenery of the Scriptures. But especially has Palestine itself been engaginpj
earnest attention and research, for the land of promise has jnany mysterious
associations and hallowed memories jclinging to it. The patriarchs wandered in
it; angels visited its ohosen scenes; the voice of Divine prophecy was heard
in its halls and rang through its valleys ; the daily saedfioe was ofiered in the
court of that temple which glittered like a diadem on mount Moriah ; the
priesthood of Aaron was mated with the throne of David ; while the more awful
death of Calvary has knit the Holy Land to the wide world beyond and
around it " in a perpetual covenant that shall not be forgotten." Amidst all the

•• PBEFilCE. ^i

vicissitiides tbrongh which Aat country has passed, from the days of Chedor-
laomer to those of IbrahiiH the conqueror, and though Assyria, Egypt, Babylon,
Persia, Rome, and Tnrfc^ have trodden it under foot, it is "the glory of all
lands." From our earlitst years we are familiar with the cedars of Lebanon,
the beauty of Carmel, thevdews of Hermon, the rose of Sharon, and the clusters
of Eshcol. The charm of household words belongs to the lake of Tiberias,
where lingered so often the "blessed feet," — ^to the Jordan, on which the
great miracle was done at the invasion, and by the banks of which occurred
a greater wonder when the Holy One was baptized, — to the sea so salt and so
BoUtary as to be called the Dead Sea, — as also to the sultry desert, with its strange
rocks and sweeps of sand on which fell the daily rain of manna, — and to the

S', hoary, rugged mountain that quaked and flamed when Jehovah came down and
i spoke in thunder the words of the ten commandments. Throngs of pilgrims,
under these fascinations, have gone to Palestine in all centuries, and many of
them have published books on their return. These literary travellers began
with the pilgrim of Bordeaux, who visited Palestine about a. d. 333 ; and he has
had crowds of successors in every century. Not to speak of the geographical
J works of Heland, Bochart, Raumer, Mannert, Bitter, Munk, Schwartz, and Amaud,
we may refer on this subject to Maundrell, Shaw, Kobinson, Stanley, Niebuhr,
Borckhardt, Olin, Seetzen, Irby and Mangles, Lord Lindsay, Lamartine, Laborde,
ScLubert, Wilson, Thomson, Porter, Bonar, Van de Velde, Do Saulcy, Lyncli,
Sopp, Osborn, Dixon, and the papers of Mr. Groves in " Smith's Dictionary ; "
and to Tobler, Barclay, Pierotti, Williams, Thrupp, Lewin, Bartlett, Krafl't,
Unnih, Bosen, De Vogiid, and Fergusson, who have written specially about
Jerusalem. The Palestine Exploration Society is working out its researches
witli great skill and astonishing success ; Tristram's admirable volume lias
given us new and welcome information on the Natural History of the Holy
Lar.d ; and a party of engineers are also leaving to survey the wilderness of Sinai.
Tlie rational study of language by the aid of comparative grammar has now
SDfterseded the eccentric etymologies of former days. The literary history and
structure of the various books of Scripture may be freely treated, without tho
fetter of mere dogma and tradition. Materials are thus rapidly accumulating
which are not to be confined to the libraries of the learned, but dispensed to the
Christian world. Tliere is now a thirst for substantial knowledge about the
hLstorj' of the Scriptures as well as their theological contents. Christians are
desirous of the " strong meat which belongs to them that are of full age."

The First Edition had three columns in the page, but this has only two ; still,
in consequence of the smallness of the type, this volume contains a very large
quantity of matter — as much as would fill several octavos printed in the usual
form. The Maps, origimlly constructed with characteristic accuracy and tasto
by Messrs. W. & A. KL Johnston of Edinburgh, have been revised and corrected
by them for this edition. Tho Woodcuts have been taken from the most
authentic sources ; and those of them relating to the antiquities of Egypt have
been drawn by Mr. Bonomi, who has acquired high celebrity in this walk of art.

▼Ill PREFACE.

The cuts have been inserted, not for embellishment, bat lUdBtration. The value
of such pictorial comments, taken from the paintings and sculptures still found
on the tombs, temples, and palaces in the great Tftlley of the Nile, and among the
ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, is now universally and gratefully recognized.
The labours and discoveries of Young, Champollion, Rosellini, Wilkinson, Lepsius,
Osbum, Bunsen, Gliddon, Osborn, Birch, and Brugsch ; and of Layard, Ken
Porter, Loftus, the Bawlinsons, Hincks, Oppert, and Norris, have been of singulai
utility on many points for the fuller understanding and confirmation of the sacred
records.

In conclusion, the Work is commended to the blessing of Him by whose
inspiration all Scripture has been given, and by the influences of whose Spirit wc
are enabled to *' know the things tha( are freely given us of God."

C Thornville Terrace, Hillhead,
Glasgow, October, 1868,

^
f

BIBLICAL CY€L0PJ2DIA.

AAR

AAROX. The word means " cnliglitened,''
if it be of Hebrew origin, and it is the
same with the name Hartdn, so common in
the East. Aaron (Exod. yL 2X)), the first high
priest of the Jews, was the son of Amram, of
ti^e tribe of Levi. He was three years older
than his brother Moses, and being a more ready
and flnent speaker, he was appointed by the
Lend to assist Moses in guiding and controlling
the Israelites in their journey from Egypt to
Canaan. The important but subordinate rela-
tion which Aaron sustained was thus expressed
by the Lord to Moses, — "He shall be thy
s|x>ketanan unto the people. He shall be to
thee iiLst^ad of a mouth, and thou shalt be to
Lim iD:>tead of God " (Exod. iv. IG). *' I have
made thee a God to Pharaoh ; and Aaron, thy
brrjther, ahall be thy prophet" (Exod. vii. 1).
Aaron married Elisheba, the daughter of
Amminadab, and had four sous, Nadab,
Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. The two
former were puniiihed with death for a heinous
f^in, and the priesthood remained in the two
s'lrvivors. (See Abihu.)

As most of the important events in the life
of Aaron are intimately connected with his
brother's liistorv, they will be reserved for
that article. (See Moses.) Those in which
Aaron was only or principally concerned, are
briefly the following : —

Aaron, even before the emancipation, seems
to have exercised no little influence among the
pc^jple. Moses, after forty years' absence, was
intr^xiuced by him to the Hebrew chiefs, and
with his advice and assistance, the plan of
hiture co-operation seems to have been adopted.
At an early period after the departure <n the
children of Israel from Egypt, Aaron and his
Suns were set apart by God's direction, and
^ith the most solemn ceremonies, to minister
in the priest^s ofiice, which Axux)n continued to
fill untd his death.

Before his consecration, and while Moses
was on the mount, receiving the law from God.
the people became impatient at the prolongea
absence of their leader, and besought Aaron to
make them idol-gods. He thereupon com-
manded Uiem to break off the golden earrings
of their wives and children ; which being col-
kcted and bronght to bim, he mode out ol

AAR

them an idol in (he shape of a oalf, like one of
the idols of Egyi»t. Before this image the
people danced and shouted, sajring, "These be
thy gods, O IsradL which brought thee up out
of the land of Egjrpt" This act, and the
aggravating circumstances connectcKl with it
(Exod. xxxii 25), involved Aaron in great guilt.
No sufficient apology can be made for his
vacillation at this crisis. His toleration of
idol-worship may be ascribed, however, not to
his approval of it, but to his want of that
decision and force of character which belonjjed
to his younger brother; or i>erhaps he may
have found some means of self-vimlication in
the thought that the calf was only a symbolic
representation of the Deity, and not hia rival ;
for when he had built an altar before it, hia
proclamation as to its worship was announced
m these words, ** To-mom)w is a fe.ast to
Jehovah." His mind ha^l not been elevated to
the purer conceptions of the spirituality of the
Godhead with which Moses had been favoured,
and the taint of Egyptian superstition hatl not
been thoroughlv eradicated. The calf or young
bullock, formed and consecrated on this occa-
sion, was evidently an intended imitation of
the worship of the country which the Hebrew
tribes had so recently^ left — was designed to
represent the idol Apis or Mnevis, the prin-
cipal object of EgyiJtian homage. The Jdnd
of worship which the Hebrews paid to the
golden calf — for it is said of them, " They sat
down to eat and drink, and rose up to play " —
is precisely the mode of celebration which
Herodotus describes as being practised in Ej^-yiit
at the feast of Apis. " Some of the women
play on castanets, and the men on the flute :
all mdulge in feasting ; when Ai)is appears, all
the Egyptians manifest their joy by leasting"
(Herodotus ii GO ; iiu 27). (See Calf. ) Aaron's
own apology to his indignant brother, when
challenged oy him on his unexpected return to
the camp, was — the perversity and headstrong
determination of the people. They sutfered
severely for their folly : three thousand were
slain. At a later period, Aaron, with his
sister Miriam, jealous of the higher position
and influence of their brother, attempted to
lower his reputation by taimting him as to his
I marriage with a foreigner. Miiiam wasstnick.

1

AAR
with Uprosy ; but, upon oonfeadon of hii m
Aaioa wupudoned.

AB

, «ad pelded ■hnonAi." This wonderful

thitt^-Ta vtu nude launm to the people by an
eSLhilntioQ of the rod ; but it wba
immeiUately taken haclc into tbe
tAberUAcle, to be kept there forever,
t' for B token againet the rebels "
(or the children of rebellioQ) (Xum.
ivB. 10). Some infer from this
Bsci«d depotritien of the rod, that it
retained afterwards ita supernatural
outgrowth of foliago, bloosoma^ and

When the supply of water was
miraculoualy furnished in the deeert
of Zin. Awon nreleoted to acknow-
le^ethe power of God, and for this
denied the privilege of entering

1 the pro;

1 the

BroDiH at Ihe god Ajia
Koroh and others were offended with Moaei

and Aanin. and chained tbem with taking
upon themitelveg authority which belonsed as
much to others as to them. The conspirttlora
ware persons of rank and influence, and the
feeling of dissatisfaction and insubordination
Menu to have apread to some extent among
tbe people. Moxes expostulated with them,
and especiall; with Korah ; but his remon-
■traoce was all in vun, and the next day the
rebel and his companions were suddenly
destroyed. (See Korah.}

Inunediatelv after this fearful exhibition of
the anger of Uod, and while we should suppose
the temir of such judffmeDtnndght still possess
their minda, the people of Israel renewed their
niinnUTings againut Motes and Aaron (Num.
ivi 41). A dreadful plague having appeared
suddenly in the midst of them, which threat-
ened the tribes with utter and immediate
deatmctiim, Aaron, at Uie command of
Uoses, took a censer with incense, and ran
quickly into the midst of the congr^atdon.
Mid stood between the living and the dead,
until he had made an atonsment for them,
Mid the "plague was stayed" (Num. ivi.
44-90).

A signal attestation was now granted to
Aaron's oiEcial authority in the foUowingman-
ner :— Twelve rods or branches of the almond
tree were taken, one for the head of each house,
or tribe, of Israel; and upon the rod of the
tribe of Levi was written the name of Aaron.
The rods were laid together in a particular
place in the tabernacle ; and the next day,
when Moses went into the tabernacle, the rod
which had Aaron's name upon it "was budded,
ud bnnigbt forth boda, and bkioaied bloa-

fortieth year after he had left Kgypt,
he was commanded to gu up with
Moses his hriither. and Elcazar his
■on, into mount Hor, in sight of all
the congregatiOQ. that he might die
there (Num. xi. 28). The place of
Aaron's death is called Mosera, in
Deut. K. 6 ; but the same spot is de-
noted in both passages. (See Hon.)
lliB circumstances of Aaron's
death are peculiarly interesting and
impressive. On his way to the
TDonnt, his official robes were transferred to hie
son and Fiucoessor in the priesthoiid, and he died
on the top of the mount, aged one hundred and
twenty-three years (Num. iixiii. 39). When
Moses and Eleaiar came down, and the people
saw that Aaron was dead, they mourned for
him thirty days, "even all the house of Israel"
(Num. II. 2<JI.

Aaron is called " the saint of the Lord " (Pa.
ctL 16). The idea that he assisted Moses in
writing parts of tbe Pentateuch— an idea base<l
on supposed differences of style — is both fanci-
ful and unnecessary. With all the faults and
defects of Aaron's character, we cannot but
admire hii ardent patriotism and warm en-
deavours to promote the interests of his people,
as well as liis general deference to the authority
of Moees, and his hearty labours in carrying out
bis measures, without jealousy or ostentation.
AARONITE8 {1 Chr. xiL 27)— Levites of
the family nf Aaron : the priests who served
tbe sanctuary. Eleazar, Aaron's son, was their
chief (Num. iv. 16).

AB— the fifth month of the sacred and the
eleventli of the dvil year among the Jews.
Tbe name seems not to have been used till
after the return fium Babylon. It b^an,
according to some, with the new moon of July,
and according to others, with the new moon of
August It was a black month in the Jewish
calendar. On its iirst day a fast was observed
for the death of Aaron, and on its ninth
another was held in memory of the divine
edict which excluded so many that came out
of Egypt from entering the promised land, and
in memory, at the same time, of the over-
throw of th« Snt Mid Mcond temple. {See

MOHTH.)

ABA

ABADDOX (Rev. ix. 11)— the Hebrew
njune for the angel of the bottomleM pit^and
uijiwerin^ to the ( Sr^'ek xuune Apollyun. Thvy
buth kd^n^fy tht df4trover.

ABAXA {•! Ki. v.* 12)~a river of Syria,
near DaDia&cus, KupjKised to be the Baradn, or
tJhiyBorrhoasi. It nsim in the AntilibaniH. at
a »pot alxiut 1.1414 feet above the city, and
twenty- three miles dltttant from it. Pbaqiar,
the other Htream, id now supiKwed to be the
Awaj. which riites on mount Hermon, but
doed not come nearer Damaiiciu than seven
miltafw The Abana, flon-in^; into Damascurf,
(iupplies its nunu'roud baths and cisterns; while
its titlier branche* water and fertilize the rural
i]i;striL'ts in tlie vicinity. The river ccmtinues
ib course till it emijties itself into a small
marsh v lake, fifteen vr twenty miles distant
from the city.

Abana and Pharpar supplied abundance of
water, and rendered the country around Da-
maftcud, though on the edge of a desert, one of
the mcHt beautiful and fertile ti\htt^ in the
wiirld ; while the streams of Judea or Israel,
with the exception of the Jordan, are nearly
dr>- tho greater part <d the year, and, running
in deep and rocky channeb, give but ])artial
fertility to the land through which they flow.
'VhiB striking fact may well acojunt for the
•jU'.iBtinn of Naaman — **Are not Abana and
rharf-ar, river* of L>ama&cuK, better than all
the watrrji of I>nM.'l?" (Porter's Fire Yeitrs in
Lhnifur.u. I^rnd(»n. l.'S^S.) (See Damasit.s.)

AI5AK1M— v^iMfif/rt ; used always with tlie
•i»-tinite aiticle (Deut. xxxiL 4!>)— a peneral
L:ime given tn a mountainous ridge, running
fpim n'>rtb U* f««mth, ea»t of Jordan and (»n the
ri-rthem Ujnler of M«.»ab. Xeljo was one of
the c:«>iL<piouou> mountains in tlie chain, or on
the iH'rtion «>f it calleil Pisgali. The modem
Tiiirunt l>)jana is i»u])]><>.sed to be a i>art of
A)mrini. Iji-a)iariui (Num. xxi. 11), meaning
" hi aji-: L'f Aliarim,*^ is another name for the
same chain, or xome ]K»rtion of it.

ABBA iKooL viii. ir>). Abba, the emphatic
< "haMt-e form of the Hebrew word */6, signify-
ing,MM»r. The title, nVxi, was not allowed to
W Ua-nl by s*.-r\ants or slaves when addressing
the hea<i I'f the family— a circum>»tiincu which
invesi much fi»rce \4> the wonl in tlie passage
■.-.trtl. The full moaning of this term cannot be
"Xprt.-sred in our Uni^uage. It implies a high
• If.THe of l'.»vi', Confidence, and submission, as
^vrll a' a mo:>t endeare«l and intimate connec-
tinii ami fellowship (Mark xiv. 3(); IJaL iy. Oj.
*i~Le Word ah (in«'aning father) is mentioned
s»n on^ of the first ami simi)lest wonls of
:iifan>;y. as it^s iviinid is produced by the mere
•rLuitini,' of the lips (Isa. viii 4).

\}iKI)yiiiH>--*€nyiiit of Ntfto; iwrhafis
an-'ther form of Ncifi (Dan. L 7)— the Chalilee
vjxm*' ;fi ven by an oHirer of the king of Babyhm
^^ .-V^ariah. i»ne of the f«»ur youths of Judah
taken i-aptivc from Jeni^alem, and ordered by
the king t-^ ].»e tmiiieil for his particular service.
'See I).4>iEi-.) It wart customar>' for masters
^• jive new names to their 8er\'ants or captives.
The other three were, Daniel (or Belteshazzar),

ABE

Hananiah (or Shadrach), and Mishael (or Me-
shach).

After DanieVs promotion to be ruler over
the whole province of Babylon, his three com-
panions were, at his re«iuest, elevated to places
of trust. Xebuchailnezzar the king saw tit to
make a golden image, the W4 rship of which
was to be a test of loyalty; for at its dedica-
tion with ^Teat jiomp, he coiimianded that, at
a certain signal, the i>eople of all nations and
languages shouM fall down and worship the
image, and that those who refusc<l should lie
cast into the midst of a buniiiig furnace. In
this act of itlolatry, SIia<lnu:h, Meshach, ami
Abednego would not unite, thi»ugh Ci>mmande«l
by the king himself. They rei»lie«l that they
were not anxious Xo answer the king in this
matter, as the (tihI whom they loveil ami
Served was able to deliver them, to whatever
extremity they might l)e roilucetl. The king
was filled with fury, and ci>inmanded the fur-
nace to be heate«l sevenftdd hotter than was
usual; and ** mo.it mighty men" were cm-
ployed to bind them, ami cast them into the
dames. Perhaps the phrase, " most mighty
men,** used here, means the chief utfioers of the
army, who were selecteil to make the punish-
ment more imxM)sing an<l exemi>lxir>'. With
all their garments on, they weri> cast into the
furnace ; and wt intjuse was the heat that
the executioners theniselvi'<* were destrfjyed
by it. The king was ]irc."M'nt t*» witness the
execution of the sentence; anil, thuuirh the
three men at first fell down lioun<l in theiiiiilst
of tlie fianies. yet when he I'MikeiJ, exjieeting
t'j see them (iestruVi**!, he iMiljeM tlieiu liMwed
fn>m their bonds, walkin^' unhurt in the midst
of the fire, and a fourth pers<in with them,
whose form was ** like the sjiu of Cio<I.'' 'J'his
was the king's language ; and whatever hr.
might have intended ])y the tiTin, *'Si»n <if
(io<l,'' the fourtli persfiii. t«) wlioiii In* refers,
was ]»nil»ably an an;:el of (iod, si-nt for this
purpose, as he was afterwanls sent ^^ shut tlm
mouths of lions for the ])n>teotii'n of his servant
])aniel ; or it might have K't'ii the eternal and
unoreate*l Son of (ioil, appearing to protect
and deliver his faithful ser\ ants in the time of
their calamity (Matt, xxviii. li*!).

UiMtii the call of the king from tlie mouth of
the funiaet;, thesi* three servants of the most
hi^'h Ci(hI came forth, in tlie pre-ieiiee of the
princes and ruler.i «.»f the ci>untry; and S(» com-
l)letely ha<l they Wen iirotectetfby the mighty
power in which they tnistfd, that not a hair
was singed, the colour of their eoats was iiot
clianged. nor was there even the smell of tiro
ujKin them.

The monarch, a«t<»nih]ied at IhiM evid« nt
interfMisitioii i»f the Almiirhty in their behalf,
forthwith juissed a decree, threateiiinu to punish
in the severest manner any one who shouM
8i>eakaL:ainstthe (li)d of Shadraeh, Meshach,
and Abeilnego ; *' becaus.; (said he) tliere is no
other gJMl that can deliver after this sjirt;"
and the men were resti>red to their places in the
pro\'ince, (Dan. iii.) (Sec NKm.cHAF>XEZZ.VR.)

ABEL— rani<y (Gen. iv. 2)— was the second

ABE

BOH of Adam and Eve. He was occupied as a
keeper or feeder of sheep ; and in process of time
brought of the firstlings of his flc^ck, an offering
unto the Lord. God was pleased to accept his
offering, and to give him evidenc* of it (Heb.
xi 4). At the same time Cain brought of the
fruit of the ^imd an offering unto the Lord.
But his oblAtion was re j ected. The superiority
and excellence of Abefs sacrifice are ascribed
bjr the apostle to his faith (Ueb. xL 4). Now
faith implies a previous revelation, for it
" Cometh bv hearmg, and hearing by the word
of God." May there not have b«en some pre-
vious command in reference to the rite of
sacrifice, which Abel complied with, and Cain
disobeyed? They both brought the kind of
offering which their respective occupations
furnished them with ; yet, if we may believe
in early revelations of mercy through the
atonement of a coming Messiah, and in sacri-
ficial tyjies appointed to prefigure the blood of
the Lamb of Crod, the inference is warrantable,
that Cain offered only a thank-offering of fruits,
expressed merely his naked obligations to God
as a creature; while Abel, conscious of his
guilt, confessed his faith in the presentation of
living victims, laid a sin-offering on the altar,
and was accepted. If, with some, we render
tbe clause in God's expostulation with Cain,
** sin lieth at the door," by the words, " a sin-
offering croucheth at the door" — that is, a sin-
offering is easily procured — then the divine
reproof ]x>ints to tne sin of Cain, and to its
aggravation ; for though he was not a keeper
of sheep, yet a victim whose blood might be
shed as a symbolical propitiation could with-
out any difficulty have been secured and
presented. But perhaps the simple clause
may not bear this deeper theological meaning.
The acceptance of AbeVs sacrifice was probably
manifested by the descent of fire from heaven,
which kindled and consumed the oblation.
Cain was enraged that his sacrifice was rejected;
'* his coimtenance fell;" the scowl of a fierce
malignity lay on it. His works were also evil
(1 Jonn iii. 12j ; for. while his brother and he
were in the neld, ne seized the opportunity
to slay him. Thus the first death was a mur-
der— a murder by the hand of a brother —
perpetrated in connection with religious service.

Our Saviour distinguishes Abel by the title
*' righteous " (Matt, xxiii 35). He is also one
of the faithful "elders" mentioned in the
epistle to the Hebrews (ch. xi.), and is justly
called the first martyr.

Blood of Abel (Heb. xii. 24). One opinion
of the meaning of this passage is, that the blood
of sprinkling, or the blood of Jesus Christ shed
for the remission of sins^ speaks better things
than the blood of Abel, masmuch as the latter
speaks only of the malice and madness of the
heart of man, and cried to Crod from the
ground for vengeance on the murderer's head ;
while the blood of Christ, which flowed freely
for the guilty and ruined sinner, si>eaks peace
and pardon to every penitent and believing
soul (1 John i. 7). But the words are simply,
"better than Abel;" and Abel himself is said
4

ABE

to speak in the 4th verse. Abel spoke of a
coming atonement, and his sacrifice fore-
shadowed it But Christ's blood spe^Jcs of a
past and perfect propitiation, on which every
one is invited to trust with implicit confidence.

ABEL, GREAT stone of (1 Sam. vi. 18) —
was in the field of Joshua of Beth-shemesh,
where the ark of the Lord rested when it was
returned by the Philistines t& Kirjath-jearim.

ABEL — a grassy place or meadow, foimd in
connection with many names of places. Thus —

ABEL-BETH-MAACHAlf (2 Ki. xv. 29)
— a city in the northern district of the tribe
of Naphtali, lying south-east of Cesarea-
Philippi, and north of the Huleh. To this

Elace Sheba, the son of Bichri, fled and posted
imself when pursued by Joab, general of the
iarmy of David. The citizens, however, who
feared a siege if they harbourea him, cut off his
head, at the sus^estion of a woman, and threw
it over the waU to Joab (2 Sam. xx. 14-22).
The city was afterwards captured twice ; first
by Benhadad, and two centuries after by
'Kglath-pileser (1 Ki xv. 20; 2 Ki xv. 29).
Perhaps the phrase, ** mother in Israel" (2
Sam. XX. 19), if it was designed to apply to
the place at all, may denote its size and im-
portance. Van de Velde and Thomson identify
it with a ruin called Abel, on the side of a
small stream.

ABEL-CERAMIM — meadow ofrineyaraU —
a village of the Ammonites, and still famed in
later years for its abundant vintage (Judg.
xi. 33).

ABEh-M AIM. — meadow of the waten (2
Chr. xvi 4) — is called Abel-beth-Maachaa
(1 Ki XV. 20), and appears to have been ^e
same Dlace

ABEL-MEHOLAH— mftKiow of the dance
( Judg. vii 22 ; 1 Ki xix. 16)— a town in the
northern part of the valley of the Jordan,
mentioned in connection with Bethshean ; dis-
tinguished as the birthplace of EUsha, and as
the refuge of the Midifmites when pursued by
Gideon.

ABEL-MIZRAIM (Gen. I 11)— exphiined
to mean the mourning of the Eifyptian*. It
was probably in the plains of Jericho, and is
placed by ancient writers between that city
and the river Jordan. The threshing-floor of
Atad was here, and the name Abel-mizraim
was derived from the circumstance, that here
Joseph and his company halted seven days
to mourn, as they were passing from Egypt
to Canaan to bury Jacob (Gen. L 10, 11). if
the term, ** beyond Jordan," used in describ-
ing the place, refers to the situation of the
sacred writer at the time of writing, then, as he
was on the east of the river, Abel-mizraim was
" beyond," or on the west side. But the nar-
rative seems to imply plainly that it was on
the east of the Jordan.

ABEL-SHITl'IM, or Shittim— meadow of
acacias (Num. xxxiii 49; xxv. 1) — a place on
the east bank of the Jordan, in the plains of
Moab, and the scene of the last encampment
of Israel on that side of the river. According
to Stanley, the acacias still mark with a line

ABI

of verdure the npper teiracea of the Jordan
^-alley (Sinai and Paltdtine^ p. 298). It was at
thif place, so clf>f(e to the end of their journey-
ings, that the peoi)le of Israel fell into the
tnare* of the dau^fhters of Moab, and committed
the gromedt idolatry, for wliich they were
viadttrd H-ith a plague which destroyed 24,000
of them. The stnes whom Joshua sent to
Jerichci went from Shittim (Josh. ii. 1).

jVBIA, corRSE OP (Luke i. 5). In 1 Chr.
xxiv. we have an account of the divisions of
the priests into twenty-four classes, courses, or
opiers, who ministered at the altar in rotation.
The courses were distinguished by the name of
the most prominent member of the family from
which the course was taken. The eighth of
the«e courses fell to the family of Abia, or
A> lijah ; and tr> this course belonged Zechariah,
the father of John the Baptist.

ABIATHAR — /ofAer of plenty (1 Sam.
xxiL 20) — the tenth high priest of the Jews,
and fourth in descent from £Ii. Doeg, at the
d^mmand of King Saul, fell ux)on the priests of
the Lord at Nob, and slew them. Among the
slain wax Ahimelech. His son, Abiathar,
eiicaped from the carnage, and taking vnth him
the ephod, a distinctive and essential ]>art of
the sacenlotal vestments, fled to David at
Ktrilah, ami XfAA him wnat Saul had done.
I>ivi4l rcceivetl Abiathar, and protected hira,
&Dii ht.' aftem'anls became high })rie8t, when his
jMtntn <ibtained the aovcroignty of Judah.
fhtrre were two liij^h priests at this time—
Aldithar and Zadok (2 Sam. viii. 17); but it
i- ni't e.i.*y t«» account f(»r a double i>rieHthoo<l.
In c«»n'«i*4pien«t' of his 8up[x»rting Adonijah
in his prirten*i«.ins to the throne of David,
Sili.n;«'!i, u|Min Iwicoming king, thrust Abiathar
out of the priesth<v>d (1 Ki. ii. 27), ami con-
i*fTT\-<\ tlie office exclusively ujKm Za<lok.
Thu.-? was* fulfilled the wonf of ( Jod to lili
(1 Sara. ii. 'M ). for Abiathar was the last of
thi' I'rit.'st.s of the house of Ithamar, to which
Kli Lrl« 'Hired ; sind Zadok, who Muccewled him,
"ttis f*i the family of Elenz;ir ; and so the priost-
hf.-.ivl ji,xs«eil into its former channel. Ahiathar,
Ujt-ntii ineil in Mark ii. 2(^>, has been Kup]»<)se(l
t'V noiu*!^ to be the same with Ahimelech.
tnher? have thought (though without mmrh
rr;».*"n,i that the evangelist refers to some publio
<tr-uii:ent, kno^iTi as the **hirftory of the days
<'f Abuithar.*' in which the con«iuct of David
and Aliimelech in the matter of the show-
br»';i'i wjis reconlfd, and that the allusion vas
vt.-ll understo'^I by those who heanl it. 'i'he
Ljo-t pn 'liable solution of the difficulty is, tliat
a< Al.'iathyr was the son of Ahimelech, br»th
'■'tbciated at the same time, and both receivoti
thf titlv : the name of either was therefore used
ti> d'--:jjnato that period.

AtJlB — (trren cir — the month of grcrn
«-;ir< ; the first month of the Hebrew sacivd
y.-Lr It was aft^^r wards named JVwin, and
jT-.'ljably b:-gan with the new mrjon of March ;
jioDie later critics f*av, of April.

AmEZllli— father of hdp (Judg. \\u. 2).
Tiii^ ])a.ssage contains a highly figurative expres-
hii'D. Gideon was of the family of Abiezcr.

ABI

Tlie Ephraimites couiplaine<l because they
were nt>t called upon to go out to battle against
the Mi«lianites. Gide<»n attempteil to pacify
them by a dextrous ai)peal to their vanity;
representing his own victory, with a force of
three hundred men, chiefly of the family of
Abiezer, as of very little im]M)rtancc, in c«>m-
pari.son with the capture of two of the i)rinces
<if Midian, which the men of Ki)hraim had
accomplished. Though the latter, in respect
to numl>ers, might be as the gleaning of tho
vineyard, yet, in the glory and imix>rtance of
it, it was more than the wliole vintage which
the men of Abiezer hiul gathered.

ABIGAIL— f/i^//fr of jo/f (1 Sam. xxv. 3)^
the prudent and beautiful wife of the churlish
and wicked Nal)aL When hur husband had
exposed himself to tho anger of David, by his
rude and contemptuo\is treatment of his mes<
sengers, Abigail liasteniHl to meet him, while
he was on his way with 400 men to revenge tho
insult. She presented to him a handsome gift,
and managed the affair with so much ]>rudence
as to pacify David, and obtain liis lili»ising.
About ten days after her return, Nabal died,
and she ultimately became David's wife.

Also a sister of David, and mother of Amasa
by Jether an Ishmaelite (1 (vhr. ii. 17).

ABIHU — mtf f other ^ lie. (Ex<hI. xx\'iii.
1) — (»ne of the sons of Aanm, who, with his
brothers, Nadab. Kleazjir, an<l Ithaniar, were
separated or set apart by (Jodto tin* oliice of
the priesth(MH.l. Stxni aft»-v th<\v ent»Tf<l on their
saci-cd duties, Nadab and Abihu weri' ;,'iiilty of
a \'iolation of God's eommanils res]>»'i'tin'-c the
manner of ofTerin;,' incens<e, and were instiintly
c^>nsunied (Lev. x. 1. 2). 'i'liis (svmt hai>jM'iie(i
in the wilderness of Sinai. The nature of their
offence is very obvious; tliey used stranLre, or
common fire, instead of the fire whii-h they
wore rwjuired to use. which was tire taken from
f»ff the altar of burnt ofleriiii;. 'I'Im; hU]i])Mvi-
ti(»n is probable that they wenMlrawn into this
presimiptuous sin b}' tho to() fre«r usi? of wine.
Sut^h an inference is warranted liy the solnun
command issued in connee.ti«»n witli their sin
and fate— viz., that the ofticiatin-j;^ priest was to
• irink neither wine nor strong drink when he
went into tht: tabernaele of the eoiij,T'<'*~ation.

ABIJAH- -iinijiithi.r, Jnh. 1. (1 Ki. xiv. 1)
A son of .leroboiiin, wln» died undi-r int«'n'stiiig
circumstances in e;irly life. In the miilst of a
corrui>t familv and court, his y«>uii.L' hi-art was
filled with i)ious j>rincipl«-s; au«i liis death,
according to tlie pri'[)h»;t\s ]>r«'ilirtion, j)ro(luc;ed
a 'JToneral niournini,'. (S»'e .iKitoiio.vM.)

2. (2(.'hr. xiii. I) Abijah, or AhMAM. the
son of JteholM)ain and Micliaiali, Kucc«'edi'd his
father as king of .ludah. aU.ut, u.c. '.h^s. lb;
iua<lo war figain>t Jeroboam, kin-,' of Isratd,
and defeate.l him, with a los«, <.f :.iM).o<H) men.
Tlieso ver>' lar^'e numbers are «'orrui>t ions tljat
haj»penintheco]»yin;,'andtransnn.sMoin»f MSS.
— i%(),(K)0 was ]irobal»ly the tru«- 'Au\ ori'^'inal
reai.lin:^. Tie bep:an t«"> Yi'\'/}\ in tlie ««i;^dit»M-ntli
year (»t Jerol)oani, and was succeiMh'd by his
son Asa, in the twentieth year of .lemlMiam,
ho that he reigned only a part of tbr^-ii "jj^cww.

5

ABI

There yt en apparent oontradictioxi in respect
to the parentage of this person, as it is given
in 1 Kl xv. 2 and 2 Chr. xiii. 2, which may
be explained as follows : — Abishalom is the
same with Absalom (2 Chr. xi. 21). The term
daughter is given indifferently in the Bible,
not only to one's own child, out to a niece,
granddaughter, or great-granddaughter. Be-
noboam had already taken two wives from the
family of David (2 Chr. xi. 18), and of course
woula find no difficulty in taking a third wife
from the same family, in the line of Absalom.
Maaohah and Michaiah are thus the same
person — the daughter of Uriel, and the grand-
daughter of Absalom.

AIBILENE (Luke iii. 1) — a province or
tetrarchjr of Syria, so called from its capital
town Abila, of which Lysanias was tetrarch in
the time of John the Baptist.

Abila, now called Suk Wady Barada^ lies in
the picturesque gorge through which the Bar-
ada rushes down to the pluns of Damascus.
It was called in later times Abila of Lysanias,
to distinguish it from Abila of Persea. But the
Lysanias in Luke is not to be confounded with
an earlier governor of the same name in the
days of Cleopatra, by whom he was put to death.

ABlMEiECH— father of the king. 1.
(Gen. XX. 2, and xxvi. 1) Was king of Gerar,
and being deceived by Abraham, he sent ana
took Sandi to be his wife. Grod warned him,
however, in a dream, of Sarah's relation to
Abraham, and thus withheld him from the
commission of sin, because he did it in ignor-
ance (Gen. XX. 6). Abimelech. having rebuked
Abraham, restored Sarah to nim with many
gifts, and offered him a dwelling-place in any
part of the land. God afterwards remitted the
punishment of the family of Abimelech. At
a subsequent period, Abimelech (or rather his
successor of the same name, for the term Abi-
melech seemH to have been not a proper name,
but a royal Philistine designation) was deceived
in like manner by Isaac, respecting his wife
Kebekah, while they dwelt in Grerar, during a
time of famine in Canaan. The propert]^ of
Isaac during his sojourn among the Philistines
was unwonted and great, uid nimself and the
sovereign of the country renewed the covenant
originaUy made between their fathers.

2. (Judg. viii 31) A son of Gideon, who,
after the death of his father, persuaded the
men of Shechem to make him king (Judg. ix.
18). He afterwards put to death seventy of
his brothers who dwelt in his father's house at
Ophrah, leaving onl^ Jotham the youngest
alive< It was on tms trying occasion that
Jotham employed the famous satirical parable
of the trees choosing a kins'. At length the
subjects of Abimelech revolted; and in the
course of the subsequent warfare he met with
several defeats, and was at last mortally
wounded by a piece of a miUstone thrown
upon his head by a woman from the top of a
tower in Thebez. That it might not be sud a
woman slew him, he called to his armour-
bearer to stab him with his sword, and thus he
died (Judg. ix. 54-67).
(>

ABN

ABmADAB —father of vnlUnghood, L
(1 Sam xvi. 8) One of the eight sons of Jesse,
and one of the three of his sons who followed
Saul in battle.

2. (1 Sam. xxxL 2) One of Saul's sons who
was slain^at the battle of Gilboa.

3. (1 Sam. vii. 1, and 1 Chr. xiii 7) A
Levite of Kirjath-jearim, with whom the ark
of the Lord was deposited when it was brought
back from the Philistines.

4. (1 Ki. iv. 11) One of the twelve officers
appointed by Solomon to provide alternately,
month bv month, food for the king and ms
household.

ABLRAM— /otAiT of height. 1. (Num.
xvL 1) One of the sons of Ehab, the Reuben-
ite, who were destroyed with Korah for a
conspiracy against Moses. (See Kobah.)
. 2. The first-bom of Hiel, the Bethelite.
(See Jericho.)

ABISHAG— /aa<!r of error (1 KL L 15)—
a fair woman of Shunem, in the tribe of
Issachar, who was selected by the servants of
David to minister to him in ms old age, and to
cherish him. After David's death, and the
ascension of Solomon to the throne. Adonijah
desired Abishag in marriage; but Solomon per-
ceived his policy (see Adonijah), and caused
him to be put to death (1 Ki. ii 25). Such
a connection as Adonijah sought witn one of
the royal harem, was either a proclamation of
his rignt to the throne, or an mtended means
of defending his title to it at some future period.

ABmKAl— father of gifts (2 Sam. ii. 18)—
a son of Zeruiah. He was a nephew of David,
and amon^ the chief of his mighty men. He
accompamed David to the camp of Saul, and
counselled him to take Saul's life. Abishai.
with Joab his brother, attacked and defeated
the Syrians and the children of Ammon, (2 Sam.
X.) David appointed him, in conjunction wil^
Joab and Ittai, to the command of the people
when they went forth to battle against Israel
in the wood of Ephraim (2 Sam. xviii. 2).
Abishai afterwards rescued David from the
giant Philistine Ishbi-benob, whom he smote
and killed (2 Sam. xxi. 16,,^7). He was also
chief of the three heroes who, with such intre-
pidity, procured David a draught of water
from the well of his native village. The
victory over the Edomites in the valley of
Salt^ which is ascribed to David. 2 Sam. viii.
13, IS ascribed to Abishai. 1 Chr. xviii 12.
Probably Abishai actually obtained the victory;
but the victory of one of his officers might be
spoken of as David's achievement. Abishai
was associated with Joab in the assassination
of Abner(2Sam. iii30).

ABISHALOM. (See Abu am. )

ABJECTS (Ps. XXXV. 16)— an old term,
signifying low, base persons ; thus, in Shake-
speare— We are the queen's abjects, and
must obey."

ABKER-father of light (1 Sam. xiv. 50)—

the son of ^er, was a near relation of Said,

and a faithful and distinguished general of his

armies. We first hear of him, particularly, as

I the captain of the host, of whom Saul inquired

ABO

oonceminj^ the stripling David, whom Tictory
over Goliaih had excited his Mtonishznent:
and after a little time Abner introduced Davia
to Saul, with the head of the giant PhiUstine
in his hand. It was through the want of
vigilance in Abner that Saul*s life was placed
in David's |>ower in the wilderness of Ziph,
(1 Sam. zxvi.) (See Dayid, Saul.)

After David was anointed king of Judah,
Abner procured the appointmentof Ish-bosheth,
Saul*s son, as king ox Israel ; and in process of
time the army of David, under Joab, and the
army of Israel, under Abner, axrayed them-
selves on either side of the pool of Gibeon.
While occupying this position, twelve men of
each army met and fought desperatelv. This
contest was followed by a general battle which
resulted in Abner's dt^eat He fled, but was
pursued by Asahel, who " was light of foot as
a wild roe." Diuring the heat of pursuit.
Abner counselled him to desist, and threatenecl
to turn upon him and slay him if he did not ;
but Asahel refused to turn aside, and Abner
** with the hinder end of his spear" smote him
so that he died. Joab and Abishai were also
engaged in the pursuit; but at Abner^s entreaty
the$r desisted and returned.

As David's strength increased, the house of
Saul, though faithfully served by Abner,
became gradually weaker, till at length Ish-
Ixvaheth charged Abner with an offence against
Saul 8 family. The offence was taking to him
one of Sauls harem, an act, on the part of a
iFubject, that in those days wore a suspicious
and treasf-tnable aspect. He was exceedingly
irritated by the charge, and immediately for-
sook the interests of Saul's house, and espoused
the cau^e of David. David received him cor-
dially, and sent him away in peace to per-
suade Israel to submit to the new government.
WhQe he was gone on this errand, Joab
returned ; and hearing what bad been done^ he
Went to the king, and warned him agamst
Abner as a spy and traitor. Soon after, and
Tivithout David's knowledge. Joab sent for
Abner ; and when he arrivea, took him aside
privately, and murdered him. in revenge for
the death of his brother Asanel; ^'andfthey
buried him in Hebron." The estimation in
which he was held by the king and people
appears from the sacred history. The kmg
wept and refused his food, and all tlie people
wept; "and the king said unto his servants,
Know ve not that there is a prince and a great
man fallen this day in Israel?" (2 Sam. iii. 3d.)

ABOMINABLE, ABOMINATION. 1.
(Gen. xhi. 34) An abomination, or an abomin-
able thing, is a thing hateful or detestable, as
the empkiyment or calling of shepherds was to
the £ir>7>tians. This aversion of the Egyptians
to shephenls did not arise from horror at the
(•cciipation itself, though the sheep was held in
nnali estimation both for food and for sacrifice.
A band of Nomades, the terrible Hyksos, had
invaded Egvi^t, and during the period of their
tjrranny h^ exercised great cruelties. The re-
membrance of such wrongs seems to have made
the very name of Nomade, or wandering shop-

ABR

herd, hateful to them. 2. (Lev. xi. 13, and Deut.
xxiii. 18) Under the Mosaic law those Am'TniLif
and acts are called abominable, the use or doing
of which was prohibited. 3. (Jer. xliv. 4^2
Ki xxiii 13, and Isa. Ixvi 3) Idohktry of
every kind is especially denoted by this term.

The ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION (Matt.

xxiv. 15, and Dan. ix. 27, and xii. 11) probaU^
refers to the ensigns or banners of the Roman
army, with the idolatrous, and therefore
abominable, images upon them, as in the
annexed cut, the approach of which would

warn the city of its
desolation. When
the city should be
besieged, and these
idolatrous standards
should be seen *'in
the holy place," or
in the vicinity of
the holy city, thus
threatening a com-
plcte conquest and
speedy destruction,
it would be the time
for the men of Judea
to flee to places of
refuge to save them-
selves from tribula-
tion and death. But
the abomination, ac-
cordincf to others,
was the profane sins
of the zealots who had command of tlie temple.
ABRAM, ABRAHAM -father of tlcvation,
father of multitude ((xen. xi. 27) — was the son
of Terah, and tenth in descent from Shem in
the line of Heber, and was bom at Ur of Chal-
dea. (See Ua) SVhile he was dwelling in his
father's house at Ur, God directed liim to leave
his country and kindred, and go to a land which
should be shown him ; promising, at the same
time, to make of him a great nation, and to bless
him, and to make his name great, and that in him
all the families of the earth should be blessed.
Obedient to the heavenly calling, Abram t<:)ok
Sarai his wife, and with Terah his father,
and other members of the family, Ifft Ur to
remove to Canaan, and stopped at Haran. (See
Haran.) It is supposed bv some that, while
they dwelt in Ur, Abram fell into the idolatrous

Practices which prevailed around him, for
Vrah and his family served other gods (Josh.
xxiv. 2) ; but in the absence of all evidence on
this point, the contrary may surely be inferred
from the rea<liness with which he obeyed Crod,
and the faitli he manifested in a manner so
exemplary and rare. Many of the traditional
and mythological theories as to Abrani's early
life and character have been evidently borrowed
from the word Ur, the x>lace of his nativity,
a term wluch signifies liqM or lire. The phrawe,
"Abram the flebrew" (Gen. xiv. 13), may
mean simply, "Abram the emigrant." While
the emigrants were dwelling at Haran,
in Mesopotamia, Terah died. Abram, who
was then seventy-five years old, nursued his
journey to Canaan; and having rtiacuedS\Qi\i«nx,

ABR

one of the oldest cities of Palestine (see She-
CHEm)} and pitched his tent under the terebinth
of Moreh, the Lord appeared to him, and
repeated his promise to give him that land

The first call which Abram obeyed when
he left his fatherland, as related W Stephen
before the Jewish council, was indefinite m its
nature. It merely summoned him to emigrate ;
and '*he went out, not knowing whither he
went.'* The second which he seems to have
received (Gren. xiii.) was more precise, and'
pointed to Canaan as destined to be his in-
heritance and that of his numerous progeny —
vet he was at this period childless. Wnile
he was encami>ed between Bethel and Ai.
a grievous famine visited the country, and
Abram was obliged to ^o into Egypt. Fear-
ful that Sarai*s beauty might attract the notice
of the Egyptians, and that, if they supposed
her to be his wife, they would kill him to secure
her, he proposed that she should pass for his
Bister. It happened as he exp^ited. The
servants of Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, com-
itaended her beauty so much, that he sent for
her, and took her into his house, and loaded
Abram with tokens of his favour; but the
Lord punished him severely, so that he sent
a^^y Abram and his wife, and all that he had.

Heaving become very rich in cattle, silver,
and fi[old, he returned from Egvpt to Canaan.
Lot, his nephew, had been with him, and shared
his prosperity ; and it happened that his ser-
vants fell into some strife with the servants of
Abram. As it was evident that their property
was too great for them to dwell together,
Abram, though in every respect entitled to
deference, generously proposea to his nephew
to avoid controversy Dy an amicable separation.
He offered Lot his choice of the territory, on
the right or left, as it pleased him — ^a rare
illustration of meekness and condescension.
Lot chose to remove to the eastward, and
occupy that part of the fertile plain of Jordan
where Sodom and Gomorrah stood. Thus
Abram was gradually and finally severed
from all his kindred, and prepared for the
enjoyment of the pn^eat promise. Then the
Lord appeared agam to Abram, and renewed
the promise of the land of Canaan as his
inheritance, in the most explicit manner. He
then removed his tent to the plain or oak-grove
of Mamre in Hebron. In an invasion of the
cities of the plain by several of the kings of the
Euuhratean countries. Sodom was taken, and Lot
and his family carried captive. When Abram
received intelligence of it, he armed his trained
servants, bom in his house (318 in number), pur-
sued the kings, attacked them by night, defeated
them, and brought Lot, his fiunily, and their
substance back to Sodom ; restoring to lil)ertj
the captives who had been taken, with all their
property, of which he generously refused to
take any part as the reward of his servic^M? or
as the spoils of victory. The customs and laws
of war prevalent in the East, even to the

E resent day, entitled Abram to the spoils, for
e had won them back; yet, with a disinterested
generosity, in keeping with his entire character,
S

ARR

he would not retain them: only, as on his
return he was met by Melchisedek, king of
Salem, and priest of the most high Grod, who
bestowed on him the sacerdotal benediction,
he gave him a tenth "of all ; " not of all he
possessed, but of the booty acquired in this
successful expedition. (See Melchisedek.)

Two or throe years after this the Lord ap-
peared again to Abram in a vision, repeated
to him the promises, accompanied them with
a most gracious declaration of his favour, and
contracted with him a formal covenant. He
appointed a certain sacrifice for hun to offer,
and towards night caused a **deep sleep" to
fall upon him, attended by a " horror of great
darkness," during which there were revealed
to him some of the most important events in
his future history, and in that of his poeteTity.
which were all accomplished in due time, ana
with wonderful exactness. The revelation
related— 1. To the captivity of Israel by the
Egyptians, and their severe and protracted
bondage; 2. To the judgments which Egypt
should suffer because of their oppression of
Grod's chosen people, and the circumstances
under which they should leave Egypt : 3. To
Abram's death and burial; and, 4. To the
return of his posterity to the promised land.
The victims of this sacrifice were severed, as
usual in covenant sacrifices, that the contract-
ing parties might pass between them. Thus
the *' smoking furnace and burning lamp " —
that is, the Sheohinah, or symbols oi the divine
presence— passed between them, in token that
Grod was on his part contracting the covenant,
— pledging himself to implement his promise,
and bestow the stipulated blessings ( Jer. xxxiv.
18). Thus, at that period, and by such impres-
sive ceremonies, the covenant respecting the
land of promise was renewed, and conf^med
with the strongest expressions of divine favour.
Sarai, however, was childless; and thinking
to secure the fulfilment of the promise in her
own way, she proposed to Abram that Hagu*.
an Egyptian woman living with them, should
be his secondary wife, so that any issue by
such a connection might be reckoned her own.
Accordingly, by Hagar, Abram had a son
named Ishmael^ who, for a certain period, was
recognized as his heir.

At ninety-nine years of age he was favoured
with another most remarkable vision. The Al-
mighty was revealed to him in such a manner
that he was filled with awe and fell upon his
face, and we are told that ** God talked with
him." The promise respecting the ffreat in-
crease of his posterity, and their character
^d relation to Grod, as well as respecting the
possession of Canaan, was repeated in the most
solemn and explicit terras; his name was
changed from Abram (a high father) to Abra-
ham {father of a great midiitude), and the
circumcision ot every male child, at eight days
old, was established as a token of the covenant
between him and God. (SeeCiRODMClBioN.) At
the same time the name of Sarai [my princeu)
was changed to Sarah {t?ie princest), and a
promise was given to Abraham that Saiah

ABU

K^i..i:M \\:\\Q a P^m, -':i);l l»u tlie mother of nations
uiii king^ It seemed ho entirely out of the
o^urtie i>f nature that they sliould become
parents at their advanced age, that Abraham,
filled with reverence and joyful gratitude, fell
upon hifl face, and said in ms heart, " Shall a
child be bom unto him that is a hundred years
old ? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old,
bear?''

Abraham, finding that the blessing of the
covenant were to be bestowed on his future
offiipring, immediately thought of Ishmael, in
whom he had probably before supposed the
promises were to be fulfilled, an<l he uttered
the solemn and affecting prayer, ** O that
Ishmael might live before thee ! " God heard
him, and almost while he was yet speaking,
answered him by making known to him his
great purposes respecting Ishmael (Gen. xvii.
20, and xxv. 16). As soon as the vision had
dosed, Abraham hastened to obey the divine
command, and with Ishmael his son, and ^1
the men of his house, was circumciscKl on the
self-same day. He was not long without
another divine communication. As he satin
the door of his tent in the heat of the day.
three men approached hioL He receiv^
them with all the courtesy and hospitality
which distinguished eastern manners, and after
they had refreiihed themselves they inquired
of him respecting Sarah^ and repeated the
promise re^>ectixig the birth of her son. It
was on this occasion, or in connection with
these circumstances, that a divine testimony
was given to the elevated character of
Abraham (Gen. xviiL 19). It was because of
h» faith, which brought him into friendship
with 0.ia, that he wan favoure<l with a revela-
tiiin of Gild's purposed respecting the devoted
citi<h$ of the plain, and ^ith an op|>ortimity to
pltrorl f«.>r them ; and it was for Abraham^s
Aake, and i)rol>ably in answer to his prayers,
that Ijot and his family were rescued from the
fiUflden destruction which came upon Sodom.
Aft<:-r this, and probably influenced by the
AVkinl judiipnents inilictea on the wicked cities
<<f the vale. Abraham removed to Gerar, and
here ho made a second attempt t<i have Sarah
taken for his Kister. (See AniMELECH.) Here,
abvi, the prediction was fulfilled reR][>ecting the
birth of a r^in. Sarah bore a son whom he
c:;lled Isa;iC. and who was duly circumciued on
the eiLfhth day.

Abraham was much tried by an unhappy
ficcum.'nce in which Ha^r and Isiimael were
princiiwdly cfincei-ned ; for Ishmael, in con-
KHjuence <»f Isaac's birth, had lost his former
hti;tii» and i)ro»pects. and his mother and liim-
««If htr^Ati to cnerish feeling of jealoiLsy and
hatri>d towarrl the favourite child and his
mc'thi-r. God supiMirted Abraham by an ex-
>li<:it promii'e. that in Isaac his seed sIkhiM
m callexi (Gen. xxi. 10-13; GaL iv. 22-31).
Abraham fo obviously had the favour and
hle:i-dn^' of < >od in all that he did, that Abi-
DicliH;h the king prrjposed to make with him a
c(iv«rnant of pi.-i-petual friendship ; and a matter
uf wrong about a well, of which Abimclech^s

1

Ar.Pv

' Si'rvaJit.H lia'l viol.^nrly (Ki.rlvi.-.l Al)ral:.iin, w.ii
thus hapi^ly adjusto'L Dii.s transaction wrixa
at a place which was thereafter called Beenhelia
—the wdl of the oath, or the well of swearing
(Gen. xxi. 23-31).

Wo now come to one of the most impressive
and most awful passages in the patriarch's
history, (rod was about to try him, that he
might exhibit to the world, in all following
time, an illustrious example of the ]Hiwer of
faith. He was commanded to take his son —
his only son Isaac, whom he loved, and in
whom all the promises of Gorl were to be ac-
complished—and to offer him u]) for a burnt
offering upon a distant mountain. Without
an inquiry or a murmuring word, and with
a prom](jtness which showed the most entire
submission, Abraham obeyed the mysterious
command. A journey of three days was ac-
complished, and i>erhaTiS the Icn^h of this
journey — three days of calm reflecti(»n and
affectionate complacency in the coni])any of
the darling victim — was the severest element of
the triaL Eveir preparation for the offering
was made, and the knife was in his liand which
was uplifted to slay his son, when his purpose
was arrested by a voice from heaven requiring
him to spare tiie lad, inasmuch as the proof of
the father's faith and oljedience was fidL In
the neighbouring thicket a ram was provided,
which he took and offered up ; and after having
been favoured with special tokens of the
divine approbation, he returned with his son
to Becrsheba. The controversy about the
scene of the offering of Inaac will be fouml
under Mori^h. In commemoration of it,
he gave to the place the name Jrh^ctih-jirfh
{the I^>nl will sre or provide), intimating; a
general truth respecting thedivincfaithfuliiesH
and care ; and in pr(>])hetioal allusion, as some
8up]>ose, to the great sacritice wliich, in fubu'ss
of time, was to be offered upon that same ^pot
for the sins of men (Gen. xxii. 14).

At the ap:eof <me hun<lred an«l twcnty-H«.'V('n
years Sarah died, and Aljndiani i>urchju^o<l the
cave of Machi)oIah, in the Held of Kphmn,
near H<:];ron. Ik^t a family buriul-plaoe, and
there buried his wife.

Isaac had now arrived at mature n'^'c, an«l
Abniham called one of his K«^rvant.H, probably
Eliez«T (Gen. xv. 2), and nia-l*; him Hwoar tliat
he would obtain a wife for Isaac, not amoni;
the C-anaanites (where they tlu'ii »l\velt, and
who were to be cut off acconlin.j t»» tho r»;ve;ilcd
jiurfiosc of (Jod), but in Abraham'.** native
country, and from amoui; his own kindred.
This enter] >riBe terminated successfully, au«l
every desire of the patriarch rospcctin.ir Isaacs
mannai^e was rt-alizcML (See Kliezeu.)

Abraham marriefl a socon<l time, and had
several sons. As Abraljam was vj-ry (»1<1 ere
Sarah died, and as his sons Mcrti t)f such agfc
before his own death, that they were dismissevl
with requisite portions in onlcr to found new
colonies, it is not iniiir»)bal)le that Keturah ha<l
been a secondary wife to the patriarch before
Sarah's ileatli, but after tliat event, rais«.'d to
pror>er rank and dignity by marriage, Tbeit

ABB

difldren might be bom before the decease of
Suuh. Abraham, however^ made Isaac his
sole heir, having in his lifetime distributed
among the other children, who were now
^rsed ; and at the great age of one hundred
ana seventy-five years, he died in peace, and
was buried by Isaac and Ishmael at Hebron in
the same sepulchre with Sarah. (See Hxbbon. )
The character of Abraham is one of the
most wonderful and interesting recorded in
Scripture. His property was immense. He
was a prince in the land, and was bold and
skilled m warlike stratagem. His retinue must
have been numerous, when he had 318 home-
bom slaves able to carry arms. He evidently
commanded the respect of the Aborigines with
whom he sojoumecL Yet so really was he a
stranger and pilgrim, that he needed to buy a
burial-place in the lajid which God had given
him. Distinguished by his unsullied inte^ty,
noble generosity, and princely hospitali^, he
is yet more honoured in the simplicity and
earnestness of his faith, a faith tnat obeyed
without hesitation and followed without delay,
that shrunk not from arduous duty and recoiled
not from a trial the most fearful that had ever
been imposed on humanity. Abraham was
called ** the friend of Grod," and he still has the
same name overall the "East—el-KhalU,

Abraham's Bosom. (See Bosom).

ABSALOM— fatfier of neace (2 Sam. iii 3)—
was a son of David, by Maacah, daughter of
Talmai. king of Gresnur. He was remarkable
for his Deautv, and for his hair, which is said
to have weighed 200 shekels when cut off,— not
"every year.** as our version has it, but as
the Hebrew formula merely implies, at stated
times. As to the predse meaning of this
weight, however, there has been much specula-
tion. It is supposed that the shekel by which
its weight is expressed means a lighter weight,
by one third or one half, than the common
shekeL Others suppose that the value, and
not the weight, is denoted ; and others, still,
contend that what with gold-dust and powder,
which were both profusely used in dressing the
hair, the weight (supposing weight to be meant,
and the common shekel to be used) is not at
all incredible, being, according to Michaelis,
not quite three pounds Troy weight, though it
may be sufficiently remarlukble to oe noticed
by the historian.

Absalom had a fair sister whose name was
Tamar; and Amnon his half-brother having
injured her. Absalom was reven^^ed by taking
Amnon *s lite at a feast to which ne haa invited
him (2 Sam. xiii. 29). In a family where there
are several mothers, the children by one mother
feel a peculiar bona of connection. Absalom,
according to usage, as well as prompted by
affection, espoused the cause of his own full
sister, and slew her ravisher. Immediately
lifter this he fled to the house of Talmai, his
mother's father, at Greshur. Joab, in order
to secure Absalom's return and restoration
to his father's favour, em^oyed a woman
of Tekoa to appear before David, and feign
a case similar, m its leading circumstances,
10

ABS

to the situation of Absalom, 'and having ob-
tained his decision, to apply the principle to
the real case. After a favourable decision was
obtained in the feigned case, the woman b^^an
to plead for Absalom's return. The king im-
mediately suspected Joab's concern in the plot,
and the woman confessed that it was wholly
planned by him. David therefore directed
Joab to go to Greshur, and bring Absalom back
to Jerusalem, after an absence of three years ;
but his father would not receive him into
favour, nor admit him to his presence ; nor
did he see his face for two years more. Wearied
with his banishment, Ab«dom often attempted
to obtain an interview with Joab ; but for some
cause Joab was not disposed to go to him. To
compel him to come, Absalom resorted to the
singular expedient of directing his servants to
set fire to Joab's fields. Joab immediately
came to Absalom j was persuaded to plead
with the king in bis behaif, and succeeded in
his effort, so that Absalom was received into
full favour.

But with a proud and wicked heart, he could
not cease to do eviL His father's throne became
tiie object of his ambition, and he procured
chariots and horsemen, and other appendages
of rank and royalty ; and stood in the puUic
places courting the favour of the people by the
meanest arts ; persuading them that their rights
were not res^arded by the government, and
that it would be for their interest to elevate
him to power, so that equal justice might be
administered to aU. By these and other means
Absalom * ' stole the hearts " of the men of Israel
He might also n^^ard himself as the rightful heir
to the throne, as being the only son of David
whose mother was of roval blood. And his
assassination of his elder brother might spring
from other motives than the mere desire to
avenge a sister's disgrace. Solomon was at
this time in early youth, and his destined
succession to the kingdom may not have been
known. The reason of this unnatural rebellion
thus becomes somewhat apparent. Perhaps,
too, Absalom, from his hanosome person and
other qualities, was David's favourite son,
nursed and fondled as the heir-apparent. The
great tribe of Judah had also become disaffected
to David, its old favourite, though it is difficult
to assign the reason of the change. In pursuing
his wicked and traitorous design, ana with a
pretended r^ard to filial duty, ne asked his
father's permission to go to Hebron^and pay a
vow which he said he had made. The unsus-
pecting king consented: and Absalom imme-
diately sent men througnout the country, who
were, at a given signal, to proclaim him king
in Hebron. He also took 200 men with him
from Jerusalem, though they did not know
his nUm ; and then sent for Ahithophel, who
was David's counsellor, that he might have his
advice and assistance. Ahithophel's first coun-
sel to the rebel was to take public possession
of the royal harem, thus ratifying so far his
succession to the throne, ana inducing his
partizans to commit themselves to his faction
without reserve, since such an act made recon-

ABS
rHiation impmtiibk- in the futurp, Absali
pirty increased rapidly, inlelligencB uf the
oi aaiimcy vmfl conunuiiicftted to the king, vid
«□ sUmied him thkt lie fled from the city.
At lei^h DaTid pCTvnaded Hiuhmi to «> to
Atmlon. vhn had now eome back to Jem-
ulfm with his party, ud to become his kt-
Tuit; uid when opportonity occurmL tooive
tach cmuuel u Bbould defeat Ahitnopbel's
ptaiu, and bring ccnfoHon and diBoomfiture
Dpon Abaalom. B^ a train at piogular pro-
vidential inteipositiooa (an accnunC of which
belongs rather to the life of David than to
thii article) Abnalom'B rtiiu wai hastened.
Befon DaTid's men went out to battle with
the reralted party, he gave them special char(K
respecting Aiwalom, and commanded them to
dtsl gently with him for his Eather'i sake.
The two parties met in th« wood of Ephraim,
and the battle was severe and bloody. Ab-
salom rode Qprm a mule ; aod in passing' under
the thick boaghs of an oak, he was caught by
hii head in the Cork or angle of two branches,
and the mule passed onward, leaving him sus.
p.'nded in the air. Joab. being informed of it.
inok three dsjts and thrust them through the
heart of Absalom, while he was yet alive in the
midst of the oak ; and they took his body and

with stones.

AlKaLOM. PHXAS

MLUf.) The pe-

(a sketch of which
is seen in the ad-
jmninK cut) which
Mara this name, is
jiroved by various

be of compara-
tively modem ori-
E'a. It is chiefly
■wn ODt of tlie
mck, and is a con-
•f.icQoas object in
the vaUey of Je-
hoahaphat. There
o real ground

n:

f..r

;'tle of Abnli

Pillar.

ABYSS -rendi-red _ _

times Deep (Lube riiL 31). and uniformly
E<nTniiLi>w I'll, in the book of Bevelation.
It ^i^nilies a deep ndthout bottom, or a very
liwp pit — referring often to that vast bmiy of
wi^T which in Jewish opinion was laid up in
Hrme cavernous recepticle isithin the earth.
It refer* somptimf-s to the dark sepulchres of
the Kaiit, which, hewn out in the rock,

de«cen(Iing far beneath the surface, forn

kind of under-world {Rom. i. 7). In the
Apucalypw, it symbolizes the abode and the
'iinm of those powers which are hostile to
Christ and his Church.

ACCAD IGen. X. 10) — a city in Shinar,
Imilt by Kimnid. Its site is unknown, nome
euHteiulJntr tor 'Siabi*, and otbcis for Akker-

e tber.

Tel-Ximrud. Akka.) i» rtnd by lUwlinwi
as the name of an early Hamite nice wh
ruled in Babylonia ; and in one of t^aijon
inscriptions the same name is given to th

ACCKSS— introduction into the presence t
s superior. Used in the New Teatameot n
the peculiar relation which lielieveis bear t
God, and of the blessings resulting from il

— — , — denotes that fi
:h we enjoy n-ith God in the eiercue at
prayer.

ACCHO (Jodg. L 31)-now Aeca or Acre,
_■, from Its connection wiUi the knights of St.
John, St. Jean d'Acre. or Ptolemais (so caUed
after the first Ptolemy, king of Ejiypt, into
— ■— hands it fell aljoat one hunJrett yeais
Christ), was a seaport town, on thi: bay
of Acre, over against mount Cannel and about
thirty miles south of Tyre. It was in the
territory asei^ed to the trilw of Anhtr. siid
one of the cities from which they were unable
to eioel the Canaanites ; and it is even now
considered the strongest place in Palestine.
It is mentioned in Acta nl 7. Its popolation
is 5,000, and it has a strong garrison. The
ruinous remains of this ancient city are very
numerous, and are now used in the erection
TW buildings, and all appearances of an-

grandeur are failing away. It was a

famous place during the crusades, and it has
been noted in modem times fur the aiiccessful
resistance it made, under Sir Sidner Smith, to
the French army in 1799. In 1S« the jilaco
was undtr tlif (iomiuion of thn pacha of l-i^-jit.
In that year Ibrahim besieged it lor six montlisi

id in 11*40 it Ruffrrml a iwvete l<i>inbur.hneiit

L>m the KuKlish fleet. Ttie phiin nf Acre is

le of the richest in I'ali^tine.

AcriRsKi). crnsKD (josh. vi. i7)-

HevotiHl to destruction 11 Cor. xii. 3; Gal. i.
8, B). In Kom. is. » the apostle sai-s, " I
could wish that myself wcru acciimed from
t:'hri9t." The tranilation is ronvct. lie is
not referring to what he had fi-lt in his imeiin-
verted state, but to wliat he m-w felt "for his
brethren, his kinfimen acconliiu ti> tlic flesh.''
The imjierfect tense emptiyvd by liini mi'sns.
"I could wiah, u^rf it p-ii4ihlr. sliinrina the
intensity of his lovo uhI sorrow for tneui.

ACKr.l)AM,V— «rfif of IJfid (Arts i. 10)—
a field for the huiial ol »tri«ii,'erB, which the
chief jirieats bought with tlio moiiiT retiimcii
by Judas, ns the i>ricc i>t the Saviour's lAml
(Slatt. xxvii. Cjii. Ilenee its name, Jrrf.
dama, or A''' '•f f^"^- It was just u-ithout
W of Jeni-.ll. - ' ' "'■-

„.,-, ,.-.. «. -V,..-.. , .-..ith irf monnt /I'm,

and wns originally culled the potter's field,
because it fumi->he<l ■ siirt of cUi^ ftuitablo for
potter's ware. AeeliL-knio. as late as the seven-

bv tlie Aniieninn Christians in .lenis-ilem.
liut. ncconling to Riilniison. it has long been
abandoned for scinilchral imrposea. li'uiuA

ACH

fenced in, and the chamel-hoose, now a ruin,
in all that remains to point out the site.

ACHAIA (Acts xviii 12; Rom. xvi 5;
2 Cor. xi 10). In the most com]>rehen8ive use,
this term was applied to all the region lying
south of Thessaly and Macedonia as far as the
Morea. The geographical phrase Achaia and
Macedonia means the whole of Greece: but
in a limited use Achaia embraced only the
district between Macedonia and the Pelo-
ponnesus, of which Corinth was the capital
(See Corinth. ) This was its signification under
the Romans ; and in the New Testament it is
only applied to this smaller tract of country.

ACHAN, or ACHAR (Josh. viL 18)— a son
of Carmi, of the tribe of Judj^, who secretly
took and concealed several valuable articles
from among the spoils of Jericho, in direct
violation of the divine command (Josh. vi. 17,
18). Fon this sin judgment came upon the
whole camp of leqraeL (See Joshua.) By a
process wmch God appointed, Achan's guilt
was discovered, and he was taken into a valley
north of Jericno, thence called the valley of
Achor, and was there stoned to death. (See
Aohor.)

ACHISH (1 Sam. xxi. 10)— a king of Gath,
to whom David fled^ and with whom he after-
wards formed an aUiance through fear of SauL

ACHMETHA (Ezra vi. 2)— the Ecbatana
of ancient Media, and the place where the
records of the kingdom were preserved. The
place is occupied, as it is supposed, by the
modem city Hamadan, in Persia. It was sur-
rounded by seven walls, and at one period was
considered the strongest and most beautiful
city of the East, except Nineveh and Babylon.
(See Media.) -

ACHOR. VALLEY OY— distress (Hos. ii. 15) —
a place in tne vicinity of Jericho, where Achan
was stoned for an offence which brought trouble
upon the whole camp. (See Achan.) The
figurative use of the word in the passage cited
is suscexitible of divers interpretations. ITie
most common is, that as the valley of Achor
was the place of great distress and trouble to
Israel, on their first entrance into Canaan, it
would become a place of hope and joy on their
return from the captivity wnich they were then
enduring, lliis opinion is perhaps confirmed
by Isa. Ixv. 10.

ACHSHAPH (Josh. xii. 20)-a city con-
(luered by J(»hua, and afterwards assigned to
the tribe of Asher. It was not far from Accho
(Josh. xix. 25).

ACHZIB. 1. (Josh. xix. 29) A city of
Asher (Judg. i. 31), called also Ecdippa, and
now es-Zib. It is near the sea-coast, ten or
twelve miles north of Ptolemais, and has been
visited of late years and described by various
travellers. 2. (Josh. xv. 44, and Mic. L 14) A
town in the low country of Judah.

ACRE (1 Sam. xiv. 14). In the passage
dted, it is supposed to be used proverbially for
a very small space. The Roman acre con-
sisted of 3,200 square yards^ and the Egyptian
aroura of 3,098 and seven-eighths.

ACTa The fifth book in the order of the
12

ACT

New Testament is called "The Acts of the
Apostles '* and is commonly referred to as The
Acts, ana sometimes Acts — without the article.
It contains the history of the Christian church
during the interesting period which elapsed
from the ascension of our Saviour to the im-
prisonment of Paul at Rome — a period of about
thirty years. It gives a minute account of the
descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pente-
cost ; the manner and success of the preaching
of the apostles ^ and the gathering and estab-
lishing of Christian churches by them, both
among Jews and Gentiles ; the conversion of
Paul, and the travels and labours of himself
and his companions ; the trials and sufferings
they endured in propagating the Gospel, and
the signs and wonders which were wrought in
attestation of their authority. This book is
particularly valuable as containing a vast body
of evidence of the divine power and mission of
Jesus Christ, and of his gnee and faithfulness :
by which the religion he taught was established
and widely propagated, and the salvation
offered by his Gospel was most clearly and
gloriously illustrated.

This book is called by some of the oldest
writers the Oospel of the Holy Ghost, and the
Gospd of our Saviour's resurrection. It consists
of two leading divisions : the first embraces the
history of the Judxuc-cnristian church up to
the period when the Crospel was preached to
the Gentiles. The second section records the
mission of Peter to Cornelius, the conversion
of Paul, and his labours and travels in fotmding
and building up the (rentile Christian church.
It is evident that the title. Acts of the Apostles,
though a very old one, is scarcely appropriate ;
for the book describes not the deeds of the whole
apostles, nor even gives an entire biography
ot any one of them. It details some deeds of
Peter by himself, and of him in company with
John; and though it be principally occupied
with the career of Paul, it does not give any
account either of his last days or of his nuuiyr-
dom. Of the majority of the apostles, it gives no
information. It is not, therefore, to be viewed
as a regular history, but only as a series of
detached memoirs, necessary to give Theophilus
such knowledjge as might enlighten his mind
and sustain his Christian profession. There is
no doubt that Luke, the writer of the third
Gospel, was also the author of the Acts. Both
treatises are dedicated to the same individual.
The Acts are a sequel to the gospels. The
gospels exhibit the new religion in the i>erson
and life of its Founder on earth : the treatise
appended as the ''Acts of the Apostles"
portra]^ his life and government in neaven;
shows the same religion in its early establish-
ment and subsequent extension; describes
how it has in it no national limits and no geo-
graphical barrier, but is meant for mankind,
witnout distinction of colour or country ; h^w
the universal sovereignty of its exalted Author,
the outpouring of his Spirit, and the vital
power of his truth secured its early success,
and will, in spite of all opposition, effect its
ultimate triumph throughout the world. Luke

ADA

was for a eoxuateaUe period the companion of
the apostle Paul ; ancf this treatise was prob-
ably cumposed at Kome — perhaps about a.d.
63l His style is iiurer Grtsek than the other
books of the New Testament, and is at the
same time fresh. 8imi)le, and graphic A very
great number ot spurious " Acts have been in
circulatiun, such as Acts of Christ, of Peter,
of Paul, of PiUte, &c. (See Luke.)

ADAM (Gren. iL 19)— the great ancestor of
the human family. On the sixth and last
day of the work of creation man was made of
the dust of the ground, yet in God*8 image and
after his likeness. The Lord God breathed
into his nostrils the breath of life, and caused
him to become a living souL He also gave him
dominion over the fish of the sea, and the fowls
of the air, and every li\'ing thing that moves
upon the earth. The comjilete dominion
wliich was given to him is expressed in a
variety < »f forms (Gien. L 26-30 ; ii. 16-20). llie
origin of the name Adam is suggested by the
history. The first man was called Adam, as he
was made from Adamah — the ground. And,
in truth, the various chemical elements wbich
exist in the human body form a very lar^

g-oportion of the materials comix«ing uie soiL
nt \ital energy was imparted to this conxireal
oTganizati* >n from a higher source. His 5laker
*' breathed into his noetrils the breath of life."
Nothing (.^an be more interesting than the
hi.otorv «)f man's creation. The fabric of thin
beautiful world wan finished; the firmament
was eiita)>Ii.>lied ; the mountains were fixed
upon their deep foundations, and to seas and
oceans were aligned the bounds which they
i^hould nut pass ; the heavens were stretched
out like a ciutain, and the sun, moon, and
stars a] 'pointed to tiieir courses ; the earth was
aiJi'med with grass, and herbs, and trees suited
for the comfort and sustenance of the living
creatures, cattle, and creeping things that had
just c* immenced their existence urxjn its surface,
and all ha^l been pronoimced good by the infinite
Creator himself.

To enjoy this glorious revelation of divine
I-riwer, "wis^lom, and goodness— to have do-
minion over this vast multitude of living crea-
tures— and, m«>re than all, to l>e the happy
feiibjoct of God's government, bearing his image
&ud likeness, and ha\ing coiuniimion with liim,
■ak the former of his l>ody and the father of his
fcpirit, MAX WAS FORMED ; uot bom, but created
—not in feeble, helpless infancy, but in the
maturity of his phy^iical and intellectual na-
ture; nut a sinfuL diseo^, dying creature,
but in the image and after the likeness of the
jferfectly h«ily and eternal Creator.

. . . . •• A creature wha not xironp

Ami bnitf a^ other creatures, hut endued

With f*'M'tity of reason, nil|;ht erect hia Btature —

And upn^^ht, with front Mrreno,

Govern tlic reht wlf-knowing: nnd from theuco

Uagnanimouti to corre.spond with heaven."

It is difficult for us to form an adequate
conception of the intellectual condition of
Adam before he reaped the results of ex-
perience and observation. Yet God must have

ADA

imparted to him all retiuisite knowledge, and
given him a sufficient stock of vocables to ex-
press his wants and desires, with an instinctive
power to use others as they were needed. His
mind was filled with di^dne illumination, and
his heart with holy emotion. Tha teaching of
God preclutled error, and embraced all that
was indispensable to life and hajniiness.

A garden or paradise, in the c istrict callutl
Eden, was planted by the hand of God for
the residence of Adam. Every tree that was
pleasant to the sight, or good for fo<id, grew
there. And it was refreshed and fertilized ]»y
a river that flowed through the midst of it.
This ^^arden was conunitted to his care, to
dress it and to keep it, and <»f every tree but
one he was allowed to eat. There grew in it
the tree of life — a tree, the i)artici])ation of the
fruit of which was symbolically connected with
Adam's abode in innocence and inmiortality :
but of the other tree, the tree of knowledge of
good and evil, he was forbidden to eat, under
the penalty ot death. The name of this tree
was derived from the a^'ful results of eating of
it. As soon OS he was fixed in this ha]ipy
abode, God brought to him the beants of the
field and the fowls of the air which he luul
created, **and Adam gave them names; an<l
whatsoever Adam called every living creature,
that was the name thereof." (See Eden.)

IJut it was not good that man should Ihj
alone, and his Creat<jr fonnrd a companion for
him ; bone of his bone, and tienh of his floah ;—
a help meet for him— that is, as a friend and
associate fitted to aid and comfort him, and,
like liini, pure and immortal. They were per-
fectly happy in each other, and in the favour
and coimuunion of God —

" Heaping immortnl fruits of joy and love —
Uuinterruptotl joy, unrivalled lo ve-
in blisHful Kulitude."

We are not informed hf)w long tliey continued
in this xjure and hai)py state, but we know
they lost it. Adam disobeyed the simple and
reasonable command of God. At the sugges-
tion of Eve, his wife, who hatl been herself
tempted by the serpent to eat, he partook with
her of the fruit «)f the only forbijhien tree, anfl
thus they incurred the <lispleasnre of their
Maker and the penalty of his just law.

This prohibition was jytMtict in its nature.
Tlie only origin of the <luty to aVwtain was the
simple exj>ressed will of (mkI, and lav not in
the nature of the command itself, l^herefore
it became a very lit test of obe<Iieuct!; and the
violation of it proved that resprot for (iod's
will had ceased to reign in the hearts of the
transgressors. The first indication ()f guilt was
the consciousness of shame; and the next a
vain attempt to hide themselves from the
presence of llim whose eyes are in every J'hico,
" behoMing the evil and the good." Witln»ut
delay, ejicli of the jjarties to the fatal trans-
action received a dreadful doom. (See ISkr-
rKNT, Eve.) Aa for man, the gnmnd was
cursed for his sake, and he w;w condemned t<»
eat brea<l in the sweat of his face till he should
return to the dust of which he was formed, or

\6

ADA

suffer the death to which he was now sen-
tenced. Not only should his body decay and
perish, but the death to which he was ^us
doomed included separation from the favour of
God, and condemnation to endless sorrow and
suffering. Thus, by one man, **sin entered
into the world, and death by sin." Their
nakedness, which was now their shame, being
covered, they were both driven from their
happy home m Eden, never to return ; and, in
the hardship of toU and labour, and in the
sorrow and sufferings of childbirth, they began
at once, respectively, to feel the woes in wmch
their transmission had involved them.

Besearches in physiology, ethnography, and
comparative philology prove conclusively that
men have sprung from one pair. Varieties of
form, colour, and language are produced hy
numerous causes and circumstances. Man is
but one species, essentially one, tiiough ex-
ternally modifiecL Many things make it prob-
able that man has been longer on the earth
than the common chronology would allow.
But the premises are still insufficient to war-
rant that assertion of a very high antiquity
which many would draw from them. The Bible
does not profess to settle the point. (See
Creation.)

The history of Adam closes abruptly. At
the age of one hundred and thirty he had a
son whom he called Seth, and who was bom in
his own likeness and after his own image (no
lon^r in the likeness and after the image of
God). He lived 800 years after the birth of
Seth, making the whole term of his life 930
years.

Adam, says the apostle, " is a type or fig}ire
of him that was to come," that is, (jhrist. The
one, as our representative, forfeited our happi-
ness ; by the other, holding a similar relation
to us, paradise is regained. Intimations of
coming mercy by^ a woman-bom Emancipator
were blended with the very curse whicn the
Divine Being pronounced on our fallen pro-
genitors. (See Man, Christ.)

ADAMANT (Ezek. iii 9)— one of the
hardest and most costly of precious stones.
The original is elsewhere translated diamond.
It is employed as an emblem of the heart of
the wicked (Zech. viL 12). Some suppose it
was used as emery for cutting and polishing
other hard stones and crystals. (See Diamond. |

ADAB — the sixth month of the civil, ana
the twelfth of the sacred Hebrew year. In it
occurred the famed feast of Purim. It cor-
responded to portions of February and March.
Wnen the year was an intercaUry one, this
month occurred twice, and Purim was likewise
twice observed, and observed the second time
withpeculiar magnificence.

ADDEB (Gren. xlix. 17)— a venomous ser-
pent whose poison is very subtile, and almost
instantly fatal The word translated adder in
various passages of the Bible, does not alwa^
mean wnat the English word denotes, and is
absurdly rendered cockatrice (Isa. xL 8; xiv. 29;
lix. 5; Jer. viiL 17). In Gren. xlix. 17, the
original word denotes a serpent of the viper

ADO

kind, the cerastes, which is^ the colour of
sandl which lurks in the tracks of the wheels,
and bites the unwary traveller or his beast.
In Ps. IviiL 4, and xci. 13, the word translated
adder is supposed to mean an asp. In Ps. cxL
3 a peculiar term is used, and is derived from
the folded form of the serpent (Bom. iii. 13).
"Adder" represents four different Hebrew
names.

The psalmist remarks of some kind of adder,
that he is not moved or affected by sounds
which fascinate other serpents ; and some sup-
pose that the most venomous of the adder
species is naturally meant. Other kinds of
serpents are often charmed and tamed. The
exhibition is frequently made b^ jugglers in
India and in Egypt. Hence tbls allusion in
Ps. Iviii. 4. (See Asp, Chark.)

ADJUBE. 1. (Josh. vL 26) To bind under
a curse. 2. (Matt, xxvi 63) Solemnly to
require a declaration of the truth at the peril
of Grod*s displeasure. Such is considerea th^
language of the high priest, " I adiure thee,**
&c, or, "I put thee to thy oath, '^ when the
Saviour rephed to the inquiry to which he had
before been silent (Matt, xxvi 63. Compare
1 Sam. xiv. 24, 38, and 1 Ki xxiL 16, with
Josh. vi. 26).

ADMAH (Deut. xxix. 23)— one of the five
cities of the plain or vale of Siddim. which
were miraculously destroyed by fire, becauae
of their great wickedness. Some infer from
Isa. XV. 9, the last clause of which is translated
by the Septuagint. and upon the remnant of
Adanuty that Adman was not entirely destroyed;
but the word is rightly rendered in the English
version.

ADONI-BEZEK- lord of Bezek (Judg. L
5) — lord or king of Bezek. He fled from the
armies of Judah, but was caught, and disabled
by having his thumbs and great toes cut off, so
that he could neither fight nor fly. He was
then carried to Jerusalem, where he died. He
seems to have regarded the maiming he suffered
as a iust requital of his own cruelty, he having
mutuated seventy kings or chieftains in the
same inhuman manner.

ADONI JAH— J^esAovoA is my Lord (2 Sam.
iii. 4) — ^David^s fourth son. He was oom at
Hebron, and after the death of his brothers
Ammon and Absalom, he made pretensions to
the throne of his father, as his elaest surviving
son. He prepared himself with horses and
chariots, and other marks of royalty, and took
counsel with Joab and Abiathar, tne head of
the army and the head of the church, how he
could bMt accomplish his purpose.

BathshelMb. fearing that her son*s title to the
thronemightoedisturbed.immediatclyinfoxmed
the king of the revolt; ana Nathan, the prophet^
confirming her statement of the matter. David
gave her the strongest assurances that ner son
should reign after nim ; and he caused Solomon
to be actually anointed and proclaimed king
with great snoutings (1 Ki. i 39). Adonijim
was just ending a feast when he heard the
noise of the ovation, and Jonathan camejn
and told him all that had taken place.

ADO

pmesto fled predpitateW', and Adomlali himself
ran and caught hold of the horns of the altar,
as a place of safety from violence.

After David's death, Adonijah persuaded
Bathshebato ask Solomon her son, who was
now on the throne, to give him Abishag for his
wife. Solomon saw at once through the policy
of Adonijah and his self-interested advisers.
He knew that he might as well have asked for
the kingdom at once as ask for one of the king's
harem; for then, being the elder brother, Ibe
oould make a phuisible claim to the throne at
the first favourable juncture; which would
directly contravene the express appointment
of God made known to David, and probably to
his ^mily also (1 Chr. xxviiL 5). He was ac-
cordingly put to death by the hand of Benaiah.
(See Abishag.)

ADONIRABf. (See Adoram.)

ADONI-ZEDEK— tord of ju$tiee (Josh. z.
1) — long of Jerusalem at the time the countiy
was entered b^ the Israelitee. Hearing of
Joshua's victones over Ai and Jericho, and
finding that the inhabitants of Gibeon (one of
the most important cities of the kingdom) had
made a league with him, he called four other
kings of the Ammonites to his aid, and laid
siege to Gibeon with a view to destroy it, be-
cause it had made peace with Joshua and the
children of IsraeL But the Lord was against
tbem, and with the edge of the sword, and by a
violent haiktonn which overtook them, thev
were completely overthrown and destroyed,
The victory was attended vrith what is gener-
ally supposed to have been a signal miracle.
(See JusHUA.)

Adoni-zedek. with his allies, fled and con-
cealed themselves in a cave at Makkedah.
ITiey were soon discovered, however, and were
confined and watched, until the last of their
adherents was either cut off or driven into some
furtrcss. They were then called out of the
cave, and brought before Joshua. In the pres-
ence of the men of Israel, who were summoned
frir the purpose, Joshua required the cajitains
i/l hLs army to put their feet upon the necks of
the captive kix:^. declaring, at the same time,
that such would be the doom of all the enemies
of IsraeL He then caused them to be slain,
sod to be hanged on separate trees imtil the
evening, and then their bodies were taken
down and cast into the cave in which they had
concealed themselves (Josh. x. 27).

ADOPTION (GaL iv. 6) is an act bv which
one is received inte a man's family as his own
chOd. and becomes entitled to the peculiar
(friv^eges of that connection, as fiul^^ and
o^mpletely as a child by birth (Exod. li. 10;
Esth. iL T). Females otten adopted offspring
vben they had no child of their own, by giving
their slave as a concubine to their husband.
The issae of such a connection was reckoned
their own. Thus did Sarah and KacheL Again,
a father, having an only daughter, might marry
her to a manumitted slave, and the offspring
«'&( accounted to the granofather as his chil-
drcn. Instances of such occur in Scripture.
But this waa not adoption proper. The prao-

ADU

tice of adoption was regulated by law under
the Greeks and Komans.

In the figurative use of the term bv the
sacred writers, it implies that filial relation
which we sustain to God, when, by his grace,
we are converted^ from sin to hohness. The
spirit of adoption is received, ami we are made
children (or «7im). ** heirs of God, and joint-
heirs with Christ."

ADORAM. 1. (2 Sam. xx. 24) An officer
of the tribute tmder David.

2. An officer of llehoboam's treasury (per-
haps the son of the former^, who was stoned to
death by the people of Israel who followed
Jeroboam (1 Ki. xiL 18). Some suppose him
to have been the same with Adoniram (1 Ki.
V. 14), who was over the levies in Solomon's
reign, and that the people were so indignant
at the oppression they suffered through his
agency tnat they took thia method of re-
venge.

iO^RAMMELECII. 1. gsa. xxxviL 38)
A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria. Ho
and his brother Sharezer killed their father
while he was in the act of idolatry. Their
motive for this parricidal act is not known.
They both fled to Armenia, and Esar-haddon
succeeded to the crown.

2. (2 KL xviL 31) An idol-god of Sephar-
vaim, supposed to represent the sun, while
another idol, called Anammelech. represented
the moon. Sacrifices of living chilaren were
made to these idols.

ADRAMYTTIUM (Acts xxvii. 2)— a sea-
port of M3rRia, opposite the island of Lesbos,
in the north-western part of Awia Minor. It
is still known by the modern name of Adra-
myti, and lies aix)ut GO or 80 miles north of
Smyrna. It was in a ship l>elon^ng to this
port that Paul embarked when ho was about
to go from Cesarea to Rome as a prisoner.

ADRIA (Acte xxvii. 27) is the gulf which
lies between Italy on one side, and the coast
of Dalmatia on the other, and now calleil
the Gulf of Venice. In the apostle^s time it is
supposed to have denoted the whole breadth of
the Mediterranean sea, from Crete to Sicily.
(See Meltta.)

ADRIEL. (See Meilvb. )

ADULLAM (Josh. xv. 3,*)) — an ancient
city that lay in the Shephelali or lowlands of
Judah. The king of the place was slain by
Joshua. It was fortified by Relioboam, antl
probably on account of its strength was called
the glory of Israel (Mic. i. 15). It is thought
by some that near to this city was the cave
where David secreted himself when he fled
from Achish. The limestone rocks of the
locality are full of caverns, many of them of
large size. One of tliem is described as un-
even, intricate, and so very capacious that
400 men might conceal themselves in the sides
of the cave, as David's men did, and escape
observation (1 Sam. xxii. 1). But acconling
to monkish trarlition, the cave of Adiillum lay
in a different direction, was contiguous to the
land of Moab, and situated among the rocky
fastnesses which abound toward the Dead Sea.

15

ADU

One such cavern, not far from Bethlehem,
I>avid'8 birthplace, has been described by Irby
and Mangles.

ADULTERY (Jer. iii. 9; Matt v. 2S)—
a crime expressly prohibited by the seventh
commandment, and always obnoxious to severe
penalties, both by divine and himaan laws.
In Jewisn law adultery was only or principally
the infidelity of a wife. Such also is the idea
of this sin in all countries where polygamy and
concubinage are tolerated. Intercourse between
a married man and an unmarried woman is
only on his part a breach of the law of chastity.
The Roman law is similar in enforcing what
constitutes the crime. Only a married female
could be guilty of it, and the i)artner of her
guilt might be married or not ; if married, he
was idso an adulterer. The mysterious mode
of detecting and punishing it among the Jews
is detailed in Nimi. v. 11-31. Tlie term is
often employed with great force in the Bible,
to denote the unfaithfulness and idolatry of
the people of Grml, and their wanton violation
of the most sacred engagements.

ADUMMIM (Josh. xv. 7) — a rising ground
at the entrance of the wilderness of Jericho.
The name signifies red or bloody ^ in allusion,
as it is su(iiK>sed, to the frequent murders
committed m its vicinity. It is still the noted
haunt of robbers. The scene of our Saviour's
I)arable of the good Samaritan was laid here
(Luke x. 30-3*))— -that is, on the road which lies
along the south face of the Wady-Kelt.

ADVOCATE (1 John ii. 1)-K)ne that pleads
another^s cause. In its technical sense, the
office of advocate was unknown among the
Jews till they became the victims of lioman
supremacy. It is one of the official titles of
Jesus Clirist the righteous, and its import may
be learned from John xvii ; Rom. viii. 34 ; and
Heb. vii. 25.

iENON. (SeeENON.)

AFFINITY a KL iii l)-relation by mar-
ria^, in contradistinction from consanmiinity,
which is relation by blood or birth. The de-
grees of affinity, or the nearness of relationship
which should prevent marriage under the law,
may be founa in I/cv. xviiL 6-17. Some of
these degrees are still matter of debate; and the
case of a man's marrying a deceased wife's
sister has been oftener than once a matter of
discussion before the British parliament.

AGABUS (Acts xi. 28)— a prophet who
foretold (a.d. 43) the famine which, as profane
history informs us, took plxu;e the following

J ear, when contributions to assist the suffering
ews were sent by Paid and Barnabas from
Antioch. A few years after (Acts xxi. 10), he
met Paul at Cesarea, and warned him of the
Bufferings he would endure if he ])rosecuted his
journey to Jerusalem. Some nave supposed
that Agabus was one of the seventy disciples,
and that he suffered martyrdom at Antioch.

ACtAG (Num. xxiv. 7) was a king of the
Amalckites. Probably this was the common
name of their kings, as Pharaoh was the
common name of the kings of Eg3rpt. From
the allusion to him in the prophetic passage
16

AGE

' above cited, we mav suppose him to have been
one of the greatest kings then on the earth.

Another person of the same name was cap-
tured by Saul at the time the Amalekites were
. destroyed (1 Sam. xv. 8), but his life was
j n)ared, and he was afterwards brought to
, Samuel, who hewed him in pieces (1 Sam. xv.
33)— a punishment not uncommon in other
places and later times.

Hammedatha, Homan's father, is called an
Agagite (Esth. iiL 1), probably because he wte
of Amalck, or sprung from its rojral family.

AGAR, or HAGAR (GaL iv. 25). The
history or condition of Hacar is used allt^^ri-
callv m this passage to illustrate the nature
of the dispensation given from Mount SinaL
(See Ali^uoky, Hagab.)

AGATE, or the ruby (Exod. xxviiL 19;
xxxix. 12)— a precious stone, semi-transparent,
and beautifully variegated. It often presents
a group of figures, disposed with so much
regidanty as to seem like a work of art; such
as trees, plants, rivers, clouds, buildings, and
human beings. The name is supposed by some
to be derived from the river Acnates in Sidly,
where the stone was formerly found in great
abundance. It is the rendering of two dif-
ferent Hebrew words in Isa. liv. 12 and Eiek.
xxvii. 16.

AGE, AGED (Job xv. 10). In the Eact
great and devout respect is paid to age. The
Mosaic law contained the following ezpresi
enactment: — **Thou shalt rise up Mfore the
hoary head, and honour the face of the old
man" (Lev. xix. 32). In Athens, Sparta,
and Egypt, a similar custom, founded in
nature, prevailed. If Job bo supposed to be
an Arabian^ then in his country there was tbe
like veneration given to the old. They delivered
their opinion first— "Now Elihu had waited
till Job had spoken, because they were elder
than he" (Job xxxii 4) — and great strev
was laid on their experience. Hence the
challenge, ** With us are both the grav-headed
and very aged men, much elder than tiir
father" (Job xv. 10). The Jews regarded
longevity as a special blessing. The prcxmiM
is, ^* Yea, thou shalt see thy children*s cnildieD.
and peace upon Israel" (Ps. cxxviiL 6); voa,
in another form, *'Thou shalt come to thy
grave in a full age, like as a shock 61 com
Cometh in in his season " (Job v. 26). Old age
was therefore coveted — *' l'*he hoary head is a
crown of glory, if it be found in the way of
righteousness '^ (Pro V. xvi. 31); **The b^uitr
of old men is the gray head" (Prov. xx. 29]L
^ Abundance of old men in a land was a proof or
• token of peace and prosperity ; and tnua the
' prophetpictures it— "Thus saith the Lord of
hosts. There shall yet old men and old women
dwell in the streets of Jerusalem, and evor
man with his staff in his hand for veiy age"
(Zech. viiL 4). The experience of many yean
gave old men peculiar qualification for varioQi
offices ; and elderSy or men of a ripe or advaooed
dd or age, were variously employed under the
Mosaic law. The ferocity of the Chaldeaii
, conquerors is very forcibly depicted, when it If

AGO

FcM that they " had no compasuon on the old
Ziuin, or him that stooped for ttj^e" (2 Chr.

XXXvi 17). (See ELDEBii.)

AGONY (Luke xxiL *i)— the name riven
tn the awful and mvattfrious siiffL-rmi^ of Jenis
in Geths«niane. 'fhe word denotes conflict or
stnij>;1e, and marks the intenidty of our Lonrs

MJ^el'ill'''.

AGlflPPA. or ITEROD ACEIPPA (Acts ' fountains and l.jwoks, to save thvir horses and
XXV. 13) — !ion and succeasorof Henxi the jkt- I mules fn>m jierishing. Tn the course of his

ATIA

was warned hy the prophet Elijah of approach-
ing drought and consfijuent famine, which
were very sore in Samari:u In the third year
I of the famine, Ahah calleil Oha4liah, the gover-
nor of his house, and a g'^Ily man, tt^ fia>i4
thrimgh half the ]an«l, while' he w<>uld jiass
thr«>uirh the other half, and sre if they could
not ctillect prass enou;^h on the mar^'ins of

wcutrfjr referred to in Acts xii, 1. l*orciud
Fe»tu>s, the Micceasor of Felix in the govern-
ment of Judea, came to Ccsarea ; and while
there. Acrriipa (who was governor or king of
fr'-'V'^nil oi the eastern provinces of the Eoman
empire) came, with his sister Bemice or Bere-
m*:\'. his inco9tuons connection with whom was
^'irnerally suspected, to pay him a visit of con-
laatulation upon his accession t> c>fiice. Tho
ci mversation between them turning upon
Paul, who was then in confinement in Oesarea,
and whose remarkable hii^tor}' must have
been vexy notorious, Festus s^tated the whole
matter to Agrippa, and greatly cxciteil his
ciuiceity to see and hear the illustrious prisoner.
Feytns, to gratify his friends, but under the
pretence of getting from Paul tho sul/ject of
Lis complaint, that he might communicate it
t> the emjieror, to whom the afiastle had

journey, Obaiiiah met Elijah, wlio had I teen
commandetl by Gotl to show himself to Ahal);
and at Klijati*s reciuest Ahab came tu meet
him. "When Ahab ai>i)ean*<l in Klijalf s pres-
ence, he abruptly haid to him. ** Art thou he
tbr.t troubleth Israel?" The ])rop]tet replied
by a faitliful rebuke of tho kiu/s idolsttr}'. ami
proposLHl tn demonstrate to him that the ^'ixis
he was sen'ing were no gods. To this end he
persuaded Ahab to gather the pniphets of Haal,
whom, he won<hipped, into mie comi>any in
]Mount Carmel ; and there the f<jlly of their
idolatry was exposed in a jnftat si^oial manner.
(See Elijah.) The prophets of Baal were all
taken anil destroyed at Elijah's citmmand ;
and before Ahab could return to Samaria there
was a great rain.

Alxiut six years after this, Benhaiilad, king
of Sj"ria, with a vast army, Ijesiej?***! .Sani:iria ;

&[>f«;;ile<L, ascended the tribunal wth great ' but Ahab sallied out uiNin liim by suriiri-»\ cut
l-i-iiip, and surrounding himself \^ith the chief off a Liri,'e j^rri^ortion of his army, .ind jiut to
men ''•f the city, onlered Paul to be brjught \ flight th'.* resinue, lienhadtid hiiM-«-lf t-cjpin-^'
into tii* presence. AVhen the devoted apostle . uptm a horse. The kin-,' of Syria. suj'|i...-.in;,'

tiiat his (k'ft at was ••win_: ti» soim* advuntaL'*" of
location whit?li Ahali's ani:y erijoved, flatten-d
himsi'lf that if he could p) to battle in thi*
plain, ho sliouM conquer him. AcC'»rdiD-dy,
in alxiut a year he laid siege to Samaria a^'aiu.
Of this Ahab ha«l an intimation from the ]tr>-

Iihet imme«liately after th«' f«.irini.T victory, aiid
le had prepared himself aceordini^ly. Gmi
a^n iiiiV'} him tho vict«»ry. and tlie S\Tiaii-^

ai'y«earc:ij ].iefr«re thtm, Festus, addressing him-
wrJf fiarticularly t.> Agrii»i)a, assicpied the
reosijns for re-.iuirlng l*aul to apijoar at that
tim-r, and then gave the prie'.'ner an opportunity
t■>^tltr■his own case, which he di 1 witli un-
parallele«l force and eLxjuence. Festus coidd
ttly ii:«.-et his apoimien^ with the char-,'e <»f
ttailaess ; but Agripj»a. to wh^^se conscience he

naade an abru] it, though not the less respectful Li ^.i.iii ^ci.«-. imn vnv *xui^>ij. uttti cuv ^-^i.nn-^
•td irresistible apf)eal, was c<.'mpelled to make I lost 10U,(nK» infantry in one ilay. l>esiiles 27.<X»<>
t;At memorable exclamation, "Almost thou who were kiUeil by a wall \vl:ich fell upon tln-in
r^rsTiaiiest me to be a Christian." Paul closed at Aphek, whither they ll-.d. Bcnhadad was
Li'* aiidress by a most afifectionate exhortation \ amoncr the captives; and after making a treaty
ti the king. The assembly then separate^l, ' with the victorious Aliab, he went his way.
and we hear nothing more of Agrippa but an jtVhab was immediately infiinucil that ho IkhI
tij'res-won of his reu'ret (Acts xxvi. 32) that the been guilty of a '^Ti-at >m in sutferim; the king
faithful and el'X[uent a|xjstle could not be set of Syriii Vi eseaiM'. inasmuch as he had lic/n
at hl*rtv. (See UzRon.) . d«*livered into his hands by a marvellous iijt<T-

AHAb — fathers brother. 1. (1 Ki. xvi. | jK»rtitionof (iimVs i)rovidence, and his characti-r
2*: Tlie »<m of Omri, and his successor as ■ and conduct had been ^uch a> to mark hiui for
king of IsraeL He reigned twenty-two years, j the Divine «lispleasure. Besiiles this, tlie
»td the seat of his kinsrdom wa#4 at Samaria. ! motives of Ahab in making the treaty may l»e
He niarrie<l Jezebel, a Zidonian woman of i)ro- regardwi as anil'iti«ius, if not corrupt; and h«'
^rrijliljy wicked cluiracter. She was a grt»ss was therefore iiifonued that his own life shouM
ki«iliter' and Ahab followed her in all Phamician go for the life <if Benhadad, and his i»eople for
■npenftitions. She acquired a piiwerful ascvrn- j Benhai lad's people.

toeklni^d of Israel tliat were before him.
C

He

the worth of it in money, as he might choose.

17

AHA

All this seemed ver^ fair ; but Naboth did not
Irish to part with his vineyard on any terms.
It was the inheritance he had received from
his fathers, and for this and other causes its
value to him was |>eculiar, an4 such as neither
money nor any other vineyard in exchange
could compensate. He therefore declined the
kin^s proposaL Mortified and disappointed
by Naboth's refusal, he laid down upon his
bed, and refused to eat. Jezebel, his wicked
wife, inquired the cause of his sadness, and
assured him that he might set his heart at rest,
for he should have his desire ; and she forth-
with commenced a train of unprincipled mea-
sures which resulted in the murder of Naboth ;
and Ahab then took possession of tiie vineyard.
But his judgment lingered not. Elijah was
sent to charge him with the sin to which he
had been accessary, and to forewarn him, not
only of his own fearful doom, but of the certain
and utter destruction of his posterity : '* In the
place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth
shall dogs lick tnv blood, even thine." Guilty
as Ahab was, he had not yet lost all sense of
sin, and when the judgments of God were so
near him, he humbled himself and fasted ; and
for this he was exempted from the punishment
in his own person, but it was inflicted on his son.
The circumstances of Ahab^s death are deeply
interesting and instructive. He proposed to
Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to make war on
Kamoth-gilead, which was in the possession of
the king of Syria. Jehoshaphat expressed his
willingness to join him, but suggested the pro-
priety of first inquiring what the will of the
Lord was respecting the enterprise ; so Ahab
summoned his four hundred false prophets,
and they aU prophesied favourabljr. Jehosh-
aphat seems to nave been suspicious of the
character of Ahab's prophets, and he therefore
inquired if there was no prophet of the Lord
besides them. Ahab referrea him to Micaiah,
expressing at the same time his aversion to
him, because his prophecies were idwavs eviL
However, Micaian was sent for, and the mes-
senger (having probably been instructed to that
effect by Ahab) informed him of what had
passed, and desired him to prophesy favourably,
as the other prophets had done. When Micaiah
came before the two kings, who were seated
each on a throne at the entrance of the gate of
Samaria, and all the prophets before them, the
question was proposed to him, as it had oeen
proposed to the other prophets, ** Shall we go
against Eamoth-gileoa to battle, or shall we
forbear?" The prophet advised him to go,
but evidently with such a tone and manner as
indicated that he was not speaking in the spirit
of prophecy. He therefore solemnly and ear-
nestly urged him to tell him nothing but the
truth, in the name of the Lord. Micaiah then
disclosed to him the whole matter, and showed
him not only that his enterprise against
Kamoth-gilead would be defeated, but that
God had suffered the prophets who had pro-
phesied favourably of it to be filled witn a
lying spirit, that they might lead him on to
the certain ruin which awaited him.
18

AHA

^ Ahab sent the faithful prophet back to Sama-
ria, and ordered him to oe imprisoned till his
return from the battle. So the infatuated
kings of Israel and Judah, in the face of the
counsel of the Almighty, went up to battle
against the king of Syria at Ramoth-g^ead.
In order to' secure himself against the direct
aim of the enemy, Ahab entered tiie battle in
disguise. But a certain man drew a bow, as
he supposed, at a venture, yet the arrow was
directed with unerring aim to the heart of the
wicked Ahab, and the blood flowed oat into
the chariot, so that he died that night. His
army was scattered, in literal acoordanoe witik
Micaiah's prophecy. His body was cankd to
Samaria to be buried, and the bkiod was
washed from the chariot in the pool of Sama-
ria, and the dogs licked it, as had been foretold
(1 Ki. xxi 19j.

2. (Jer. XXIX. 21. 22) A son of Kolaiah, and
a false prophet, who, with Zedekiab, another
false prophet, prophesied falselyto the children
of Israel, when in captivity atJBabylon. Jer-
emiah was commanded to make known to them
that they should be delivered into the hands of
the king of Babylon, who would slay them;
and so dreadful would be their end, that there-
after it should be a form of cursine — **The
Lord make thee like Zedekiah and hke Ahab,
whom the king of Babylon roasted on the fire.**
This was a common Chaldean punishment
(Dan. iiL 6).

AHASUERUS is, perhaps, like Pharaoh
and Abimelech, a royal title ana not a personal
name. 1. (Dan. ix. 1) The father of Darius
the Median 2 and the same with Cyaxares.

2. (Ezra iv. 6) Supposed to be Cambyses,
the son and successor of Cyrus.

3. (Esth. i 1) The husband of Esther, and
probably the famous Xerxes. We are told
that he reigned from India to Ethiopia^ over
one hundred and twenty-seven provmoes;
that his palxice was in Shushan, the royal dt^
of Persia; and that in the third ^ear of his
reign he made a splendid feast for his princes.

Sxjibably in preparation for his invasion or
reece. In the height of this magnificent
entertainment, the king summoned Vashti^ his
wife, into the royal presence, that he might
show his guests her great beauty. She dedined

foing. as it w^os contrary to all etiquette,
'or tfiat cause she was separated from the kixij^
and from the royal estate. Xerxes, after his
ignominious defeat in Greece, returned to
I'ersia, and abandoned himself to sensual jilea-
sures. " Fair young virgins " were sought for
him, and Yashti was succeeded by Esther, the
niece and adopted daughter of Mordecai, a
Jew, who resided at the palace.

Hamon, the chief officer of the king's house-
hold, considering himself insulted by Mordecai,
obtained a royal decree that all the Jews of the
kingdom should be dcstn^yed. Esther, having
received intelligence of this cruel plot, embraced
a favourable o|>i)ortunity to make it known to
the king, and implore his protection of herself
and her people. The king could not indeed
reverse the decree, but he caused Hunan to ba

AHA
hong and Unrdeou to be advAnoal to the
lughcetpaetofthelaagdom uulaleadapKtclied

AHA

eted for the destructiuD of Judah, wrre titcmt
to l»y uesc to Jenuolem. At tbis juncture.
^ GixldireL-teilbiBpropbetlBai^

lu taki! hia eon, Sheor-jiuhub,
uid gu to Ahai, who ahould be
found at n iiarticul&r Biwt in
the city of JcniKatem. and moke
known to him the cuunBcl of
the LonL Thid favour wu
efaonn ti> the vricked king u
tbe repiviKiitative of the buUMi
of David, and for the jieopk'a
nalie with wliom God hod mods

lt(I«L

i-l).

bupplioDt

mfMcngPTS u

every direction, to mfonn the

em that they were at liberty to gather tbem-
^Ivce toBctber fur Bflf -defence, and to detrtruy
oil that Bhouhl auault them.

The nomi: AhoBuerua — Ahashvenieh
■ nly the H'^brew mode of pronouncing
Saiii>crit iikalr'i ; on the Persian moDum<
IcktrjU; ill Gre«k, Xerxes, anil sitfiiif]nti;j
kingf. Cya^are* in only another fi inn of the
iiame word. The tvo namcB, Abnduerutt —
Xcrxw, are the lome, and the cbarncters
udmpun'L Tlie tyrant who iDrade<l Grei
vLo M'ourged the HellenioDt, laid his roj'ol
miLdute on Uoiiut Athnn, and ruthleMily
mur-li^n-l the riun of I'ytliiun, has n cl'ihe
reMmblaDcv tu the frantic and de1)a«vd
monarch who repudiated his wife liecause
iJie wv>uld nut exjiofte henielf to the t;aze of
■Irunken revi-Ui-m, anil who waa »i far undiT
the intlurnee nf au intri^ing and onibitioua
famunte. of, at hi^ su^ention. to devote a hirffe
l>>iy of hia uuluiitrioiu aubjects to wanton
mitiiinT anil lalLun!.

AHAVA (E»ra viii 15|-a river in fhaldea,
^rTv Exra aiHeiiiUeJ the captiven who were
Kr^tming t» Juika. and whiru he pmclaimuJ
a foMt, aDii Hiiletnnly mtked fur divine amtiiituiice
aifl ]in>tectiuii un tliuir juumey. Its preciao
nburnvn i« not knuuii.

AHAZ-,.««w«- (2 Chr. xxria D-v.-a.t
OutiiatA Jutham, and at the age of twenty
ticrewle'l him wi kin^ <i Juiioh. Ahoz Knve
li^iwlf ui> til '.ftm* ididatry. ami even uiuriliced
cliiUlivn t» the b'udi' ti the Iwathi
' wickiHlneu hii>u^ '

_. _, J kin-jil'im itevere

Ahaz at Lii-t aliandi'De-l hini!ielf vi luu luiijt
••»prrjt>- iiii'iuity, anil tliu kiniiHloiu uf Judoli
"if tirnii^lit low and made wa«tu liecaiue of hiii

|,-rratrin.
YxAy in hi< i

theldnyc' "-

i^n (inrihaUj the lecnnd yttx)

looiah. liaving fuuud Ahox
at the ]ilaoe desijjnated, tuld
him that the buunds of tjie in-
•ading army wore fired; that
their iiurpuM reBpectiC); -Teni-
solem would be dutuated, and
that in a limitud time the kiui;-
doniB from which they cnone
should be deetTMyed ; and. tu
oinfirm the prujihctic testi-

froiu a bettvr motive, be refused to oak a si|
hot Ciod saw fit to give liim one of iiaemnif
import: "Behuld," Boid Ik-, "a l-inrili «liall
conceive, ami bear a ma. and slmll call hix
name Immanuel" (Isa. vii. 11; AInlt. i. 2:1:
Luke i. 31-:15). Some have undvrjtunl tlii.i
remarkable propbeey tu mean tliat, notnitli-
Btanding the vxtcwnlinary c<in<:i'|itiuu and
birth of tile pnimieed child, be bhull ext buttuc
ami honey an other cMlilrvn di;, anil, like tliem.
Bhall gnuliially advance frran iitui de;m-e of
kiiowlvdgu tuuuither; hut liefuiu he Hhnll liavo
attuiniKl tliat luvasiuM of duciiniinnUiin nbich
would enablu him to clionwi Iwtn'ii-n guml and
evil, the land of the Israelite and the Syiliii,
rliatri'M anil iwiiitexity, Kliall

i. Hi;

denotes the bny whom the pnqiliut took wiUi
liim; and otheni, with givater imibaliliity,
suppose that it refem to the child iTiihiiKi oa in
vene 14 ; and that tlio meaniujr k that in kiht
time tlian would lie nsintrvd, altuT tlio birth of
tlie promiHe<l Inmiannel, fiir him tii attain tu
the capacity of distingidivhing giHil fmiu evil
(that is, widiin the Mioce uf tWi-o or threi- yearsi,
tijeeni.-inieaofJudahiihouldpcriiih. Wukimw
thai, within tliree or fuiir yean after tlie |irii-
Iihefy WOH ntteiul, the kin'^of Ixitli [iiriH-lund
Kyriu w^re defltnj.i-ed (J KL xv. »); ivi. V).
TliiHwaii|iruInlilytliii]iriina>-yau(9>inpli»hiiii'iit
of tlie pniiihrey, but it receited itii fur inun'
Htrikin;; and litrnil fiillil>ii>ait in tlie liirlli of
luiuumiiel; fur llurud the <ireat won tho Li>>t
who cmld be culkd the kii^; eltlK-r of Jndah
or IkiiwI. aiul thirti^jh he liveil tJU Ininumuel
was h-im, he died wliih' he was yet an infimt ;
and then, Shiluh heiiiff couie, the sci'lrtre ile-
purteil linally fpim .Tiid;d), as it hml loll;; bcforo
dei-artsd from larai'l IticQ, xlix. ID).

AHA

Though Ah&z and his kingdom were thus
Baved from the hands of the Syrians and
Israelites, he had warning of the terrible judg-
ments wmch were in store for him because of
his idolatry ; but neither mercy nor judgment
could divert him from the wicked purposes of
his heart He sent ambassadors to Tiglath-
pileser, king of Assyria, and made him a mag-
nificent present of all the gold and silver of the
temple, and besought his assistance i^inst the
Syrians. In compliance with his wishes, the
king of Assyria besieged Damascus, took it,
ana slew the king. Ahaz went thither to
congratulate Tiglatn-pileser on his victory, and
there he saw an altar, the fashion of which
particularly pleased him, and he ordered one
to be made, and put up in the stead of God's
altar which he removed into an obscure place.
Here he sacrificed to the gods of Damascus,
Baying, '* Because the gods of the kingff of
Sjria help them, therefore will I sacrifice to
them that they may help me : but they were the
ruin of him and of all Israel," says the sacred
historian. So greedv was this al)andoned man
to commit iniquity, that he wantonly mutilated
and abused the furniture of the temple, broke
the vessels in pieces, made him altars in every
comer of Jerusalem and on the house-tops, for
the worship of the stars. He seemed resolved
to show how utterly reckless he was of the
consequences of sin. But his impious career
was cut short, for he was taken away in his
iniquity at the early age of thirty-six, and was
succeeded by his son Hessekiah (2 Chr. xviii. 27).
Though he was buried in the city of Jerusalem,
his body was not admitted to the sepulchres of
the kings, but was treated with ignominy, as
were the bodies of Jehoram and Joash, accord-
ing to Chronicles. (See Tiolath-pileseel)

AHAZIAH — Jehovah aiutains. 1. (IKixxii
40) Was the son and successor of Ahab, king of
Israel So wicked was he^ that when Jehosna-
phat, king of Ju lah, had joined with him to build
a fleet at Ezion-geber for theTarshish trade, Grod
sent his prophet to tell him that, because of
his alliance with Ahaziah, even in this secular
enterprise, his fleet should be destroyed ; and
the ships were accordingly shattered to pieces
by the winds. Ahaziah wan severely injured
by a fall from an upper gallery in his house at
&kmaria, and he sent to an idol-god at Ekron,
to inquire if he should recover. His messengers
were met by the prophet Elijah, who informed
them that Ahaziah's sickness would be fatal
They returned, and made the occurrence known
to the king, who, supposing from the descrip-
tion that Elijah was the man they met, forth-
with sent an officer and fifty men to seize him.
The prophet was sitting on the brow of a hill
when the officer approached, and announced
the king's summons. At the prayer of Elijah,
the officer and his men were instantly consumea
by fire from heaven. The same doom came
upon a second officer and his party of fifty men.
Tne third officer fell on his knees before Elijah,
and besought him to spare his life and the hves
of his men. At an intimation from God. Elijah
went down with them, and told the king in

AHI

person that he should not recover ; and he soon
after died, and Jehoram his brother succeeded
him.

2. (2 Kings viii. 25) Called also Azariah
(2 Chr. xxii 6) — was a son of Jehoram and
Athaliah, and at the age of twenty-two suc-
ceeded his father as kin£^ of JudiUi ; though in
2 Chr. xxii. 2 it is said he was forty-two years
old when he began to reign^ which is an error.
His uncle, Joram, the kmg of Israel, was
wounded in a battle at Hamoth-gilead, and was
carried to Jezreel to be healed. There Ahaziah
visited him ; and Jehu, who was left to sustain
the siege (and who was in the meantime anointed
king over Israel), came dovni to Jezreel to
execute the judgment of the Lord upon Joram,
the son of Ahab, and the representative of tiie
house of Ahab. As soon as his approadi was
announced by the watchman, «foram and
Ahaziah went out. each in his chariot, to
meet hira. And they met in the '* portion of
Naboth," with which one of Ahab's daring
crimes was so closely associated. (See Ahab.)
Jehu reminded Joram of the iniquities of his
house, and he, suspecting treachery^ warned
Ahaziah to flee. ^ Jehu then smote Joram (or
Jehoram, as he is called, 2 KL ix. 24) through
the heart with an arrow. He pursued and slew
Ahaziah also, though he had strength to reach
Meciddo, where he died, and was carried thence
to Jerusalem , and buried, from respect to the
memory of Jehoshaphat, his ancestor. (See
Jehu.) In 2 Chr. xxii the circumstances of
the death of Ahaziah are stated differently;
but the variation is not substantial, and does
not require a separate discussion.

AHIAH. 1. (1 KL iv. 3) The son of Shiaha,
one of Solomon^s scribes or secretaries.

2. (1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18) Supposed by some to
be the same with Ahimelecn (1 SanL xxi I)—
was the son of Ahitub, and his successor in the
priest's office. (See Ahimelbch and Ahitub.)

3. (1 Chr. viii. 7) A descendant of Benjamin.
AHIJAH (1 KL xi 29)— a prophet of God

who lived at Shiloh. For the most interesting
and important transactions with which Ahijah
was connected, see Jeroboam. He lived to a
great age (1 Ki xiv. 4).

AHIKAM (2 KL xxiL 12)-a son of Shaphan,
and the father of Gedalian, was one of those
whom Josiah sent to Huldah, the prophetess,
to inquire of her concerning the book of the
law which had been found in the temple. His
influence was of great service to the prophet
Jeremiah (Jer. xxvL 24).

AHIMAAZ — brother of anger (1 Sana. xiv.
50) — son and successor of Zadok, the priest.
During the revolt of Absalom, Zadok and
Abiathar stayed in Jerusalem with Hushai,
David's friend; while Ahimaaz and another

Joung man (son of Abiathar), whose name was
onathan, stationed themselves at Enrogel, a
short distance from the city : and it was agree<l
that whatever Hushai should hear respecting
Absalom's plans, he should communicate to
Zadok and Abiathar, and they to their sons,
AViitnfti>.g and Jonathan, by whom the intelli-
gence should be communicated to David. As

Ain

s<vin as' Absalom had rejected the connsel of
Ahithophel, and adopted tbatci Hushai, Zadok
and Abiathar were promptly informed of it,
and directed to send ^nth all potwible haste to
l)a\itl. But (i^rhaps to avoid suspicion) the
lar^aage vtua e«nt by a female. The transaction
wn-H setrn by a lad, who went immediately and
informed Absalom. Ahimaaz and his com-
jaciun set off at once, however; and when they
came to Bahurim, the site of which is now un-
certain, thev concealed themselves in a well,
to escape the observation of their pursuers.
The woman of the house near which thev were
cjncealefi covered the mouth of tlic well with
a blanket, on which she spread com to dry ;
and when Absalom's messengers came up in
the pursuit, and inquired where they were, she
deceived them, and told them that the young
men were in great haste, and had passed on.
Thus thtry escajted ; and while their pursuers
retumeil to Jerusalem, they hastened to David
with their message. At hLs own urgent re^ luest,
Ahimaaz was employed to carry the intelligence
of Absalom^s death' to DaWd his father. He
outran Cushi, who had been previously de-
Hiatched on the same errand. Before he had
delivered hii* message, however, Cushi came up.
and made known the sad event. (See David.)

AHIMELECH— &ro^A^r or the kinn (1 Sam.
x\\. 1)— is sur»i>oEred by some to be the same
M-ith ^Vhiah ; out otherH siipix)i«e Ahiah to have
bwn the son of Ahitnb, and hii^ successor in
tho prifsthoixi, and Ahimelech to have Iwen
hU brother and succe^^r in the same oflice.
It Ls immatt:rial which of theijo 0])iniona i.f
<'■ irrect. Da\id, in his fli^'ht from Saul, came
t" N«ib, where Ahimelech the priest dwelt.
Hi' rvjiresented himself to be in trreat haste <jn
the km^'s urgent business, and by this means
fbtaintAi from Ahimelech s^ime of the hallowed
bread, and also the 8w«jnl of G<iliath, which
wsL-: r r«; "*ervcd amf mg the Hacred thingH. Doeg,
the Edomite, a principal servant of Saul, who
hiipjient-il to be at Nod, and to Ix* a ^^ntnefw of
the interview ]>etween David and Ahimelech,
Villi Saul of the matter, who immediately
summoni:^ Ahimelech and all the ])ric.sts that
wrre with him (eighty-fivo iwrsonis) into his
pre-ence. He char^red Uiem with a c<>n«i)iracy
ID aiiling and abutting his enemy; and they
nrplitnl by declaring tht-ir ignorance of anv
h'>*t!le \iews, on the jjart of David, tiiwanfs
Saul i'r hU kingdom. Tliit dt.'fenco, sufKcicut
&>• it s'lrely was, availed them nothing, how-
tvrr: anil' the king conmiaiKicd his guanl to
-lay thein. ITie guard declining to lay violent
haiidi* f»n the j^iiests of the I>»rd, the king
(■•■mnianded Doeg to fall uj»on theru. The
f- -rviiJTiiT did so, and smote them, and also the
lity of Xob where tliey dwelt, and all the n?on,
vrinif u, and children, as well as all the ljea<ts
which were found there. Abiathar, A\\\-
nn: letch's H^n, was the <.»nly one who escaped,
iind he fled with an ephod in his hand to
JjaviiL (See Abiathar.)

AHINOAM. 1. (1 Sam. xiv. nO) The
daughter of Ahimaaz and the wife of Saul.

:i (1 Sam. XXV. 43) A woman of Jczreel and

A.TA

one of Da\'i<rs wives. She was taken captive
bv the Amalekites in the Hiege of Ziklag, and
attem-ards rescued from capti\'ity by David (1
Sam. XXX. 18).

AHIO (2 Sam. vL .S)-a son of Abinadab,
who, with his brother I'zzali, was intrustetl by
Da\'id >iith the trans} nutat ion of the ark from
Kirjath-iearim to JeriisaleuL (See Uzz.\li).

AHITH()PHEL-(.n7r/i<r of ^i/o/m/iiim*— a
singular name for a man of such reputed wis-
dom (2 Sam. XV. IL'). \ native of Giloh, and
the familiar friend, comimnion. and Cf>unscllor
of Da\-id (1 Hir. xxvii. 'M). He was, indeed,
one of the most eminent counsellors of his age
(2 Sam. xvL 'ZX). David is 8ui>j>osed to refer
to his treachery, an<l to term him, ** my com-
panion," " my guide," and ** my familLir
friend," in Psalm Iv. 12-14. A])salom iwr-
suaded him to join in the conspiracy agamst
his father DaWd; but the cimning 'measures
which Ahithoiihel proi)osed for the accomiilish-
ment of AbsalomV ambitions plans were all
defeated by the counsel of HushaL Ahitho.
phel, seeing that the finjliable issue would Iw
the utter ruin of Ausalom and his cause,
which would almost necessarily invcdve his
own destruction, returned to Giloh, and de-
liberately hung himself.

AHITUB. 1. (1 Sam. xiv. H) Tlie son of
Phinehas and graii«lson of Kli. Sonic sniii'ii^u
that he succeeded Eli in the i>ric.?tlioud. (Sco
Ahimelech.)

2. 'ITio name of Zadok's fathor (I Chr. vi. S).

AHOLl AI5 fEx(Hl. xxxv. ;;4)--son of Ahi>a-
macli, of the triK' of ])an, who, with Hc/;di.L-l,
was divinely ap]Miintod to oiin>tn:ct the tiibcr-
nacle and its fiiniitiirr.

AHOLAH an<l AIIOLTT'.AH (Kzck. xxiii.
4)— sjTnbolical nanu's for .Tmlalj and Samaria,
de:»cnptivc of the spiritual lewdness of the two
coimtries. The tir-t name im-ans a ttnt; ami
the Seconal, /«.»/ (mt in hn\ ^iimI's habitation
among them was iKdlntcd by tlnir idolatries.

AHL'ZZATH ((Jen. xxvi. i'Oj a partiiular
friend of Abinieleeh, khii,' of (i«M'ar, and oiie of
those who attended him wIm-ii he met l^uac, and
made a tn'aty with him at I »ecr.-«he])a.

AI (Josh. vii. 2) called also Aiath f Isa. x.
28) and Aija (Ni-h. xi. 'M)- wjvs an eh-vated
h\)ot east of Bethel; the scene' (»f .lo^hua's
defeat, and afterwards of hi.s vict«^ry. (.Tu-h. viii.)
(SeeJosHJA.)

AIN or EX— a tenn di-notin.ir a i'lunfnuu and
often use<l in nam«:s of phwes as En -.redi,
fountain «»f kids; Emni-hpat, fountain «»f jud^'-
ment; Enr«»u'el, fountain i»f tie* fnot, or fuller's
fountijui ; .Enon, where.Iohnbai»tizod, si;.'nilie.s
springs of water. (Si-e Kn.)

AIX (Nvmi. xxxiv. ID ''llil.lah, on tho
east side of Ain" one of the n.irth-i. astern
IxiundaricH. The St-ptua-dnt rentiers, tin the
ftait side of thtijuinitnin, perhaps the spring of
tlie Oront^s.

AIX (.losh. XV. .^2) ori^nnally a city of tho
tri]>e of Ju<lah, but afterwards allotted to tho
trilxj of Sinic«m (1 Chr. iv. 32), and given to
the priests (.losh. xxi. H»)-

AJAOLN. L (Josh. x. 12^ A viWa-^^i ol

21

AXB
Gauan given to the tribe of Dul In tlie
Tidnity of AJklon b the valley of the nine
name, memonble for the ndrada of Joahok,
It ia nov known b^ the modem name of Yalo,
and Ilea abont fourteen miles from JeniHlem,
to the north of the Jaffa mad.

2. (Joali. lix. 42) A town in the coontry of
Zebuluo, where Elon waa buried. Its lite it

AERABBIM— (UcciU of (Num. xxiiv. 4)—

or Maaldi-Acrahbim | Joah. xv. 3)— waa a mwe

' ofhiUiontheaouthembordetof Judahtowuds

the Dead Sea. Its name would seem to denote

that it wae infested with acorpiona.

ALABASTER (Matt. uvi. 7}— a atone of
which there are sevenJ varieties. It is a bright
and elegant subetance, eiuceptible of a hne

KUsh, and bo easily wrought that it ia made
J) vessela of every fonn. Th^ druggist*
in Egypt ase it at the present day for the

t^riac ointmeQt. Tha phrase "she brake
the boi," used Mark xiv. 3, seems to mean
only that she opened or unsealed the vessel,
■1 we say familiarly, "to break a bottle," when
we mean to open it by drawing the ooHl It
was the custom in the EM, th«n, as it is now
all over the world, to seal with wax anything
from which it is deeitable to ke«p the air, and
this is especially necessary for the preservation
of precious perfumes and ointments. The
breaking of the wax would be naturally denoted
by the expresaion.

ALESASDEK. 1. (Mark xv. 21) Theson
of Simon the Cyreniao.

2. (Acta iv. 6) A distinguished Jew, who,
with others, took part against Peter and John.

3. (Act8Ui.33) AJewofEpheBUB,whotook
a conspicuous part in the controversy between
Paul and the populace of that city ,andattempted
without success to quell the oommotion.

4. A convert and apoelate (1 Tim, i 19, 20;
2 Tim. iv. 14). Perhaps the some with the
ooppcramith whom Paul rebukes.

ALKXANDKIA (Acts iviii. 34: uviL G)
— a celebrated city of Egypt, founded by Alei-
ander the Great, about b. c. 332. It was situ-
ated on a strip of land on the southern coaitt
of the Mediterranean, and between that and
the lake Mareotis, ramer south of the present
dty of the same name. Ancient Aleiondria
was at one time the centre of scientiSc know-
ledge; the rival of Home in wze, and the lirxt
commercial city of the earth. Historians tall
us that its free population exceeded 300,000,
and it had at tlie same time an equal nimiberaf
slaves. Its ancient magnificenco maybe known
from the ruins of spacious streets, and the
fragments of colonnades, obehsks, and temples.
Aftar AU'ianilur'a death it became the re™!
capital of Egypt, and wot the residence of t^e
Ptolemies for 2lr2 years. They enriched it
with numerous elegant odifices, and furnished
it with a library of 700,000 volumes, which
was burnt by the Saracens in the seventh
century. It was famous also for its lighthouse,
built on the island of Pbaroa. From the dayi
22

extensive market for grun, the c«
had charge of Paul on his way as a prisoner to
Rome readily "found a ship of Aleiandli^
laden with com, sailing into Italy." Some ri
the persecuton of Stephen were from this
city, and so was the eloquent Apollo*. Hen
also lived Clement and Origen, the famoni
Christian fathers. And here, too, was the
Greek or Alexandrian version of the Bible
made, nsnally called the Septoagint Many
Jews lived in Alexandria, having a governor
of their own, called the Alaborch, and they had
several synogc^ues. (See Sc'JtlPTUfiBS.)

Modern Alexjuidiia is built of the ndna i£
the ancient city. It is merely the port of
Cturo, where vessels touch, and eichangea of
merchandise are mads. It is 12S miles north-
west of Cairo, is the remdence of many Euro-
pean merchants and factoia, and has a popol*-
tion of about 40,000.

ALEXANDRIANS (Acts vi. 9) — Jews
from Alexandria who were present at Jerusa-
lem when Stephen preached there, and where
they had a synagogue hy themselves. Perhaps
the Libertines and Cyrenians worshipped with
them, or each sect or school might nave hod
separate synagmrues. In either caaa they ore
properly described as being "oertun of the
synagogue which is called the synagi^fue of the
Alexandrians," &c

ALGUM. (SeeAuron.)

ALIEN (Eiod. xviii. 3)— a foreigner or per-
son bom in another country, and not having
the usual rights and privileges of the citizens
of the country in which be lives. The force of
the figure, Eph. ii. 12, is sufficiently obviaus.

ALLEGORY (GaL iv. 24) — a figore of
speech, nearly resembling the parable or fable,
common in the Scriptures and among

oriental nations. It personifies irrationsJ

inanimate objects or moral qualities, and en-
forces and illustrates truth by (heir conduct or
by a supposed conversation between them.
ISiinyan'a PUyrim't Frogrea is a beautiful
olleKory.

The clause, GaL iv, 24, in whch the word
"allfgory" occurB, should berenderod " which
thiiigfl are allegoriieri." Certain events in the
history of Isaac and Ishmael are adduced as
foreshadowing important truths, which the

from saying that it u on lUlegory.

a

ALL
ALLELUIA (Rev. lix. 1). or HALLE-
LUJAH— a Hebrew word signifying iVoinjif
Ott LorrL It ' " " *

a coDclnda aavenl (rf the jimIiiU, I

ALL-io (Jodg. iz.'63)— "And' aU to brekk
ioM ikaJL" Ths wonk "all to" do not mean
"■ad all for tbe purpoae of" breaking,
if aooldEn^idiwora, andagnifii ""

dovnrietelyl
NB (G«n. ill

.._ ^. . y toote hia akolL

ALMOND (G«n. iliiL 11)— a weU-known
fniit, and aDMag the b«t Uiat Canaan pro-
doccd. Tlinlaam ■iiilliliiwiiiiiii iiF llimliiiiiinl
tnc UMLUiMu those of the peach tree, and it ia
nmaikaUe tta tta eail^ matoritr. It flowen
in Jmairj and give* its fniit in April. The
tndt ii endosed & » toogh eheU, and this again
widiin k hoRi7_ hnak, whicJi opens of itself
vhen Ae Imit is ripe. It is cnltivated with

great care atthe nmeatdayin England for it
mriy aod beaoliful flowen, and ~~ ■•--•'
" ' '--ion. The t

in the south of

tht bare bnnchea, and hence the strildng-
illiuiaii erf the poet: —

"The hope. In diwnu of ■ luppler hour,

Hem bouglL"

Ttie oiiginal wad from which almond ii de-
haste, or awake ear-
ly, denoting its baety
growth and early ma-
tnri^. Hence the
allasun in Jer. i 12.

0 tbe b

with

vigilance with which
he watched over his
word to fulfil it So
the chiefs of the tribeH
had almond rods em-
blematical of the vigil-
ance which became
them as tbe leadeiv of
God^H choeen people
(Num. ivii. e-81. In
£ccL lii. p allusion
may be made to the
white silveiy hiur
"hich, ere one is well aware, covem the head
in oM age. and which, if found in the way of
rii-hteonanesa, is a crown of glory. Others,
biiwever, render the claus^ " and the almond
thall be dediniied," that is, by

ALMS. ALMS-DEEDS (Matt, vi, 1 ; Acta
ii. 36)— deeda ot charity, or (Lulte id. 41) the
ibine given in charity. The giving of alma is
an important duty enjoined by the Scripturc-
and the manner of it is prescribed (seo Acta
-■4, and the poBHageB already cited).

Tbe regulatione of the Klosuo law in reft
— to the poor were veryjndidoiui, considerate,

AT,P

in-ieqnecce of niitiniuil ■icjjcneracy, we find

lat begging woe a conmiun practice in the

me of our Lord. Almi-giving, theiBforei

icame a neceaaaiy daty. laee PoOB. I

ALMITG TB£ES f 1 Ki i, 11), or ALOUH

TREES <2 Chr. u. 8} — one ot the kinds of

timber which Solomon ordered from Tyre fot

the building of tbe temple. Jewish historians

"■ ibe it as a fine white, glossy wood, and

for musical instrument^ and the orna-
mental work of the temple. Dr. Shaw sup-
poses it to have been the cypress, which u
still used fur harpsichords ancl other stringed
instruments. Kimchi Buppoxed it to be Brazil
wood ; and Maiia Callcott (Scripture ITtrbal)
identifies it with thyine wood. The Vulnite
thfina. But there seems Hnle doubt Uiat
ras the far-famed sandal wood of the £u^
to highly prized for its finenea^ fragrance,
durabdity, and the beautiful polish which it

with brood thit£

ilant, when boiled, f

.. .e called aloes; and

nsod in embalm-

(John ai.

The Cape

._ Good Hope

and the islands

of Sumatra and

Ceylon furnish

majiy varieties.

Lign-aloe, or

Aloe, was a dif-

' iDtplantfrem

preceding.

loclium (Num.
-r. e). The
'U of it U
y fragrant,
I the wood of

le apedes is

W(,rth more than

'eigbt ID gold. Beei

of nloe, or the ogallochun
"aiirture.

ALPHA (Rev. i. H; nil fi: xxii. 13)-the
ime of the first letter uC the Greek alpha-
_»t. " I am Aljilia and Omega, the liediiiiing
and the end, tlie first and tlie lasl,'^ls the
oipruflsivc lanminfie employed liy our Saviour
in reference to liiinsclf. 'I'bo j'hnweamcaiL'tlie
Jews to denote from Ent to Inst was, "fnim
Aleph to Tau," which are the names of ths
first and last letters of the Hiibrew alphabet
The eiprertuions in the imsBaj.-es cited denote
tbo eternity and perfection uf the ISeing to
wliom they are npjiUed: and their force will
appear liy c'im|)anng tbem with Isa. xli. 4;

ALPHKUS. "l. (Mtttt.ii.3! MarkiiL IS;
Lidce vi, 16; Aots i. U) 'llio fntlior ot the
apostle James. 2. (Moik iL 14) Thu fatbci ol

ALT
T^eri, or Matthew, ■■ he u caUed, Matt. ii. 9.
Many aupposa that the lirat Alphons wae tlie
mae pereon as Cleophaa, who is mentioned
John lit 2B, and he ie by many conjectured to
b« the husband of Mary, mater of our Lord's
mother, bo that J»ti«b, hie eon. Is called
our Lord's brother. (Compare Matt riii. 6s
5, and Mark n. S and Luke xxiv.

10.) (Sse Jahes, JnsES.)

ALTAR ((^n. viiL 20)— a itructure amiro-
piiated exclusively to the affeiitijE of ttamfioes.

le of God

in the patriarch-
al history.
Altamwereol

■nd at first very rui1e in their construction,
b^ing nothing more, probably, than a square
heap of Btones, or mound of eotth. The altar
on which Jacob made an offering at Bethel
was the single stone which had served him for
a pillow during the night (Geo. xiviii. 18).
The altar which MoHes wag commanded to
build (Eiod. 11. 24) was to be made of earth.
It made of stone, it was eijiresaly required t-i
be rough, the sculpture of omamenbi, which
mipht easily degenerate into images, bein^'
strictly forbidden, and the use of an iron tO'>l
being reganled B« polluting (Exod. ix. 25), It
was also to be mode without steps (Eiod. xx.
SS. See also Deut^ xivii. 2-U, and Junh. viit.
SI). The altar also had horns (Exi«l. xirii.
2j 1 Ki. ii, 28; Rev, ii. 13). They were prob-
ably used to confine the Wctuu (Pa. civiiL
27). Altars were erecl*d to commemorate im-
portant events, as at the defeat of Amalek
jEiod. xvii. 16). For idolatrous purjioses,
altars were often built in groves and on higl
places, which very speedily became scenes o:
pollutioD and idolatry.

The altara required in the Jewish worshi)
were — 1- The altar of 6nrn( oJSerrag, or tin
hra^ra aUar, in the tobemacle in the wilder
oesB ; this altar stood direcUy in front of thi
prin^pal entmnce. It was mode of shittin
wood, and was about T feet and 6 inches
■qnare, and 4 feet and 6 inches high-
was hollow, and covered or overlaid ivith
plates of brass. The horns (of which then
was one on each corner) were of wood, and
overlwd in the same way. A grate or net-
vork of braes was also attached to it, eithei
to hold the fire or to support a hearth ol

ALT

earth. The fnmitnn of the altar mw all tl
brass, and connst«d of such artidea as a shovel
to remove the ashes from the altar, i

e then

A for

,vin^ the blood of the victima, amd h . .

urniog the sacriiice. At each comer waa

a brass rintj, and there were also two stare* or
rods overlaid with brass which passed thmuj^
these rings, and served for carrying the altar
from plaoe b

. . _^ continually,

smoke of the burning sacrifice a
towards heaven without inteimptloti.

In the first temple {which, in its general plan
was constructed alter the pattern of the taber-
nacle in the wilderness, that being a tent iml
this a house of larger dimensions}, the altar
of burnt offering stood in the same relative
porition as in ^e tabernacle. It waa mnch
krgerj however, being 30 fret sqnare and 15
feet high ; itt particular plan being appointed
expressly by divine authority (1 Ohr- nviiL
11-20). It was ascended either by a series lA
three platforms according to some, or accord-
ing to others by an inclined plane— steps an
attached to the east side of the altar in Eiekiel's
vision. And in the second temple it occupied
the same position, though it was still laisar
and more beautiful than the first- We r^er
to the one built by Herod, described both by
Josephus and in the Talmud.

2. The olUiT of inceme, or the goliien altar,
stood within the holy place, and near to the
inmost vail (Eiod. xii, 1-6). It was made
of the same wood vrith the brsien altar,
and was IH inches square and 3 feet high.
The (op, as well as the sides and horns, was
plateil with pure gold, and it was Gnished
around the upper surface with a crown or
border of gold! Just beluw this border four
golden rings were attached to each side of the
altar, one near each comer. The staves or rods
for bearing the altar passed through them rings,
and were made of the same wood with the altar
itself, and richly overlaid with the same predons
metoL The incense altar in Solomon's temple
was very similar- What becaine of the one in
the second temple, which was restored by Judss
Moccabaeua, is not known. It does not appear
on the arch of Titus among the representations
of the spoils of the temple. Upon this altar
iiicense was bunt eveiy mining and everf

AMA

M

evcniBff 6m IvonuA, so tiba* it

noQy Bflf nwMt offMTwg^ nor drink offciiiigy was
poonitted^ npon tint altar; nor waa H em

thajriaatmadaatoMnwit (Lar. xvili^igfj.^
Tna altar waa an jmiwrtant poitiop of rui-
^ooa Idinitan among tba ancieati^ and fomia
oC it among Taaona natiana, bodi aquare and

vound, hnvo nan praMrvad* Attan wara aan'
cnlly dfldkatod to otttain dtvinitiao wfioaa
name thej bora. Soma, Iwwefar, ware anony-
mooa; and one in Athna bore the lemariuble
inaaipiiuu.^ "To tiiannlawfim God"— that la,
at ioma oaria iatima of plaguei aooordiog to
Bioi^enaa Laaikua) thagr knew not ^diatgod to
jmTfiitiatt, and tharaliore bnilt tfiff Tiamfltfiaa

with gnrlanda and flowai^ iHifle tibair aidea
vara aeulptured with qnnbob of the goda to
whom A^ ware conaeoratod. The altar waa
alaoan ea^hon for crimfnala, both among the
Jewa and ottier andant peqplau ParMna fai
dicad of death fled and 'Uiiidhold upon the
hona of the attar" (1 BX i 601

AHATiKK (Gan. zszfL t^. He waa the
nn of S^dbnL and giandaon of Bbml Some
have auwiuaaJ Mm to be the Cither of the
Analaknai^ but tibagr are SMntioned aa n
powatAd people hmg baCoro the bizihof Amalek
(Gen. zinr. 7). The Arabiani have a tradition
that he waa the aon of HanL

AMALEKITES (1 Sam. zv. 6)— a powei^
fd people who occupied the country between
Paleatine and "Egypt, called. Num. xxiv. 20,
"Font of all the natioiifl.'' They were the
fnt who attacked the Inaelitea, and made an
oDihuight on the feeble who lingered on the
march. Thia predatory horde, who seem to
have aabsisted wholly by plunider (a nest of
"Lmd-pKratea**), were siffiially defeated in a
oonteat with the children ol IstmI at Rei>hidim :
and for their goilt in opposing the progregs of
God*8 people, they became objects of his terrible
jiKk;iiient& They were afterwards defeated
umT repnlaed by Gideon (Jndo^ viL 12), and
by Saol CL Sam. xr.), and by Da^id (1 Sam.
XXX.); tul at last the word of the Lord was
folfiUed to the very letter and their name was
Uotted from the earth (1 Sam. zzil 17, and
1 Chr. iv. 43).

AM ANA (Song iv. 8>— « peak of one of the
DoontaiBa of Lebanon; probably so called
from a river of similar name which flowed from
it (See Abafjl)

AMASA (1 Chr. ii 17V-a son of Jether,
who ia elsewhere called Ithra (2 Sam. xvii 25).
Abealom placed him at the head of bis troops
m the rebellion against hia father David; bat
he was defeated by his cousin Joabw After-
W8rd% David recognizing the relationship be-
tween them, not onhr pardoned Amawa, but
made Idm captain of his host in the room of
Joab. On the revolt of Sheba, David required
Amasa to asaemble the people within three
days, and march with them to sujpproas it; but
in ooBseqnenoe of his delay , the kmg despatched
auch an aimy aa ooald Se mna-

AHA

tared at ilia' moment, and togather with Joab
they ^nraned after Sheba. At a

place m Gabaon, Amasa Joined than. The
envums and mortified Joab i^yproaohed to aa-
hito him. and aeiasd the opportonity to inflict

npon him a dea^ wound.

AMASAT (1 Chr. vi 25>-« Levita. and one
of the sons of Klkanah. He waa oiief of a
it party that came to David when he was
from Sanl (1 Chr.- zii 16-18). David
availed himself of thair aid, and gave

• • • e • ^

ommisBions m his army.

AMAZTAH— «r«iga<^/e»oett* (2 KL ziv.
1-20)— the eishth king of Jodah, waa' aon and
ancooasorof Jehoash. He oonunanoedlda reign
in the twenty-fifth year of his aj^ Hia dbar-
acter ia peounaily deacribed. HXi religion waa
not the reault of sinoere oonvictioa, nor waa it
nnif oim and oonuatent. It waa monlded and
"modified by oircmnstanoea. "He did that
which waa right in the audit of the Lord, bnt
not with a perfect heart^^Ghr. zzv. 2; 2 Ki
ziv. 3). At the oommenoement of luarwyi he
showed an outward regard to the law of the
Lord ; bnt power and ambition tamed hia heart
At length a poweifol eonspiraoy waa formed
affainst nim, imd he was daataoyed by the hand
ocviolenoe.

On his aooesaion to the throiML Amaaiab re*
aolved to make war upon the Edomites, who
had revolted from the Jdn^dom of Judah sev-
eral yean before (2 Ki viiL 20) ; and for this
purpose he raised an army of 300,000 men from
among his own subjects, and hired 100,000 men
of Israel, for whose services he paid £40,000.
Before he commenced the expedition, however,
he was directed by divine authority to disband
his hired soldiers, and was told that if he did
not, he diould certainly fall before hia enemies.
After some hesitation he dismissed the Israel-
itish army and sent them home. Amaziah met
the Edomites in a place called the Valley of

capturing Selah or Petra,
by his success, and forgetful of the Grod of
Mkttles who had given him the victory, he took
the idols which his vanquished enemy had
worshipped, and set them up as his own gods.
The anger of the Almighty was kindled against
him, and he sent a message to him, the very
terms of which exposed and rebuked his tnn
(2 Chr. zxv. 15). The king was already hard-
ened enough to question the authority of Gro<r8
messenge^ and even to threaten him with
death. He was warned of the destruction he
would bring upon himself for his idolatry and
unbelief. Thus given up to follow his own
devices, he soufl£t occasion of war with the
Idnff of Israel The answer of that king to the
^aUenge was given in the form of a fable, but
was expressive of the utmost contempt, and
contained at the some time a severe rebuke to
the king of Judah for his pride and vain-glory.
Amaziab was not to be deterred from his pur-
pose; and he met the army of Israel at Beth-
shemesh in Judea, and it is said by Jewish
historians that the army of Judah was sud-

25

AMB

denly seized with a panic, and fled before Israel
vithoat a blow on either side. Amaziah was
taken prisoner by the king of Israel, who forth-
with proceeded to break down a section of the
city wall 600 feet in lengfth, and marched
through the breach; plundered the temple of
its gold and silver vesselM; seized the king's
treasures, and, taking such hostages as ne
pleased, returned in triumph to Samaria, leav-
ing the king of Judah to reflect on the folly
and madness of rejecting the counsel and
disobesring the command of God, (2 KL xiv.)
About fifteen years after this disgraceful defeat,
Anuudah fled &om Jerusalem to Lachish to
escape assassination, but he was followed bv
the conspirators to the place to which he fled,
and put to death. His body was taken back
to Jerusalem and buried with his fathers.
(See Amos.)

AMBASSAi:)OR (Josh, ijc 4 ; Isa. xxxiil 7)
— a person a]>iK>inted to some business in a
foreign country, in the transaction of which he
represents the government that appoints him
(2 Chr. xxxiL ol). Many instanci^ occur in
the Old Testaments The word is used of the
apostles (2 Cor. v. 18-20), to denote that they
were sent forth by divine authority, and fur-
nished with divine credentials, to proclaim the
terms of pardon and eternal life to the rebellious
and condemned subjects of G^mI's government
in this world. The imprisoned afXMitle calls
himself an ambassador in bonds — among states
a violation of all international law.

AMBASSAGE (Luke xiv. 32>-a public
message. The term may include the messenger
or ambassador as well as his message.

AMBER (Ezek. i. 4, 27; viii. 2)- a beau-
tiful bituminous resin, susceptible of a fine
polish, and presenting several colours, though
chiefly yellow and orange. It is foimd in
I'nissia, and near the shores of the Baltic Sea.
In the passages cite'd the allusion is simply to
the colour of amlxT, and does not imjtly that
it is indestructible by fire ; or rather, as others
sup])ose, the reference is to a i>eculiar metal of
darling brilliancy — a mixture of gold ami
copper, or gold and silver.

AMEN — <ri/^ faithful (Deut xxvii. 15).
This word, though variously used, has sul>Htan-
tially the same meaning. It is an affirmcitivu
response, and is used to denote assent, or entire
acquiescence. After a creed, it means, *' so it
is;* after a prayer, "soletitbe" (Deut. xxvii.
15-26). It IS sometimes tranHlattnl i'«rj7jy, and
was frequently used by our Saviour when he
was about to utter some distinct, im]Mirtant,
and solemn truth. Its repetition, " verily,
verily, Isayuntoyou,*'strengthen.stheasBertion.

It was the custom among the early Christians
for all the worshippers to say amen at the close
of the prayer, or of the giving of thanks (1 C'or.
xiv. 16). One may say that this is ahnost the
only form of worship prcscril>ed in the New
Testsmieiit. The promises of God are amen,
l>ecause they are made sure and certain in
Clirist (2 Cor. i 20). Amen is one of the titles
of our blessed Saviour (Kev. iii 14), as he is
the faithful and true witness.
20

AMM

AMETHYST. This gem has its name,
which is a Greek compound, from tiie notiai
that it was a kind of amuleik which channed
away the effects of drunkennesa. It was one
of the most valuable of the precions etofnea. It
has a variel^ of colours, though poiple prevaili
(Exod. xxxix. 12|. It ^-as one of tne stones in
the high priest^s breastplate.

AMMINADAB (Exod. vL 23)— Aanm*i
father-in-law. The allusion to the ehariots of
Amminadab, or Amminadib (Son^ vi 12), may
refer to the known beauty and si^iftness of the
vehicles of some famous charioteer. In the
margin, however, it is rendered, " my wiDh^
peojJe.

AMMONITES, or chUdrtn of AMMON
(Gen. xix. 38) — ^were the descendants of Ben*
ammi, a son of Lot, by incest. He was bom
in the neighbourhood of Zoar, but his posterity
spread northwardly, and occupied the moun-
tainous reffions of Gilead, between the riven
Amon ana Jabbok. In fact, they had ood-
quered an earlier people — ^the Kephaim, or
Jani^mmims — and seized their tenritoiy.
Originally their possessions were bounded
north by the river Jabbok. west by Jordan,
south by Amon, and stretened eastward into
Arabia. The Amorites, under Sihon thdr
kinp^, expelled them from the richest part ol
their possessions, which lav between tne two
rivers ; but Moses recovered it from the Amor-
ites, and divided it between Reuben and Gad.
Tlie western boundary of the Ammonites then
became a branch of tne river Jabbok, on whidi
their capital city, Rabbah or l^bbath-Ammon.
stood, and the mountains of Gilcnsd bounded
them on the east, while the main stream of the
Jabl)ok continued tobetheirnorthem boundary,
and the land of Moab the southern. This last
is intended by the kingdom of Ammon as used
in the sacred history.

The children of Ammon were gross idolaters
(Judg. X. 6). Their chief idol was Moloch, the
same with Baal, Milcom, &c. ; and their histoiy
is full of the judgments which their sins brougfat
upon them, though they were sfMired, by God*s
express command, when Israel passed by them
from Egvptw Yet they showed no friendship
for the Hebrew wanderers, and so were per-
I>etually cxcIikUmI from entering into the oon-
gn^jiration of the Lord (Deut. li 19; xxiiL 3;
2 Chr. XX. lOj.

Three himdred years afterwards the kinff of
the Ammonites miade war upcm the Israebtes,
under the ])retenco that they liad taken his
land (Judg. xi. 13) ; and afU'r a severe battle the
Ammonites were routenl with great slaughter.
In the Wginniug of Saul's reign (1 Sam. xL 1)
the Ammonites, under Nahash their king,
attacked Jabesh-gilead, but proi)OBed to spare
the inhabitants, provided they would aU con-
sent to lose the right eye. I)uring the time
allowed for their answer, they collected a suf-
ficient force to meet the Ammonites, and so
completely nmted them, that two of them were
not left together. Eifty or sixty years after
this, one of the kings of' the Ammonites died;
and David, who seems to have been under some

Anni

ffe-

id BOcceraor. Thu frieDiilir act wi
d Idndly, snd the meawnffets i

gnwsly abused and iosiilted. (S( .
^xpevtitu^ that Iln vid wpul>i attempt
'Jae in^iult, they obtained larg« eiip-

frnm the Sfriuis ; and Rbra David
Mir prep&ratiui] for woe, b» sent
& cfarflen troop from the anny nf
>pt them. The KaulC was fatal to
litea. They and th.

ly the Ixrueliti^, the king'd cTovra
ram his head and pat oa David's,
pie were reduced to a state of abject
" ii. 29-31). In thie oondi-- —

En Judah, and were lairaculouiily
. jx.) Jotham fousbt and pre-
kst them, and made them tributary

yeiUB. The moat dreadful joi^-
tbreotened againot tiivm and their
lacwuw they seized onA ocunpieii a

teriitDry "rf Israel (Jer. x^x. 1-0);
becaose they insolently tritmiphed
meLtea id the davs ol their cap-
c iiv. 2-7, 10): and eveiTf threat
dto th« veryuttermostinduotimi;,
WWory abundantly attests. They
e eidnctas a natioD: and OrigeD,
the third ceatiiry, assures us, tliat

they were only known under the
leoIAtabs. They were never better
> than Arabs, for they had always
i, nnsettled, and iinda.latj race.

I-NO. {See AiroN, No.)

C (l Chr. iii. 1) wuthe eldest

'^b^^'b

7 of violatJiu the
Tonur, (3 Sam. zui.j
r, Uiaii0ll he did not

_. , I brother Abnlom ile-

rerengB tb« inimTi andr BSter
lis poTpoHB for two yean, he finally
in his home, at a feast to which
itcd dmnon, with the Test of his
lily. (See Absalou.)
-arfi/Ucr (3 Ki in. 18-26)-the
king of Jadah, and the son and
'. Iftpttweh. AnKtn resembled his
uy tliiiiss — ooiaed all the bad ele-
la durocter. Ha addicted himself
ipof id ■ "

all the carved images which his
nade." Such is the dark account
'en in the books of Kincs and
Bnt bo did not iniitate his father's
"1

s rtTgn Luted

ncy was formed agamst uan
t. Cot what rea«oais we know
oatinn of a king is, nndsr

bo^e. "His

X political a

MTVaiiti ea»tnred against him, and dewh&a'^

in his own bonstt. " But his oMasEiins had not
gained the popular sympathy or ajipnibatinn —
" Iho people of the bnd slew all those that had
coDspuvil a^'nst kine Ainon," Hnnninwrh
wa« '■ buried in the parrlen of his own hous^"
otherwise called "the garden of Uiza;" aait
Amon was buried in the some place. Ue waa

AmmoD of No "—that is, Thebes. Amon-ra
as one of the eight great godi, and waa
woishipped in that Egyptian city. Ra means
sun. and the name ahowa his connection with
■at luminary.
AM0R1TE3 (Gen. x. Ifi). They are de-
ribed as "those who dwell in the mountains "
. lum. vi'i 29), or highlondera, in contrant to
Canaanites or lowlondijs, who dwelt in the
valleys. Tbi^ were of gigantic stature and
great courage (Amos ii. !)), und inhalntad ODO
of the most fertile distncte of the country, baing
bounded OD three sides by the livera AnMD,
Jabbok, and Jordan. Bat their territory, or
iqnesU stretched as far as Hennon UMn^
„ 8). 'nio Israelites aaked perroisoijmot their
king to travel through their territoryi but it wia
retuaed. Ths Anuuitea oollected and aUtmptad
to oppose thrir progreB, but were defeated »d
their territory taken and divided between ttw
tribes of Beuben and (iod. A iwrdon of Uw

AMO

tame x)eop1e dwelt early amon<; the precipices
west of the Dead Sea (Gen. xiv. 7). llie name
is ftometimes used with a rude fugnificance, as
if ecmivalent to Canaanite.

AaIOS— a burden (Amos L 1) — one of tlie
les8er prophets, who lived in the reign of
Uzziah king of Jiidah, and in the latter part
of the reign of Jeroboam the second, nearly
bOO years before Chri»t. He was a contem-
porary of Hosea. While employed as a herds-
man at Tekoah, he was divinely am>ointed to
i»roT)hesy against Israel He was driven from
Bctliel upon the false representation made to
the king by the idolatrous priest Amaziah.
The time and maimer of his death are un-
certain.

In the days of Amos the kingdom of Israel
had regained somewhat of its ancient grandeur
and territory. The proud Israelites are de-
picted by the prouhet as exclaiming. **Have
we not acquired dominion?'* Yet tneir con-
sequent luxury, injustice, and impiety rendered
their temporal prosperity short-hved, and
brought doMm upon them the curse of Jehovah.
The denunciations of Amos were delivered to
the guilty people at this crisis, but their hearts
were hardened, the prophet was ridiculed, and
his message contemned. The prophecy begins
with awful fulminations against the suiround-
ing kingdoms, but the doom at length concen-
trates on Israel itself. Israel is warned and
admonished, is beset with severest menaces,
and indulged acrain with glowine invitations to
repentance. The poetical style of this old
Hebrew bard is full of vivid imagery. His
images are both natural and striking — ''as if
a man fled from a lion, and a bear met him ; or
leaned upon the wall, and a serpent bit him."
His figures are often taken from his occupa-
tion, llie vineyard and the pasture ground
supply him with varied and ever-recurring
8ymlx)ls. How beautiful and original his de-
scription of the extreme fruitfulness of the
land! "The plougher shall overtake the
reaper, and the treader of grapes, the sower of
seed." He excels in ]>owerful delineation.
His 8])irit was fresh and vigorous as the verdant
fields where he had wandered. His metaphors
are often startling as a thunder-clap, r^ay,
what is more suri)rising, this shephera-prophet
writes with no little eloquence and polish.
His langusige has no rustic awkwardness, but
its rhythm is smooth and uniform. Variations in
orthography give but a pleasing zest to his st^'le.
Jerome was in error, therefore, when he thought
him unskilled in speech- -judging him rashly
from his early employments He is equal to an^ of
the ])rophets, not onl^ in splendour and vanety
of imagery, but also in beauty and elegance of
dictioiL The estimate of Lowth is nearer the
truth, "our shepherd is not a whit behind the
very chief of the prophets." In the first and
second chapters cKxnirr^fular strophes — a proof
of his literary skill and ticwte.

AMPHIPOLIS (Acts xvil l)-a city of

Euro])ean Turkey, originally founded by Cimon.

tlio renowned Auienian general (&c. 600). and

formerly the capital of Eastern Maccaonia*

28

ANA

It lay on the river Strymon. abont aevaity
miles east of Thessalonica. s^ow an obscme
place called by the Turks Jeni-Keni. or Nev
Town.

AMRAPHEL (Gen. xiv. 1-16)— the Hanitt
king of Shinar (Gen. xi 2) who, oonfedente
with other kings, made war on Sodom and the
other cities of the plain, plundering thenar and
making prisoners ca their inhabitants. Amoof
the captives was Lot, Abraham's neplwir.
(See Lot.)

ANAH. (See Mules.)

ANAK fNum. xiii. 22) was the son of AiIml
who gave the name of Kirjath-arla| or dtyot
Arba, to what is otherwise called Heoron (Josh,
xiv. 15). Anak had three sons, who were giuti ;
and their children, who were called Azuikiini.
were also remarkable for their stature ana
fiercenessL In the time of Moses thev ooca-
pied the territory between Hebron ana Jflrn-
salem, and were divided into several tribes or
clans j Josh. xL 21, 22). They were, hoiwevcr,

cut on by Joshua and Caleb, and the
entered mto their possessions. Tlie msssen-
gers who were sent forward. by the IsraelitaB
to search the land rex>orted themselves to beai
grasshoppers in comparison >rith the cfaildrai
of Anak. (See Giants.)
ANAMMELECH. (See Adramxelbcr.)
ANANIAS. 1. (Acts. v. 1-10) One of the
professed converts to the Christian faithwndsr
the preaching of the apostles. When the dis-
ciples had thrown their property into a oommoa
stock, Ananiassold his estate, and broughtapazt
of Uie purchase-money, pretending that it was
the whole proceeds of the sale. Being chaiged
by Peter with his flagrant and aggravated sjn,
he fell doMm dead upon the 8ix)t. His nih
Sapphira, who was privy to the firmnd of her
husband, but ignorant of his dreadful end,
being asked for how much their estate had been
sold, confirmed the falsehood which Ananias
had told, and instantly met the same dreadfol
doom.

2. (Acts xxii 12) A primitive disdple who
lived at Damascus, and was commissioned to
visit Paul soon after his conversion, and restore
him to sight. The ajiostle tells ns what took
place on that occasion, and also spealu ol Ana-
nias as a devout man, and highly esteemed in
the place of his residence. It is thooght by
many that he was one of the seventy diwnpl^*,
and that he died a martyr.

3. (Acts xxiiL 2) A Jewish high priest
When Paul was commencing his defence Defore
the Jewish Sanhedrim, Anania^ who became,
in 48 A. D., high priest, ordered hun to be struck
upon the mouth. The apostle, senrible of the
violation of his rights, rebuked the high priest
for his breach of the very law he was appomtsd
to administer. L'pon being reminded of the
official character of Ananias, as ** Grod^s high

Eriest," the arnwtle replied, I wist not that
e was Goil's high priest." The apostle does
not plead defective eyesight, or that he did not
identify the high priest, or that he regarded
him as a usurper ; out he simply savs that^ in
speaking as he had done, the fact taat he was

AKA

ant |K0Mat to lik mmd.

TIm nmlietio

doom pranoimoed iroon him I7 <]ie Mostie w
verified, lor I19MI Djthe da«giBnol ^ 1^
ii3,attlM twghminy of tin Jcrwidi

He
VM » tbbaI and aiiil]itio>as bypocrite.

AKAXHEICA (1 Cor. xvi ^ Itmeuie the
denitiiiifp of aa aonud, pennl^ or plioe to God,
(V to divine veugeiiioe (Ler. zxviL 28; Jodb.
n. li^thaiheiiuijhei^orifiedoiiit Another
Gieek fonn of the mnewcrd '

fis eay gift presentod to Ood,thethe murbe
giiaified m xl^ aiidie iieed in the otigiiiAl of £iilce
ziLfiu (See AooDBSiDi)

AwkTHEMA iiABAifATWii is ft S^iiao ezclft-
mAm, eiguifjSug ooewrtwg^ imr Juord comdk.
Thew zeMmhie the wQcde with iHildi the Jews
b^fui the eentenoe of .utter eiccininniiiciftfcioii ;
■ot only mUhiy the iiibjeot off fimn their
*nr— r*Vi, bat owwigmng him, ■■ €w ■■ it
wppmible, to emlaeting pezditioii.

AIUIHOTH (Joeh. zxL 18)-ft mceidotal
dlr of the tribe of Beojuiin, litiitttod ft few
mm Borth of Jenimlem. It wai the faizih-
ibeeof Jenniah (Jer. L 1), and the anbjeot of
•Mef Ua pnnheoiea (Jer. il 19-82), aa well as
tfInU*te(Ims.30). ItiaalaDanr
vhee in cwnnertinn with the Jewiah

1MB. JBBIL

^'L

iL 96: Neh.

BoWnioii identifieBit as the Tillage of AwEta—
tboot ffoor milee firom Jernsalem.

ANCHOR (Acts zzWL 29). (See Ships.)

ITied ^jmnboliodlj, the word denotes what-
evff BiMtaaniT the ml amidst the storms of
pieb and fears that may assail it The grace
4f bope baa soch an inflaenoe on the believing
hesit. and is called its anchor (Heb. vi 19).
. ANCIENT OF DAYS (Dan. viL 9, 13, 22)
il qiplied to Jehorah, and evidently refers to
his eternal and imcbangng eegenoe.

ANDREW (John L 40)— the son of Jonas
ad brother of Simon Peter, was a native of
Bfthaaidt. in Galilee, and originally a disciple
of John the BaptistL whom he lett to follow
oir Sftvionr. When ne had found the Messiah,
be lorthwilli sought his brother Simon, ana
tm^dit him to Jesus, and soon after they both
stti^ad themaelves to the little band of his
iHwiplea, and followed him till the close of his
■SaJstnT. The events with which Andrew was
MicaLyiT connected are recorded in Matt
ir.l^SO; ICark ziiL 3; and John L 35-40; vi
3>13; zii 22L Tradition varies as to the scene
«f Ids apoetolical labours, though it is generally
agieed that he suffered martyrdom.
. ANGEL (Gen. zziv. 7). This word, both
iathe Chreek and Hebrew languages, signifies
a wuumaer. The original wordis oft^ applied
tD men (2 Sam. iL 5; Luke viL 24; iz. 52).
When the term is used, as it generally is, to
deiignftto spiritual beings, it denotes, not the
astnre they bear, but the office they sustain
as God's mesBtiiigcrs, or agents by whom he
Bakcsknown lua will and executes the purposes
ef his govenmieiit

Our snowledge of the existence of such beings
is derired wh^T from revelation, and that
inddentally. We know, from their

ANG

leridenea and employment^ that they most
pnsifwi knowledge and punty far beyond our
present conceptions: and the titles applied to
them denote the exalted place they hoM among
created inteUigendee. They are a race dE
creatures above man, more highly exalted in
the-great scale of beiii|yr, and not furnished
with an animal constitution. '*He maketh his
ai^ds qmts**— that is, the^ are not corporeal
—have not an animal oiganism like man.

Of their appearance and empbyment we may
f onn some idea from the f oUowiitf[ passages : —
via.. Gen. xvi 7-11. CompareG^ xviiL 2;
xiz. 2, with HeK xiiL 2; Judg. xiiL 6; Esek.
X.; Dan. iii 28; vi 22; Matt iv. U; xviiL
10; xxviiL 2-7: Luke L 19: xvi 22; xxii43;
Actevil6; idi9; Heb. L 14; ii 16; 2Theae.
L 7; Rev. X. 1,2, 6.

Of their number some idea may be inferred
from 1 Ki xxii 19; Ps. Ixviii 17; Dan. vii
10; Matt xxvi 53; Luke a 9-14; 1 Cor. iv.
9; Heb. xii 22L

Of their strength we may judge from Fa. dii
20: 2Pet ii U; Rev. y. 2; x^ 21; xix. 17.

And we. learn their inconceivable activity
from Judg. xiii 20; Isa. vi 2-6; Matt xiii 49;
xxvi 53; Actsxxvii 23: Rev. viii 13.

These are but a few of the leading passages
in which some intimations are given of this
superior order of spiritual beings. There Ih
also an order of evu spirits, fallen from their
first estate, ministering to the will of the prince
of darkness, and both active and powerful in
their opposition to the will and government of
Grod (Matt XXV. 41). There are various degrees
or classes among tnem (Ei)h. i 21 ; 1 Pet iii.
21). The above references, if examined closely,
will afford very satisfactory knowledge respect-
ing the character, employment, &c., of the
heavenly messengers. It may not be amiss
to remark, however, —

1. That the expression (Matt xviii 10) seems
to denote the relation which the children of God
sustain to him, and of course to his people, and
the watehful care ajid protection which they
enioy. The angels which minister to them
behold the face of God — that is, though high in
honour and dignity, yet they rejoice to do ser-
vice to "these little ones." The same idea is
suggested in other passages, as Ps. xci. 11, 12 ;
Luke XV. 10 ; Acts xii 15. Or the angels guard-
ing the little ones are so lofty in honour that
they are among the spiritual magnates whose
prerogative it is to stiuid in the divine presence
and near to the throne.

2. The angels in heaven have never sinned,
and are not therefore partakers of the benefit
of Christ's blood, as men are. Yet, as this
wonderful scheme of mercy and grace declares
and illustrates the infinite g:lory of the divine
perfections, so their conceptions of the divine
character are enlarged by the contemplation of
it and their happiness greatly increased (Eph.
iii 10; 1 Pet i 12).

a They will be the future companions of the

heirs of salvation (Heb. xii 22, ^; Rev. v. 11,
12). They carry souls to paradise (Dike xvi

5»

22

ANCt

4. Angels an to msUin ui impoituit office

in the future kud Stul tdininutntion of Ciod't
RoteRimsut oa euth (MattL liii. 39; xxv. 31-
Si; ITheaa. iv. 16).

5. Anaela orenotproperobjacta of adoration
(CuL ii 18: B«v. zU. 10|.

The minuCntioD of uigelBiBnotthslessnal,
tbough it be myBteriaiu. In former time*
they asaumeil Uie appearance of hutnauitf , and
were seen as yoiin^ men, to danot« their im-
mortal youth ; youDg men in Mkining raimml,
to i^boliu thfir purity and felicity. But the
Senpture gives dd di:<tinct aanction to the idea
of tutelary spirits. Their agency is always in
Bubordinatiun to the will of God, and is em-
ployed in carrying on the designs of bii pro-
vidence. They are never to be reganled aa
interceaaon ; yet they are depicted aa in aomo
way presenting "the prayera of all aainta,"
according to Kev. viii 3.

AxasL OF HiB FREBENCE (Tu. IxiiL 9) by
some is Buppoaedto dvnote the higheiit ongel in
heaven, aa Gabnel, who dtandii in the preaeiice
of God;" but othen believe it refen to none
other than the incarnate Word, the bii){htiieH
of the Father's glory.

Ahoel of thb LoBD (Gen. xvi. T) ia one of
the common title* of the pre-incamate Me»iah
in the Old Testament (Exod. xxiiL 20. Com-
Itare Acta viL 30-3*^. and 37, 38).

Ajicel op thk cHiBCH (Rev. iL 1). It ia
said that the chief otficer. necretary, minister,
or reprenentative of the Jewish synagogue, wiw
called the angel of the church, because he
addiHuwd God in their behalf, and offered sup-
plications as their messenger, or aagi:\, and
tranaacted their necessary businesa. Uthem
tolie "angel" in an ideal xeoae, but others take
the word in ita literal meaning — each church
liaving a mynteriaus relation, like the "Uttle
ones," to one of the Hiiiritual beings or guardians.

Angel t>r liiOHT. (See Devil.)

ANGER (Ps. ViL 11: xc. ll)-a strong
emotion, which is sintul or otherwise, according
to ita object and degree. M'hen ascribed to
holy beings, it is used to denote high diaplessure
at sin. In this sense good men may be angry
and un not {Neh. v. «; 2 Pet. ii. 7, 8) | and
even God is said to be "angry with the wicked
every dxv," Anger is sBvervly n-buked (Kph.

Proverbs). " Let not the sun go down upon
your wrath," means, do not chensh it ao f"n(T
that it degeneral«B into malignity and revenge.
ANGLK (I«L xix. 8; Ilab. i. 16)-the ortof
taking fish by means of a hrxjk, line, and rod.
In lie passage of Isaiah referred to, thovarioua
modes of fishing practised in Kgypt are giaphi-
cally descrilictL The Egyptian Hsheries
very valuable, and Isaiab prooouni
oE >Tebiivah against them as a iirii

Many represcntatiooa of the varioi

AKO

abimdantlv in Judea, and the tiths cl it «m

•crapuloo^y paid by the Phariaeea. (S«
Mint.)

ANNA (Lukeil 36)— a dasoendut of AAir,
and a piDphetaaa. ^e woa veir oonatant ia
her attendanoe on the aervicea of tha templ^
At a very advanced age she liatened to tha
prophetic blessing which Simeon uttatsd while
he held the infant Redeemer in hia arm% and
joined in it with great fervour.

ANNAS (Luke Ui. 2). At the oommsnce-
mtnt of John's ministry, Coiaphaa and Amui
were high priesta. Annas hod held the offie*
before, and it was customvy to oontinoe tha
title to one who had beki the office, after lu
ceased to officiate. This waa the case with
Annas. Ha is mentioned first becaoMi he wis
eldeM in yean and office. Two of his sons had
filled the office in succession ; and he waa father
in-law to the incumbent at that time. Five at
his aons were high priests. When out Saviont
was apprehended, be waa carried before Annas
first, to lecDre the favour and HmctiaD of one
who had great influence, and by him waa cent
in bonds to Caiaphas (John iviii. 13-34).

ANOINT (Gen. uxL 13). The eai^ot ma
of this word in the sacred writing* ia in tha
passage cited ; andit signifies in that cnniKctiaa
the pouring c^ oil upon the stone wbicdi Jaooh
had set up for a pillar (Gen. xiviii. 18).

The anuinting of persons, places, and thinp^
with oil or ointment of a particular cmpca-
tion, was a mode of consecration preambad b;
divine authority, and eitenaively piactiaid
among the Hebrews (Exod. xxviii. 41). Ila
ingredienta of the ointment, embracuig the
most oiquiaite perfumen, are minutely ginn
(Kiod. iix. '23-33), and the ccanmon naa of it
was exjTcasly forbidden (Kxud. xxi. 33).

It was customary at festivals, and on otlkcr
great and joyful nocoBions, to anoint Uie head
with fragrant oils ; hence it became a nn
oF joy or happinesa. This

r» the doom

■i^slid.

J hook, s]

t, both ii

•Wis

ongtht

nhine(Ps. civ. K>; Euth iiL 3). Theandnte
of king* and rulers is particularly pnaoibm.
'- ent account* rf Uie vntm
1 Kt i - ■ -*=^ "

ijc. 10;

ulCl*

Anomixag was sometimes done privately by
a prophet (1 Sam. x. 1; xri. 1-13; 1 Ki xix. 10;
2KL ix. 1-0), and was a symbolical intimation
that the person so anointed would at some
fatore day ascend the throne. ^ After the mon-
archy was established, the anointing was done
by tne priei^ (1 KL L 39), probably in some
pubUc place (1 KL i 32-34), and, at least on
one occasion, in the temple, surrounded by the
royal guards (2 Ki xi 12, 13).

It wait common to anoint the person, or some
part of it (as the head, feet, hair, &c), for the
ttke of health or cleaiiliness, or as a tok;en of
n^pect, and also in connection with religious
ohst;r\'ances (Matt. vi. 17; Luke vii. 46; John
xiL 3). Wlien practised to show resi>ect, as
^>«-anl ChrifrtL tne mout expemtive materiaLi
w«rre used, and the ceremony was iierforme<l in
Rich a manner as to denote the most humble
and submii^ive reverence, llie anointing of
the sick with oil was also common. Such unc-
tion is still practised in the East. The healins^
pTTipertitfi of oO are well known, and though
tibe cures ^Tought by the disciples of our Lord
vere obviously miraculous, they still employed
the ordinaiy means of remedy (Mark vi. 13).
The afMstulic direction (Jas. v. 14) respecting
the an<^inting of the sick, shows us that, together
with prayer, the appropriate means of healing
nhonld hv emriloyetl in dependence ui>on or in
the name ft{ tne Li irJ. 1 nis anointing, it "will
be oU-erveil, is e^immendt'd with a view to its
hraliiii^ etff ct, for which yjuri)«>»e it was in con-
stint u.-f am«.»ng the Jews. Of coiu^e, t«> eni-
l'I')y it for tlje i»njfe3.'*ed purrKjse of sanctifying
the .*h.iul, or preparing it for death, is sinful ami
hiij'hlv sujKTstiti'jU-s. It is clear that the ui«c
of thU ixLiaOge to justify such practices is a
jsTii^'s jiorvorsion of liingiiagi'i-'.

The bf^U^'s of the dead were often anointed,
fci preserve them fn^m corruption. It was, in
F-hiiFt, the Je\vi.-.li melho<l of embalming (Murk
xiv. S ; xvi. 1 ; Luke xxiii. o<i).

The An« »inted, or Mes-siah (or in Greek the
<''hri?t). .ipTilied to Jesus, signifies that he was
c<ilL«ecra^;a, and qualiiied by Jehovah to tlic
f rrat work of man's redemption. The tenn
Me^Piah, or anointod, is given by God to Cyrus,
bttaurfe (ifxl had consecrated him to the work
of rel;e\ing the captive Jews in llabylon.
Rui'h a divine consecration aiiplies in a far
LiAer sense !•» Jesus, the Son of God, who is
fjii.-titutcdour high prie-st and intercessor, was
anoint- 1 with the lloly Ghost, of which tlie
aaointin/ uf prierfts, i»r'>phetH, and kings, un-
•i»:T the Jewi>ih dL<i*ensation if* supjwsed to be
t'.l'i<.-al (IN. xliv. 7; Isa. Ixi. 1; iJan. ix. 21;
L:iki? iv. IS. -Jl; Act^ iv. 27; x. 3.S). The
t«:ru»_« fih'iiitf. anoiitf.t'ly and anoint ina, are em-
I liny ill iJ-«o in a variety of forms to illustrate
th'/.irini-tif\'iFi'-r influ^.-nce:* of rlivine grace ui>ou
the H.;ul {2 Cur. i. 21; 1 John it 2U-27; Kev.
iii. 1^1.

AXSWKR. Tn a^ldition to the ordinary
ni^-tijinus of thi.-* term, it often denotes in
Scripfiire «imi»ly to crmtinue a discourse.

ANT aViv/vi. C; xxx. 2:>)— a little in-
n»Lt, reniiurkable for industry, economy, and

AXT

architectural skill. Tiiey are called bv an
inspired writer ''exceeding wise;" and Cicero
was so filled with wonder at their wisdom that
he declared they must have mind, reason, and
memory. But the account of the manner in which
they collect grain, and ])revent it from germin-
ating, by nibbling out the germ, is entirely
fanciful, as is also the snp|)osition tliat thevlay
U]> grain for winter, lliat they pnivide them-
selves fiKxl in the season of it is rightly inferred
from tlieir whole cliamcter and habits ; and the
reproach of the sluggard u, that he lets the
summer p^ and the uar\'est end, while he is
induing in sloth and idleness (Prov. vi. 6).
This IS all that Solrtmon means to say ; and the
inference usually deduced is as erroneous in
interpretation as it is false in fact. The wise
man only afifiims tliat the ant impn)ves the
propitious opportunity, but the sluggard ne-
glects it. He says nothing of the ant cr>l-
lectiug food and storing it in magazines, for
consumption during winter; for in winter ants
arc torfiid, and need no fo<xL The vulgar error
as to the foresight of the ants has no suiiiN^rt
in the sacred writings nor in natural history.
Yet the blunder has been a ])revalent one, for
Bochart adduces men of all ages and countries
who believe<l it.

ANTICHRIST (1 John ii. 18, 22). Thwword
occurs only in the Epistles tif John. 'Jlieo-
logians have sui)i)08ed it to deuott; —

1. A great power to arL^e at a pi-riod succcfMl-
ingtheap)stolic days, and which would <»piM.».->e,
^ith great virulence and bhusphi.'Uiy, the th>c-
trines and disciples of Chrb-t. I'he muih' ]»ower
is sujjposetl bymany to l)»* mr-aiit in 2 ThL-.->s.
ii 3, ^5, 0; Uev. xvii., xviii. Or.

2. False teachers, who ari: hostile to the
church of Christ, and to the spirit and i»n.-iepts
of liis religion. Tliis anticnrist was in the
world in the days of the ain^stles (1 John iv. .'i).

The views <^f our <»rilinary the<ili»g>' as to the
nature of antichrist arc neitln-r ilirttinet nor
well-foundeiL Whatever j^nsdictioiw <if the
rise, growth, and malignity of the pai)al p(»wer
may lie found in Timothy, Thessahmians, <»r
Kevelations, it is clear that tlio antichrist of
John is not to be identified with tlivni. J«»lm
sf>ecities what he means by antiihrist, for
he was in existence in his own day; nay,
'* There were many antii-hrist-;.''' The «-rror «»f
anticluist is deehired t«» lie, d«.-iii;d of th*- Fatli'T
and Son, — or still more i»reci><ely, denial tint
** Jesus Christ is conn.' in tin* H»'>h." 'i'lie
emphasis li»*s on the l.i-t wor-ls tn thr ffmn.
l^irnial of thi' real hnniaiiity of ,r«-siis was tlm
erri»r of aiitichrist. Now, wt; know that this
denial of Chri-t *' in tlie fi»-.-h " was the capital
error of the (ino^tii; h«.n'sy. This h«Tesy t-x-
I i^teil in the days «if the ajHisJlf, ^\l.'U.,'ht ^n*« at
. havoc in the elmreh, and answers to tln'>e
d«-i.ii.ted features of ant.ichri:«t. The man who
lield it became anti-ehri-^t a-fainst i'liri^^t -
I against him in hi«. aetual, anoiutrd, and con-
secrated humanitv or tle-li. .

ANTIOCH. 'l. (A.:ts xi. 2';-) The capital
of Syria, founded bj' Scleuius Nii ator, 'MMJ K.*'.
It was situated on a bend of the Oroutes, aud

ol

ANT

was once a ])lace of great opulence, learned
refinement, and commercial cnterjiriRe. Its
citizens enjoyed peculiar civil privileges, and it
ranked as the thinl city of the Koman provinces
The beauty and salubrity of its situation, amidrt
flowing streams and cy]>re8s gnives, was un-
paralleled ; and here, too. was ^c famous nhrine
of Daphne. Paul and Barnabas x'l^'^Msheil
here; and here, too. the name Clmstian was
first a])plied to the disciples, whether as a term
of re^iroach or an a mere tlistinctive title, is not
certaiiL Th*i same wonl occurs Acts xxvi.
28 and 1 Pet. iv. 1(». Galileans or Xazarenes
were terms of reproach ; but the name Chrij*tian
merely denoted the adherents of Christ, or the
Alcfisiah. (See Christi .\n. )

Antic K.'h was the centre of the first mission-
ai^- enteri>rise8. From it l*aul startetl on liis
nnssionarj' circuit*. Fmni being the cai>ital
of Sj-rian heathendom, it wiou liecame a noted
city of Enntern (^hristenrlom, and has l)een
f.Hmixl as the place of the birth and the scene of
tlie earlier latAtur.f of the elorpient Greek father,
Chn-rtOj*tojn.

IVfany calamities have befallen this (tity of
Greek kings and ll^iman governors. It has
Iwen besiege*! and plunderwl at hast fifteen
timi^: ami in one instance 117,000 ikiikous
were slain or tjiken prinonei's. Tliree times has
it been virtited witn famine, twice with fire,
and once with ]ilague; and four times it was
overthrown by earthquakes, by one of which
25,000 IKTSOUH are su]»]M>Hed to have i)erisluHl.
These visitations of God have long since re-
duced the city t«) desolation, llie splendid
buildings of ancient times have given place to
mean hovels of the present Aiitakia.

2. Antioch (ActH xiii. 14) was the name of
the capital of the ]irovincc of Pisidia, in Asia j
Minor. It has l^en identitieti vrith a place
called Yaloliatch by Arundell and Hamilton.
Paul an<l Bainabjib* jireached there; and we
have a fuller alistract i>f one of PauKs sermons
at this i)lace than of any of the aixwtolic
discourses, A violent iHjrsecution wa-* raised
against them, and they were comiwUeil to flee
for their lives. ITiere were at least sixteen
cities of the name of Antioch in Syria, and
A'^ia Minor.

ANTIPATRIS (Acts xxiii. 31)-a town \ie-
tween Cesan^a and Jeniwdem, ton or fifteen
miles fn»m fTop]ia. It was founded by Hi-rtxl
the Great, and was the ])lace to which l*aul
was conveywl by the Koman giiard, t<» esca])e
the conspiracy fi)rmed against liim by the Jews,
who had agreed to waylay liim on the follow-
ing day, and put him to death. Anti]>atTis
was built on die ruins of a i>liice called bj
Josei>hus Kai)liarsaba — the sr.iund of which is
still nrcser\'e(i in the Arabic name of the village
whicn occujiies its site.

APE (1 Kl X. 22). This animal, which bears
a rude resemblance to the human race, lx)tli in
figure and ]>hysical capacity, was among the
articles of merchandise imported from ()i)hir
in Solomon's ships. The royal naturalist jier-
haps wished his fleet to import living BX)ecinien8
of foreign animals for his investigatioD. Those
^2

APO

apes are called in the Hebrew text kobhxm, %
foreign or Sanscrit term, shoTAing that toey had
been brought from India or Ceylon.

APELLKS (IJom. xvL 10). His origin ud
residence are unknown, but his character]!
given in three wonls— approret/ in ChruL

APHAliSITES (Ezra iv. (»). This, with
several other tril>es name<l in the same connee*
tion, are supposed to have been colonies from
(.'hiiJdea, ^ledia, and Persia, who settled in
Samaria.

APHKK— n7/Tf/c/. 1. (1 Sam. iv. 1-11) A
city on the Ix^rder of Judah and Benjamin,
eai<t of Jerusalem, where the Israelites wen
defeatt^d by the l^hilistines, and tlic ark takn
from them, 'iliis ]>lace in sniyvof^cd to be the
same wluch is elsewhere called Ajihekah (Joah.
XV. r^M

2. A city in the ])lain of Esdraclon^ not &r
from Shunem, in the \'icinitv of which Savl
and Jonathan fell in battle (l Sam. xxix. Iji
Nigh the same locality, or another of the samt
name, was the encampment before the battle
in which the sons of Eii felL

3. A city in the tribe of Asher, also called
Aphik (Judg. i. 31), situated in Lebanon, on
the northern border of Canaan.

4. Another to'wn of the same name, eitnated

at the head of the W'ady Fik. 0 miles east

of the Lake of Galilee apiK'ars to be the spot

that Benhadad assemble(f the 8\Tian troope

(Josh. xii. 18; xiii. 4; xix. 30; 1 &i. xx. 26).

APHEKAH. Iq,«„w,,„
APHTK I above.

APH KAH. (See Oi'URAn.)

APOLLONIA (Acts xvii. 1)— a dty of
^f acedonia, situated at the head of the ^^Egnn
Sea, on a promontory between Tlicissalonioi
and Philip])i.

APOLLGS (Acts xviii. 24). He was bom
at Alexandria, in Egyx)t, of Jewish parents
and is describeil as an ** eloquent num^ and
miglitv in the Scriptures." As one of John'e
disci] )les, he had Ikm^u instructeil in the elements
of tlie Christian faith, and came to Epheans to
si)eak and teach the things of the I^iord. He
was there more i>articularly and fully tai^t
.the doctrines of the Gosi>el bv Aquila loid
Priscilla, who had themselves been favoured
\(nt}i the company and instruction of Paul at
Corinth, and on a voyage from that city to
Ei>Iu'sus. He afterwards went into Acbaia»
wnere his labours were crowned with abundant
success. At Corinth, too, ho was regarded ai
a powerful and successful preacher of the Gcfl-
]»el. Paul had already been instrumental in
establishing a church there, t«> the cm^ of which
A|K)llos succeedcil (1 C-or. iii. 0). The man-
bers of it were divided into parties, some being
particularly partial to Paul, others to ApoUoa,
and others still to Cei)has. Some x>cculiarity
of style, illustration, or delivery, on the part
of these tliree men, may have originated those
unseemly preferences. The rebuke of the
apostle (l Cor. i 12) is directed against these
partialities, in all which the i)owcr and grace of
God seemed to be overlooked or disregarded.
It has been remarked as an exemplary trait of

AFO

of tlune two smiiwiit lervkiiti, that
Ltttm of their TTjipec^vo friamlB uiU
ud no effect oa thtdr lure and rcfpect
other. Ther both refniueil iroai
le church while it was diitract<!d with
iuJicei and partialities, thuiiifh a
mbitiiin mii^ht h»ve aelecteit "'

H.)

UVaS. (See Abaddos.)
TLE. L (llatt. I. ■>) This ttrtn v*a
■inaUj to the twelve chief diiHHiileii of
Their namei were— SlMnS PeteB,
Jahxb and John (aoa» of Zebcdee) ;
Bartuolhheht, Thuxas, Matthew,
ml LEBBECi', who in also catleii Judu
UD9 of Alpheutl ; Stnox the Canun-
Il'das IsiAKic-r, Chritit'j tharje to
ixmled in Matt. x. ItAX and in worthy
fmtly studieiL Their hioton', aa far
ra known, wil] be fuund uaiUr their

r he gathered from the lifts (^ven in
laces, the twelve appear to have been
for Kjme itaaoa or other, into Uuee
*oius,— Peter always at the head of the
K^ of the necoiul, and Jamei Alphsi

lie in the fullowiw putictilan :— (1.
re all required to have bei^n ere uu.
HKtof what they testiliHl (Johii iv.
1 L 'J\, ■£>: xvL U, 15; 1 C.r. ix.
1: 1 J..hn L 3r (2.) They w.tc all

cbi-ct'Q l>y onr Saviour hiins-lf (Liike
:aL I 1). Even Matthian is not on
1 to Uij* rrmarii, an the determination

wa*nf l^i(ActoL24-ai). (1) They
pired (Jnhn iii. 13}. (4.) ITiey hiul
r of workio; mimcloi, and of iminrtini;
i.-ift>(Markxvi.2D; ActeiL-13; Ueb.
Uxiz-S; K-aa. L 11).

term aiiunii: i« applied to our Saviour

ll, anil with iiinmilar propriety. M in
icter of Metistah be ia emphatically the

wurd in u.-«I in an inferior m ecvtexi-
mM, to aii^ily a compotiiini i<f the
as Barnabas (Acts liv. 4) and othen
itublic neriico firr die churchen, at iu
a. 23; PhiL ii. 25. (See Jaheh.)
H>:CAEY (ExihL m. .V.J-a per-
•r dvAlet in inirfumcti. The ><3cred

wad to be Tireiiared by one of them.

KEL. (See I ■L'/niEn.)
AL (AcU XXV. ID— the nritidple of
laa early i>:t3)Knized in the Mosniu
Unvx (Ui-rit. Kvii. K, !<); anil by the
aw every aixus-.il citizen hail a ri^ht
u* caa-f\: lx^f»ru tliv em|ivnirat Itiqiie,
J fruiD the jiuli;ineat uf the itiferior

(-rOKU5r(Act»i£iviii.l.'i)— thoplacc
lul met wtveral of liiii brethren ir-iDX
.-ben he wan on hi« way t"i that
t prisi-ner. It woa abiiut 4:{ milCTi
ue, and u identified with ruins called
, uu tbt! Naples road. The name Is

derived from

Appian way,

Capiia. which

and, being at

taiaed a furum i>r mamet-plait

and |ietty merchants reiiuFted

and It '"*'' — — "" • ■

nod leailiiu from Rome to
made by Aiipiua Claudim;
uirtb t'nd •i/acanal, it Mn-

refer

1 the .

md il

fruit. Tba

ijwr apjile tree is verj- rnre in tbe East, and
.u> fruit L) dentituM Uith of liratity and fra-
eronee, and in b..ih theie n-s|>eetii it ill acunnls
with the allusiciuH In it in the BaiTeil uiitini.'s.
" 'rresponds to all said in tho

ji liguiative^ u

ely and
ciiurteuualy a>lui*
tin'.L

Al'PLB OK THE BVE (Ppiv. vit 2: Z.fh. ii.
N|. Iu thew lossai.TS reference is h:ul to tb,:
keen KOfdliility of tile liall of tlie eye. Tiie
UHed lUeut. ixxii. 10; i's.

d security.

apple of thine eye,

ACJUILA (Arts iviiL 2)— a Jew Ihwti at
Pontus, in A><ia Minor. Iteing drivim (r»ii>

Rome by a decree of Uie emi-eror t'laiiiUuH,
ru>|uirin» all JeWd to leave that city, he ami

house, and they also accooiiianieil hiui fnqii
IVirinthtu K[ihi-iiiu. I)u wane Mwiu^ai they
rendered Paul veiy iupiirtiuit serviei-, and a
very warm friendsliip existeil between tlwni
(l^m. xvt 3-f.|. (*!eAH.l.l.i»^l

AR {.Vum. ixi. 2S), ..r ILAIfllAH-MOAn
—the chief b.wn of Mouli. wa4 i^itunUiI 20
or 2.^ miles south "f the river ArnoiL It w
called BnUnli i>r ilrvat. ax tlie chief town of
the Ammonites was called ItablKdi-Aniinoii,
and by the Urunks it wan colletl Arei>)Kili4.
ItsprexentDUUieiiltalilu; anil nuKletii travel-
lers have disitivereil two CiijunisfoimtailHUeac
the niins of tlu- ancient dty (N'lini. xxi. lii|.
I AJ[..UJ,U[(J.BlLx™i.W). Thi-»Mrf.weiiri
I only here in uur vvniion oa a pri >)>vr name or it

ATA

secMTapHical term, but it often occurs in the
Hebrew as a local designation, "the Ardl>ah.**
It siguifiea that most remarkable deep valley,
uncijualled on the face of the earth, which
exti'nds from Hermon, 150 miles in length, to
the high cliffs which intercept it 10 miles south
of the Dead Sea ; and from which it stretches
again to the Elanitic gulf of the lied Sea. In
this last part, 100 miles long, must have been
many of tne joumcyings of the Israelites. The
portion through which the Jordan nms is now
called el-Ghor^ but the southern i>art keeps its
old name. It is usually translated ** plains," in
coimection with Moan, Jordan, Jencho ; and
often in the prophets it signifies a desert, or, as
the word means a ]>lace burned and parched u]).
AKABIA (1 Ki. x. 15)— caUed by the natives
the poninsula of the Arabs, lies in Western
Asia, south and south-west of Judea. Various
derivations of the name have 1>een given, and
the most prol>able opinion is that wliich refers
the name to the tenn arahahy found in Hebrew
and the cognate tongues, wluch denotes a wide
plain or waste. Such an appellation to a
country of s;ind, rucks, and desert, is very
appro] >riate. It is 1,500 miles from north to
south, and 1,200 from east to west, or about
foiu" times the extent of the kingdom of France.
It is lx>unded north by Syria, east by the
river Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, south
by the Inilian ocean, and west by the Red Sea.
I'alestine, and ]jart of S>'ria. It is descrilHHl
in three divisions, the name of each being in-
dicative of the face of the soil and its general
character : -

1. Akaulv Deserta (or the Desert) is a
wide waste of burning sand, with here and
there a palm tree and a spring of brackish
water. This was tlie cnmtry iif the Ishinaclites,
and is inhabited by the nuideni Beilouius.

2. Arabia Petrea (or Kockv) cimiprehends
what was formerly the land of Midian. The
Edomitvs and the Anialokites also dwelt hen%
and a very i)owerful and indeiiendent tribe of
Ishmaelites. It was a land of shepherds, and
the scene of some of the most iuternsting events
in the liistory of man. Uoreb and Sinai were
within its bounds. <«reat attention has l)een
paid to its localities by modem travellers, in
order to identify, if pwsible, the places so often
mentioned in early Scrii)tun\ It is verily a
land of *' drought and of the shiidow of deatli.'*

Aloses might well name it the ** great and
terrible wilderness," ft>r it consists of sandy
wastes, ])recipitous ravines, and bleak and
barren mountains— "n^cks, crags, and knolls
confusedly hurled." The dn-ariness of its
desolation is truly appalling.

3. Arabia Felix (or HArry) was an ex-
ceedingly fruitful land. The inhabitants, who
claim their descent from Sheni, were unlike
the shepherds and robb >rs who occupieil the
other districts. ITiey harl permanent alxHlcs,
8ui>ix»rted themselves by aCTiculturo and com-
merce, and once ]>ossesi»eu a high degree of
wealth and retinemenc

Arabia wa^ originally peopleil by a variety
of races, botii Hamiite amd Shemitu. The [Xis-

ARA

terity of Joktan, of Gush, of Abrtliain by
Keturah, of Ishmael, and <» Lot, seenu all to
have originally settled in Arabia^ But tlM
general character of all these oriental raoet diJ
not very greatly vary, and in prooess of tioie
they seem to have been almost amalgamated.

It is supposed that many of the articles men-
tioned in Exod. xzx. 23, 24. particularly the
balm, were imported from Anfaia : and even
at this day caravans of merchants, the descend-
ants of the Cushites, Ishmaelites, and Midisn-
it?fl, are found traversing the same deseftii
conveying the same articles, and in the suce
manner, as in the days of Moses.

It has been said, that if any people Sa tbs
world afford, in their historr, an instmos of
high anti(|uity and great 8imi>ucity of maiUMni
the Aral IS surely do. Cominff among tliem,
one can hardly help fanc3ring himself snddsnlr
carried back to the ages inmtiediately snooeea-
ing the flo<KL Of all nations, the Aahn hats
s])read farthest over the globe, and in all their
wanderings have preserved their langnsg^
manners, and pecuhar customs, more peitectly
than any other nation. The best illustrafeioni
of Hible customs and langusji^ come from
^Vrabia. Its ]>eople are still, m appearance,
habits, and modes of life, what they were when
the Jewish republic was settled in Palestiiie.
They still dwell in tents— the females live in
seclusion, and they retain the old formalities
of welcome, salutation, and hosintalitv. • The
salam aleikuni — peace be with you — that was
heard in the desert when a traveller came to
the tent door in the days of Abraham, is pro-
nounced stilL Many of the Arabians livii^
by roblx'ry, rejoice m the fleetness of tbor
horses as in the i)eriod of the Hebrew prophsta
'llie language of Arabia, as a sister tongue d.
Hebrew, but nmch more flexible and multi-
fonn, affords very great i)hilological assistanot
to tlie interpreter of the Old Testament. Tbs
freshest illustrations of many Scriptural usagM
are thus brought from Arabia, and are to ni
more valuable and fragrant than the spices sod
gold of its famed and early merchanaiae. Iti
earliest names in Scripture are the *^ Bad
(Kiuntry " ((.ren. xxv. G), and its i>opulation ars
called '*cfiUdrm of the East,'" (Judg. vi 3; riL
12; &c.)

AKAD (Judg. i. 16)— a city in the sonthen
border of Judea, whose king opptxsed the nss-
suge of the children of Israel. A hill called
Tel Arad lies alxiut eight hours from Hebcoi^
and mav represent the i>Uice.

ARAM - hitih famh. (See S^TiiA.) It de-
notes the elevated table-land, 2.000 feet a^ve
the level of the sea, which stretches from tha
head of the Jonlan to the Euphrates. It is
often joined to other terms— as Aram-Maachah,
Aram-Nuharaini, or Mesopotamia, lying be-
tween the Tigris and Euphrates.

ARARAT— cMr*€rf (Gen. \-iii. 4)~«n ele-
vated plateau, l>'ing near the centre of the
kingdom of Armenia. It contained sevoal
cities, which were the residence of the succes-
sive kings and governors of Armenia ; and hones
the word Ararat is often applied to the whols

.

tiiurdoDi. The word tramdatod " the land of
Anonus"!^ Ki. iii.37; Isil iixviii. 3M) M, in
ibE original, Aranit. In the ncirtb-coat mrt
rf Armenia is a. ranee of omuntMnH, callwi
A9nd<i'jh by the natives, un the Hiuiimit of
which the ark it au]ipO!*<l to have restaL
Hen are tuu peakJi, alxint T milm siiart,
Uk highest uf which is 17.000 feet above the
I=»el of the sea. and in l>er]>etuaHy covered
*ith >niir. ^Vhcn ^Heu-ed fr»in the plain
, one iroutd think that the hij^hnt

:aiat of the wi>rld hod hven ]iiled uiwn

Mch iAli«T, to fonn thid one sublime icniiieu^Mty
«( ranh, and rocks, and iiiinv— this an-ful
t uf the antediluvian vurld—this
fl link io ■ ■

tiie whule wide wuld vaa eiDbraeed
■nun family, and tliat family inbnhiteil (I119
n<ut. But one lan^uKH) van then sjKiken.
M.m, tun, the h>.H- of the covenant wuh set;
and here vaii erected the first altar, after the
dieiilful ™tai;lri)i)he of the destniction of the
TivliL The iDiiaeiliate vicinity of the inoUD-
tain ia inhabited by Kurdx -a aavage tribe of
Mohamuiedans. AndsincethtlartB-arbetween
Raesia and I'enja. the Kumian bonnihuies have
bten H> eit«nile<t as t') embrace Ararat ; and
n-or Ku*ia, Per«i», and Turkey meet around
that mountain.

There has l>een much controveny as to the
fart whether the ark rested on this mountiin,
for the Unruaee of Genefis ia ijuite indefinite.
and ij^alu toly of the mountains of Ararat
*" - ' 'M which local tnditJoii point!

(which was in 1839, a|iparently ti<r the first
time, ascended by a gentleman (Parrot) In-
lon^o; to a liuHfian scieutiHc expedition] is
80 very hiyh, and itd sides an very iitei;ii,nitrBed,
and dangerous, that we cnJinot conceive it Ut
lie the KJiot where the ark reiitc<1. The vafe
dericeutof all the iuhabitaiits of tlie ark fn>m
itH Hummit woidd sectn to be a minurlu nlniixt
as great as tlieir preiiiTVBti<Hi fnnii tlie waters
of the deluge ; and the idea uf such a miracle
we are not warranCeil to entertain. 1^ Hcri|>-
tiire nnrrative leaves the spot andeteimiiied,'
and imly sayo tliat Qui hniie vemJ grounded
at len)rlli on one of the Armunian imnintains.
Sumo have fnund difficulty even in this state-
ment, chiefly in cunscqneiKC of the iilinuuKiluKy
of lien. :ii. 2, whidihxbccnsnpiNiiiedtudeniits
that the {ilace wberi: the ark rented wan ea->t of
tbo jilain of Bhinar, whinvoB the Ararat of
Armenia in went of it. Hut ttie phnue ren-
dered "from the eant" may he tmnaluted
"eautwanl," or with EaliaclC "in the eaat."
The pnijiliet Jeremiah (Jer. IL 'H] nivaks of

fMin which an invailiiig fure-i iliouhl cuine

ii^im.tBalp'l<m; and this cormtlydesiTibenthu
nituation of^Ararat in Armenia; it is nlmont
due north of Babylon.

ARAUNAH, or ORN'AX (3 Ram. xxiv. W)
—was a .Tebusitc, and calli-d "a king," who
lived at .Teraaalom, and owned a threshing-

tlaee or floiir, where the temple was afterward*
uilt In conwqncnee of the sin of Uavid tho
king, a pestilence was sent tlinm^li the uatiun,
which bad already, perhaps in ime day, swept

APwB

off 70,000 of its inhabitantii. An anffel was
Been hovering over the threshing-floor m Arau-
nah, with hiu arm lifted up for the destruction
of JenI^(alem. David was humbled and con-
fessed his nin, and the Lonl, by Gud the pro-
phetf directe<l him U"* go to that spot and build
an altar there unto the Lord. He obeyed, and
when he came to the spot and nia<le knovn his
])usine88, Araunah refused to receive anything
for it, but offered it to him, together with oxen
for sacrifices, and the timber of the thrcithing
instruments for fuel DaWd refused to receive
them as a gift, as he would not offer to the
Tx>rd that which had cost him nothin^:. He
therefore bouglit the oxen for 60 shekels of
silver (2 Sam. xxiv. 24), and the whole place
for GOO shekels of gold (1 Chr. xxL 25). and
offered his sacrifices, which w^ere accepted, and
the plague was stave<l.

AkBA. (See Ueuuon.)

AKCH ANGEL — the ]>nnce or chief of an-
gels. The Lord Jesus (1 Uliess. iv. 16) is said
to *' descend with a shouL with the voice of
the archangel." The awful scene of the resur-
rection is attended by angels, whoso presence
is indicated by the sublime shout of their leader
— ^heralding and announcing the approach of
the Son of God. Michael is called the arch-
angel (Jude 9), and it is generally believed that
a created, though h^hly exalted, being is do-
noted by the term, and not Ho ** whose goings
forth have been from of old, from everlasting."
Some have held the opinion that the arcliangel
is indeed Christ, the Ix>rd of tlie armies of
heaven. Such an opinion, however, has no
scriptural support. Others again have espoused
the notion tnat there were seven archangels —
as if John meant them when he speaks of the
seven spirits before the throne.

ARCfHELAUS (Matt. iL 22)-a son of
Herod the Great. On the decease of his father,
the same year that our Saviour was bom,
Archelaus succeeded to the government of
Judea and reigned there, when Joseph and
Mary, with the infant Jesus, were returning
from Egypt, whither they had gone to eacs^pe
tiie fury of Herod. Arcnelaus, however, was
nmch like his father in the jealousy and malig-
nity of his temper, and "the holy fandly " were
therefore still afraid to return to Bethlehem.
He was dL'[x>sed and banished in the tenth
year of his reign.

AUCHEIi (Gen. xxi. 20)— one who is skilled
in the use of the bow and arrows, as Ishmael
and Esau were. (See Akmour.)

AKCHI (Josh. xvL 2)— a southern border of
Ephraim, celebrated as the birthplace of Hu-
shai, David^s friend ; but the site is unknown.
(See HuHHAi.)

ARCTURUS (Job xxxviiL 32)— the name
of a constellation in the northern heavens —
probably Ursa Major. Some have conjectured
that Jupiter and his satellites were intended in
the allusion of the j>oet. Others suppose this
and other stars mentioned in Job to nave been
the leading constellations of spring and autumn
in the days of the ])atriarch, and have sought,
by calculations based upon the precession of

ART

the equinoxes, to fix the time when the book
of Job may have been composed.

AREOPAGITE, AREOPAGUS (Acb
xvii. 19, 34). The first term is the title (tf thi
j udges of the supreme tribunal of Athena. Tin
name is derived from Areopagus [the kiR d
Mari\ which signifies either ^e court itad(
or the hill or spot on which it was held. It
was a rocky elevation almost in ^e oentie d
the city^juid commanded a wide range of proi'
pect. The eye looked around and bdow oi
works and wonders of art— statues, altais, and
temples ; and on the glorious scenery of natun
— mountains, islands, and seas. The tribonal
that assembled here was most ancient in origii
and venerable in chai«cter; and among o£r
objects of trust and jurisdiction, civil, soci^
and political, had particular cognizance olaU
blasphemies against the heathen gods; and
therefore Paul, who so pointedly condemiNd
the idolatries of the city, while he ui^ged thai
to seek and serve Jehovah, as the only liriBf
and true Go<l, was ^teemed **a setter torthw
strange gods," and was brought to the hfllcf
Mars for trial. He there exhibited the nn and
folly of idol worship with such power, thii
Dionysius, one of the judges, and Damans, aid
several other persons, beueved his testimcmy.

It is said that the sessions of the Areopagoi
were held only in the night, that the mindi
of the judges might not be distracted or faiaorf
by extraneous objects. The power of tUi
court gradually declined, as the state becam
more comi])t. Its fame rested upon its tifr
ditionary integrity and glory; its membsn
ceased at length to be what they were for
gravity and impartiality in the days of Soiki,
when the archons. who had well served Ika
state, were enrolled on its bench for life. At
last, under Roman domination and degenenM7i
it ceaseil to exist. (See Athens.)

ARETAS (2 Cor. xi 32J— the lung of Sjrii
at the time the governor of Damascus attempted
to a]>prchend Paul (Acts. ix. 24, 21^ He mi
father-in-law to Herod Antipas; but as Ab*
tipas divorced his wife, ana die returned ta
her father, war was declared against the JewiA
prince, and Damascus during ^c strugf;^ maj
iirobably have been seized and held bj a
lieutenant of Aretas.

ARGOB (Deut iii 4)— a district <A Baduo,
the kingdom of Og, belonging to tiie half tribs
of Manasseh. It lay east of the sea of Galilee
and contained sixty fortified cities. This regiOB
of black basalt was afterwards called Trachco-
tis, and is now named the Lejah.

ARIEL— ^lon of (ifod (Ezra \'iiL 16h-waiL L
The name of one of Ezra's chief men. SL Tbe
original word means ** the lion of (?bc2," and
Jerusalem being the chief city of Judah, whaN
emblem was a lion (Gen. xliz. 9), the word
Ariel is applied to that city (IsiL xzix. l^i
Some resort to the Arabic for the meaning of
the term as applied to Jerusalem, and make it
signify fire, or fire-hearth, as if it contaiaed
an allusion to the altar.

ARIM ATHE A. (See Rama. )

ARIOCH — lionlike, och being an inteniivi

wit and fiLmily, and n stuck i>[ the

naU. &.C,, whentbe earth was dui-as-

etkud.

g to ordinary calcalatioD, it nos

1^, 75 in breadth, and 45 in height,

used to float, when borne up by

It had h>ireT, wctnd, and third
ridaa what, ia oommoa veuela, in
hold. A door was placed in the
had tlao a window made of some
Kihitance for the admiadon of li^L
imi ooiwtructad of ^pber wood, and
th bitumen or pitdi, to exclude
IT ii now used for the like purpose.
B now foiuid in the Gutt, aa we are
iTcllen, ii K> like the Stockholm
hey can be distinKniiihed from each
IT the peculiar UDell and nipeRor
Uu bitumen.

btfol where the aA waa built, nod
aoA time wai emphired npon it.
ler point the wcdght <rf oiriiiion i\
from 100 to 120 yean; the former
{ iuferTEd from comparing Oen. v.
6; and the Utter m>m comparing
rith 1 Pet iii. SO. I

of the ark ie rappoaed to have been
inare, with a flat iMittom and sloping
I a huge box for floating, not a ship |
and haa been the theme of much :

Toihowthevarianceaf oiriiiioDB, !
enough to aay, that in the tangle
I Dumber of aputmoiti, the compu- !
iBlied flinn 72 to 400. Some of the
modem iuFestintioni have, how-
highlr Talnable. GBfillen have
■tirted difficultiei respecting the
the ark to contain what the aacred

the literal wnw, or unly i-xtcuili'd m fnr in tht
race of luiiukitnl liail [ultu-iluiL If tW. fi-rmir
theory 1« ad'.ptiil, uiniiy ililRculti.-H j.r,si-iit
tlicnuclvun; if the Litter, tiieu vvtry n^Kdix
frequenting the haunt* of man, aiul mdia-
peasabla to hii comfort, was preaerveil in the
Boating receptacle with bimxelf. (!!ee Futon.)
Abe of tbi Covekant. The Hebrew word
denoting this ii diHerent from the preceding
(iUod. XIV. 10). A small chesft, constructed
in s iiBrtinnlHr form and nuumer, and for a
by the Bipress mmmand of

Jeborah. It waa' 3 ftet and 9 incliee in
length, and 2 feut 3 inches in width and
height. It was made of shittim wood, and
covered with plates of gold. A border or crown
of gold encircled it near the top, and it was

r-K!at, wh- ■

tlie pur

the ark. On each end of the

mercy-seat was placed a golden imaje, repre-
senti^ cherubim facing inwards, and bending
ilown over the ark. T«'o rin^a of gold were
attached to the body oC the ark on each side,
through which passed the Htaves ur poles th:it
were used in carrying it from iilace to place.
llieBa were mode of the same wood with the
ark, and were overlud in tlie same manner.
The ark contained— 1. A golden jmt, in which
the three quarts of manna were presened
(Exod. xvl a3); 2 Aaron'a rod, which miraoii.
lonsly budded and blossomed, and yielded fniit
(Num. xviL 10); and, 3. The tables of the
testimony, or the tables of the Ten Command-
ments, written with the finger of God, and
constituting the testimony or evidence of the
covenant between Gnd and the iteiiiile (Deut.
■ 26). Hbdc •■■ *■ ■' "^ ■

if the ti

and the ]>eHiile (Deut
imetimes called tbe arh

9f!

ARK

to tkb the Psalmist says (rviii 11), ** He made
darkness his secret place." The light necessary
to guide the high priest through the various
parts of the solemn ritual was afforded either
Dv the reflection of the bright doud or She>
chinalL or from the glow of the coab which
burned in the golden censer. The cherubim
upon the ark were the guardians of the throne,
or its bearers ; hence^ perhaps the expression
of the Psalmist (xvm. 10), "He rode upon
a cherub, and did fly.** (See CHKBua)

On the mercy-seat which surmoimtea the ark
rested the awful and mysterious symbol of the
divine presence (Lev. xvi 2; Nimu vii 89).

The throne of God was on the ark, his
lory was enshrined "between the cherubim.**

pon ma seat of mercy he delivered his oracles
and received the homage of the tribes. A
vision of Jehovah on this throne was seen by
Isaiah, and is described in the sixth chapter of
his prophecies. This sacred chest was the
most awful emblem of the Jewish reli^on, and
it was covered from profane gaze while borne
in solemn procession oy the priests.

After the children of Israel had passed the
Jordan, whose waters divided at the approach
of the ark (Josh. iii. 14-17), the tabernacle was
set up at Gilgal, and this sacred vessel remained
in it for a season. It was then removed to
Shiloh, where it was stationary between three
or four hundred years (Jer. vii 12-15); and
being then taken out and borne before the
army which had lost its faith in Grod, and so
degraded the symbol of hijB presence into a
ma^cal charm, it fell into the hands of the
Philistines, at thie defeat of the Israelites near
Aphek, (1 Sam. iv.) The Philistines took it
to Ashdod, and placed it by the side of their
idol-god Dagon^ (1 Sam. v.) But being taught
in a verv surprising manner that their profane
use of toe ark was highly displeasing to G^,
they returned it by divine direction, and with
signal tokens of div-ine oversight, to the peo])le
of Israel, by whom it was lodged at Kirjath-
jearim, (1 Sam. vi., vii.) When David had
fixed his residence at Jerusalem, the ark
was removed thither with sacred ceremonies,
and kept until the temple was prepared to
receive it, and in which it was placed with
solemn reverence, cherubim having been made
for it of larger size than the original ones (1 Ki.
viiL 1-11 ; 1 Chr. xv. 25-28).

The second temple did not contain the ark ;
whether it was seized among the spoils when
the dtv was sacked, or whether it was secreted
and afterwards destroyed, does not appear.
The Jews think it will be restored when their
Messiah appears ; but the prophet (Jer. iii. 16),
if they would believe his testimony, would
destroy this and many similar delusions.
Wherever the Jews dwelt or wandered, they
always worshipped towards the place where
the ark of the covenant had rested (Dan.
vi 10).

The monuments of Ej^rpt have brought to

light various representations of a sacred chest,

not unlike the Hebrew ark. borne, like it, on

the shoulders of priests, ana having around it

S8

ARM

symbolic figures or sphinxes^somewhat simib
to the supposed fcmn of the Helnrew <^eaniblii
Such resemblances to portions of the f umitof
of £g3rptian worship in the Hebrew riftoi
were a kind and wise adaptation to the oiroiiB
stances of the ignorant and perverse peopl
among whom Jehovah was pleased to twH^lwt'
his worslup. (See Bulrush.)

ARKI1% (Gen. x. 17). The Arkites wmi
branch of the family of Canaan whidi stttlw
in Phcenicia and Syria. The ruins of the dH^
which they are supposed to have inhabitsc
are now to be seen at Arka, 12 miles north d
Tripoli, and directly opposite the northen
extremity of Lebanon.

ARM (1 Sam. ii 31) — ^metaphorically nsec
for strength, power, or protection (Exod. vi
6 ; Isa. liii 10) ; in which last passage allusioi
is made to the custom of Tna-lring the arm ban
by throwing it out of the loose garment or f oU,
when engaged in close combat, so that iti
strength and action might be free and unem-
barrassed.

ARMAGEDDON (Rev. xvi 16)— the moon
tain of Megeddon, or Meffiddo, a city at the
foot of Mount Carmel, and noted for soenes d
carnage (2 Ei xxiii 29, 30; Judg. v. 19). (Sec
Jezrbel.) The name of this mountain, in
consequence of its earliest history and events,
is also used in the Apocalypse as tne symbdical
name of an awful battle-field.

ARMENIA— AipA land, Heb. charah (2 Ei
xix. 37). It lay at the eastom extremity d
Ajsia Minor. 430 miles from east to west^ and
about 300 trom north to south. It has the
Meditorranean on the south-west, ^e Blad
Sea on the north-west, and the Caspian Sea oo
the east, and its western bounduy is about OOC
miles east of Constantinople. The Euphratoi^
the Tigris, and other nvers rise witnin tin
boundaries of Armenia. It is divided intc
fifteen provinces, of which the central one ii
called Ararat. In this province was the moan*
tain on which the ark is thought to have rested,
and here was the usual residence of the impoia)
court ; hence this province is intended by the
term Armenia in tne Scriptures, and not the
whole kingdom. See Smith and DwighVi
volumes, entituled Meaearcha in Armeniia,
(See AccAD, Ararat.)

ARMIES, or HOSTS a Sam. xvii 10). The
armies of the Israelites embraced the whok
male adult population of the country (Num. i
2. 3; xxvi 2); and when occasion required,
tne entire body was readily mustered. Ever;
yeoman who held land, held it on condition d
military service: and martial law, as in the
case of Jabesh Gilead (Judg. xx. 8), was executed
on such as refused the summons to arms. The
method which Saul took to raise the people ii
somewhat similar to that once in use amooj
the Scottish clans, when the cross of fire wai
sent from glen to glen calling them to a general
rendezvous (1 Sam. xi 6, 7, 8). " The Spirit
of God came upon Saul when he heard tnose
tidinure, and his anger was kindled greatly.
And ne took a yoke of oxen, and hewra then
in pieoes^ and sent them throughout all the

Oift^ of Imiel bj the lunds of meffcnffim,
nyice, WLoaoever oouieth not forth ikfCer Saul

puplf , and they ca
Tlua mode of mustering the nation, if
liiinrd in timn subaequent to Hani, accn
ioi Iht produrioos numben which were <
•wmbltd (iChr. liiL 3; xiv. 9). Sir W
EcnttV dncriptioD of the rmUing of the <

C> vety graphic idea ot TtLst mar
tha (pmd and fulnea of the Sel

Tbaia

orLodiVoll:

iiVlilg, thy gwiiupT cm

Adoim tJIntfa-Sirtnei-'i ULliry^nnil'i''

A paniob Id CUn-AlpJoa'p eudk
From the fcrvy *ire, vtao«a bMDbllos hud
Cwlil budlj Inckla <m Ut bnnd.
To Uh nir bor. wboM tbtSi mil bow
WftjT jti Hcaroe terror to tbe crow.
Earh TAll^y. nch wqootpred gleOi

Th&! nifi u torrnifi tnnn ih* halKht
Id Highland iUI»i Uiflr ninxims uDlHv
Still inihrrina. •« Ibey nmr aloow.

I^IIM rhr reniI«roii-ttaFTii>oOi|

Bf hutulredfl, pnnupl for blown and blooj."

Tlie sililien received no wagi-n, aoil each man
inard and supported himivll Heiice their
iui|iaii.-T>3 were short, and uvre generally ter-
icuuusl by a aini;le battle. Hones were ncit
■^^vd, it is Aiij>|>oHc<i, until Solomoi ' '' "*'

•mniitii'n. are minutely stated in tbe law.
Th': war law wm benicn, with oil ibt Htrictne^
vnl the foiir fullowini; clawvs mi^ht elaim
tli^liti'-ii from oen-ico :—

I. !$iirh OS liod built a houu, and oa yet boil
»1 taken pos-wsaion of it.

'J. Thn<c wbo had pliinted a vineyard, and
\i^'l TKtt partaken of itd fruits.

3. Such as had be^n enfioiuod. but not mar-
rifii ; and tbnse the first year of whose marriaj^
Laii Qui pukHetl.

4. Such ad felt themBclFcs cowardi and faint-
bcDiteii Peraiinat atn^gth and vali
DrCBf -arily of high cooaequence, whi

ARM

. 6), The precision ot mndem
not be known, but OTder and
„ . wire miniitely atudied. The

decimal form of Dumeration waa followed: »
we have captaiog of fifty, ot a hiuiilred, ot »
thousaniL There were infantry with heavy
n lih'hter army fur akirmiah-
ing. The former were sjienrmeu, and the latter
uaed alitiga and bowa. Some of the prieBts
nth the tro-nM ti> encouniRv theiti (Deut.
3). ITie charge wan auunrted on thu
trumpet (Sum. x. 9, 10). War chariot*
aeeiq b> nave been used by the Hebrewa
till the lu^e ot Kolomnn; and from thu hinta
■ botli in thoir hiatory anil jioetry,
the^ had aim maile sumc prngrvss in tha acience
ot fortitication. They do not appear to havo
used any peculiar military uniform. The kings
' — ' - budy-Kiiard f.jr themaelvea (1 Sani.
ee Chlkethites), and under David
methinj,' like a miiitia— each ot Uib
Ive legions being called out for training fur
innth at a time, and in regiiliir succeswon.
the lioman army, we read,

SJi

if Uie "'Italian band._ probably a

_ ... _, .. __ugm"tuii' '
and Hth legions bore t)

>hort of Italian volanteen (seo Wah)
Acts xiviL I, of "Ai

ponwuioD in Uie aoil, ajid fuu^ht for hin patri-
miinial property. livery citizen became a
•iMier when Uie conntry was menaced. But
UDiler tbe munaichf, tlioHelaws and cuHtumn
Were greatly chajiged, and to the wone (Deut. 1 1

erhaps the liand reterre<] t" may have i;<it it

jratiir as the imperial guanls had to tli
.jniHTor at Itiiiue; i>r it may lie oidy tli
lioiuirnry name of the "Italian band." (Me

:MOUll (1 f<am. zvii. SI)- -weafionR or

jmeiits of dufeiiQ.'. TliuHe were in fcteuend

tile Kbield, backlcr, or target, the coat uf moil,

the greaTrx, and the helmet.
1. The>A(cf>f(>rbthit'/.r (I Ki. 10.17; Ra.-k.
(vl 8) waa probably one <>f the earlieiit piei'<-3

...' ami'inr, for aUiuinn in often mode to it by

the carlieat writeni (Gen, xv.

1; Pa. V. 12; xviij. 2; ih-ii.

% It mu of variuDH rises, ,

and unialiy niado nf li|{ht I

wood, and cnveruil with U!Vi>

ral fiilda or thiduumeaof abnit

hides, which wiTe iiretwrveil ,

and iMiliiihed by ficnuciit ap- 4

plications ot cnl (Taa. xxl A),

and uftcTi painted with dnloi uf vt

or Qgiircri (Nnh. il 3). MiimeUmea l»<ier:^ ur

reeda woven like haniirt-WKifc, were uwil to

atretuh the hide upini, and Koiiu)thiii!> tlio sliieid
wax made cilliT entirely <if brais iir uoliL or
ciivereil with thick i^tvHotthiisuini'talK (I KL
liv. 20, •Sj. (hi wich mttallic alueldH then*
were ofti-n fimires engraved or nnlKHMeil.
Humer'a mm^lficent ih»eri]>tiiiii of tlie shield
of Athilloa a wall known *■■ the elawni-al reader,
lliu ahieU wa* held hy tho left ariii. The
hand iiaiued thnmgh nmlcr tn-o atrain" ■ irtJiougK,
and graaiieil with the Gngem aiiollicr aoull

i graaiieil t

I near the
witli grei

. ..tbatit...._
ii-,-le liandlc uf

ATIM

wood or leather in the centre was naed in later
times. The shield was sometimes, besides the
ordinary nasp of it by the hand, attached to
the neck by a thong. The outer surface was
made more or less roundinff from the centre to
the edge, and being polished smooth, caused
the arrows or darts to glance o£f ; and tne edges
were armed with plates of iron, not only to
strengthen them, but to preserve the perishable
fMut from the dampness while lying upon the
ground. In times of engagement, the shields
were cither held above the nead, or they were
placed together, edge to edge, and thus formed
a continuous hairier.

2. The target (1 Sam. xvii. G) was a larger
sort of shield, the relative weight of which may
be inferred from 1 Ki x. 16, 17. It is usually
mentioned by the sacred writers in connection
with heavy arms : while the shield is spoken of
with the sword, dart, and other light arms. It
probably i^esembled the great shield of the
Kcnnans, which in some cases was 4 feet
Ione[, and 2^ feet broad, and so curved as
to ht the body of the soldier. To lose the
shield in battle was deeply ignominious. * ' The
shield of the mighty," sajrs David, ** is vilely
cast away — the shield of SauL" To lose the
shield, in Sparta, was a capital crime. I'he
SiMutan mothers, inciting their sons to the
combat, pointed to the shield, and said, * * Either
this, or upon this ** — i. «., Bring back this shield,
or be brought back a corpse upon it

3. The coat of mail (1. Sam. xvii 6), or
habergeon (Xeh. iv. 16 ; Job. xlL 26), or breast-
plaie (Rev. ix. 9), covered the bodv upon and

below the oreast and
back. It consisted of
two parts, and was fast-
ened together at the sides.
We are told that Goliath's
coat of mail weighed
6,000 shekels of brass, or
nearly 160 pounds. It
was probably formed of
layers of brass, one uimn
the other, like the sodes
of a fish. Sometimes the
coat of » mail was made
of wicker-work, covered
with a brass plate. At
other times, and among
early nations, it mav have
been formed of hides, or
of multiplied folds of
linen or woollen cloth. At least the thorax or
breastplate was sometimes made of quilted linen.
As it was the principal and most complete part
of the armour, it is a most appropriate emblem
of defence and safety (Isa. lix. if; Eph. vL 14).
The girdle which endrcled the waist was often
richly ornamented, and became in course of
time the peculiar badge of a ** belted knight."

4. OreaveSf or boots (1 Sam. xvii. 6), were for
the protection of the legs. They are mentioned
only as a part of the armour of Groliath, and
were not probably in common use among the
Hebrews, though they were almost universal
among the Greeks and Romanw.

40

8W0BDS.

ARM

5. Helmet (Ezek. xxviL 10). Thiswaiaen
for protecting the head. It was made d thiek
tou^h hide, sometimes of plated brass (1 Saa
xviL 38), and was usually crowned with a
crest or plume as an ornament. In later timei
the helmet had added to it a vizor, whidi wn
brought down to cover and protect the faoe.
From the dan^^erous character of woimds gXYCi
to the head, it may be oonjectored tluit tkt
helmet was one of the first warlike defeooet.

Armour-bearer (Judg. ix. 54) — an officer
selected by kings and generals from the hrawfc
of their favourites, whose service it was not
only to bear their armour, but to stand by them
in danger and carry their orders, somewhtt
after the manner of adjutants in modem ser-
vice (1 Sam. xvi. 21; xxxi 4).

AKMS. Arms, or weapons or instrrmunti
of offence, were the sword, the spear or javdin,
dart, or lance, the bow and arrow, tlie al^
the quiver, and the battle-axe.

1. The aicord
(Gen. xxviL 40).
This was a short
two-edged in-
strument resem-
bling what we
call a dagger.
It was carried
in a sheath or
scabbard (Jer.
xh-iL 6: Ezek.
xxi. 9, 30), and
suspended from
the girdle (Judg.
ii 16; 2 Sam.
XX. 8).

2. The tpear
(Josh. viii. 18),
or javelin (Num.
XXV. 7, 8), or eUtri
(2 Sam. xviiL 14|,
or lance (Jer. L
42), were differ-
ent chiefly in
leng^ and size.
The epear was
a long wooden
staff with a
stout metal point at one end. The Grede
spears were sometimes 25 feet longhand the
Arabs now use them 15 feet long. They were
required to be long enough to readi beyond
the front rank, when used by those who were
in the second rank. The lance was shaped and
used like the spear, though probably a lighter
weapon. The javelin was a snort spear, cast as
it is supposed, with the hand (1 Sam. xviiL 11).
The dart was still smaller than the javdin, and
used in like manner. Some suppose that Said^s
casting a javelin at David absolved him from
his allegiance to the king; but the inference is
founded on usages greatly more recent in their
existence, and only found among the Teutonic
and other western nations. It may be men-
tioned, too, that the spear had sometimes a
metallic shod at its butt end, that it might
not be injured by being stock in the ground.

DART.

ARROW.

B0W8.

A^v^r

Vritli t;ii.« x>^'"iteJ shod Abncr slew ^Vsalicl (2
Sam. ii. 22).

3. The arrwB (1 Sam. zz. dC) was a slender
nuMole, shot from a bow, as in modem days
(Gen. XXL 16). It was naed in hunting (Gc3l
xxvii. 3), as well as in combat (Gren. xlviii 22).
Those who shot them were called archers.
Arrows were ori^rnally made of reeds, and
afterwards of anylight wood. The bows were
made of flexible wood or steel (Ps. xviiL 34),
and the bowstring of leather, horse-hair, or
the tendons of animals. A deceitful bow (Ps.
IxxriiL 57) is either one which springs oack
and wounds the ardier himself, or one which,
fran weakness or other defects, fails to proiect
the arrow. The point of the arrow \fVA barbed
like a fish-hook (Ps. xxxviiL 2). Job seems to
refer to poisoned arrows (Job vi. 4)^ and lire
was often conveyed by the use of juniper wood,
which kindled upon the combustible baggage or
armament of the enemy (Ps. xd. 5 ; cxx. 4). It
Li i«aid that the coals of the juniper wood are
veiy hot ; and it is known that the Phoenicians
and in later times the Spaniards have used
arrows for the like purpose. Arrow:i were
also u£ed in divination (Ezek. xxi. 21). Arroi%'s
were kefit in a case or box called a quiver,
which was slung ^s^ the shoulder in such a
position that the soldier could draw out the
arrows when wonted. The drawing of the bow
was a test of strength, and is still so amon^
the Arabians. Hence the allusion in Ps. xviii.
34, and thus the suitors of Penelone were unable
to bend the bow of Ulysses. Tne heavy bow
was bent by the assistance of the foot.

4. The ming (1 Sam. xvii 40) was an early
wtrapon of war, by which stones were thrown
witli great force and Rurprining accuracy of aim
(Judg. XX. 15, 16). Tlus skill was shown in a
nrmarkablc dep^» by the Benjamites, who
cr»uld enijtloy either hand in its use with equal
adroitnei^.'i (1 Chr. xiL 2). **They were armeil
with hows, and could use both the right hand
and the left in hurling stones, and shooting
anv>w3 out of a bow, even of Saul's brethren oi
Benjamin." The sUngers ranked next to the
archer* in efficiency.

5. The halUt-axt (Jer. IL 20) was obviously a
powerful weapon of war ; but of its form and
manner of a-se we have now no knowledge. It
may have lieen a species of mace or club, formed
of wood, pLitwl or lapped i^ith metal, llie
Egyptian r»attle-axe had also a sword ui)on it,
of a curved form, like a bilL (See War. )

Tlie term armour, and the various olTensive
and dtrfenidve articles comprised in it, are fre-
quently ujsied figuratively in the Bible; and
with remarkable vi\'idness in Eph. vi. 11-18,
where the traces of the Christian character are
represented an the panoply or whole armour of
God, in wliich he clothes the believer, and by
which the Christian soldier is enabled to fight
the good fight of faith with a steady and vic-
torious arm.

ARMY. (See Battle, War.)

ARXON (Deut. iL 24)— the principal river
eaut of Jordan, and originallv the boundary
between the Moabitos and tine Ammonites;

ARV

then between the Mnaliit 's and Aiiioriti's; and
finally, between the Moal.)ite8 and tlie tribe of
Reublen. It is now called the ^lojeb or Muieb,
and is about 60 miles long, em^jtying itself mto
the Dead Sea^ ^ The current m winter is full
and rapid, but in summer the channel is nearly
dry.

AROER. 1. (DeuL iii. 12 ; iv. 48) A dt/
on the nortii bank of the river Amon. It is
now called Arair. The term, "Uie cit^ in
the midst of tlie river " (Josh, xiii 9), origin-
ated in the circumstance that the city may
have stood partly on the bank and partly on
an island formed by the river.

2. Aroer before Rabbah (Josh. xiiL 25) is
supposed to have been situated on the Jabbok,
or nver of Gad.

3. A town in Judah (1 Sam. xxx. 28), perhaps
Ararah, on the roarl from Petra to Gaxa.

ARPAD, ARPHAD (Isa. x. 9)— a city of
Syria, alwa3rs mentioned in connection with
^amath, and probably in the vicinity of
Damascus ; but its exact site is now uidcnown
(Jer. xlix. 23; Ezek. xxvii. 8). (See Abvad.)

ARROW. (See Armoub.) llie word is
used often symbolically. As a means of
domestic power and self-defence, children are
called arrows (Ps. cxxvii. 4, 5). Ughtnings
are often by the Hebrew iH>et8 descril)ed as the
arrows of Jehovah (Hab. iii. 11 ; Ps. x\'iii. 14).
Calamities so fearful in their suddenness and
power, that they leave no doubt of being sent
from heaven, receive the same aj)X>ellation (Job
vi. 4 ; Ps. xxxviii. 2 ; xci o). Human injuries,
which pierce with unexpected and ])oisonea
energy, are " arroi^'S " in Holjrew diction ; such
as a lying tongue, in its deceit (Ps. cxx. 4), and
in its mali^Tiity (Ps. Ixiv. 3).

ARTAXERXES (Ezra iv. 7, and vii. 7;
Neh. ii. 1). In ancient Persic this name —
Artakhshatra — siguifies cireai kinff. 1. ( hio of
this name obstructed the building of the teinnlo
(Ezra iv. 7-24). ITiis king, who listened so tar
to the enemies of the Jews, is supposed, with
good reason, to have been Siuerdis, an ini|X)stor
from among the Magi, who held the sovereignty
for eight months. 2. A king of IVr^ia, who
r*jigne<l 40 years, and <lied 425 vears before
Christ. In the seventh year of liis reign ho
permitted Ezra to return into Ju<lea. witli Ku«h
of his countrjTneii as chose to ftdlow liim. I'his
sovereign is sujiposed to have been Artaxerxes
Longimanus, the same who, 14 years after-
wards, allowed Nehemiah to return and build
Jenisjilem. (See Ahasierus, Peusia.)

ARTILLERY (I Sam. xx. 40)- any missive
weapons, as arrows, lances, &c.

ARTS (Acts xix. 19)-pretendc>«l skill in
the practice of magic, astrology, &o. (See
EpHKsrs.)

ARUMAII, or RUM.MI (Jud^. ix. 41 ; 2
Ki. xxiii. 'SO) a village near Shechem, whcro
Abimelech lived.

ARVAD (Ezek. xxviL 8-11), callwl also
Arpad and Arphad, and liy the Turks, Ru-atl
— a small village on an island of the same name,
near the eastern shore of tlie Mediterranean,
and 20 or 30 miles north of Tripoli.

41

ARV

ARVADITES (G«n. r. 18). The people of
Arvad were called Arvadites, and in the time
of Ezekicl were generally known as mariners
and soldiers in we Assyrian service (Ezck.
xxvil 8-11).

ASA— phpnnan (1 KL xv. 8) — was son and
saccessor of Abijam on the throne of Judah. Ue
began his reign about b. c. 1*55, and reigned forty-
one years. Though educated in the principles
of a false religion, he showed from the first his
decided opixmition to idolatry, and even deposed
his mother Maachah because she had made an
idol in a grove. The first part of his reign was
p^ftcefulj and he improved the opportunity to
puri^^ his kingdom from idolatry, and to build
and fortify several cities ; and when Zerah, an
Ethiopian king, invaded his territories with
an army of 1,000,000 men and 'SOO chariots,
Asa met him with (>00,000, and defeated him.
This memorable battle was fought at Mareshah;
and Asa, feeling himself to be God's vicegerent
in tile theocracy, could not but urevaiL The
enemy *'were destroyed before the I^ord, and
before his host," (2 Chr. xiv.) The extra-
ordinanr numbers of his army are probably a
copyist s blimder, easily made when alphabetic
letters were used for numerals. ^

At the suggestion of Azariah, a prophet
whom God sj>ecially deputed for that pur]>i>8e,
Asa set about the reformation of every abuse
in his kingdom, and apnointcd a solemn festival
of tiianksgiving to Gou, at which all the people
were assembled, and entered into a formal
covenant with God. Baaaha, king of Israel,
finding his subjects too much disposed to go
into Judah and tlwell there, commenced fortify-
ing llamah, a place near tne frontiers of both
kingdoms, witli a view to cut off the iiassage of
emigrants to JeniHalem and other parts of
Juiudi. Ai>a, though he had so long enjoyed
the favour and protection of God, was now
temptefl to ftirsaice him. Instead of trusting
in his almighty arm for deliverance, as he had
done in vears pant, he sent to Benhadad, the
king of Syria, an<l prevailed on him, even in
violation of a treaty which existed l>etween
Bexdiadad and Baasha, to come to the help of
Judah against IsraeL The Syrian king, won
by tiie presents which Asa had sent him, im-
mediately attacked and destroyed several iin-
p)rtant cities of IsraeL Baasha, finding his
kingdom thus invaded, abandoned tlie fortifica-
tion of Bamah, that he might protect the
provinces of the interior from desolation. Asa
seized the opi>ortunity to demolish llamah, and
take away tne stone and timber which were
collected there, and used them in the building
of his own cities. In the meantime, a prophet
was sent to remind him of his sin and folly in
forsaking the Lord his God and trusting to an
arm of nesh, and to warn him of the nimisli-
ment which would come upon him for all these
faults. But the heart of Asa was already so
alienated ^m God that he was enraged by
the faithful message, and caused the bearer of
it to be thrown into prison.

He was afterwards visited with a distressing
disease of the feet— gout; but even this did
42

ASH

not lead him to renew his trost in God. '*Hs
sought not tothe Lord, but to the phyridaDi"—
that is, placed more faith in Uieir skill than in
God*s goodness. He di^ in the forty-first ynr
of his reign ; and his burial was attended with
great ponip.

ASAHkL— creature of God (2 Sam. iL U^
19)— a brother of Joab. (See Abneb.)

A8AFH— convener ( 1 Chr. xxv. 1, 2)— wm
a celebrated musician, and one of the chief
leaders of the temple choir. His sons are also
mentioned as fam^ in the choirs of the temple.
The musical talent, as well as the offiee which
this natural endowment qualified them to fiO,
may have been hereditary. Several of the
psalms of David are entitled^ a psalm oL or
for Asaph (Ps. IxxiiL to Ixxxiii). That au of
these were not written by Asaph is evident
from the fact that allusion is made in some of
them to events which took place after Ids
death. Perhaps they receivea Asaph^s name
as they were composed in his style, or were set
to music by his descendants.

ASCENSION. (See Christ.)

ASENATH. (See Joseph.)

ASH (Isa. xliv. 14)— a well-known forest
tree ; but, according to the Septuagint, it wu
some species of pine, and the Vulgate renders
it pinus.

ASHAN (Josh. XV. 42)-^ city of Judah,
situated about 20 miles south-we.^t of Jem-
salem, and probably the Chorashan mentioned
1 Sam. XXX. 30.

ASHDOD (Josh. xv. 47)— one of the five
cax^ital cities of the Philistines, called by the
Greeks, and kno^^oi in the New Testament as.
Azotus (Acts viiL 40). It was situated S
miles from the Mediterranean, between As-
kelon and Ekron, 15 or 20 miles north of
Gaza. Here was the temple of Dagon, in
which the Philistines placed the ark. The city
was more than once captured (2 Chr. xxvi 6;
Isa. XX. 1). Ashdod may be seen from an
elevated spot near Joppa ; and it abounds with
fine old olive trees, and with fruits and vege-
tables of every kind. The dtv itself was built
on the summit of a verdant hiU ; and though it
was afwigned to the tri1>e of Judah, yet it Te>
maincd in possession of the Philistines. It ii
now cjilled EsduiL

ASHDOTH-PISGAH (Deut iiL 17) — a
city of the tribe of Keubcn, which is elsewhere
callefl the springs of I^^ (Deut iv. 49).

AHHER—happineM (Gen. xxx. 13) — the
son of Jacob, by Zilpah. He was one of the
twelve patriarchs. Tlie portion of the Holy
Land assigned to his trioe was bounded by
Phoenicia on the west, mount Lebanon on
the north, mount Carmel and the triire of Ma-
nasseh and the tribe*} of Zebulun and Issachar
on the east. This tribe was unable to conquer
the entire territory allotted to it, and in one
district the abori^pnes occu])ied ail the laiiger
town^ so that the ^'Asherites dwelt among
the Canaanites" (Judg. L 32), and had soon
lost public spirit; for at the generad muster
they abode by their creeks (Judg. v. 17).

ASHES (Gen. xviii. 27). To cover tfaa

ASH

with ftshes, or to sit in ashes, betokens
bhoirenoe, humiliation, extreme grief,
•nitence (2 Sam. xiil 19; E$iih. iv. 3;
ii 8; Jer. vi. 26; Lam. iiL 16: Jonah
; Matt. xL 21). To feed on asnes (Isa.
20) is to follow a religion which can give
nritual nourishment; but the phrase, to
Bbea, occurring in Ps. ciL 9, denotes that
essness which met produces, when a
»n idts among ashes, and feels that his
becomes nauseous by being necessarily
led with them. There was a sort of lye
; of the ashes of the heifer sacrificed on
reat day of expiation, which was used for
Qonial purification (Num. xix. 17, 18).
Heifek.)

iHKENAZ (Gen. x. 3)— a grandson of
.et, and the proltable ancestor of those
inhabite<l a country of the same name
li 27) lying along the northern and
i-eastem shore of the Black Sea. The
i of the word is preserved still in the first
ble^ nf Scandinavia. (SeeMiNNi.)
!;HTAR0TH. L (Josh. ix. 10 Called
roth (Dent. L 4), was one of the chief
cities of Bashan, and the name
Tell-Asherah is still preserved.
It was probably a different place
which is called Ashteroth Kamaim
((ien. xiv. 5), the word karuaiin
m«.'aninij twu-Iiorned^ and having
r*.'ferLiice to a heathen gcKldws,
,^-^ - who waa represented with a crea-
^.^ cent, or two-homed moon.

2. Ay Idol. Ashtaroth is only
the plural form of Aflht»>rfth— the
godafsw of the Zidonians, called by
I Astarte. It was much worshipped in S jTia
?hfHnici;L Soliim« ►n intnKluced it into Jeni-
1 (I Ki. xi. 'iS). The 400 priests* of JezeVjel,
:ioned 1 Ki. xviiL 19, arc supjKwed to have
emplovt^l in the service of tniij idol ; and
re U'ld that iJOO priests were constantly eni-
id in itrt service at HieraiKjlis, in b>'Tia,
r a^tr? aft«r .Jezebel's time. This idol was
caUtrd tlie '*rjueen of heaven," and the
hip was said to be X)aid to the **host of hea-
' It is usually mentioned in connection
BaaL Th«; worship «jf this idol may have
Oil ted in the arloration of the mr^tni; but
• imajjen of the eoddess were afterwards
oyed, of which the most common was tlie
\\'hatever idea.-* may have been at first
olized by Ashtaroth, her worship became
igth the'mc»Ht imjjure and revolting that
ifw^ibly l>e imagined, and was celebrated
.^dy groves— ]»rfjver])ial as scenes of the
dej^Tading lust and debauchery. Another
of the worfl, viz., Asherah, rendered
in our versdon, but inTongly, sr>metimes
M, an in Judg. vi. 25, and in the books of
fCings, and may mean some wooden idol
Renting the same false divinity, symboli-
connected with the planet Venus. The
storehouse of information on this and
%T objects of worship is the famed treatise
dden "On the Syrian Gods"— Z>c DO*

ASP

ASHTORETH. (See preceding article.)

ASIA (Acts ii 9). Asia was not known to
the ancients as one of the four grand divisions
of the earth. The name was originally applied
to a small district of Lydia, including i)erhap8
Ionia and ./Eolis. Ine term was gradually
enlarged in its application, until it embraced
the whole of Asia Minor, and finally denoted
a large portion of the eastern division of the
earth.

This quarter of the globe has been the scene
of the most wondrous events connected with
the origin, lustory^ and destiny of our race.
It was the scene of the creation and the fall —
of the wanderinpi of the early patriarchs and
foundation of tne first colonies planted after
the confusion of Babel; of Abraliam's jour-
neys, trials, and fame, and of the establish-
ment, glory, and downfall of the Hebrew
Conmion wealth ; of the nativity, life, miracles,
death, resurrection, and ascension of our
Lord, and of the early triumphs and exten-
sion of our divine religion. Asia contained
the garden of Eden, and bore the cross of
Calvary.

Asia Minor is a i)eninsula, on the western or
south-western side of the continent of Asia,
which stretches into the Meiliteminean or
Great Sea, extending east as f.ir iis the Eu-

fhrates, west to the islands of the H»;a (See
SLANijs), north to what is now called the
Black Sea, and south t*) the MetUterranean
or Great Sea. It includes the provinces of
Bithj'nia, Pontus, Galatia, C'apr»a*lociii, (.'ilicia,
Pamphvlia, Pi.sidia, Lyaionia, Phry^ia, Mynuv,
Troa**, Lydia, l^ynia, an<l C-aria. iJut in the;
sense in which it b< used in Act:* ii. !> ; vi. l» ;
xix. 10, 22, 20, 27; 2 Tim. i, lo; 1 Pet i. 1, it
was the Koman i>roconsular Asia, and com-
prehends but a jH^rtion of A'*ia Minor — viz.,
Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and Ly<lia. Within
this territory the seven churches of Asia were
situated (Pev. i, 4, 11). In Act:* xxvii. 2 the
term Asia may represent Asia Minor, but even
then it refers only to its western c«>.asts.
In every other case it is so distintniished from
other jKirtions of Asia Minor, or so imniediately
connected \*ith Ephesus, as t<^ lead to the Injlief
that the Asia of wnich Ephesus was tlie c;ii>ital,
or prcjconsuhu* Asia, is intend' -d.

ASKELON (2 Sam. i. 20)— one of the
"fenced cities" of the Philistines, and the
capital of one of their five lor<Uhii)s, which still
retains its ancient name. It was situated on
the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, In'tween
Gaza and Ashdod. After the cKath of Joshua
it fell into the hands of the tribe of Judah, tL>
which tribe it wa^ originally allotted (Jutlg. i.
18). It was famed for the worship of the god-
dess Derceto — to whom the tU»ve w'as con-
secrated, and for the growing of an onion, called
by us csrfuilot or Shallot, after the name of the
place whence it was exiH^rt«Hi.

ASP (l)eut xxxii. 3:J)-a small but very
poisonous seri:>ent (Kom. iii. 13): perhaps the
cobra. It stands often in the margm of the
Psalms as the alternative for adder in the t^xt.
ITieir venom in crucly because it ia W) %M\)\,T\ft

\'6

ASS

and deadly, and reciuires an immediate ex-
cision of the wounded ])ai-t. For an infant to
])lay ui)on the hole of Huch a venomous rc]>tile
would seem to be most presumptuous; and
hence the force &m\ beauty of the figure UAed
by the pronhet (Isa. xi. 8) to represent the
security and peace of the Messiah*H reign. In
Ps. IviiL 4, 6 ; EecL x. 11 ; Jer. viii. 17,
allusion is made to that singular phenomenon,
the channing of serpents by musical sounds;
and the wicked are compared to the deaf adder
(or as])), that stopi>eth ncr car, and will not be
charmed. (See Addrk, Chakm.) All these
phrases import that musical sounds may beguile
and disarm some serpents, but not others ; or
that the arts of the charmer may be effectual
sometimes, but niit always.

ASS (Gen. xxiL 3). lliis animal is amonc^
the most common mentioned in Scripture, and
constituted a considerable i>art of the wealth
of ancient times (Gren. xii. 16 ; xxx. 43 ;
Job i. 3; xHl 12). Assos were sometimes so
numerous as to require a si>ecial keeper (Gen.
xxxvL 24 ; 1 Chr. xx\'ii. IV)). 'Hie ass and the
ox were the ]>rinci]>al aniiuals of b>.izden and
dnift (Exod. xxiiL 12). llie domestic ass is
indeed a most serviceable animal, and in some
respects i)referablc to the horse. Ho subsists
on very coarse ftxxl^ and submits to the meanest
drudgery-. His skm is remarkably thick, and
is ustxl at tliis day for parchment, dnim heads,
memorandum books, &c Ulie usual colour is
red or dark brown, but sometimes they are of
a silver white, and these last were usually ap-
i)ri>priated to ncrsons of dignity (Judg. v. 10).
*S^>eak, ye that ride on white asses, ve that
sit m judgnient. and walk by the way. So in
Gen. xUx. 11 tne allusion to the ass and the
\'ine imports dignity and fruitfulncss, and the
continuance and increase of both in the tri1)e
of Judali. There was a breed of asses far
8ux>erior to those that were used in lal)our, and
which are supiK>sod to l)e referred to in most of
the passages auovu cited.

Cnristians. says Niebuhr, nee<l not murmur
at being foroidden to ride on horses in (!!airo.
for the assos are very handsome, and are used
by almost all the grandees of the country.
'Jliese asses of a liigner breed are named by a
distinct Hebrew word. The]^ are animals of
great spirit Indeed, the ass in Eastern coun-
tries x)OBsesses more spirit tlian the horse.
Hence the force of the proverb — " A whip for
the horse,'* to urge hini on, ** a bridle for the
ass,** to intxlurate or keep it in. The Arabian
uas has a light c^uick step. In Persia, S>Tia,
and Egypt, ladies are accustomed to ride on
asses; and they are particularly valuable in
mountainous countries, being more sure-footed
tlian horses. Their ordinary gait is 4 miles an
hour. The ass in lus wild or natural state is
an elegant animaL A late traveller in Persia
sa^ys that he and his party gave chase to two
Wild asses ; but tl\ey far outran the horses, and
having gaineil some distance, turned and looked
l^hind on their pursuers, and snorted, as if in
contempt of their slowness. Xenophon de-
scribes precisely the same thing as Iwpjwniog
44

ASS

in his time. Layard says that the wild
are as swift as the gazelles.

The female, or she-ass, was particalarir
valuable for the saddle, and for her milk, wfaicn
was extensively used for food and for mediciiisl
purposes. Tlie ass was used in agricultorsl
labour, especially in earing (ploughing) the
ground, and treading it to prepare it for the
seed (isa. xxx. 24 ; xxxii. 20). The piti^-
bition, Deut. xxiL 10, might have been foundod
in part on the inequality of strength between
the ox and the ass, and the cruelty of pattiBg
upon them the same burden; but it was intended
chiefly to nuurk the separation of the Jews from
surrounding nations, among whom such an
union of different beasts was not uncommon.
So serviceable and indeed essential to man was
this animal in ancient times, that to drive away
the ass of the fatherless is reckoned among the
most atrocious acts of oppression and cruelty
(Job xxiv. 3), as depriving an orphan family
of their only cow would be regarded at tM
present day. The attachment of this animal
to its owner is among its remarkable charac-
teristics. In this resi)cct it closely resemUet
the dog. Hence the severity of the prophet's
rebuke (Isa. L 3), **The ox knoweth lus owner,
and the ass his master*s crib."

The fact stated in 2 Ki vi 25, " And there
was a great famine in Samaria : and, behold,
tliey besieged it. until an ass's head was soki
for four pieces ot silver, and the fourth part ct
a cab of dove*s dung for five ]>ieces of silver,** is
designed to show that such was the eztremi^
of the famine that tlie peo])le were not only will-
ing to give an exorbitant price for a small and
most undesirable portion of meat which they
were not accustomed to eat, but that also,
breaking through all ceremonial restraint, tlM
famished citizens seized with avidity this un-
savoury and forbidden food. But others sup-
pose that the term rendered **ass** is only a
certain measure, the name of which in Hebrew
is very similar to the word denoting ass; and
the meaning would then be, that an immense
price was paid for a very small quantity ol
provision.*).

The ass, when dead, was thrown into the open
field, and tliat i>art of his flesh which was not
consumed by beasts and birds was suffered to
putrefy and decay. Nothing could be more dis-

graceful than to expose a human body in the
ke manner (Jer. xxii. VJ ; xxxvi 30).
Much vain discussion has arisen respeetiiig
the i>assage, Num. xxii. 28. It woula be as
easy for the Creator of both man and beast to
take the j)Ower of speecli from the former and
give it to the latter, as it was at first to ffive it
to the former and withhold it from the latter.
The apostle (2 Pet. ii. 10) seems to have re-
ceived the history like a little chill, in the plain
und obvious meaning of the language. (See
Balaau.)

A variety of opinions have been entertained
respecting our Saviour's entrance into Jerusa*
lem (Matt. xxL 1-11), whether it was imder
circumstances of great meanness and poverty
ur with honour and royal parade. Tna pco-

ASS

phecr in Zech. iz. 9 waa fulfilled; and our
Lonrs choice was also the revival of an ancient
Hebivw custom ; so that, in itself, there was
nothing mean or degrading in nsing this animal ;
though the selection of an ass mi^t symbolize
the nature of that kingdom he was about to
establish — that it was not founded on force,
or to depend on war. Its Head and Loru
chose not a capari^mfd ttted with which
to make his public triumphal entry into
Jerosalem.

The Hebrews had various names for the
animal, all in oar version rendered ass: two of
these denote the domestic ass, and other two
the wild ass, and there is a fifth term which
oocura in Job xxxiz. 5l Ishmael, in allutdon
to his mode of life, is called (Gen. xvi 12) a
wild aas man. They are often aUuded to in
the sacrvd writings (Job xL 12 ; zxiv. 5 ; xxxix.
5-8). They usually roamed in herds, through
barren and desolate districts (Isa. xxxii. 14;
Hos. viii. 9).

ASSEMBLIES, masters or. "The words
of the wise are as goads, and as nails fastened
by the masters of assemblies, which are given
from one shepherd " (EccL xii. 11) ; or more
literally than in our version — ** The words of the
wise an* as goads, and those of the masters of
aasemblitrs are like fixed stakes given from one
sheph«-rd." The same shepherd has goads to
stimulate the animals, and has also stakes or
tent poles, on the stability of which dei)ends tlie
lafety (if the pastoral tent. The image may
i^fer to the loading men or master-Bpirittt of the
asKembliu.i of the ^^•ise and curious, which were
often held in Eastern countries, and where
iag«8 and philosophers uttered their weighty
saying.4. The prtrocher endeavoured to clotlio
the iutinitely wise and perfect doctrinen wliich
he taught in jiroper language. They were the
vonis of truth, and were designed to ])rove

Suickening to the sluggish soul, and a fence to
lie wayward and refractory. They wore re-
ceived from the one great Shepherd or Teacher,
and came ^ith great power, as the sayings of
the mrjift \%ise and eloquent of tlieir learned
a^erablie?*.

ASSHUR (Gen. x. 22)— the second son of
Shem, who gave name to the country of AM^yria
(Hon. xiv. 3; Mic v. Oj. There is some doubt
whethtrr the reading ot Gen. x. 11 should not
be thiu : ^* Out of ttiat land he (that is. Nim-
lod, »poken of in verse 9) went fortli into
Asshur, or A£8\Tia, and builded Nineveh." At
any rate, the weight of authority favours the
poidtion that Nineveh was founded by Nimrod.
(See Nineveh.)

ASSUS (Acts XX. 13)— a maritime town of
Tnas, in the north of Myriia, and opi>o»ite the
Lilan'] of Lesbos.

ASSVKIA (2 KL xv. 19)— a mo8t power-
fol empire of Asia, the history of which, lK>th
in iti glory and in its overthrow, is most signi-
ficantly told by the proi)het, (Ezek. xxxi.) In
the mofit comprehensive use of the term, the
Aisvrian empire included all the countries and
natirjns fmiu the Mediterranean Sea on the
ve«t, to the liver Indus on the east. It is im-

\SS

portant to observe that by the term Ass3rrian8,
m the sacnxi writings, is meant the peo])le of
Assyria proper, or the em]iire of wliich Nin-
eveh was the chief city: by the Balnrlonians
or Chaldeans, is meant the i>eople of tne coun-
try of which Babylon was the capital; and by
the Syrians, the people of the comitry of
which Zobah first, and afterwards DamascuR,
was the capital, and whose soutli and south-
eastern boundary was the land of Canaan.
Asd>Tia antl Syria have been often confouncie<l,
but they are quite distinct words— the first
coming from ^Vsshur, and the other from Tsur,
the oriental name of Tyre.

Assyria proper lay on the Tigris, having the
Armenian mountains for its northern, and the
region about Baghdad for its soutliem boun-
dary; the moimtain range of Zagros was its
limit on the east, and the desert of Mesoix>-
taiiiia and the Euphrates on the west It had
an area nearly as large as Great Britain. The
country was fertile, and irrigation was carried
on by a network of canals. It was proliably
I)eopIed by Asshur prior to Nimrod's inva-
sion. The be^nning of the empire is h)st
in obscurity; it is impoHsible to aA!«igii any

Srecise date; and the earliest references in
criptureoccur in Num. xxiv. 22 ; Ps. Ixxxiii. 4.
Many of the notices found in the classical
writers are legendary — such as thrae of Semi-
ramirt and Sardanapalus. Its o'vvn records liuvo
told its history only in rect.nt times. The
researches of Ijayaru have Liid ofien several of
its palaces, and their monumental shibs have
been deciphered by EuroiH*an scliolar$i, as Op-
pert, Hiucks, and ilawlin/^on. Theso sLibs nro
sculptured with representations of Assyrian life,
and iiave brought to unex])ecteil light its man-
ners, pursuits, language, religion, and govern-
ment

The oldest monuments are those found at
Khileh-Serghat, an»l the first kings reconled on
them may have reigned alniut fe>0 u.c. The
first royal series closes with I v -a- lush, an
interregnum of twenty years, as nearly a» can
be guessed, followed, and the fir«t monarch of
the next series, Nin-pala-zira, names hinis«lf
^'kinjjf of the commencement" that is, the
founiler of a n«;w dyiuisty. ( )no king of this
series fought with and coniiuered a Babylonian
s(»vereign called Nebuch:w(iu'2zar, the first of
that famous name of which tin-re is any nx-n-
tion; and another of its kings, Ti.i;lath-i)ileHer,
rejoices in the oriental apix-ILitiitn of " king of
all kings and lord of h^rds." The next tw(>
centuries, parallel to the reigns of David and
Solomon, are blank in the Assyrian annals.
Another dynasty then makes its a])i>ear:iuce,
one of whose kings, A'^shiir-idanni-pal, built at
Calah a pahice, <if which two gattiways^ wore
uncovered by Mr. Layanl. He calls himself
"lord from the Upper Tigris to Lebanon and
the great sea." IILs son, Shahnanezer II.. laid
Tyre and Siilon under tribute, defeated Ben-
liodod and ILozael. and ]>uilt at Nimnid the
central etUlice which was so successfully
excavated by Mr. I^ayard. To him Jehu
king of Israel paid tribute, as is told on the

45

their ropective i

: Tinder Nineveh,

anther to fuuoiu nor co warlike u
aaKin; uid the lut king. Aubur-inir-pal.waB
by no means such a miserable wekklioK and fup
ai he ia repreunted under the Greek name of
Sardonapalue, wbo set tire to his palace and
bnmetl himiclf and harem at the conclu-
aon of the «ege. The Medea Mid Babylonian*
joined their armies for an assault on Nineveh,
and it feU about B.L'. 02.1.

The Assyrian kings excelled in architecture
aa well as in war. The ]»Uces were huge
structiim built no artificial mounds The
rooms wure iKuielled with slabs, on which were
pictured i>r sculptured in bas-rt^bef battles and
Uivea. the worriur and hia huise. Lis arms
and armnur. tbe scaling ladder, the battering
enAiuo. the trumpet, and tlie ferocious crueltiis
inflicted on the vanquished, llie munarchs
were inordinately fond of war and the cbase ;
anch pureuita Rnitified their wiid and impulsive
natures — to which the life of man and beast
bad no individual vdue. The omimon people,
of whom we know su little, were but the serfs
ctf the royal aaibition in fighting and bkiilding.
There van alflo an eitemdve cummerce. and
it brought wealtii and luxury. Assyria eic-
celied in the production of i>erf umes, of metallic
omaTQents, and of vana. cuuchcf, and rubes.
On one slab is the representation of a plouL'h,
vith something like a contrivance for sowing
in drills. Silk was a nativf pruJuction, and
i tartefully dyed and worn. Indeevl. the

;s bnl II

Nineveh. The sculptures are full and life-like,
freer anil m"re natural than those iif Kgvpt.
and many of the articles of furniture afford
model* worthy of imitation at the present
day. The vues, formed of clay, ore moulded
with exquisite taste, and the metallic oma'
mentsarb of MiniLirskill and beauty. Ktalxir-
tM embroidcty ilistiuguiabes the rolies of tlie
kins, anil the ear-rin^. bracelets, and cImjic,
worn by the courtwuithe upper clauses, ore all
of elegant form. The arms of the wonior,
(uch as the hilt of his dagger and sword, were
beautifully onuunenteil. Chairs and couches
were fumied of wnoil, the feet beiiw con-
structed of metal, and were often inlaid with
ivory (Sons iii. 'J, 10). Tho linn seems to
have been the most fn^iuent ornament od the
furniture, personal jewels, iiublic edilires, and
the thnino of the king. (Kee also 1 KL x. 10,
■20.) Snuiller forms of the same animal are
found in great abundance, and may have be?n
mwd as We^;hta. 'iliis chorocteriiitic natiomd
nsago seems to have guggestod the bold inter-
rogation of the prophet Kahum, — "Where is
the dwelling of the lions, and the feeding-place
of the yotinu lions, where the lion, even the old
lion, walked, and the lion's whelp, and none
Buda them afrwd? The lion did taor in

billion*

lionsMM, and filled hia nol— irith pwy-Mt

hia den* with tmvin" (Nah. ii. U, 13). Tiit
itrildng accumnlation, aa well •■ npetitioa at
the naaea of the lion, lootnree Nmarehwitt
peculiar appro|niateneiB ; and the propbet aln
meant to insinuate that the boaatedlieniismaiid
pioweia which had made the rojal quadumgd
the prime figure in the national henUrf
would shrink at length into degrading and
ruinous coirardice, and that this cheriahsd ds-

Handbuck, ■. 387), and Kona rf
them oloaely reaemble the same articln rf
Egyptian manufacture. The ginoait) ti
buth king and people were looae fiuiring
drapery, that gave a graceful and often a n»-
jestic appeaxanoe to the wearer. '■'"-" wddI,
and silk were employed in the prodnctian
of these fabrics, and designs were wrou^
upon them with peculiar ingenuity and sphs-
doiir. The Assyrian stole was woven with
oriental magnificence, and worn witli a stately

The spear, sword, dogger, and bow were
the early Assyrian weapons. The soldien,
especially such as fought in chariots, wen
clad in close tunics of koIt armour. Tb*
archers wore an embroidered tunic, and the

the foot of the walL Moveable towen wan

Krmettmes employed, the topi of which wen
on a level with the walls of the besii^
fortress. Thus Eiekiel says (iv. 2), "Lay siege
against it. and build a fort against it, and cut
a mount against it i set the camp also ogwnst
it. and set battering-rwns against it roand
about." Vaiious mode* of assault are in thi*

bnridend olotlis often oovend tbsir bicks.

TtiMe vuioni modea of wuttxt in ■otoal uid

■acoenful operation are powerfully fcnmwil

and deHcribcd by the prophet

'Eiekiellixvi. 7-12).

The religion viaa polytheistia
Anburwu the chief of the gnda,
Mid he hod aumemiiB subordi-
nikteg or colleagues, all Hpparcntly
connected with pLuiet worship.
Hia aymbol waa a wini-eii globe
or drcle, usually BMociated with
the sacred tree. Several altan
have been di»coTBrcd, and Bome
of them have on thorn marks of
blood. BeligHous emblems are
found on houses, gun

:. Ther

n of Job (xxxix. 19)— "Strang in
ick clothed with thunder ; pawing
d smelling the battle afar off, the

(L 8) characteriiei with terrible
^^ft^h^^fg power of a char^ of As-
■airy, — Their horses are swifter
xipariis, and are more fierce than
f wolvea : and their horsemen shall
UMlTes, and their boreemen shall
^jtlu^ihallflyaa the eaele that
sat,"

eliMiot is often reprasented on the
mlptnre*. On ita aides were bome
1, ft bow, jkTeliii, and battle-axe ;

irship was also connected ..
strange componite animal figut
winged human-headed hulls, in so

tianal

ith

and the Hebrew cl . ,

These characteristic and fcrotesqufl figures
guarded the entrance of the palaces and satTed
edifices. Many spedmens are now in tbt>
British Mnseum.

The goveniment was despotic, and was inti-
mately associated with the rcli^on of the
country. The kin^ apneais to be a kind of
high prieit ; the H-inKed glo1)0 is always near
him, his wea]Hins and ornaments have sacred
figures on them, all hifl acti have a religious
aspect, and his palace was a species of

The 'language was Shcmitic. or allied to
Hebrew, Chaidaic. and Arabic Many rf
its words and terminations are Hebrew, with
^ht variation. Thus the definite article
occupies a middle positioD between Hsbi«w
and Arabia ; ita nnt peraonal pronoun ia
47

Mmtial wiOi tlie nme wnrA n H hreir tha I of t!
tiunl peno lol [ n tioua aaH ed tu II brew mod | inni

Hebrew uid Arabic aitiola^ and itaon-
una ftra Hebnv n louiid and irniriii
oun Snt pcnoa ringnbr fa

tteaAimpIei; third hhb
sin^tor tnucnliaa u m,
UeWw Kn; amoDg Ot

emonrtratiTe pnitwoBi b
Anoa "^ We nujraov
D ze n tlie Anriiaii Ti^

onoaa both of tlie Udnv
and Cboldee ooDJiiCitiw*
rba Assyrian verb m ft*

ri.l«nte nuikn the diftiie-
t n of persona by {nfiu^
Ike tJie Hebrew fatom
The etters are called cnBte-
fora or weds ' ' '

tbe alphabet » ^_

For Uie Bake of diitiiiction, i
wars uaed, thui Y matlu that thi

;c-ehwed,aal
was irllataEin

noun folluwins is a duui*i nuna ' The plural
fa dintingaished lif M< and the dual by

in tho Britiiih MiiBeam. The iniicripti<inB are
not only on nickti anil BL-iba, bnt also on cLiy
cjlinden, tho c^horoctcra Iff-int; >taint>eil apnn
the hut liy Nome trintibiilar imttninient. Cylin-
' ' -■ — inil ewlil iddes, and 2 — ■■ '■ -■ --

re of the (jreftt palace*. Very recently a

fragmentary canon has been found to record
bh eclipse, which must have happened 15tb

c. TKI.

Many prophecies of Jonah, Nahnm, and
Zephaniali were fulGlIed in the overthrow of
the Assyrian empire and of its capital, whiuh
are more BpcciiiUy reFerrsd to uniler Niht.tch.

Tlio partial rc«u»ciUtion of Nineveh is in-
deed one of the wonders of modern enterprise
•nd enthnsiaxm. Tbe lucceai of Botta and

T^yard— the investij^tioi

<1a1>s

M of relic

estigations

....-tho imn

dn^ np from the

the magniticent throne

sat the Assyrian monarch 3,000 3reu« _q-
with sbiehK swonls, crowni^ bowU, and oiM>
mi-nts in ivory and mother-of-pearl — tlieaa anl
other eitraoniinory diacoverica almcat enabla
1UI to realise the picture of Nineveh inidrannd
days of ancient fame and crandeur. ISeeEtua-

H* DDON , N INEV KTT, P L-I, Sa HGON, SESNACHlim
SUAF.MANKy.KR, TlULATH-riLESER, ftc)

ASSmt.iN(.:K. 1. Op I'HDEWITAKDIM

(CiL ii. 2), is a full knowlcd^ of divine thing!
founded on the declamtion of the Scripturea.

2. AiwrRASCE OF FAITH (Heb- x. 221 ii •
firm belief in DmHt, as Gvd has reveled bim
to ua in tlie ^ripturee, and an excloaive de-
pendence on him for salvation, to be felt and ,
cherished enpeciallv in the exercise of prayer.
The scriptural use of thia 1 ihrase diilers thus ftow
ita ordinaiy meiming in systems of theology.

ASS
3. Assiit-urcE OF hope (Heh. ri 11).

The

blase mean.* a firm eicpectation that God will
rant us the complete enjoyment of what he
u proim««:d.

ASTAROTH. (See Ashtaroth. )
ASTROLOGERS (Dan. ii. 27)-a claw of
len who pretcnde<l to f un^tell future event* by
twervim; the znntionii of the heavenly bodies,
"he Krivnce of astrology is said to have origin-
ted in Chaldea, and m that country it wa8
racti>ef] univeraally. A leametl ca«itc, styled
' Chaldeans " even by the inhabitants of
(abjion, seem eopfc-ially to have excelled in
;. ^ It was practised even in Enj^land at a late
«riod ; and Horace alludes to it as prevalent
t Rome, under the title of " Babylonian num-
per*.'' (See Babtlon.)

ASUTPIM, HOUSE OP (1 Chr. xx\-i 15)—
ome one of the apartments of the temple
rhere the stores were kept or the elders
dsembled.

ATAI). (See Abel-vizb.um.)

ATH ALT AH— rtmeiaberfd of Jehovah (2 Ki.
d. 1)— the mothtr of Ahaziah. Ahab, king of
Untrl, ih aif hf r father, and her mother was the
notorious Jezt- U-L She married Joram or Je-
b^irani, kin^; iff Judah. The sacred biographer
^Yta Ler a mo^t odious and revolting char-
»ct<r. She advLsed her own »on in his wcked-
c»''<; an] r.ft-r Jehu ha<l slain him (nev
Akaziah), i-he n.-.s^»lvt<i to dt-stroy the childrBn
hi h'-T hiinl'and by his former wives, an«l then
tak- tl:>^ thrrjne nf Ju^lah. But Joho»heba, a ,
Lilf-^i>t. r lif Abaziah, secured Joa?-li, one of ''■
the ibiliin^n and heirs, and secri.-tetl him and
hiiniir-e ftir i*ix vt^arji. In the seventh year,
ever. tl. ill :^ Ik-Lu;^ l»r*;iiare«l for tlie purpose,
Ji;ii*li, thf yjiuuL,' prince, was brfm-^^lit out and
placoi '-n tilt- tlin-ne. Attracted by the crow<l
of j»t«iji!e vho h.od as-Hi'mble<l to witness tla*
Ci-rrm..Dy, and im"iU>iiicious of the cau«e,
Atialiab liii.^tHnnd t«» the tenijile. When the
[■■jiula'"- had ai-t'inbled, and when she saw the
youiu: kin'^' nn the thri*ne, and heard the shouts
■»f the j*-t jil', un«l found that all her ambitious
ift'I;.i;s weru likely to \xi defeated, she rent
btrcL.'thK.s ;ind crieil out, *' Treason, Treason,"
bopinLT prfjlvably to rally a j^arty in favour oi
btr iLt«TCst«. But slic was too late. The
f*ie>4 commanded her t«> be removed fram the
Urarj'K and nhe \vaj> put to ili.uth.

ATHKNS — 'if'* ojf Minfii'va (Acts xvii. 15) —
the capital of Attica in Greece, situated on the
>ircin.o Gulf. 4*1 miles east of Corinth and 5 |
rilea fr(«m the cons*. Its three harbours — the
PjTiM.i;,'.. MuFivchia, and I'halorus, and the
•r<«i»i I'iUg: \<'v.\[.^ l>y which they were joined to
Jljecicy— are often alluded tu in Grecian historv.
rht ar:li.it'-''tural beauty of the city, esiK?cially
»f ib tenji'le.s. has C'-mmanded the lulniiration '
>f all Kucceidini^ arren. Athens, by her com-
uftrcia] *.nl«=:ri>rL<e, c».'llecti'<l the richest pnxluc-
i«/na (if iiurroimdin^ countries. Her citizens
reft priud t»f their metn»i>4»lis, and often bled
'^r itii defenre ; yet the great prot)ortion of the
alial'iluJits were slaves, doomed to hopeless
Iniiigery.

The mtellectnal fame of Athens has also

£

ATH

filled the worliL ^ Its philosophers, poets,
orators, and historiant*, have Lieen the wonder
of all times. We turn with delighted fancy to
the Academy of Plato, the Lvcklm of Aristotle,
or the Porch ofc Zcno— to the forum where
Demosthenes harangued the people, or the
theatre where the dramas of Sophocles in-
structed and thrilled the critical and susce]itible
audience. In short, Athens was distinguished
not only for political importance and niiUtary
power, but lt)r the el(.>f|uenoe, literature, and
refinemcoit of its inhabitants. The accounts
of Athens contained in the Act-*, as t4) its
inquisitiveness and idolatr>', arc tilled .up by
pagan hist«>rians. ^lian called it the altar
of Greece -Petmnius affirmed that a god was
more ea^^ily and rea<lily found in it than a
man. Many other authors testify that it
was "wholly given to idolatry,'* and that its
inhabitants were not only *' too su])erstitious,**
or greatly given to the worsliip of the gods,
but were also notorious gossi{is, loungin-jr news-
mongers, spending their time in nothing else
*' but either to tell or to hear some new thing.'*
It is said that Athens containeil 300 places of
gossip. The shoi« of surge<ins and barbers
were the most famed resorts for gathering and
retailing news. This natural i>roiK.*nsity was
so gn>ss as to provoke m»t t>nly the cast ii,'ation
of forei-jrn writers, but also the riilioulc and
satire of their own ]»oL'ts anil philosophers.

The city was ** built nol»ly, pure tiie air,
and lij/lit'the soil." The limestone nK-k on
which Athens ht;uuls supplird tlie ordiujiry
material for its bniMinu's und aUo froni ninny
of its quarries the marl lie for its n«iM»T .^tnie-
tures. The ]'laiu is l>i>undi;il by ran,_;r.s of hills
—on the nortlj-west by Mount rarnes, «.»n the
south-east by Mount' llvru'-ttus, and on the
north-ea>t by Mount Pentelicus, out of which
rises the hii^'ner pinnacle- (if J^ycabeltns, l<»ok-
iu'^ upon tlie city as Artlmr's seat u}ton IMin-
burgli. Alwtut a mile siailh-wc>t fn.ui it, and
in the city, tlu?re rose the Acri.jHilis. n-'t unlike
Stirlin;^ cattle in theu]'per valley of tlie Forth.
West of it was a sinaller nn-k, the Arei)]iagus
or scene of jud-^'uient the council nii:etiu^' in
the opi-n air on its suuth-«-astern >umnnt, and
sitting on benches hewn out in the rock, which
forui three hides of a •luadran;.''!*'. Tu the .south-
west, and al.MMit a ipiarter <»f a mile from it,
there was anrither an«l lowrr eminence, the
Pnyx, the j»lace «»f the ;.|-reat iH»piilar a.-scmblit-s
— iiLsi) held in the open air uniler the deep blue of
a(jrecian sky- uith its hi inn or >tone blmk on
which the orator >tiXMl and aiiilre«>j«eii tin* crowd,
which gatheriird in a semicircular area of TJ.iHK)
square vards before him, and when- Si>lon,
Demosthenes, and Periiles often h|)oke to the
assembled "nn-n of Athens." l»aul visited it
alxiut A. H. 52, ami found the people sunk in
idoLitrv ami idleness. He pr.a<-hed there, and
V>ok occjLsion to reprove tiieir sujHT^tii-ions, lor
which he was sumnn>ned before the Areojiagua
(Acts xvii. lG-2;i). (Sec ARi:ni'A«irs,)

"NVTien brought to Mars-lnll tiie apostle thus
commences " Ye men of Athens, 1 i>erceive
that in ;dl thinirs ye arc few supcnftUiowi "—or,

4y

rather, " ye cawy your
fBTthar Chan mnst.'' T)

:e for the gads

_, The phraae, "too luper-

Btitious," KB implyiiig blame, is on anfortuoate
tnuiLBtioD. Tbe apuetle appeole simply to the
fftct, and not to its duhnkctor. He omy uttered
A comintmiilace, for the Ath^ftne vav uot^
among the other Grecian peoples for this pro-
pensity. They had pre-eminence in the acm-
pulous and unlimit^ attention paiJ by them
to the nattunal wnrship. The inspired orator
allucles simply to this notorious circnmstance,
but neither amileB at it in compliment nor
frovfna upon it in censure. The implication is,
that he came to guide and rectify this tendency
of tJie Athenian mind. It hod ontcrapped in
every pomililo way, and given a multiform
ejcpreiwion to itself m Bculj'ture and mowinry ;
but hia mission waa to turn it into the true
coarse, and lead it to the knowledge of tbe
one, pnre, invisible, infinite, eternal, and loving

Standing where the apostle did, he saw his
words verified all around him. Above him
was a temple of Mar*, from whom the hill took
its name ; and near him was the subterranean
•anctnary of the Eumenides ur Furies, but
usually called by the Gnt title, fivm the some
feeling which led the old Scottish pciiple to
name the foirieH the " good fulk," though they
were a wasjiish and capricious race. The
forum be hod left was studiled with statues,
the altar of the twelve gods being in its centre,
and the temple of Venus at its eastem end,
while on aU sides of it were deilied heroes of
the old mythology. Behind him was the Fnyi
•acred to Jove, and before him was the Acro-
i;»Us,iti sides and summit covered with religions
CO

monninents, every aTa3«bl« ledgs ladea^
its shrine or image, its platfomi* flilad 4

sculptured groupe of gc ■"- ' '"" '

-Lttitudes — " *

A temple of On
in which wn« ka

theum, with its enclosiirea and ita pmUk
deities ; the cave of Pan and Apdlo, with f
sacred fuuotun not far from its baas, ■
adjoining it the sanctuary of Aglaums; M
the Farthenon, crownioK the wh^e, the eodl
glory of the scene ; while oppoaite the magll
cent Propyhea, and formed out of the Ita^
of Marathon, was tbe gigantic bnmse atant
the goddess herself, with spear and ahidd— t
name-motherof theoity,anditi ' " '

In the north-west quiJter wa

Theseus and in the oj ^'

that of Jupiter Olympiut
was clme to tbe Pompein
the robes and vase* for the reli^ons pi

and B temple of the divine mother w

the great council -bouse, in whidi alao «i
shrines and altars. There were shrines, toOk
tbe princijiol gates. The altar of Pnnnetk
was within tbe groves of the Academy; al
the I.iycGum, with its toll plane trees, W
dedicated to Apollo. There were ^lo i
I-j-thium and the Delphinium, choracteriri
nnmes of temples, with those of Eiido^
CfiHtor and I'ollux, and of Serapia. Erl

dovntinn; every view was bounded Midfrina
H-ith fanes an<l idoU

ATONEMKNT (Lev. iv, 20; Rom. T. S
The word is evidently thus formed— al-Oi
MEST. When two enemies are reconciled, ■
are made to be it-one— the means by wU
they were pacified, or their itate of banoca

ATO

n ai-on€-menL In this ongiiial and old
;li3h senae the word is used by Shakespeare :

** He aeeks to make atonement
twoen the Duke of Qlo*8ter end your broChen.**

the word, in its popular nte, has a Yariety
jgnifications, sncn as reconciliation, satis-
ion or reparation, and expiation. It occurs
n in the Old Testament, but only once in
New ; thonc^ the sabject itself is presented,
illiutrated, and magnified in every variety
snn, and by all the force of repeated and
ihatic expression, both in the gospels and
lie epistles (Rom. iii — ^viii, and Heb. vii. —
inclaave). The term ransom (Job xxxiii
might be rendered atonement, and is so
lered in the margin. (See also Nmn. xvL
2Sam. xxL3.)

he Hebrew word rendered atonement sig-
ns forering (Fs. xxxii. 1),^ and the Greek
ion of this Hebrew wora is translated pro-
ainn in onr Bible; and may denote either
'. oar offences are ooveied^ or that we are
Ided and protected from the curse, Christ
ig made a curse for us. Generally, wher-
* the term occurs, a state of controversy,
»nciliation, or estrangement is implied;
in relation to the partjr offended, it imports
ethintr done to propitiate (Gen. zxxii. 20;
k. xvi C3). Tne apostles in referring
he death of Christ use those very terms
2h in the Septuogint version of the Old
junent are api>liea to legal sacrifices and
r effect— thus representing the death of
ist, not only as a real and proper sacrifice,
as the truth and substance of all the
ttlcal typeA and shadows — the true, effica-
B, and only atonement for sin (1 John ii. 2 ;
LO); showing that ChrLH is not only the
g or agent by whom the propitiation is
e, but was himself the prtjpitiatory sacrifice.
bnst's stouKment, or his obedience unto
h in the r<K>m of sinners, was the great
He of apostolic preaching (1 Cor. i. 23). It
in all subsequent times been the object
bving faith, and is represente^l by material
hols in the ordinance of the Lord's supper.
unns the grand theme of rejoicing in heaven
r. V. 9). The efficacy of it is such, that the
er, th<->ugh under the wrath of God and the
Icmnation of his just law, by faith in the
di^ blood of Christ, is brought into favour
I &.id, is delivered from condemnation,
made an heir of eternal life and glory,
be term atonement in Kom. v. 11 signifies
Dciliatiun ; but in our 7>opular theology it
aies the means by which reconciliation is
led to sinnen—the jHirfect obedience and
rioos death of the Son of Gkxl. It differs
idh Uite of it, therefore, from the term
option. Atonement is offered to God;
snptiitn, on the other hand^ is the blessing
'jored upon num. The design of the atone-
t is tij Hatisf^' the law ; the object of re-
ption U to hberate man from the curse.
Dement is expiation; redemption is our
rerancc from tne penalty and power of sin.
f ter all the vain philosophy and ingenious

AVE

■peculations of men to destroy or modify this
doctrine, which on the one hand humbles
sinful man, and on the other proposes to him
a perfect and glorious salvation, the atone-
ment made for him by the self-sacrifice of
Christ remains, and will for ever remain,
the essential principle of the Gospel. It
will for ever illustrate the dreadful smfulness
of sin. the infinite purity, justice, and mercy
of Groa, and the love of Christ which passetn
knowledge. No teacher of divine truth
to sinful men can build a consistent or safe
system of instruction on any other foimdation
than this (Matt L 21; xxvL 28; Mark x. 45;
John L 29; X. 10-18). He who rejects the
atonement, and tramples under foot the blood
of the Son of God, can point out no other way
in which a sinner can escape the damnation
of heU. (See Scape-ooat.)

Atonement, great day of. (See Scape-
goat.)

ATT A Til A (Acts xiv. 25) — ^known now as
Adalia, a city of Pamphylia on the Mediter-
ranean. It was visited by Paul and Barnabas
on their tour through Asia Minor.

AUGUSTUS— iwi€mW« (Luke iL l)-the
nephew and successor of Julius Cesar, bom
about B.O. 63, and emperor of Rome at the
time of our Saviour's birth. After the astias-
sination of Julius Cesar, he shared the govern-
ment for a period with Anthony and Lepidus,
but at length become sole emperor. He re-
ceived the title of Augiutus from the Senate
about B.C. 27. After hiM important victories,
universal peace was obtained, and the L'ates of
the temple of Janus were cloaetl. lie was
obliged to interfere frequently in the ixjlitical
affairs of Palestine. He reigned forty -one
vears^ and d\'ing in A.I). 14, was succeeded
oy Tiberius Cesar (Luke iiL 1). (See Cesar,
Armies.)

AVEN. 1. (Amos i. 5J A plain in Syria,
called also the Valley oi Ijtslianon, because
lying between the two ranges of the mountains
of Lebanon (Josh. xi. 17). The site is 8Ui)iM)8ed
to have been where the niins of Baol-bek now
are, 30 miles north of l^amoscus.

2. (Hos. X- 8) Bethel, which is sometimes
called Bethaven, or hoiu«e of iniquity, is here
called Avun, or iniquity itself, to denote the
extreme depravity wiucn pro vailed there.

3. (Ezek. XXX, 17.) (See Ox.J
AVENGE, AVEN(rKK (l.uke xviii. 8;

1 Thess. iv. G). Vengeance is an act of justice ;
revenge is an act of passion, lieucc injuries
are revenged : crimes arc avenged. The act of
avenging, which is the a(lju«lic;ition of the
jHinalty affixed to the statute which has been
violated, th»»iigh it may and must be atUmded
with the infliction of pain, is oftentimes lui act
of humanity-, and always sii])iM>sed to be an act
of justice, (iod is avenKwl of his enemies
when he vindicates his f)wn law, ami govern-
ment^ and chanujter, and i>unisliert man's trans-
gressions. An avenger is the agent or instru-
ment by whom the aveugemeut is visited on
the offending party.
Avenger of blood was a title giveu to o\i<i

V)l

AVI

who pursued a murderer or manalajrer, by
virtue of the ancient Jewish law, to avenge
the blood of one who had been murdered or
slain. (See Cities op Refuge.)

AVIM (Deut. ii. 23)— supposed by some, as
by Jerome, to be the same with the llivites, or
Avites, who dwelt near Gaza, and who were
supplanted by the Philistines. They dwelt in
"villages," or un walled settlements. Their
name signifies '* ruins "—the ruins, perhaps, of
an earlier aboriginal race.

AVOUCH (Deut. xxvi. 17). To avouch
here imports a solemn and deliberate choice of
Grod as a leader and portion, and an avowed
determination to obey him ; and on the part of
God, a solemn covenant to succour ana exalt
the Israelites as his people.

AWL. (See Ear.)

AXE — a well-known instrument for felling
wood (Matt. iii. 10)—** The axe is hud to the
root of the trees"- that is, the feller is pre-
pared, not to lop off their branches, but to hew
them down. The meaning of the figure ia,
that the destruction of the Jewish people was

BAA

nigh at hand, that the judgin«Dt of (
just about to be inflicted on them.

AZARIAR— helped of Jehovah (2 m.
There are at least sixteen persons of tl
mentioned in the Old Testament. T
distinfitiished of them was Asariah (ca
Uzziah), the son and succfissor of Ama
the throne of Judah. He was in many
an excellent kin^; but being elated
prosperity, he aspired to execute the
a priest, and to offer incense in the
In this he was resisted by the priei
while enraged by their interference, thi
broke out upon his forehead, and r
upon him till the dav of his death ; ao
was obliged to spend the latter iMirt of
in solitude (2 Chr. xxvl 21).

AZEKAH (Josh. xv. a5)-a place
tribe of Judah. The army of the PI
encamped near this place at the time
fell before David.

AZOTUS. (See Ashdod.)

AZZAH (Deut ii 23)— the m<ne
spelling of Gaza.

B

BAAL, or BEL (1 KL xviiL 21 ; Isa. xlvi
1)— the supreme god of Phoenicia and Syria,
and originally the name by which several
nations of the East worshipped the sun. The

Phoenicians styled the sun Bcel-Samcn, which
means lotxl of heaven. As he was worshipped
under different forms in different places, he
was designated by adding the place — as Baal-
Gad, Baal-Pcor; and these oifferent names
were all included under the general name
Baalim (1 Ki. xviii. 18). The multitude of
places connected with Baal, and of persons
named after him, shows the extent of his
worship.

Baal, Bel, or Belus, was worshipped by
the Carthaginians, Babylonians, Svrians, and
others; ana some have supposed he was the
same with Moloch, to whom the Ammonites
made their cruel and bloody sacrifices. Human
victims were offered to Baud, as we learn from
Jer. xix. 5. Elevated places were selected for
his worship, and his priests and prophets were
very numerous. Sometimes the tops of the
houses were devoted to this purpose (2 Ki.
xxiiL 12; Jer. xxxii 29). Baalim and Ash-
taroth were the general names of all the gods
and goddesses of Syria, Palestine^ and the
neighbouring countries. The worship of Baal
prevailed also through all ancient Scuidinavia,
and is supixwed to haTe been general through-
62

out the British islands. There were
superstitious observances in Lneland, S
and Wales, which very closely resen
ancient worship of BaaL A place ii
shire, on the borders of the Scotch hij
is called TUlid)dtane — ^that is, the emii
rising groimd of the fire of BaaL In
Beltein was one of the festival days, and
were made early on the tops of Uie hiUi
the cattle were made to pass throos:
This, it was supposed, secured them n
tagion and disease for that year. Tl
Beltein or Beltane, signif ving the fire ol
the name of the first day of May, ;
evidently some connection with sun-wc

The worship of Baal was a besettin
the ancient Hebrews. Under Ahab ei
a numerous hierarchy of priests was ma
for the service of tnis divinity. A i
teresting account of the manner in wfaj
were confronted by the prophet Elijah
in 1 Ki xviii The scene described
chapter shows the foolish and frantic n
their worship. No satire is more sevc
that of Elijah—" Cry aloud " said hi
men who leaped upon the idolatrous al
gashed themselves "with knives and
m the vain hope of propitiating their
divinity ; " for he is a god : either he is
or he IS pursuing, or he is in a jou
peradventure he deepeth, and must oea
It was customary with ancient natioi
corporate the name of their gods with
nomen they assumed. Thus Jah or <
is found in Elijah and Isaiah; £1 (
Daniel, Ezekiel ; so Baal is used for i
purpose in such names as Hannibal, A
JezebeL

Baal, house of (1 Ki xvi a2), is tl
with the temple (or place of wonuip) o

BAA

fiMKniAnL)

«H— JBmI ^ tt« oPMMnrf (Jndg.
^raniii^ipQd by tiio BMn q£ ShMhiflnk
SiAD— AmI 9ijvrtmm%w daiki^ (Joth.
fi. 7; Jiidg. in. ^— AoityiiitheTalky
BOD, ni^nMd to haiw^ besn under
lOTmoDL and piolMlily the Mine m
iBKNr (i Gbv. T. SGn. A ooo^ariMm
■(■■gas in which tfaw jplaoe ii named
Hfiae na to the opinion thai it waa
BtauewUero in the norUieni limit of
aanqneat; all the ooimtryfrom it to
p Inrawting Anti-Lebanon, remaining

HAMOV — lord </ nmUitude — a j^Aoe
lolanMn had a laige ▼mfljard (song

BABOS— lord tf a vSiofe—m place by
of Ephnim (2 Sam. ziii. 2Sn.
tatm—lord of hdbUaUom (Nam. zziiL
II zxt. 9) — a city of the tribe of
called alao Beth-meon ( Jer. zlviiL 23),
b-baal-meon (Jodi. xiii 17).
non (Fa. cvi. 88)— Baal wonihipped
The wonfaip conneoted inth this
inity was of the moat openly Uoentioas
*'Tliey went to Msl-peor," Bays
''aikL aeparated themadvea nnto that

RiAinc— lord of Irm^et (2 8am. t.
laoe in the valley of Bepluum, a few
nth-west of Jenualem, where David
sd the Philistines. The name in the
is sicpificant of this victoiy ; and hence
son m Isa. zxviiL 21.
BHAUSHA— a place near moimt Eph-
KL iy. 42).

fAMABi—iord of^ the palm tree—tk place
leah in Benjamin (Jndg. xx. 33).
BBUB. (See Bkklzebub.)
lEFHON (Exod. ziy. 2, 9; Num. xzxiiL
tion of the loraelites at the northern
y of the Red Sea, corre8p<»idiiig to
lere there was a temple for the worahip
Brace supposed it to be the name of
oose or signal station, at the north
< of the bay, as the Hebrew word
leans noii^

l7AH (2 Ssm. iv. 2)— one of the sons
Mm, and an officer in the army of Ish-
Saol's son. In company with his
Rechab, he entered the house of Ish-
at noonday, and stabbed him as he
; upon the bed. Taking the head of
tim with them, they flea to David at
sapposing that he would reward them
for the head of each an enemy; but
«n it, he was indignant at their cruel
aidlv conduct, and forthwith caused
be slain, their hands and feet to be cut
bhear bodies to be publicly suspended
pool at Hebron.

(HA (1 Ki XV. 16) was the son of
and oommander-in-chief of a portion
rmy of IsraeL When Nadab, icing of
aa Dwteffinff Gibbethon, a wy of the
ea, Baasba formed a coospuiicy a^nst
i mnidered him, and immediately

BAB

iHmpad tiie tiiraie, which he heid to twwiyw
four vean. To seoore hhnself against any
distnrbanoe from the fsmily of Jeroboam, be
oaosed them all to be pat to death, lathis
croel act he undesignedly fulfilled the propheej
respecting Jeroboam's posterity (1 El xiy. K^l

Baasha followed in the wicked ways of
Jeroboam, and was visited with the most
fesrful judgments of God. The warning ha
rooeiyed ofthe consequences of his condoot
(1 Ki xvi 1-5) did not induce him to forsake
his evil course. His reign was filled with war
and treachery, and his family and lelatiyea
wero cut off, according to the prediction fl Ki.
xyL9,ll). (SeeAflA.)

BABEL (tower ory^conhuion (Qen. zi 4-9)
—was built in the plain of Shinar, by the de-
scendants of Noah, to serve as a national
rallying point, and thus to seouro their onion,
concentrate their feehngs and interests, aaoa
provent their dispersion. Their design was
that the whole world should be one vast king-
dom, and that Babel should be its capital or
chief dtv. This seems evidently to have been
the design of the ''builders.'' It has been
sometimes thoufl^t that they raised the colosnl
stracturo as a nlaoe of lenige to the top of
which they mignt ascend, should the earth be
visited by another flood. But why, if such
was their purpose, did they found the tower
" on a plain," and not take advantage of the
additional elevation afforded by some pi the
lofty mountains? There was deep impiety in
the attempt— there might be idolatrous pur-
poses connected with it — ^but the main design
IS expressly declared in these words, " lest we
be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole
earth." Their object was then to thwart the
divine purpose in peopling the world, by the
dispersion of successive colonies from the
original seats of mankind, and to erect a
mighty empire whose centre and metropolis
was to be this gi^pmtic edifice and the dtv
around it. But this tower was left unfinisheo,
and cannot be identified with any existing
ruins. Their vain and presumptuous design
was frustrated by the miraculous interposition
of God, who confounded their language, so
that it was impossible for them to understand
each other's speech.

No course could more effectually secure the
dispersion of men than the confusion of tongues.
Comparative philology leaves us in no doubt
that one language ori^nally prevailed— the
mother of all existing dialects ; and that only
by such a miracle as happened at Babel could
so many forms of speech have been so early in
existence as history attests. The sudden and
perplexing visitation, breaking up social inter-
course, and deranging all the orainary opera-
tions of life, makmg the words of one man
unintelligible to his neighbour and so loosen-
ing the bonds of society, must have convinced
its victims that this startling confusion was the
work of an angry Grod. So they parted from
necessity, and planted themselves over the
world— spreading into Africa, and reaching
over into the vast continents of America. Tho

63

BAB

divine pmpose wm accomplijihed— %lie world
was peopled. Man is found in ail climates —
in remote islands — and under evei^ yariety oi
external circumstances. His constitution suits
itself to every latitude, and his colour varies
with every temperature. He possesses the
globe.

Babel is one of the cities mentioned in Gen.
X. 10 as the bef?inninjir of the kin'rdom of
Nimrod; probably meaning one of tne cities
founded by him, or one of the chief cities of
his kingdom, and is the same as

BABYLON, BABYLONIA. The territory
Babylonia or Chaldea, lying between the Ti-
gris and Euphrates, and stretching west to the
edge of the desert, may be estimated as about
400 miles in length and 100 in breadth. It is
flat throughout, being everywhere intersected
with canals, and was most remarkable for its
fertility. It was the only country in which
wheat grew wild. The date t>alm grew very
luxuriously, and supplied breau, wine, vinegar,
honey, and meaL Crops of all kinds also
Yielded an immense return. But lar^e portions
nave now become wastes, for the ancient water-
courses are choked up and useless. Jeremiah
had prophesied, " A (u*aught is upon her waters,
and they are dried up,** so that she has become
the "hmdermost of nations — a wilderness, a
dry place, and a desert: because of the wrath
of the Lord it shall not be inhabited.** At the
same time an opposite phenomenon has been
produbed in several ])laces ; for other districto,
gathering in the water upon them, abound in
marshes producing forests of reeds — ^for drain-
age has been neglected — ^as, indeed, Is^ah had
luredictcd, " I will make it a possession for the
oittem, and poola of water ** (Isa. xiv. 23).

The oldest name of the country was Shinar
(Gen. X. 10 ; XL 2), and the common Hebrew
designation is Aram-Naharain— Aram or Syria
of the two rivers. It is called in the later
Scriptures Chaldea, or the land of the Chasdim.
The terms Babylon, Babylonia, are connected
in Gen. xL 9 with the Hebrew verb which
signifies to confound, " because tlie Lord there
did confoimd the language of all the earth.**
In Gen. x. 10 we are told of Nimrod, son of
Cush, that " the beginning of his kingdom was
Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh.**
Four other cities are said in the next verse to
have been built by him. (See Abshur, Aastria.)
Babel, the Unit of this tetrarchy, is Babylon.
As Nimrod the builder was a son of Cush, it
may be inferred that the first inhabitants were
Cushitcs, as also the earlier inscriptions plainly
indicate. In opposition to clear scnptund
statement before them, historians have held
that the earliest population were Shemite, or of
the same race as tlie people of Nineveh. As
the language spoken in Babylon in the days of
Nebuchadnezzar and the Biblical and Talmu-
dic Chaldee differ little from Hebrew^ it has
been maintained that the like similarity had
always existed. But it has been proved by
the recent reading of monumental inscriptions
that a great change had happened before the
period referred to, and that the earlier Cushite
54

BAB

race was oveipowered, and gradually amalgi-
mated with the conquerors. Amoiiff the »
cavations made at the old dties of oenk
Warka^ Mugheir, and Niffer, there ha^
found inscriptions in a very different
from that of the later Babylonian tribih-t
tongue, "decidedly Gnshite or iGthioaii&^
The early colonists of Babylonia were uaiil
the same race with the inhabitaiita of thi
Upper Nile ; and this quite acoords willi thi
ethno^phical chart in th« tenth chi^itar if
Genesis, which represents Mizraim (B^pl) ■
brotherof Cush, father of Nimrod. There M^
however J to have been other i>eopleB in primitiw
Babylonia; the Cuvhite hui£[uage is nua^ri
with many Turanian. Semite, and Axym
elements. This very old emi>ire may have Mi
founded twen^-three centuries B.C. ; but eiMt
chronology is lost in hopeless obscurity. Vt
or Hur was apparently the primitive outtiL
and Calneh was the chief seat of the wonuip tl
the deified Nimrod. The Greek IcraidB aba*
Belus must be discarded as worthleML Oh
early monarch called, in Ovid^ Orcbamnii ad
seventh in succession from this Belus, ii Bflir
identified with Urukh, the first moiuurch d
whom any remains have been found. He «■
apparently a great builder; and he was ■»
ceeded by his son Ilgi, who completed sane if
his works, especially the temple of the Mmb
at Ur. These two sovereigns are the sevoitt
and eighth kings of the first Chaldean dyflMJf
of Berosus. Other kings are Ismidagon, J»
anu-duma, the builders of the cemeteiMi ib
Mugheir ; and several kings follow, the flilt
syllable of whose name is Sin, signifying Mook
Bricks found at Senkereh, having on them thi
royal name of Puma-piiriyas, and oihen '
ing the name of Durri-galasi have been
at Mugheir. This oldest of empires _
lasted seven centuries, when it was ovc
by an Arab invasion, or by a foreign SemitiB
race. But their old language was prescmi
by a learned caste not^ as the GhaldsMi
among the sooth8a3rers and astrologers in tht
book of Daniel, and their Cushite fihanwhr*
istics in course of time were all but oUitenitidt
llieir arts were in a crude state ; the bnildiBfl
had no architectural pretensions, and many of
the war weapons ana mechanical tods were of
stone or flint. Bronze knives and hi
have, however, been found. No silver
have been disinterred ; but earrings oi gcdd an
met with. Astronomy had made some protrai
among them, as is shown by the poeitioii of tki
temples, the four angles of which face the Cow
canunal points, anu different forms of disk
had been invented. What science they faadi
degenerated in course of time ; but in other landi
it was famed, so that the Latin poets chaiae-
terize fortune-telling by the epithet "ChaldeHiL''
Their polytheistic religion was chiefly astral iB
character, and the heavenly bodies had thdr
male imd female idol representatives.

Seven hundred jrears pass away, dmiag
which the kingdom of N^imrod the fonndtf,
Urukh the builder, and Chedorlaomer the WB^
nor, is overrun and wasted, changed to agnil

B in iU gloiT *■■ pn>bkl)]7 ths
T of the wdtIo— laiger gntUj than
acndotiu, who itw it -»~ •'■-
iti ^OTi tBUi deacribea

"Iti.

ighiii»,^«^jtfP*oich, uinlnvth
ip; tha ipaoe, thnrfwv, occa^Mb]'
iiaWOfuilinig*. 80 eztenaive ii tha
hich Batnlon ocxnpica. Iti inteitwl
id nMgni&cciiaa eicwd vh«tever hu
mi mf knmrledge. It ii nuToimded
ranoh ynry wide, deepv ind fi>U of
n wall bcTotid tUi is an} tvval cntnta

« widft It win not ha foreisn to
n to dcacribe the nse towhiim the

out of the trench wu oonTBrted, u
M nitknUr maimeF in which tixev
td ths w>U. The euih at the trench
< mil laid in hcKP". ■»^ when ■ niffi-
iti^ waa obtained^ made into aqoare
jd b^ed in a foimwe. The^niolaa
MmpMitioa of heated Intumen, whidi,
th the topi of Teedi, waa placad
•vetv thirtieth ooutaa of biidu.
!nu lutad the lidn of the trench, the;
1 to build the wall in the aanie man-
ia Munmit of whidi, and fnmtiiig each
ij areoted aull wateh-towen of one
nvag a apace between them thnmgb
faaiiot and four honaa might pan ud
I the drcamfemice of the wall, at

diitancaa, were a hundred many
braai, whoae hingn aod fiamta weie

;ieat rirer EuphTstea diTides Babylon
parta. Tha vails meet and form an
h the river at each eitremity of the

rnlucinsthe ilimcnaiiinii t>i neurly a L Jf ; aiiil
thereati1ti>ruliiili1y iH, that thu city wob iiut far
from 40 luiiL's in circumfi'rrnu''. It was a
fortified district ratlier thui a wallwl tuwn : the
whole apace eucloaed was not built on. Agti-
cnhoial oparationi ware carried on within ths
titf. Bnt some of the statements of Herodotus
— '^utlyopentn question. Hie height id the

waa, he aaserts, 200 royal cnbita, or about

335 feet, and SO cabits in width— an evident ex-
aggeration. Clitarcbus and Strabo bring them
down to 7G feet in height and 32 in width,—
that is, they were of thie altitude in the penod
of Alexander. That the^ were oiigiaally very
lofty and very wide admits of no doubt. The
prophet Jeremiah says, in allusion to them,
|li 63, 63) " Thoueh liabylou should mount up
to heaven, and though shu should fortify the
height of her strength , yet from me shall spoilers
come unto her, soith the Lord. Thus soith
the Lord of hosts; The broad walls of Babylon
shall be utterly broken, and her high gates Aall
be Iramed with fire ; and the people shall
labour in vain, and ths folk in the fire, and
they shall be weary." The " hanging gardens "
formed a square of 400 Greek feet on a height
of 76 feet. Dome up by many tiers of anmea
bmlt on one another. The surf ace was planted
rare trees and shrulM: some of the trsea

of prodigious siie, being, accordim to

Qnintus CurtiiiB, 12 feet in diameter. Water
for irrigation was pumped up from the Eu-
phrates. Beautiful chambers were reared
among the open archce. All the stnicturea,
walks, houses, palaces, templts. and towers,
were of brick cemented with bitumen, with
occasional layers of reeds. Yet onnposed as it
was of this homely material it wfes a city of won-
den— populDUB and proaiKnius, "the gulden
city," the giory of tha kingdoms, the beauty of
the ChsldeeB' eii^ellency." But according to
old predictioDR it has "become heaiia" (Jer. li.

It* bricks bear tho n

.« of Nebncluulncziar.

i* kbout TOO yards long and 600
s height of over 70 feet It rpprawnui uie
fitmoiw palace of Nebuchadneixar, Anotlur
rnaund in the ridiiity, called tlie Amrao, in an
older royal edifice^ and does not^ aa aome eup-
pcH, represent the >ia>i[yi>^]r gardens, for it is
''.J larger. But the most remarkable o£

^reatlj larg

thB<

•sNim

veUen

of ?

etroiieonsly took it for the tower of BabeL
The Bira Nimrud faai Nebnchadneizar'i
name and title od its bricks aa its builder and
kdonier. (See Nebo). The ruins of the Bira
Nimrud are nearly square, each aide being
600 feet Ions-, the summit is irrefl:ular, the
highest part being about 140. But the famous
(tages of which it naa built were deatroyed by
invaden and conquerors ; and for twenty cen-
turies it haa served as a brick qTzarry. Tbs
rubbish WM BO great at Ateiauder's visit that
he employed 10,000 men (or some weeks to
clear it away, bo as to show the foundation.

Tbe Babylonians of the second empire were
"a mingled people" (Jer. L 37) — Semitic,
Turanian, and Cushite — the fint acquiring the
predominance from two dynasties uf Arabian
rnlera, aa is seen in their language. They wore
their hair long, and uriualTy are represented
with a large beard. Under Nebuchadnezzar,
they carried their arms from the Tigria to the
Nile. The bow waa a chief weapon. They
had ihort daggers, and they hod also spears,
aies, and iron chariots. The Hebrew pruphe '

vividly chancteriie them (Jer. ir. 39;

Lxvi. 10). Their cavalry was mistlcM
. 6), and to the Hebrew imagination tha;
'ery formidatile. They were cruel to ths
jvea; and a hook in their jawa was no
but a savage reality. Helpless peopli
massacred and mutilated in cold blood.
bad made Bome progress in the nrts, 1
they fell^eatly short of tLeir Aarfrian
bours. Their pictured scenes are im
enamelled bricks, what Eiekiel calla — "i
of the Chaldeans portrayed upon the wa
vermilion" (iiiiL 14). They could o
precious stones — even the hardest of
Glass was in use, aa found in small vaia
andtJieyhadbeautifully-ahapedjugsof «
ware. Iheir woven fabrics wen fai
made of finest cotton, and dyed vrith b
ooloura, which arc bo attractive to the 0
eye. The "goodly Babylonish ganne
the days of Joabus, was coveted by
(Josh. vii. 21). Its dotbs vera fania
in the Soman empire ; and the mantla
Gate sold, because he thought it too ■]
for a conscientious Roman to wear — i
aa the hangings for a single apartment,
coat 800,000 sesterces, or more than =
— are almost pmverbial evidences of th
mous prices paid far the pruductioni
Babylonian Iwma Such, indeed, wa
real or suppoaed eicellmce, that one of
dining-rooms, aa Pliny (vii. 48) tells 1
hang with Batiylonian tapestry at an ezi
nearly £32,300 (4.000,000 of aesteroca
value of these manafactures was deci'
only from their materials, but froro thmi
dyes and elegant patterns; for they ra

»— recorJed planttary ocCMlt.itioHi- -
BOn-iiial^ — kuKW tho true Icii^h of
rear—could calculate eclipses, and had
i the praiod of 3^ tuiiationa as ■
mat. Hippuchiu has deacribed five
imattiHowuhj Otoe old star-gueia.
KOonn' «■•, bowsvm, laigtl; miagled
artnuogr; tlicdr learned men were

ileana "— Uis liivt tlie remaiiu <^ m
native oata whom Uctwlutua calls
" Ei^el pntenta a vivid sketch of
inatioiu (iii. 21 22). Tha dren of
T eljan of Babykmiiuii wai a linen
:fainf to the t«t, with a woollen tuaic
ver it^ a ihort cape or doali of a white

0 theiT feet the; wore a low buKkin
xxlen aole. TLejr confined tbeir long
h a tnrfaan. Tbey were fend <^

•ad fniamea, in the cnnuins pro-
of which they excelled. The uiwer
'ore merely a tunic, fastened round
h a belt. Kingi and ptieati dreaaed
laborate Tohea.

m waa also famed for its eitMiBive
a. It waa "a land of traffic — a city
«ata' (Eiek. iviL 14). Splmdour
azj were lupplied from maritima
B — qnces, ivory, gold Bems, metals,

1 kenuea, or purple dye, were im-
MQ neislibourinff rrgiona. The pearl-
F tlia Penian Gcdf woa cultivated at

date, aod cottoti waa brought from
I Rgion. Bat their wealth brought

luniry— the dao^ter of tha Chal-
iphnided ai "tender and delicate."
raw prophet doea not forget tbeir pride
miganey of the proud, dis haughti-
ha terrible" — "oroud. moat oroud"

but if any of tUi;rn, drown by some one tiiat
pasRetb by, lie with him, ahe i^pmachcth her
fellow that nhe was not thought as worthy as
herself, and her cord broken." The govBrn-
Dient waa de«p>tic in the last degree, as is
sufficiently indicated in the openint; cha]>t<ni
ofDanitfL ThercHcion wa< notnnliketliitof
tbe tiraC empire, which has been sketched
already in this article. The same gods gener-
ally were wcr^pped — particularly Bet, Nebo,
and Merodach, which were often incorporated
with tho names of persons. 'JTiey were "mad
upon their iJi'ls" (Jer. L 3S). Tho temples
were of peculiar majjuiticence. auch as that of
Belus and that at Borsippo— the ISira Kironid.
Many eitraordinary prophecies were fnltilled
on the overUirowof Babylon — prophecies found
in lawah and JeremiaL The Lciieijcrs are
pointed out— Elam and the Medes— renowned
ai cavalry and archers, "holding bow and
lance." ''l will drv up her rivers," was the
prediction— the Euphrates was diverted. God
was to ojien before Cyrus "the two-leaved
gates, to break in pieces the gates of brass,
and cat in Bunder the bars of iron. " These pon-
derous portals yarded the entrance and exit
of the river which ran through the city. ' ' I
will make drunken her princes and her wise
men," is the divine utterance— the city waa
token during a night of debauch. " One post
shall run to meet another, and one mcjMoger
to meet another, to show the king of Babylon
that his city is taken at one eniT' — a crodible
Dci:urTenca from its size; and Herodotus men-
tions that the extremities of the place wi-re in

BAG

ieems to carry in it a pointed alliinon to the
voluptuous enormitiei) ot ancient Babylon.

It should be observed that the term Babylon
is used to denote— L Only the city (Isa. xiii
19; xxi 9; xlviii 20). 2. llie inhabitants of
the city, in distinction from the Chaldeans and
inhabitants of the proWnce (Ezek. xxiii 15,
17). 3. llio proWnce of Babylon and the
Babylonian empire (2 KL xxiv. 1; xxv. 27;
Ps. cxxxviL 1). 4. After the empire came
under the dominion of Persia, the Persian
kings are called kiwjt of Babylon^ (Ezra v. 13:
Neh. xiii) 5. Another Babylon is mentioned
in 1 Pet. V. 13, and it was probably the old
dty, where many Jews lived. Some, nowever,
tiJce it to mean Kome, and others regard it as
» small place so named in Egypt. (See Ghal-

DEA, NeBO, XeBCCHADKEZZAR.)

BACA— Heb., "the Baca," (Ps. Ixxxiv. 6)
— is perhajM the general name of any (Ireary
or desolate wuy ; and of course the allusion in
the cited posHage is to the joy of the wor-
shi])])er8 on their way up to Jerusalem, which
would make the Mnldemess api)ear to rejoice
and blossom, and fill a thirst}' hmd with springs
of water. Or, probably, giving a more literal
meaning to the words, the valley of Baca is
■ome d^ and sandy tract through which the
worshipi^ers i>a««ed as they went up to Jeru-
salem. It had no native springs to refresh
them. But they dug cisterns — rain fell and
filled them. From these wells tliey drank and
were refreshed, and so, their physical energies
being recruitcil, they went on from strength
to strength," till they api>eared before God in
Zion. ITie Targum renders it the valley of
Gehenna or son of Hinnom.

BADGEllS' SKINS (Exotl xxv. 6)— the
animal which we name the badger was un-
known in Arabia; nor, as it was an unclean
beast, would its skin be suitable for the pur-
]>oses mentioned in the sacred writings. The
opinion of some is, that skins of a deep blue
colour are meant, without designating the
animal from which they were taken. Others,
with perhaps more probability, think that an
animal of tne seal species is intended. These
animals were plenteous about the Red Sea.
The outer coverings of the ^tabernacle was
formed of " badgers* skins.** Now, seal skin, or
shagreen, would suit this purpose well, in pro-
tecting the tabernacle from the storms and
drifting sands of the Arabian desert.

BAHURIM (2 Sam. iil 16; xvi 6; xviL
18)— a place in the east of Jerusalem, and
leading to the Jordan valley, which has
many mteresting connections with the life of
Da^1d. (See Ahimaaz.)

BAGS (2 Ki. xii 10; Luke xiL 33). These
were made of various sizes, each to contain a
precise amount of money. We read that the
workmen on the temple were paid in bags,
which were probably oelivered to them sealed.
Even now, m eastern nations, money passes in
bags from hand to hand, under the seal of a
banker or other public officer, and without being
counted, as it is paid bv one to another. If
the seal is genuine ana unbroken, the ezMt

BAL

valne of each bag la known at m^jtA. At thi
present day, in some places of the Eatfe^ jmtm
u the current name of a definite sum of moMj.

BAKE (Gen. xix. 3). The business of bakii«
in early tmies was principally, if not ezdn*
sively, the work of women (iJev. zxtL 26; 1
Sam. viii 13; 2 Sam. xiiL 8: Jer. tiL IQ.
Thus Sarah prepared food for ner goeetii aad
BO did females of highest rank, as deMTibed bif
Homer. In Rome, as Pliny tells us, thevem
no such thing as a public baker for 580jma
It seems probable, from Jer. xzzvii. A ad
Hos. vii 4-7, that poblio bakers were knows
in later times, and they inhabited a furtifflilif
section of the cit^r of Jerusalem.

Cakes were thin bread, not nnlike modna
sea-biscuit, baked upon the hearth, and aan^
times covered with not embers or ashe^ Tki
process is a very speedy one. Robinson ajm
m one portion of his travels in Palestine^ '^ Ai
men were baking a laige round flat cake cf
bread on the enioers of a fize of camdiP uA
cows* dung. Taking it out when done^ th^
brushed off the ashes, and divided it amonff tin
party, offering us also a portion. I tastod iL
and found it quite as good as the oommon hnM
of the country.** Other methods were aha
employed (Lev. iL 4, 5, 7). Parched eon b
common in the rudest state of sodelj^ It k
mentioned as part of the prnent to I)wid|i
Sam. xvii 28), and it was also the (ky andrinnii
food which Boaz gave to Ruth (Ruth iL %
(See Bread, Cake, Ovens.)

BALAAM— <ferouf*fr o/tke peemEe (Noi.
xxiL 5^was the son of jBeor or fiosor, aal
dwelt m Pethor, a village of MesopotMua
He was a prophet, on some occasions mq^ind;
that ho was an unrighteous man is not condi-
idve evidence that he was not a pro^ci of
God employed for a tiarticular purpose (1 Ssm.
X. 10; 1 lu. XiiL 18-20; MatL vu. 22; Joim
xL 51).

llie history of Balaam is given us in Nun.
xxiL. xxiii., xxiv., and xxxL He lived whenthi
children of Israel were journeying from Egypt
to the promised land. Their numbers wwi
ver^ laige; and the kings of the country throogk
which they passed, and who did not know of
their miracidous supply of food, were feaifol
that a famine would be occasioned by tbair
depredation^ or that they woiUd attempt to
conquer all before them. Among these vis
BaJak, king of Moab, who, in his terror, had
allied himself to the Midianites. He Ionw
that he could not contend with such a fonnid*
able host ; imd supposing that the God of tka
Israelites was like the gods of the hnathni.
ready to bless and curse acoordinff to the 0^
price or interest of their votariesTne sent for
Balaam, who had the reputation of a fuMM
diviner, to come and curse the armies c£ I«mL
Balaam is associated with the five kingi fli
Midian (Num. xxxL 8). After heaitatioB i^

«

warning, Balaam accepted the tempting (Al
and returned with the messenffsra to Mow
(2 Pet. iL 16).

Balaam did not sin either for want of vam-
ing or want of knowledge. Naj, ha lom^

BAL

a eoiiTictiona of Aatf. With a per-
iption of vlut TU right. Mi mind
mjiellfd to • Tidoiu comw by its
Hi* huh of duty *■• ovBTboTOB by
>f tha "mga id muwhteomman.
>y, huwei-er, ha ww iDfoimed, by k
rxntliiuiy and ngniBcuit nimcle,
xrane «>■ wicked and perrerae, and
Ectoally rectnined bom Aaina what
iKiitforhimtodo. (SeeABB.) So
t, he wM led to prcnoanca a prophetio
m the Inaelitoi, in lansiu^ which
cue* and tone ia icaTcety aurpuud

I, finding himself thiis mtiained from

rthod" _,_

t mdolgmcefl of ths Moabitea ukl
» (Rev. iL 14). This stntaeKca was
L The Imelitn were >a (or enuiared
as the deatniction of 21,000 of their
n. «v. 1-9).

1 hinuelf feU shortly after in an
nit which took place between the
1 and the Midianitea. On the oharac-
laam the leader may eansnlt a ttiildng
land snTiioii by BishopBatler, from the
«t me die the death of ths righteons."
DAX. (See Hezeuui, Mehohach.)
JK (Sum. ijdi. 2) was a king ot tbo
L The chief incidents of hix hixtoi—
1 we have them,

BAN

ly pnni.hed (2 Ki. u. 23). The words
.. _nd bsidnesg are yet employed in the EUst
jpitheti eipressiTO of stupidity and soom.
BALM (a word contracted fn>m Balsam)
L_ .;; n=i . _._! Milistance ob-

signalti
bald an

{Gen. __, _ .

tained from the balsam
Abyssinia, but

■rthe

Js'CKS (Lev

lix. SB). Id the early
periods of the world
gold and silver were
paid by weight ; to that
persons emgiliiyed in
traffic of any kmd car'
ried with them a pur
of scales or bonces,
and different weights
(generally stones of dif-

or bag. Fraudulent
men would carry two
sorts of weights— the
lighterto sell with, and
the other to buy with.
This explains the allu-
sion, " Shall I count
tbf EprptlM t^.™ .P'S «■''•' t*"?
■BBTTK-i" Wicked balances, and

with the bag of deceit-
ts7- 'Mic. tL II.) (3ee Meaburks.)
iNESS (Isa. iii, 21}, when Toluntary,
4un of mourning and great distr^
L 18). A chief reason why involuntary
was n'garde<l as disgraceful was, tliat
iccasion to the suspidun of lepmsf , a
irhich usoally destroyed the hair,
ildness to declared by the law ni ' ' '

of Gilead,

and is heuca call-
ed the Balm of
Gilead. It is said
to be obtained
he following
.._, >-ThB b^
of the tree is cut
with an Kie, at
that period of the
year when the
Iresh juices are in

circulatioa, and
these issuing drop
by drop from the
inciuon, am re-
ceived into smsll
earthen bottles. The produce of every day is
poured from these smaller vessels into one of
larger dimensions, and ti;;ht1y corktd up- The
tjaantity exuding from one tree does not eiceed
60 dropn a ilay. The pungent and odorifemus

"'of thin balm is famed over the worliL
rv did it at ivQqth become, and so costly
was it, that Pomjty and Titus carried spcci-
' ;ns of it to Kome an trophies of their triumphs

tlie land where it grew. It was cultivated
chiefly aniund Jericho, and sohl often for twice
■■'- weight in silver. The treo from which it is
' "■ rgreen, growing to the height

'f 14 feet, and frr.u

he trunk ii smooth, and tile leuvus small
bright green in colour. Not only vi

it an important article i^ merchandist
he eastern nations {Exui. xxviL 17), but it
ros celebratnl for its healing properties, 'ilie
Lucient botoniKta ami phyucians arc eloquent
n its praises (.Ter. viii 22; ih-i. 11 ; U. NJ.

BAMAH (Kick. XX. 2U)-the general name
jf any high pl.icf. The plural Bamoth, liiu'h
placex, occurs in conneutiun witli liual (Jo^.

BAND {Acts ixi. 31). A band of l^imian

soldiers consisted of the tenth [loit of a legion :

mrsc, it varied occunlin;; to the siie of the

in, from 4U0 to 7U0 wddiers. Ilie wold is

used figuratively by the soercd writers.

OS in lius.

4. wli«
influenci . .
signifies apprchen

t den

« I*r

>nd in I-s.
and f

IS (Lev.

I the Lord, and was

(Isa. xlix. 221, or K.NSKjij (Iwi. v. ISi), are
probably used indiscrimitiatclv by the encred
writers. A standard pcrtaiucil to ea-jh of the
four grand divisions of the army of Israel, and
these were distinguislied from each other by
their colour, and perhaps by some embroidered

conjectures u to the fnrm and other peculiari-
tiea of th«e tribal badsi-g, Anothrr stanJard
for >uli(livi>uii)a was [irulialily notliiiig more
than ■common B|MU>r richly btimuihed or-om*-
iQcntol. IlieKfyi'tULnprincriuiwilBBtancIard
like this, iniriniiuDtvii with a boll of gold.
There wa* uniithcr utimdard iii nw) umong th<
Jewa, which in called a, bfaean (lea. iii. 17).
It wiw statiuniii}-. emctiil on lofty mnimtaiiiB,
•od UMsl u a mllyiii;,' tok.'n. (Comp, In.
iviiL 3; luL 10-1L>; Jur. iv. 5, C, 21: VL 1 17-
li]2.27.)

Tbe bannor nu nnfeiirallT, from its initrtia]
nw, n-^ardisi aa a mlljHni.--r'".iut, as a tok.'n of
jmitection, and oa tlio pMua of fiiielity (Pa,
XX. 5; li. 4: Hvmg iL 4|. Kome writ.^re hnva
■uppoavil tliat the ancient Jewiflli eDBi;:^ was a
hmg pole, on tho top of wliich vas » i;rnte not
tmtike ft uhaGni! dish, modti of iron bara. and
■upplied n-itli iirt the tiiL-, hefitht, and shape

of which denoted the piirty or con '-

whom it bclunecd. IhJH mana r
doBcribe the nij^ht-tordicB of ]^tem
mcDt& The sliaiie, Ae., ..f tiu- Romii
•rda are men under thK article Ahominaulk.
God'ii lifting or setting u}> a banner in a mm
expnsuvc figure, and imports liii peculii
meaencc, protection, and aid in Jeadmg an
directing,' fiiii pvi>]>lu in the tiecutiun of h_
rightwiaB will, and giving them comfort and
peace in his m^rvice (Siinc ii. 4). (See War.)
BANOUKT. (SeeFEA«T.)
BAII'IRM (Matt iiL 7)-ui ordinance n
religioui rite which wan in use before ou
Saviour's minintij commenced (seu Johh'
ItAPTiiui), but winch ho ri'Cii^iEeJ and mad.
olditi-atory apon his difciplen aa a Uhriutian
onlinance. Id the du? admin istratirm of thii
rite, the washing of water becomuH tbe sign ni
emblem of inward puritication from sin an^
nncleonnesa, while the Hubject of tlio rite ii
intri'dnced into a pcciiliiir rehition to Christ
and his Church. Ablution won a constant prac-
tice under the tloeoic di'ipenBation. ^Vut<.T,
the onlinniy medium of cli:an.'<inc, becomes an
appropriate iiymbul nf spiritual puritication.
It IB alfo Bupjjowed a probable thing, that pro-
selytes from tlic heathen , on makinsa prottwiion
r .1 ■ f.'.T. .-.. T..I..- _. ji-ure Laptiaed " ^"

admi

,i..ly:

tthoi

jf Christianity. It is But ourpmWnce to enter
into the numerous disnu tea about tliis ordinance
which have agitated the C'hurch. Snub dispute*
are— W)ietlier should bnplium bo dispenaed in
the form of Bjjrinklinp, jiifiiaion, or immBraion?
—Ought infant! to be baptiasl. or only each
adults as am able fmm convictirn tomoksal
public profewion of faith in Christ! — Is l"ap- i
timi the mark of a catechumen or the nriTileito I
ofabelieverf Bai.tisnr. U a Bolemnorinanoo, |]
ciciting saluUiy reflectinns. and lesdmg *
peculiar oblieations. Yet the ordinance IM
been aodly abused. Tbousanda of pi
example, travel every year to *>"•
iiathe in it on the ■uppi«ed d'
Uftimi in ita waten, ar-' ''~'

-■■hlnJ 1 ■- " ■ ~

■Htn, It Sail a te. li tImW
•bw AiO f«i; Otm ymm mm

lAaK kin. »). Asw tW Jm
■n «•• iwd to tk* Enrd. Tu
StaV* (onrda it brfbckiliK it
^knvlA (roTD THpeet araHzrlMT,
^■poa msolt. wbils to kia a,
^ Ht iSeoliciiuMly. wm nguilBd
Ua c( fiundohtp. TcwiDsotit
d|ifa( li «titinly aS, vt tuelKtiiiK
ImH it, wrre mil eqiTHlkiiu at

fir"" '

L 3; Iim. I

. S; Jot.

^tttluiiinychtTiBhgnnt respect

gl ThiT nuluniily mrear liy it;
"'^*' — -»nt and oomprebaniuvB
pud wishM for » friead
S picaervs your ble*aod braid."
-yAite thBT pat npi.D anythiug,
great Boltnmity, " It is worfli
— '- bentd." The bcanl broom-

_, <(of y«ar« wm ■ syinbol of

I'Wll U a mu-k of Miv. " Oray-

dn «»eil to Hitniif y eliler or »«■•,

"" I wked wby ho did not fiil of!

BuropeiuiB do, " Cut <M my

'led with deg> etDcilion, "(loil

■li)[anArBb»lii>_WM

ta'iuiva hi* iMwdM

■ 3 tha _

■a8Ka.>.4,nj. >4

tjirt prntc wUnrS

" Cut cifl my
,en,cAion, '-(lo-l
on Arab will! WM

BAR

xiv., XV.), and a Urge sharer in the labonrs and
mifferines which attended the early propaga-
tion of Christianity.

Barnabas in one place is called an apoetle
(Acts xiv. 4). and certainly he laboured with an
apostle's zeaL But the tenn apostle is some-
tunes used with a wider sense, as in 2 Cor.
viii. 23. Barnabas occupies no mean place in
the annals of the early Cnurch. His heart waa
fall of disintert'Hte<l goodness, and his life was
distinfnuRhed by lafx>rious zeal He bore such
a relation to Paul as Melancthon did to Luther
— ^that of a gentle, confiding, earnest, but sub-
ordinate co-oi>erator. Perhaps he was wantix^
in firmness — at least, on one occasion, and on
the point of holding fellowship with Gentile
Christians, he wavered, and made a compro-
mise— "fearing them which were of the ciraun-
dsion** (Gal. ii. 12, 13). An epistle is extant
which bears his name, but we nave reason to
l>elieve it spurious. It is fidl of silly conceits,
far-fetched allegories, and puerile extrava-
gances and fables.

BARSABAS— JKW of Saba (Acts i. 23 ; xv.
22). Joseph BarsalMis Justus was one of the
candidates for tlie vacancy in the apostleship,
occasioned by the apostasy of Judas. Another
person, Judas Barnabas, was appointed to ac-
company Paul and Barnabas from Jerusalem
to Antioch on an important embassy. He is
called one of "the chief among the brethren."

BARTHOLOMEW— «o» of Tholomaeua or
Tolmai (Matt. x. 3) — is supposed to be the same
person as Nathanael. This opinion is formed
in part upon the fact that Bartholomew is not
mentioned in John's list of the names of the
disciples ; nor is Nathanael mentionefl by the
other evangelists, liesides tlus, Philip and
Nathanael arc associated tc^ether by John; and
in the parallel passages of other evangelists,
Philip and Bartholomew are associated. These
circumstances, though not conclusive evidence,
make it jMrobiible that they were one and the
same person, Nathanael being the real name,
and iVartholomew a })atronymic. Our Lord
bestowed a high eulogy on nis sinceribr and
simplicity of heart. 1 radition affirms that he
penetrated as far as India in preaching the
Gosi>el; but the term India is often of very
vasnio import in ancient suitings.

BARllMEirS (Mark x. 4C)— a son of
Timeus, who was instantly cured of blindness
by our Saviour in the vicinity of Jericho.

BAIU 'CIl— WfMfrf (Jer. xxx\l 4)— the sec-
retary of the prophet Jeremiah, was of a dis-
tinguished Je^^dsn family. (Comp. Neh. xi
6; Jer. xxxvi. 4.) His personai friendship
for Jeremiah was strong and constant. When
God commanded the prophet to commit to
writing the prophecies that he had uttered, he
employed Baruch in this service, who wrote
the words as Jeremiah dictated them. Baruch
wasaften\'ardsre(j^uired to read these prophecies
to the Jewish princes or chiefs, who were as-
sembled in the temple. The princes were
surprised and offended, and forthwith com-
municjited* to the king the substance of what
Baruch had read,having before taken tlie writing
02

BAS

frnm Barach» and deponted it in one of tk
offices of the temple. Jehoiakim, the Uof^
oidered the offensive wiiUng to be read in bi
presence ; and he became to much ezanentod
that before the reading of it waa half mnriiid
he seized the paper and cut it in pieoei nd
threw it into the fire ; at the same tune oida
were given to arrest both the prophet and \k
secretary, but they had concealed tbemaelTHL
The prophecies were again dictated \rr Jcr^
miah and written out by Baruch ; and afts>
wuds Baruch waa emplojred to cany H
Babylon a long letter from Jeremiah, pn-
dieting the judgments which should oome nmi
that mighty d^. After he returned firom tnt
mission Jerusalem was besieged, and Jeremiik
and Baruch were both thrown into priaoik
After the city surrendered they were released,
and Baruch went down to Egypt. (See Jn^

MIAH).

BARZILLAI— troti'ffUKlf (2 Sam. six. SI]
—was a Gileadite, and a fast friend of David
when he was in exile on account of Abtakn^
revolt. The rebellion had been enppiewedl,
and David was on his way back to JemaalcA
Bandllai accompanied the king acroaa the Jor-
dan^and was about to return to his own land;
Imt David, in gratitude for the old maB*a kind-
ness, invited him to go up to Jerusalem, aad
spend the residue of his days at the oonrt
This Barzillai declined on account of his grsift
age and infirmities ; but his son went up wSk
the king in his stead. The dialogue en
this occasion is one of the most touehfag
passages to be found on the page of history.

David, in his final charge to Solomon, en*
joined it upon him to show kindness to Bar-
zillai*s family, and even to make them memben
of the roval household (1 KL ii 7).

BASH AN-/niif/uZ (Num. xxi. 33)-HaooQid-
ing to others, hataU land — a hilly district east
of the Jordan, between the mountains of Her-
nion on the north, and those of Gilead on the
south. The more modem name is Bataneik
The ancient name of the province was probaUy
derive<l from the hill of iiashan, a bi^ moon-
tain situated near its centre (Ps. IxviiL 15).
Tliis district was formerly remarkable for its
statelv oaks (Isa. ii. 13), rich pasturage (Mi&
vii. 14), and fine cattle (Ps. xxiL 12).

In the time of Mt>see it was governed by a
monarch named Og, who allied himself to Sihon,
the king of the Amorites, to make war on Iarael|
and was defeated and overthrovm at Edrei
(Num. xxi. 33-35). It became the poesessioa
of the half -tribe of Manasseh.

Afodem travellers describe the countiy ai
abounding with magnificent scenery, resem-
bling that of many parts of Europe. Its hills
are still clothed with forests ; its deep \'alleyB
are traversed by refreshinf^ streams ; its mea-
dows are verdant and fertile, and its pastures
offer an abimdance to the herds and flodu that
wander through them. Lofty mountains give
an outline of the most magnificent chazacter;
ridges of secondaij hills soften down ths
romantic wildness of the picture ; ^aiUe slopes,
clothed with wood, give a rich variety of tints,

BAB

Im Mlitiil ly lh» piadl; da^
ad vifli ■uinuuiiBif iArmiiii md
•dowi» <Ar all the Inziiriiiioe of
; tad bods and flocks giva life and
o aeenaa aa graady aa beautiful, and
(Utuieauua aa the genina or taete of
onld WMT inrant or deeiza. (See
iar<artii»J>aaiaieiMiL)
r(Eiiod. mil. ^ Bome of the
wni^eof tinp, and held gnf^
flnfr^nitei Tmhb^ were foRned of
taiialik and woe of Tariona f ocma
Hie word ia need eipreaifely in
*«haekat and etore."

OSeeliATSB.)
GtD. (SeeOmux)
vr. xL l^h-*n miclean beast whoee
MB are cafeL old rains, and fihhy
a plaeea. EieDoe the aJhuion, leak
laa no leaeiuMsnfn to a Urd exoe^
fll^jBid ttte otgans it uses for this
» diffucnt fipom those of a bnd.
(BaeMBaflUBM.)
BATHINQ. (SeeWABB.)
flXBA ( f Sam. zL 3>— waa the
dsb, an offiow in David's 9xm,
r pmved a aoare to^ David, for he
■mitted adnttoET widi bar, but he
Irprocared the deatii of her ii^Jmed
Hia infriwH** seems to have been
powerful orer David** mind, and
d the proclamation of Solomon even
fttbers denth.

UN6.RAM (Ezek. iv. 2; zzL 22).
long beam of itrong wood, usually

oak. One end

was ahaped like

a ram's head,

and when driven

repeatedly and

force against the waU of a city or

;, either pierced it or battered it

bWa&J

S-AXE. (See Abmoub. )
SMENT (Deut. zxiL 8)— a wall,
r other structure around the flat
tern houses, designed ss a pfirtition
^joining lxiildinjg[, or to prevent
n falling off. It is sometimee used
ctensive sense to denote the fortifi-
clty ( Jer. v. 10). Where the houses
iher, the battUmenU are so low that
an walk over the tops of a dozen
out inteiTUptioii.

LEE (Ps. xxxviL 35). It is not easy
; tree was intended by the Psalmist
ige referred to. It was perhaps the
lape any native tree that is simered
Id, or without transplsntinff, as it
in the margin of the autnorized
t was used as an emblem of the
trength and unchanging j^roeperity
sometimes to be the potion of the
bis transient world. In the East
a ia often, in popular language, still
» the tamarind tree.
XJM (Gen. ii 12)— supposed by the
tho pearly or some other preduus

BEA

stona Tha Septnagint rendeia it bk oBejalaoa
by eai^wMli^ and in another by erMteC. llMrs
is a gum produced in the East udies whkli
has tne same name, and is thought br many to
be the aztide referred to in the citea pssaaga;
others regard it aa meaning pearls such aa are
fomid in the Persisn Gulf (Kum. zi 7).

&ESACON (Iss. xzz. 17>— a marie or signal
erected in some ocmspicuouspkoefordireonon,
or for seonrity against danger. ThustheJew%
when reduced m number and dlshiased in
droomstanoes by reason of God*s severe judg-
ments upon them, were a beacon to all other
people and nations to avoid the like sin. (See
BAxnm&y

BEANS (Enk. iv. 9>— a well-known ve^
taUe^ whidi was anciently often mixed with
other vegetable substances in making bread.

BEAB (Prov. zviL 12). The Symn bear ia
probably the mdes of this animal which is
mentioiied in the BiUe. The attachment of
the female to her young is looverbial, for
nothing enrages her so much aa to aee her
whelps hurt or taken from her. Henoe the
aHosion, 2 Smb. zvii 8; Hos. ziiL 8^ snd also
the paasage first above dted. Thebearinthe
vision of Daniel symbolised the Medo-Penian
empire (Dmu viL 6)* To show the amaahig
olumge of character produced by the Gonwl on
men and nations, it is said in Isa. zi 7, ' The
cow and the bear shall feed; their young ones
shall lie down together. **

BEABD (Lev. ziii 29). Among the Jews
much attention was paid to the beard. To
ihow any contempt towards it by plucking it
or toucbjng it, except from respect or courtesy,
was esteemed a groaa insult, while to kiss it.
respectfully and affectionately, was regarded
as a signal mark of friendship. Tearing out
the beard, cutting it entirely off, or neglecting
to trim and dress it, were all expreiilons of
deep mouming (Ezra ix. 3; Isa. xv. 2; Jer.
xlL 5; xlviiL 37).

The Arabians at this day cherish great respect
for the beard. They solemnly swear by it;
and their moet significant and conmrehenaive
phrase to express their good wishes tor a friend
1^ **May (xod preserve your blessed beard."
Tx> show the vsuue they put upon anything,
they say with great solemnitv-, " It is worui
more than a man^s beard." The beard becom-
ing hoary in course of years was a sjrmbol of
wisdom,^ as well as a mark of age. ** Qray-
beard " is still used to signify elder or sage.

A Turk was asked wny he did not cut off
his beard, as Europeans do. "Gut off my
beard!" he replied with deep emotion, **God
forbid ! " And we are told of an Arab who was
wounded in the jaw, and chose to hazard his
life rather than to have his beard cut off, that
the surgeon might examine the wound. Hence
the keennessra tiie insult offered to David's
ambassadors (2 Sam. x. 4, 5). And hence, too,
the force of that passage where the prophet is
made to stand in the ])lace of Jerusalem, and
to represent, in his own person, the severe
judgments uiat were to be inflicted on her
(Ezek. V. 1-5).

63

i

BEA

The Efryptians were accustomed to leave a
Bmall tuft of beard ou the extremity of the
chin. The Jewish law (Ixiv. xix. 27j forbade
an imitation of tliid heathen fasliion.

BKAST (Gen. ii. 11»). ITiis wonl is generaUy
UBed to dLstiuguinh all nniuial^ from mun, a» in
Pa. xxxvi. 0. Sometimes (]uadrupe<l8 onl^' are
denoted by it, an Jmv. xi. 2; and m irvu. i. 2t,
25, it i8 suppoiM-d to refer to creatures that
roam at lar^e. Tlie ai>osiIe descrilKrs some of
his oI>po^!!onl as wild l>va.st:4, ho furious and
brutal wan their treatment of }»m (1 Cor. xv.
32). Ignatius, one of the ai>o.stollcal fathers,
in his Epi:stlc to the RomunH, uses similar
langtiage. ** Fmm Svria onward even to
Home, I fight with wild lieiu^ts both by pea
and land, by night and day, Ixnng Inmnd to
ten leojianls"— .soMiern who guan.U-d him. A
Himilar tigui-ative u>e is macfe of the word in
Pa. xxii. ]2, 1(1; Eccl. iii. 18; Isa. xLC-8; and
in 2 Pet. ii. 12 and Jude 10 it denotes a class
of wicked men.

lender the ancient disi>enMition the lieasts
were sometimes made to particijmte externally
in the olM»en'ance of religious ceremonies (Jon.
iii. 7, 8), and sufTered, with men, the judgment
of God (Exod. ix. (>; xiii. 15; Ps. cxxxv. 8;
Jer. vii. 20; xxi 0; Ezek. xxxii. l.S; xxxNnii.
20; IIoB. iv. 3). Prom the degrading a»socia-
tii»us now cou])le<l with the word beauty it is an
unfortunate translatiim in the fourth, tifth, and
aixth ohai)teru of the Apocal3'i)so. The literal
rendering, Uinnrf creaturtu^ would be more
apiiropriate. - It might be mentionrd, too, that
the Ixnign law of Moses comi»rehended the
beasts witliin its y)rovince, and enacted statutes
a^inst their han^h and cruel usage. (See
Clkax and I^nclkan, Wild Beast.)

liEATEX WOKK (Exod. xxv. 18)-not
ca*«t. but UTOUght.

BEATEN OIL. (See Olfve.)

BED ((Jen. xlvii. 31). The floors of the
l)etter sort of i-aistem lionses were of tile or
pla-ster, and were covered with matf or car-
pets; and as nhoes were not worn on them,
and the feet were washed, their fl(Mirrt seldom
reiniireil sweejiing or ucrul)bing (Matt. xii. 44;
LuKe XV. 8). Thick, coar»e mattresses were
thrown down at night to sleep u])on. llie
poorer jieople used skins for the same jiurpose.
Such l»eds were easily moved (Matt. ix. i\) ; and
on twi) or three sides 4)f the n>om was a bench,
generally a foot higli and three fi-et bmad,
coveivd with a stuffetl cushion. This bendi or
couch was used lM)th for lying and sitting u])on ;
but at <;ne end of the room it was more elevated,
and this was the usual place of slee^iing (2 Ki.
L 4; XX. 2; Ps. cxxxii. 3; Amos iii. 12). It
was stmetimes unattached to the building, and
moveable^ like a settee or sofa, and was made
of wcMjd, ivory (Amos vi. 4), or other materials
(Deut. iii. 11). Tlus knowledge of the con-
struction c»f eastern l>e«ls relieves of difficulty
such |i:is.Kiiges as Ex(k1. viii. 3; 2 Sam. iv. 5-7;
Ps. VL 0; Mark iv. 21. Sleei>ing in the ojmju
air was very common, the bleeper WTapping
himself in his outer rol^e ; and thus part of the
day-dothing served for bed-dothcs (Exod. xxii.
64

(Matt. X. 25)— was an idol-god of the
and was prt^l)ably wor8hij)i)ed as the patnA
deity of medicine (2 Ki. l 3). In the Gic^
New Testament the name is spelled BeelaebonL
which means dunff-pod ; the change of fooin
l>eing perhajis introduced by the Jews for tbi
pur|)o8e of tlirowing a>ntenii>t upon hestfacm
divinities, lie was one of the chief godiof the
heathens, and hence the prince or chief of derib
is called I3eelzebub (Matt. xii. 24 ; Ltike xi. VS^
Some suppose the name to mean, "loid of
habitatit^u,*^ as if he were chief of the erii
spirits concerned in the mysterions neiinn
calle<l demoniac4d possession. Tlie «Tew* mR
taught to regard all idols as devils (Dent
xxxii. 17; 2 Ohr. xL 15; Pa. cvi 37; 1 Cor-
x. 20).

BEER- trr« (Judg. ix. 21)— a phioe betwwa
Jerusalem and Shechem, to which Jotham fled
fn)m Abitiielech his brother. The term ii

BEE

2(;, 27; Deut xxiv. 12, 13). The UwptonU
that, if the outer covering or dreoi vm
pawned, the pledge was to be restored hf
nightfall, in order that the poor man **iinj
sleep in his own raiment.**

That 1)e4lKteads were known to the Jem b
not improbable, inasmuch as they were in
in Eg3'i)t, as we learn from figures on '
monuni; nts.

BEE (Deut. i. 44). The honejr-bee ii jpnb.
ablv the only si^ecies allwled to in the mtik^
AVild bees were common in Palestine, depori^
ing their comb in clefts of the rock, or ia tti
hollow of trees, or even finding an approprimi
riH:;ei>tacle in the skeleton of a dead lion (Ik
Ixxxi. IG; Judg. xiv. 8). They must but *
been very numerous in Canaan, as honey VM
a couimon article of food (1 Ki xiv. 3; Bi
Ixxxi. l(i ; Song v. 1 ; Isa. vii 15) and comsMnt "
(Ezek. xxvii. 17).

IMic disposition of bees to take ▼enseaiioe m
any one \\-Iio disturlw their hivcd is lulnded to
in Ps. cxviiL 12. llie figurative expreenoH
in Isa. vii. 18, compared wiUi Zech. x. 8, wn
allude to a practice of calling be«s from th«
hives by a hissing sound.

Honey was not to be offered on the ite
(Lev. ii. 11). Its peculiarly delicate flavonr
and sweetness, when newly dropt from tfai
comb, is alluded to in Ps. xix. 10. In "Pnr.
xxv. 10 it serves the wise man to jxnnt one ef
his maxims inculcating moderation. (See
Honey.)

BEELZEBITB, or BAALZEBUB-Jly^

as»iciated with many names of places,
I Belr-elim, or Berk (Num. xxi. l(*; Isa.xf.
I 8)— a stati(tn of the Israelites in Miuib. idieR
! (io<l caused water to spring up out of thennd
' for their refreshment.

Beek-lahai-roi- tev7^ of him liring tad
seeinff me (Gen. xvi. 14) — a fountain m the
southern lx>rder of Canaan, near the deseatt d
Shur, which received its name in conseqnenoe
of the apjK'arance of an angel to Hagmr when
she was in exile. It is placed by some at
Moyle, on the road to Beer-sheha.

BEEROTH (Josh. ix. 17; 2 Sam. iv. 2, 3}-
a dty of Benjamin, situated at the foot of the

waUed

if the lUDfl mtme wsa (Jw » lUtion
IclitH (Dent. I. 6), ud b culled
1 1 Num. zxxiiL 31).

HEBA— mflo/rtiontt-

}ecwi» tbere they Bw&rE both of
n. iiL 31). This vu At fint tho
veil oeai which Abraham long re-
ixL 331. ami liuc &ftcr him (G«L
1). It kfterwanLt hecuue :

It m

t 20

«thee>

ihe expre«Biipii

1), "fcim Dan to Beer-ahelja," de-
ihol« lent'th of the huid, as aLw did
fion, "frcim Beer-nbeba to mount
i2 Cbx. DI. 4). repreiieut the whole
he kiiu,'.lom of Jud&h. The town
the territory of Judah, and fell
SimKin'B haiuLi (Joeh. xv. 28; xix.
!r-iheba re<idixl the n»u of Samuel
1 2), and in later times the place
o idohitiy (Amo« v. £• ; viii. 11).
nTcllen have found wella near the
rite of the aacietit Beer-shcba.
wmtereoume," aavs Robin*m, "are
ir well« of eicelltot water, morv
t deep. Thcv are both mirrouDdwl
D'- tTimfhf of stone for the unc of
flictu, moh an doubtle»> wrrc used
h' a-vka wliicb thun fe<l un the ad-
•.'' Tlirre are niuir the aput five
■Ufi, Thin ciwt calln np many
awociatii.ns of a ----- -

B (L«v. XL 221— an aniniHl entirely
>m the iD-<ect known to lu liy that
>m the connecti'in. it i> supiKHed to
of the locu-it family. Tlie hevtle

E^yl^t^ and to the BcarabaeuB itx

uuul ihviai: hunonrK.
S (Lev, ixii. lUl— the old phiral
I bfij. Aji H^ied m the BilJo. it is
■ with the t«nn cattle. Aa thwe
ide the hoof and also chew the cod,
eckoneil .tmont/ {:lean beantd.
_ _-_- - -...T -

K, BKtiGINU (I Sam. ii. 8; Mark

ired. They were allowed bi (flean
1 and to i;ather whatever the hmd
a the year in which it was not
lix. 10). They wre also invited
''At the end of three jrean thou
forth all the tithe of thine increase

jTless, and
.U, rhall c

ciinie, and shall ei

itmeiite coubl not be an aWilute
I land was inalienable, andif parted

BEH
vnth for a certun term, it reverted to him or

hia po«terity. And if this resource was inaufS-

dent, he could pledge the services of hinuelf

and family for a valuable sum. Those who

were indigent through bodily infinnitjes were

usually taken care of by their kindred. The

words ben, or frerpjar, do not occur in the law of

Sluaes. lliat law, while it prrventinl the oc-

cnmulation of fircat wealth, would, if properly

carried out, have secured a^^iiut derailing

lupcriam. A betntar was mmetimes seen,

iwever, and was re-,»rd«il anil abhurrvd an a

vagabond (Ps. cii. 10). In latertimea beg(,Tir»

"ere accu<tomiil to have a fixed place at the

imere of the strecU (Mark x. «), or at tiio

ktes of the tomide (Actx iii. 2), or of privata

msus [Luke ivl 20), {See Alxh. PoiiH.)

B>:HEM01'H(Jobxl.I.'i). Thesameword

wliich is here translateil brlirmdh is clBOwhero

annlated btaJii (Job ixxv. II ; Pb. liiiii. 22),

™«/f (Ps. 1 10). ITietiTm behemoth may !»

the plural form of the word bchemoh, and many

Huiijiose that in .Job il. 15 it is only what is

called the plural of excellence, denoting some

lut'e and ipttantic aniniaL Dr, ]*e is of

ipiniun that the H-riter fpoaks of bcuiti in

wneral, with the \iew of niajmi^ng the wis-

im. powi

Prc»<

pBudgl

ir."!'

_- _jki. affirm th.^1 thei^i rn -i

c signifying .nfrr-'.j-. 'I'h.- W^t inten.le<i
thv hiniyjiKitamua. Su Boi'ti.irt llie auiuml

theUrhelnoth

,. . "f I".
di^oiis size
am] strength,
and corrc-

. inds better
with the Idp-

D|iotauiiLi, or rivur-hnnw of R^rypt than '

ny other animal now known.
The description in -Toll in uiinute ai ^
- jl, and its truth ix attCHted by uiittirul hist - .. -
The river-liorse is an nnimal of (treat liulk and
amazing strength. Often it in bIh>vu lli fi'ct
in length and 7 feet in height, with a large
head, short feet. an>l hu~e tiat trunk. It in
exceedingly voracious, thuuKh herbivorous —
"he eateth grow like an ox." His haunts are
in marshes. " Huhethunilertheihaily trees,
in tho covert of tJie re-'ds and fen«."^ Tiiia
marine ox is a tcrrilic monster — " chief of the
wayd of GmL" Sonic, witli less {iroliability.
suiipOHii behemoth to bo the elephant, and
others, with some ingennity, imagine tiie refer-
ence to be to thosi: gigantic creatureii, now
extinct, the mammoth or nuwtoiloc, of a for-
mer age. Tliu river.horse is thus tho animal
described by Job. Wo niuBt remember tliat
the passage in Job is iioctry, and is not t<i be
interpreted according to tlie Btrictncus of scien-
tific zoobgy. Still the liiiipopiitoiuiis u laiye
enough and rtr-mg enough t.j oiiTCspond to the
insoired delineation. Builon snvs that "the
65

BEK

MiinuJ swiniB dextrously, and walla under
water, but cannot remain lone without coming
upon the surface to bieatoe. He comes
olten on the shore, particularly at nieht,
as he subsiHts on roots and vegetables, and does
much damage to the cultivated fields. He
sleeps and n^poses on shore in reedy places
near the water. ^

The Jewish doctors imagine that Behemoth
is a mighty brute which, Iilce a stalled ox, has
been fattening ever since the creation, to ajf ord
materiab for a banquet to the righteous in the
days of the Messiain. In the meantime the
whole i>asture of a thousand hills is his daily
fare, and every draught of water poured down
his capacious gullet exceeds the quantity which
the Jordan pours into the Dead oea during an
entire half-year.

BEKAH. (See Measures.)

BEL. (See Baal.)

BELA. 1. One of the five dties of the
plain (Gen. xiv. 2). It was situated on the
southern shore of the Dead Sea, on the mad to
Egypt (Jer. xlviii 34). 2. A king of E<lom,
and son of Beor, identified by some with
Balaam.

BELIAIi. or Children op Belial (Deut
xiiL 13). lliis word, in the original, signifies
vorthlestneUy and is applied by the sacred
writers to such lewd, t)rofligate, and vile per-
sons as seem to regard neither God nor man
(Judg. xix. 22; 1 Sam. ii. 12). The name
seems to have become an epithet of Satan— as
the embodiment of all that is vile and worth-
less— of all that is e\'il, delights in evil, and
produces eviL Hence the (juestion of the
apostle (2 Cor. vi. 15) to the citizens of Corintli.
which was remarkable for its lewdness and
profligacy, has great force: — "What conconi
nath C^hnst with Belial," the prince of licen-
tiousneiw and corruption?

BELIEVE. (SeeFAiTHj

BELL (Zech. xiv. 20). Bells of cold were
attached to the bottom of the high priest^s
robe, that he might be heanl when he went
into or came out of the holy place. The bells
were net alternately with pomegranates. Their
tinkling served to notify to the jieoplo some
solemn rnnnt or process in the sacred cere-
monial (Ex(kI xxviiL 33, 35). Bells were
hung upon the bridles or around the necks
of war-norses : hence a lionie not trained to
war was called, by the Greeks, a horse who
had never heanl the soimd of bells. We are
told that bells were U8e<l on the horses at the
funeral of Alexander the Great. Even '*on
the bells of the horses'* should in the latter
days be inscribed the motto on the high
priest's turltan, "Holiness imto the Ijord" —
i. r., the s])irit of religion shall mingle itself
with all pursuits and occupations, llie Arab
ladies have little gold bells fastened to their
legs, necks, and elbows, whicli, when they
dimce, make an agreeable sound. (See

BELSHAZZAR (Dan. y. 1). (See Nebu-
chadnezzar.
BELTESHAZZAB (Dan* I 7)— the name

BEN

ffiyen to the prophet Daniel tt the eomt d
Nebuchadnezzar. (See Dahisl.)

BEX. This syllable, prafiud to to muf
proper names, signifies mm,

BIBNAIAH (2 Sam. xxiii 90) wasthe met
Jehoiad% and distingnished for his enterfM
and braveiy on several ocoaflions (2 Sam. zziiL
20-23). He was an adherent of SoIobm
against the pretensions of Adonijah (1 C i
36), and after putting Joab to dei^ mecesdri
to the command of the azmy (1 Ki ii SMR.

BENEFACTOR. The wocdisiuedbvov
Lord in Luke zxiL 25->" He said unto ttMi^
they that exercise anthority upon them ■•
called benefactors.** The reference of Job
is evidently to the surname wfaidi hesAfli
kings or magistrates sometimes assome^ «
which vrua conferred wpcn them in yain mam-
tion. Thus Ptolem3% king of Egypii was gbU
Euergetes, or benefactor. The laagnage flf
our Saviour is justified and explained by sadh
historical tmda.

BENHADAD— <9n of Hadad. 1. (1 U
XV. 18) King of Syria, in the time of Asa. kisg
of Judah, vfiHi whom he fonned aa auaiiM
against Haasha^ king of IsraeL (See Ail|
Baasha.)

2. (1 Ki. XX. 1) King of Syria^ nd a sonol
the preceding. He was a proud, ^^rrr*'*!
and licentious man, and seemed to be hant
ened against all rebukes fl Ki xz. 10-UL 11^
(See Ahab.) He declared war against Jik»
ram. king of Israel; but the prophet EBflks
(liHclofied^nhadad's plans so accurately tiMt
Jehoram was able to defeat them (2 KL vL 8*
33). (See Elihua.)

In the siege of Samaria, which took phM
some years afterwards, that city was ledimd
to the greatest extremity. Women in stsrfS-
tion ato their own childr^ during the Uookada
llie S^Tian army, under Benhadad, was lyinc
arouna the walls, when, in the ooorse of the
nighL they were led to canoeive that Aaf
heard the noise of an immense amy in motioBi
Suppofdng that the city had been suoooored hf
supplies of men and provisions from abrosdi
and terrified with the fancied tomult of ^MB
approach, the Syrians, just at daybraak, Bed
for their lives, and their garments sad
vessi'ls were scattered all along the road ^
which they had fled. The citizens of HmmA
were thus unexpectedly relieved, and siqjpBsd
with an abundjmce of food.

The next year Benhadad, beinjg sick, shA
Hazael to inquire of the prophet EUsha whethw
he would recover; and ne received for answfi^
that the king might certainly recoyer| and jrst
would surely die. Hazael also was mfomisd
by the prophet that he would be elevated to
the throne of Syria, and would be gmlty cf
enormous 'wickedness. The very next dsjf
Hazael, with his own hand, muirdered Boh
hadad, and became king of Syria (2 S3, niii
15). (See Hazael.)

3. (2 Ki. xiii. 3) Another person of the bhbs
name, and son of HazaeL He suffered sspboI
defeats from the hand of Jehoarii^ king of
Israel, and was compelled to relinqnishiuitihi

I

BSN

nmel wliidi hit Ivther HumJ had ob-
. congggrt (2 KL ziii. 25).
AMIN (Gen. sexy. 18) vm the
; ■on of Jaoob and Rachel His
lied immediAtelT after his birth, which
oe near Bethlehem, when the family

their jonmeY from Padan-anun to
With her dying breath ahe called
koni (tke mm of my torr9w|, but his
kYe him the name of Benjamm {the ton
ikikantl). He Droved a great comfort
jed fatlMr; ana eyery reader of the
HOWS the peculiar affection which
dispUyed tofward him after his
had brought him down to Kg3rpt
ibe of Benjamin had their portion of
iaedland between Ephraim and Judah ;
a ten of the tribes revolted, Benjamin
i steady in its attachment to Judah,
led » part of that kingdom (1 KL xiL

The prophetic history of the tribe is
Gen. zliz. 27 and Deut xxziiL 12.
on of Benjamin was small, beinff about

in length and 12 in breadtn, and
!t above the Mediterranean shores;
nil was fertile, and the climate salu-

A fearful confederacy against this
ding to immense slaughter, and almost
Mmination, is recorded in Judg. zx.

the tribe were famed as slingers.
loriL ) It may be also mentioned that
• first king of the Hebrews, belonged
ttle clan, and that it contained within

the capital city, Jerusalem.
.CHAH, Valley op— or, of Blessing
X. 26) — Uie place where Jehoshapbat
tie people after a siffnal victory^. The
ae, Berachah, is given to nuns in a
ing between Tekoa and the common
d Bethlehem down to Hebron.
A (Acts xvii. 10), now Verria — a city
Ionia, about 20 miles west of Thes-

near mount Pindus. The Bereans
lourabl;^ distinguished for their dili-

searchmg the Scriptures under the
^ of PauL For this and other causes
place of much interest in the days of
ties (Acts x\'iL 10, 15; xx. 4). It
ains manv inhabitants (chiefly Turks
eks), and produces rice, fruit, and
md has nmnufactures of cotton.
^LH — a son of Ephraim. He got his
>m A remarkable domestic tragedy,
not reconie^l in the earlier history (1
21, 22, 23) — Ephraim's s^^ns had been
the act of stealing cattle; and he
I next child Beriah, " because it went
hin house."
CH (comp. Judg. viii. 33 and ix. 46).

ICE (Acts XXV. 13, 23), or BERE-
i the name is sometimes spelled — was
Iter of Agrippa, sumamed the Great,
to the younger Agrippa, king of the
'er first husband was ner uncle, her
tm Polemon^ from whom she was
ivorced. Then she was mistress to
u>, on his aooeiskm to the empire^

BET

dismissed her. Her refddenoo with her own
brother is not free from evil suspicions. She
was thus a woman of licentious and aban-
doned character. She was present, in great
pomp, at the hearing of Paul before Festua at

BERODACH - BALADAN — called also
Merodaoh-Baladan (Isa. xxxix. 1). (SeeHi-

KEKIAH.)

BEROTHAH (Ezek. xlvii. 16)-i>erhaps
from its locality, as connected with Hamath
and Damascus, the modem and well-lmown
Berdt

BERTL (Exod. xxviiL 20)-called Tarshish,
and is perhaps the topaz. It was the tenth
gem on the high priest^s breastplate (Song
V. 14: Ezek. i 16: x. 9; Rev. xix. 20).

BESOR, or BffZOR (1 Sam. xxx. 9, 10, 21)
— signifyizig^eoM, was the name of a brook
over which David passed in pursuit of the Am-
alekites who had nillaged and burned Ziklag.
It falls into the Mediterranean below Gaza.

BETH — a Hebrew word denoting housct and
often found incorporated in names of places.

BETHABARA (John L 28)->the name of a
town on the east bank of Jordan where there
was a ford across the river; whence the name
{house of passage, or ferry-house). At this
place John baptized ; and here, too, it is sup-
posed the Israelites crossed the Jordan, under
the conduct of Joshua. It lay about 30 miles
north-east of Jerusalem, and is ])robably the
same wiUi Beth-barah (Judg. vii. 24).

For Bethabara, in this passage of Jolin,
some read Bethany, Boathouse^ a place which
must not be confounded with the better-known
village of the same name, east of Jerusalem.

BETHANY— A/7WC of dates, or rather,
house of misery (Mark xi 1)— a village on the
south-east side of the mount of Olives, nearly
2 miles from Jerusalem. It was the resi-
dence of Lazarus and liis sisters (John xL 1).
C*hrist often resorted thither, especially during
the last few days of his ministry, and it was
the scene of some of the most interesting ovente
of his life (Matt. xxi. 17; xxvi. 6; Mark xL
11, 12; XIV. 3; John xi 1-46; xii. 1-3).
Bethany, now called El Azariyeh, is a small
Mussulman village on the declivity of a liill,
and all aroimd is imeven and rocky. Travellers
are shown the pretended place of Lazarus*
grave, and the nuns of the house where he and
his sisters lived. This grave, in its constnic-
tion, resembles an ancient Je^^idh tomb. It is
hewn out of the rock; its entrance is about
3^ feet high and 2 feet wide. Twenty-seven
stei>8 lead down to a dark chamber, about 9
feet square, in which are four niches for sepul-
ture. The tender interest which our Lord
took in the family of Bethanv, their piety, and
Christ's miracle on their behalf, are familiar
to all who read the pathetic narrative of tho
beloved disciple.

BETHARBEL (Hos. x, 14). (See Shal-

MAVEMKR. )

BETHAVEN— Aoww of inimiity ^oi^ yii
2) — a place belonging to the tribe of Benjamin,
and l^^ng east of Bethel (I Sam. xiii. 5). (See

67

1

figure. The rabbina have many fanciful
conjectureH aa to the form and other peculiari-
ties of these tribal badges. Another standard
for subdivisions was ^irobably nothing more
than a common spear nchl^ burnished or orna-
mented. The Egyptian pnnces used a standfurd
like this, surmounted with a boll of gold.
There was another standanl in uko among the
Jews, which is called a beacon (Isa. xxx. 17).
It was stationary, erected on lofty mountaius,
and used as a rallying token. (Comp. Ifta.
xviii. 3; IxiL 10-12; Jer. iv. 5, 6, 21; vl 1, 17;
IL 12, 27.)

llie banner was naturally, from its martial
use, reg:irdtMl as a raIl}'iDg-ix>int, as a token of
protection, and as tlie pleagc of fidelity (Ps.
XX. 5; Ix. 4; Song ii. 4). Some writers have
supposed that the ancient Jewish ensign was a
long pole, on the top of which wns a ^rnte not
imlike a chafing dish, made of iron bars, and
supplied with fire, the size, height, and shape
of which denoted the party or company to
whom it belonged. Inis seems rather to
describe the night-torches of £ai<tem encamp-
ments. The shape, &c., of the Koman stand-
ards are seen under the article Abominable.

God's lifting or setting up a banner is a most
expressive figure, and imports his peculiar
presence, protection, and aid in leadmg and
directing his perjplc in the execution of his
righteous will, and giving them comfort and
peace in his service (Song li. 4). (See War.)

BAN()irKT. (See Feast.)

BAPTISM (Matt iU. 7)— an ordmance or
religious rite which was in use before our
Saviour's ministiy commenced (see John's
Baptibm), but winch he ri'cognlzed and mode
obligatory upon his disciples as a (.Christian
ordinance, in the due administration of this
rite, the washing of water becomes the sign or
emblem of inward purification from sin anrl
uncleanness, while the subject of the rite is
introduced into a peculiar relation to Christ
and his Church. Ablution was a constant prac-
tice under the [Mosaic diHpensation. Water,
the ordinary medium of cleansing, becomes an
apprcmriate symbol of s]>iritual purification.
It IS aliso supiK)ried a probable thing, that pro-
selytes from tue heathen, on making a profession
of their faith in Judaism, were ba])tized; so
that the rite did not appear a novelty when
administered so extensively at the intnxluction
of Christianity. It is not our province to enter
into the numerous disputes about this ordinance
which have agitated tne Church. Such disputes
are — ^WTiether should baptism bo dispenseti in
the form of sprinkling, aifuition, or immersion?
^Ought infaiit<( to be baptized, or only such
adults as are able from convicti«^n to make a
public profession of faith in Christ? — Is bap-
tism the mark of a catechumen or the privilege
of a believer? Baptism is a solemn onlinance,
exciting salutary reflections, and leading to
peculiar obligations. Yet tne ordinance has
l3een sadly abused. Thousands of pilgrims, for
example, travel every year to tlie Jordan to
batlie in it on the supposed day of our liord's
baptijun in its waters, and imagine that heaven
CO

BAP

and happinen are secured bj the Twm oen-
moniaL (See John.)

Baptized for the dead— "Else what thall
they do which are baptized for the dead, if tha
deaH rise not at all ? why are they then bttp*
tized for the dead?" (1 Cor. xv. 29.) Variooi
interpretations have been put upon this phiana
The most simple and natural explanation if
I>erha|is the most likely to be, correct. Fuil,
who wrote this epistle, speaks, in his letter to
the Romans, of some who are buried wift
Christ in liaptism unto death (Rom. vi 4).
And again, in his letter to the Colossiana, lii
used the some image (CoL ii. 12). Prom thflH
expressions, some infer that the apostle regarded
l)ai)tism as the symbol of a present resurractkn
fn^m the death of trespasses and sins to a lib
of holin<*ss ; and also as a svmbol of a particijp^
tion in the future and final resurrection. Bat
if there is no such thing aa a resurrection fram
the dead, tlion the ordinance, in this view, ii
vain and useh'ss. The substance of the ai^
ment is, that if the dead riise not, theordinanoe
of bapti-sm could have no auUiority^ becaoM
Christ, in whose name it was adminifltmd,
could not have risen ; and it could be of mourn,
because Mynm the suppositicm that the dead rin
not, tliose to whom it was administered vcnU
never live bey<md the present life. Some, agMif
suppose that " baptized '* lias here its figunttiTt
sense of immersed in sufferinpr — aa if Paul had
said. Why bear we such afiiiction, if thers bt
no resurrection ?— Why endure this baptism flf
ills and griefs which overwhelm us. if ibert be
no future world ? Both these moaes of intef^
pretation are preferable to a third, which ex-
plains the phrase by reference to a custom
which, when Paul wrote, had no eziatenoe.
W^hen Chrihtians were slain as martyrs, othat
came foru'ard and were baptized in their rocm.
and often over their graves, and so asmmieii
their place. These new converts wore said to
be baptized for the dead. But this was a poet-
apostolic custom, and was not known in the
first century.

IUptize with fire—" He shall baptin jwi
with the Holy Ghost, and with fire"* (Matt iii
11). This exi^ression has been thought to de*
note the miraculous effusion of the Holy Spirit,
; of which we have an account in Acts ii. 3, 4.
On that occasion the descent of the Holy Ghoet
was not only attended with miraculous dfte»
but with the visible emblem of fire; thus liter-
allv fulfilling the prophecy of John above cited.
Others think that on alhiKion was intended, oo
the one hand, to the various divine interaal
operations and influences which should attend
the dispensation of the CiOB{>el by Jesus Christ;
and on the other, to the fiery visitations wUdi
should come M\xm. those who embraced the
(xosiiel, and uiK)n those who rejected it; upon
the former for their purification, and upon the
latter for their destruction. But ]>eriiapi the
words, *' an<l with fire," are by a common mode
of construction merely explanatory — i.eL, •'He
shall baptize you with the Holy Gnost,*' whoev
influenc<» possess all the refining and mfW^
power of fire.

\ bv Solomon (1 KL it 17). - —

|>li«t qr \iLhge* are rtiU called Ikit-Ur el-Fnka
nd e]-TahtA-^tlieoTie epithet meviiiiK '* upper"
and tfae nttaer "nrtlier,"

BTTH-JESHliiOTH-hmiie of daerU
{Jab. niL 20)— s city of the tribe of Beubeo,
•Ki the CMteTD ihoni of the Dead Sea. It

neriyi.

.lata, I

after remaiiuiig in the tribe of Reuben until
the AnTTiaO captivity, it fell back into the
hudii of the Moabite* (Eiek. iiv. !)).

BETHLEHEM-*«iKo/S™d(Gen. «xv.
1^, otlled alio Betlilehem Ephratoh (Mic v. 2)
—waa 10 inooiuiderablc a [ilaco on to be omitted
intlKDnieTalliiitaof the dties of .Tudah, (Juali.
XT.; Neh. xL) It vw the birthplace of
Daiid a'Olte iL 4, 11); the "haliitatinu" or
inn at Chimham near it wan the ununl place
wiMnea timvellen itarted for EmnA l.ler. ilL
1-|:!

l;LTike

It is nitoated uppn an eminence about 6
Kola Knith from Jenualem. The place has
LwD nftra Titated by modem tiarelleia. It
■icciiiriei tbe ea.-terii ridge of a bill, and when
ii«en from a distance boa an iuiiHsing appear-
ance. It ii in the midiit of a fertilo diatrict, and
the hilld anjund it are terraced and planted
vith ch'ace orchards No town mentioned
in the Bible hax gathered amnmlitKlf BO many
an-iciatioDd. Kuth gleaned in the field* in its
rtanity. It was the birthplace of David,
the king, warrior, and lianL ltd waters were
n-eet. and David lunged on one occaniu) for a
draught from the —

David wan bom tlie Saviour, which ii Chri^t
the Lord. " &Iary dwelt at Nazareth : but in
c<mae>|iiencc of Uiu Il»nuin rr^stration aliu
had come to Ui-tlilvlieui-bein;: of "the honxe
ami linL-age of David;" and while bLc tamed
there, Je.ii« wax bom. ITiis clorii.iH event
ihedH a halloweil Itutrc over lieUilehcDi and its
enviroDO. fur there Divinity Iwcame ini-amate.
the Word wa* mode fle:fli, and Uixl in vi'rydued
dwelt with men on tbu earth. Uver ita plaintt,
and on tliat nit(ht wlien micb n "inan child waii
bom into the woriil," vaa hcanl the anuvlic
melody, "Glory t«(JiKl in tlio hi;rheat, Hnd im

where He who ....

tint appean.ll a [uirtalter of flesh and blood it

aiwodationa. It ix dilticult, if not impomible,
to identity the pLieo where Juaiin was b<ira:
nor in tiieru anvdueicled iiTHif tliut the unit fiMil
on in an early centniy in the exact locality.
But aiiiiemlition ia alway* iHuy, ami at the
ahriceof OUT Lord'a nativity it apin-ara in itit
fully and infattiation. A convent him bi'un
erected imthii>ii]i|HMeiliiitu of (liu inn, iiriiCinHlly
under the patronaije iif lli-lvna, anil the irnitbi
of the naUvity ia linoil anil HiHih-d with miirlilc ;
tlie manKcr in (««n bvwn "ut of tlu- rock. Al-
tars are built, inceniie l>um<(, mnnic pbya, anil
luope. tbirty.two in nnmlier, e^icli tlie ifitt of
a king, shell a dim rBiluini'B over the neenii.
A Uw! star, nuule "f «ilv.'r andpnu, marks
the s|-jt whoTu the Virgiu biouglit forth hut
I finit-Uirn win.

/ Ja^tiii AfartjT, EuwliiuB, .TeniHH!, Orifi«»,
'Socrat™, and othera, who mtntwin '& cave tta
the binhiiUce of CluiKt, thoniiK ttiev livtA

BET
rk of ledemptioi]. mnit hare iliown '
-rvatcc defCTence to the incipient cndnlit]'

1 Bupcntition oE their time*, which M«in,

■whfreveriinictiaibU, to eniihrine themselieii in
grolUifn, than to ■ f&ir itit*:i^iret&tion of the
plain nurative of the evuigrluita. More ci>D-
Milerete wen; Cy])rian. Nicej.borus, and othero,
who taught that the birth of Chriatnccumid in
> bnu>« IT crwted Fabric. The "altar of the
Ha)i " adjainiog, of itiielf caiti doubt od the
pH'iirietf of the whole jirufesaed or pntended
hleatitintiuii. The aacred writer aay*, " When
thuywne come inbi tha hotar, they «iw the
yinmg diild with Marv hia mother, and fell
(ionii, aod wurnhipped him."

Four or live milu* from Jeniiudem is the {so-
called) tomb of Rachel, anil alxiut two milei
b«y<inil that ii Bethlehem {(ien. xlviiL 7).

BETHMAACHAH (2 Saoi. xt 14, 15)—
■■me with Abel-beth-moachah.
BETH.MEON. (3™ IIaa^meoh.)
BETH-jaMRAH. (St* KiaHix.)
BKTM-PEOll (Deut iv. *i)-»citv of Mo«b,
tunoDi for the worship of BaaL iarv Baau)
"Hie Talley over against" Beth-peor, in the
Unil of Muab, ia dutincuisbevl u the jilaoe
where Moses repeated tlie
law tn the people nf IsraeL
BKTlf PHAGE — Aoi««
pfHtit [Matt. 11 i. I)— aiimall

BET
■nd w^a littutfld on the mat of JcoAmii, itm
the wa uf Tiberiu. Thia waa the birthiibcs
of Andrew, Peter, and Philip (Uuk at, 71:
John I 44). '

BETH-SHAN (1 Sam. nxL 10)-«m«ria
Beth-shean.

BETH-UHEAN — A<HiM of «>M (JsA
xi-iL II)— a town on the weat of Joid^ 11
miln amith of the iek of llbeiiaa and 4 wat
of the Jordan, and was for a lon^ time IttOVI
b; the name of ScfthopoUs. It waa abtfsl
on the bordars of Galilee and Samari^ apta
the eJ|^ nf the Rrest plain uf Jordan. It^
DOW a ruin called £1 Beiian. In the tintrf

afterhii defwt in'tfae battle of Giltnia (1 Shb.
10). It was afterwards attaeJM to

». lai. i

Juilah (1 . _ . .

it provjaion for hie household. Its mini pn-
aeQta to the traveller many interesting relia i'
a great antiquity.

BETU-iiHKMESH — bwM of Ot m
(Josh. IV. 10). ITiiii earhert form of idol^
haa left traces of its wide exiatencu in this M

Vilbgo

1 the Biiuth-

of mount OUvet, odjuininij-
Bethany on the west.
(Gump. Luke lii. 2li-40,
with Mutt. xxi. 1-11.) A
lata travL'ller sniiposed ho
fnlUKl itaruinsalHnita quar-
ter (€ a tnile north irum
Ikthanjr. The relation <if
Bethpliaeit to Bethany, and
of both to JeruHili-m, hia
Wn variouoly undurftonil.
"Jerome B|>ra]u of Beth-
tihiiKc an a known 'villula
m Monte Olivetj;' bnt ita
eiact Kite in nut niiw known.
in coming from Jeritbo uur
Lunl aj>pear< to havi

red ■

b<.'fore

latter, a bttle below it
(owardx tbi- caxt

BETU-IlEilOB. (Seo
ItEHnn.)

B ETHSAIDA-M *»"«
(Matt li. 21). Thi
at leiut twii towns of thia
name in Judea. I. Ons was
utuaCvd on the east
of the river Jordan,
the place whore it falls into
the sea o[ Tiberias. Near
this village was the desert
or wildemeM of Bcthsaida
(Matt xW. 15-21 ; I.tike iz.
101. 2. TheothertownWM
csallcd BethKai.)a <rf GalUe^

BET

ree different plioei are mentioned
under this name,
them belonging to the tribe of
yther Mipaitsntly to Twarhar (Joah.

r waa in Egypt (Jer. zliii 13),
be the HeUopotis of the Greelu,
On (Gen. zE 45, 50). It is about
Uie modem Cairo.
B third waa a city of Jadah (2 Ki
ated on the borders of Dan, and
fidn-ehema. This last place was
I by the circamstance that the ark
her bv the Philistines, and a vast
ten, who looked into it from vain
are swept off by a pestilence (1
20). It waa also remarkable for
hat waa fou^t there between
^ndah, in which the latter were
i the king taken prisoner (2 KL

LPPUAH (Josh. zv. 53)— a town
Hebron, discovered by Robinson
me of Teff Oh.

TR (Josh. zv. 58) — an impregnable
lills of Jndah, still callea BeitsOr,
ding the highway from Hebron to

IL. (See Laban.)
H (Deut. zxviii 30). A man and
t betrothed or espoused, each to
i^hen they were engag<^d to be
is giving one*s troth {Le,, faith or
Daany at a future time. Amon;^
9 relation was usually determined
mts or brothers, without coii-
Murties until they came to be be-
le engagement often took place
I life, thoup;h it was not consum-
ctoal marriage, until the spouse
twelve years of age.
t often but little ceremony em-
raham's servant stated the object
monial journey to the father and
)bek^ ** And they said, we will
isel, and inquire at her mouth.
led Rebekah, and said unto her,
> with this man? And she said, I
jd they sent away Rebekah their
ar nurse, and Abraham^s servant,
* (Gren. xziv. 57, 68, 50). So, too,
^tle attention to etiquette on the
d in selecting a wife (1 Sam. xxv.
The betrotMng was often in ap-
amngement oi a pecuniary bar-
ails of which were conducted with
to external delicacy. Concerning
daughter, Shechem coolly treated
tier uid brothers thus : — ** Let me
your eyes, and what ye shall say
Til give. Ask mo never so much
ift, and I will give according as ye
'JO me : but give me the damsel to
zxziv. 11, 12). Jacob when he
ler's roof waa poor, and had no
rt with in exchange for a ^Hfe, and
r and coniidentiy proposed to serve
for Rachali Less ceremony still

BET

waa employed in procuring secondary wivea, or
ooncubmes. The prophet Hosea refers evi-
dently to a well-known practice in his nation
when he^ says, ** So I bought her to me for
fifteen pieces of silver, and for an homer of
barley and an half homer of barley" (Hos. iii.
2). ^ Similar customs prevailed in tne early
periods of Greece and liume, but were after-
wards laid aside.

The betrothing was performed a twelve-
month or more before the marriage, either in
writing or by a piece of silver given to the
espoused before witnesses. During this inter-
val, however, from the time of espousals to the
marriage^ the woman was considered as the
lawful wife of the man to whom she was be-
trothed, as we see in the case of Joseph and
Mary; nor could the enga^ment be ended by
the man without a bill of divorce ; nor could
she be unfaithfid without being considered an
adulteress.

The Jewish betrothing in later times waa
accompanied by a very formal written con-
tract. Dr. Wilson has given us a copiy and
translation of one of the documents in use
among the Samaritans, and of a date so recent
as 18^ The covenant is very wordy and dr-
ctiitous, yet perhaps has a resemblance to
ancient pai)er8 of a similar nature. Its usseu-
tial part is as follows : —

** In the year 12ri0 of the reign of the sons at
Ishmael, in the mouth . . . there wus the
betrothment of the good, and worthy, and
learned, and intelligent, and rusjYected bride-
groom, an eminent youth, the fairest of the
bridegrooms, who does every good deed . . .
the son of a good old man, worthy ami learned,
and resi)ecte<l, and Hkilled in writini,', and in-
formed, and intelligent, and skilled in rhetoric,
and a coimsellor, and nkilU^l in learning among
the elders of the church, wlui does every gmKi
deed . . . the son of a goo<l old man, and
worthy, and leanied, and intellij^ent, and
respectable, and skilled in writing, the illiu^tri-
ouH, and the counsellor, and pillar of the con-
gregation, and a chief of the congrejjration, who
does every goo<i deed . . . from the chil-
dren of Dinaphat and Kahalon, fmm the in-
habitants of ohechem unto the bride . . .
daughter of a good old man, and worthy, and
learned, and intelli;:ent, ami a chief, and
skilled in writing, and one of the snpiKirters of
the congregation, and of the eUlers of the
congregation, and skilK^l in rhetoric, a coun-
sellor^ and a great i>illar, who does what is
good . . . the sou of a gixnl old man, and
worthy, and learned, and intelligent, ami re-
spectable, ami skilled in writing, and pn)fi-
cient in the Talmud, of the eMers of tlie con-
gregation, who does every gi>od dec<l^ . . .
from the children of r>inaj>hat and Kahalon,
■ from the inhabitants of Shechera. After tlmt
I the bridegroom above mi^ntionod had askeil
her from the father of the before-mentioned
bride, and he agreed to Iuh demand, with full
knowledge, and good heart, and willing soul,
she being at that time a young woman, a
virgin, and unac(iuainted witn the way ol m«ii\

71

BEU

And he shall do unto her acoording to the law
of huBbands, after the vaaee of the daughters
of Israel, the excellent and venerable usage, aa
Eve who was created from the rib of Adam,
for an help-meet for fruitfulness and for in-
crease—by reason of a dowry oouMisting of
4,900 Karits. And ho shall marry her, and
she shall become his \iife, committed to him
and restrained from every man beaides him.
And he unto her as an husband shall do unto
her according to the manner of the women.
As the Lord spake through his servant Mose.-s
her food, her raiment, and her duty of mar-
riage, he shall not diminish. He sliall estab-
lish her vows, and bonds, and make them void.
And she has this duty to him; the spouse
shall obey his words and not opixMe his mouth,
and she shall be an help-meet tor him. And
there are remaining unto her upon him, be-
cause of the union, 2,500 £g>i)tian Karits.
She may take them from him at whatsuever
time she may need them, as she chooses, and
he^ shall cleave unto her. And the \vTiter of
this writing, and the cungregatiun of witnesses,
shall be against him, so as to be a righteous
and x>eife^ testimony; and the Lortl, who
bestows prosperity upon all that walk in his
ways, and keep nis judgments from head to
heeL And blessed be our Lord God for over,
and blessed be his name for ever. And lei ];>eace
be with the righteous, the i>erfect, the pure, the
faithful propliet Mosch, the son of Amram, the
man of Goa'* — Lands of the Bible^ ii 01^.

God speaks of betrothing his people — uniting
them to himself in bonds of tc>nder affection,
and pledging his wonl that all his gracious
promises will be fulfilled to them. (See Mab-

BIAGK.)

BEUTJVH (Tsa. Ixii. 4)— the past participle
of boralf ** to be lonl of," and signifying mar-
ried, which the firophet api)lies to the Jewish
church, to import the intimacy of its relation
to God.

BEYOXD. The meaning of this term de-
pends upon the relative position of him ^ho
uses it. Italy is beyond tne Alps to a French-
man, t.f., to the south of them ; and France is
beyond the Aliis to the Italian, t.e., to the
north of them. A similar use of the word, in
eonnection with the Jonlan, occurs in the Old
Testament, llius, in Deutl iii. 25, it is said.
*' I pray thee, let me go over and see the good
land that is beyond Jordan, that goodly moun-
tain, and I^cbanon.** Moses, when he pre-
sented this petition to God, was on the east
side of Jordan, so that '* beyond Jordan" here
signifies on the west side of Jordan. But in
Josh. ix. 10 we read, " And all that he did to
the two kings of the Amorites, tliat were
beyond Jordan, to Sihon king of Ucshbon,
and to Og king of Bashan, which was at
Ashtaroth." In this verse ** beyond Jordan"
means on the east of Jordan, for the words
were spoken by persons who lived on its
western side. There is no difficulty in deter-
mining the meaning of the phrase, though its
signification appear to be so opposite in vari-
ous riflmgpii-
72

BIN

BEZALEEL (Exod. zzxi. 2)— «
artificer, who received wisdom and uutmcdoi
directly from Grod, to qualify him for the rak
of building the tabernacle, and preparing ito
various furniture.

BKZEK (Judg. i 4)— A dty in the tribe flf
Judah, where the Canaanites suffered a sevan
slaughter, and their king was taken piLMni
(See Adoni-bezek.) It was at Beaek, pnbifa^
another place, that Saul mustered his anof
before the attack on Jabesh-gilead.

BIBLE. (See Scriptube.)

BIEU (Luke vii. 14). Unsold tennhMS
relation to the verb 6errr, and signifies thatoi
which something is homt or carried. Hare it
denotes the bed or frame on which the desd
body is conveyed to the grave. Probably bitn
were made (as coffins are in modem timi^
more or less expensive in shape and mmiiiiit,
according to the orcumstanous and rank of tt*
deceased. They do not seem to have had ■
lid or covering fastened down, as with in (I
Chr. xvi 14). (See Buriau)

BILDAD (Job ii ll)~one of Job*s thm
friends who visited him in his ^ffliirtiffpnt sad
whose arguments, in justification of GoA
dealings, occupy chapk viiL, xviiL, and xzn
of the book of Job. These arguments an fol
of metaphor, sparkling with rapidity of duia|i
and intensity of feehng. The chief topic ■
the swiftness, suddenness, and terror of God%
wrath u]»on tne wicked and Uie hypocrite, with
a vi\'id and minute description ca the fediBCi
and acts of selfish and rapacious oppnssm
(See Job.) The name Shuhite is probably
derived from Shnah, son of Abraham and
Keturah, whose descendant he is supposed to

BILHAH (Gen. xxix, 29V-the handmaid of
Kachel, and tne mother of Dan and Ni^ihtdl
(Gen. XXXV. 25).

BILL (Luke xvi 6, 7) — any written pap«
containing a statement of particulars daknsd
or promised; as a bill dt services, bill of ex-
penses, bill of fare, &c. Bill (or writoig) of
divorcement (Deut. xxiv. 1-4; Matt ▼. SI)
was a writing given by the husband to 1^
wife, in virtue of which, l^ the Jewish law,
the marriage relation was dissolved. This for-
mality of a bill was intended to give to ths
transaction a serious aspect, to retud it some-
what, and to counteract that caprice which,
if indulged, would virtually annihilate the
marriage contract. Facility <A di\'orce was
not permitted— a law process must intorrene;
and this inter\'al allowed time for oalm reflec-
tion, adjustment of differences, the cooling of
irritated feeling, and the explBnati<m of say
circumstances which may have led to tem-
porary alienation of affection. (See Betbocb,

I)1V0BCE.)

BIND (Matt xvi 19). Bind and loose, as
used in this and parallel passages, are aynony-
mous with command and forbid. The expns-
sion, " to bind the law upon one*s hand," fta
is figurative, and implies an intimate acquaint-
ance with it, - and a constant regard to ite
precepts. The Jews construed it litenUj,

BIR

td hence the costom of weariog phylActerieSi
ee Phtlacteries.) Rolls or volnmes of
ntin^ were tied up. Hence the ezpreuion
ML viiL 16)^ "bind up the testimony . . .
QODg my disciples."

BIRDS (Ijev. jdr. 4). (See Wnra.) Birds
ire various names in the HArew Scriptureti.
ley bjive ime common nune derived from tb^ir
arscteristic power of rf jfMfT — anoLher from the
pidity of their motion through the air—
id birds of prey have an epithet "peca-
ir to themselves, derived from the impetu-
ity of their attadcs. Birds, as well as
APts, were divided into clean and unclean.
It not by external marks, as in the case
: quadrupedsL Those whicn were forbidden
re nameOy and were probably well known
f those names to the Jews, though not
Dw known to us by the same titles. In
eneral, the ravenous lands, feeding on flesh,
vre forbidden.

There was a humane law in the Jewish code
liich forbade the taking of a mother-bird,
liousfa her young might oe taken. The com-
Mxn mode of catching birds was with a snare
Ps. cxziv. 7: Frov. viL 23; Amos iiL 5). A
peckled bird (Jer. xiL 9)^ probably means any
Innge bird, which, as is well known, other
irds are accustomed to attack and pursue.
f birds of song were very abundant in Pales-
ine, it is strange that among the Hebrew
oets so few allusions occur to the melody of
begroveii.

BIRTH. The pangs of chad-bearing, in
beir suddenness and sharpness, are the subject
f fret juent allusion by the writers of the Old
^estament. In the early states of society, and
rhere the enfeebling luxuries of civilization
re not enjoyed, they are less severe and
angerous. fience the Hebrew mothers in
Hgypt presented a marked and favourable
untrast in this respect to those of Egypt
Exod. L 19). The infant, when bom, was
raahed, rubbed with salt, and wra^>ped in
vaddlms: bands (Ezek. xvL 4 ; Luke ii. 7-11).

Premature births also afford references to
be Hebrew writers (Ps. Iviii. 8). The birth
f a son was an occasion of great festivity. A
umerous ofibprin^ was regarded as a Hicpial
losing (Ps. cxxvii. 3, 4. 5). " Thy wife shall
e as a fruitful vine oy the sides of thine
ouae; thy children like olive plants round
bout thy table" (P^ cxxviiL 3). For a wife
> have no children was reckoned a dishonour,
nd childless wives adopted the offspring of
beir maidens (Clt^n. xvi. 2; xxix. 21; xxx. 3).
!herefore the blessing pronounced over the
ewly married couple wished them a flourish-
azprogeny (Ruth iv. 11).

The ajxMtle uses very striking language in
rference to childbirth in 1 Tim. il 15, ** r^ot-
rithetanding she shall be saved in childbear-
igj if they continue in faithj and charity, and
<umess, with sobriety." Some have held
bat by the expression, ' she shall be saved in
hildbearing,' the apoetle designs to include
D the duties of the maternal relation, mean-
ig that she ihould be saved through the

BIR

faithful i)erformance of her duties as a mother,
(Robinson, Lex.) Rosenmtiller regards the
words rendered 'child-bearing* (rkKvoyoyta)
as synonymous with education ^ and supposes
that the meaning is, that a woman, by the
proper training of her cbiLlren, can obtain
salvation as well as her htishancl, and that her
approixriate duty is not public teaching, but
the training of her family. Wetstein supposes
that it means, * she shall be saved from the arts
of impostors, and from the luxury and vice of
the age, if, instead of wandering about, she
remains at htmie, cultivates modesty, is sub-
ject to her husband, and engages carefully in
the training of her children.' Tliis sense
agrees well with the connection. CiUvin sup-
poses that the apostle designs to console the
woman by the assurance that, if she bears the
txials of her condition of sorrow with a proper
spirit, abiding in faith and holiness, she will
be saved. She is not to r^^ard herself as cut
off from the hoi)e of heaven. Doddridge,
Macknight, EUieott, and others, suppose that
it refers to the promise in (jren. ui. 15, and
means that the woman shall bo saved through,
or hyr means of bearing a child, to wit, tho
Mesmah; and that tlie apostle means to sus-
tain the woman in her sorrows, and in her
state of subordination and inferiority, by re-
ferring to the honour which has been put upon
her hy the fact that a woman gave birth to tho
Messiah. It iii supposed also that lie means to
say that special honour is thus conferred on
her over tne man. inasmuch as the Messiah
had no human fatiier. Tills is, after all, por-
hai>s the lx*st and iu«)re n:itural 8eii5<e of tho
clause, which literally is, * tiirough the child-
bearing,' which, while it was the token of the
curse ui)on woman, is also the means of her
deliverance, not in itself, but provided sho
* continue in faith, love, and hoUueHS.'"

This term, and its cognate wonLi, are used
to denote that gracious change which jMUsses
over the heart at the period of its conversion.
(See Regeneration.)

BIRTHDAY. This period wtw cele]>rated
with peculiar rejoicings all over the Kast (Job
i. 4: Gen. xL 20; Matt xiv. G). We do not
find any si>ecial instince among the Hebrews
themselves, though tho custom could scarcely
be omitte<l by them.

BIRTHRIGHT (Gen. xxv. 31). Tlie firat-
bom son among the Juws enjoyed special privi-
leges above his brethren, and tliese privile^'cs
were hence called his birthright, or his right by
birth. Among these privileges were, consecni-
tion to tho Ijord (Exod. xxii. 2t>)t j^Teat dignity
(Gen. xlix. 3), a double i)ortioii of hw fatiier a
estate (Deut xxL 17), and (in the royjd fa-
milies) succession to the kingdom (2 Clir. xxL
3). The eldest son seems to have been re-
garded, in the father's absence, as in some
respects his representative. As |>rimc^enituro
involved religious privilege, tsau, who so
wantonly renounced it, is called a "profano
person."

ITie paternal blessing was also in a peculiar
sense tne right of the first-bom, though tho

73

BIS

right itiielf , and all the bleniii^ of it, might be
forfeited or tranaferred, as in the case of
Jacob and Esau (Gen. xxv. 33), Keuben and
Joseph n. Chr. v. 1). In the case of Esau it
was on nis own jnrt renounced; and in the
case of Reuben it was forfeited by flaffrant
crime. Such transference was abolished by
the Mosaic htw. Whoever enjoyed the birth-
right was r^arded as invested with great
dignity and superiority. 80 the phrase is
used figuratively to denote the chief or highest
(Job xviiL 13), and to confer such a rank on
one is to constitute him the first-born (Ps.
Ixxxix. 27 ; CoL L 15).

Hence the peculiar force and appropriate-
ness of the titles given to the Divine Keaeemer
(Bom. viii. 2U; Col. i 18; Heb. i. 2, 4, 6; xii
23). He is " the first-born among many
brethren," and the ** heir of all things."**
Universal dominion is his, along with an
everlasting priesthood.

BISHOP (1 IHm. iiL 2). The word in its
original means orerseeTf as Joseph was in
Potiphar*8 house (Gen. zxxix. 4), or as the 3,600
men were in Solomon's temple (2 Chr. iL 18),
or as Uzzi was of the Levites (Neh. xi. 22).
In the New Testament, however, the term is
used to denote an oflicer or officers of the
church. In the Jewish {xtrtion of the church
they were called "elders" (Acts zL 30; x v.
2), that being a known Jewinh term, and this
is the earliest appellation : llie elders in Acts
XX. 17, 18, in allusion to their office, are
the same pentons culled '* bishops" orsuijcrin-
tendents m Acts xx. 28. (Compare 1 Pet. v.
1, 2 with v. 17.) But their precise rank or
jurisdiction is a matter of controversy. As
]>olemic8 do not lie within the lum of this work,
we are therefore precluded from the inven-
ti^tion of these points. Paul describes the
qualifications for the office pEuticuIarly in his
letter to Timothy (1 Tim. iii. 2-7). One of
these (]ualifications detailed by the apastlc is
■o peculiar that about the meaning of it there
has been some dispute. The clause we refer
to is — a bishop murit be "the husbnnd of one
wife." Borne, from this declaration, infer that
cverv person holding such a religious office
nhould be married. But it is very evident
that the aixutle lays siHicial stress on the word
"one." He does not say, a bishop must be
the husband of a wife, as if he condemned
oncubinagc, but the husband of one wife, hav-
ing speciskl reference either to divorce or to
the practice of polygamy, so jtrevalent in those
days. Nor do we sii))poso tliat the apostle
means to say that a Chnstian bUhop should be
married only once, or should have only one
wife in all, and that, if a widower^ he is <lis-

2ualified if he marry a second time. The
rreek church acts on such an interpretation,
forbids clerical digamy, and tlie widowed
clergy within her pale give up their livinn
and retire into a convent, if the aiiostle
alludes to polygamy, the meaning is that no
man who had more wives than one living with
him, or who, by frequent divorces, might have
other wives living apart from him, could fill
74

BIT

the office of a Hahop; or lie may nffv tl
a man's state prior to his oonivetaiop, and av
be imdentooa to tay^ that no man irfio M
ever been a pol3rgamut oonld be elevatad li-
the sacred cnaive and honoor of » bidMp h'
the church of Qhrist Christ is i5guiahirt[
called "the shepherd and biahop of mmr
(1 Pet iL 25).

BISHOPRIC (Acts L 20)-tfa6 juiidialk^
charge, or office of a biahopi

Bfra. jSee Harnms.)

BITTER (Jer. ii 19) and BITTEItNE8B

SProv. xiv. 10) are words naed figuvtiTdyli
enote the severity of sorrow or sufferiiuL

BITTER HEimS (Exod. ziL 8). TheJeiM
were commanded to eat the paaaover wUh a
salad of bitter herbs : and their modem U»
torians suppose that noaifaoond, wild lettosi^.
tansy, ftc., were used, at they rtill are I7 A*;,
Jews in some countries. The nae of thnn 1
that occasion was intended to call to tiidr]
membrance the severe and cmel bondage batk
which Crod delivered them when thej nt
brought out of Egypt.

BITHRON (2 Sam. iL 29). Thia li boI
probably the name of an^ partionlar plao^
out a general term denotmg a range of VSk
and vales.

BITHYNIA (Acts xvL 7)-a Qronaoe of
Asia Minor. It is bounded on tne eaik lif
Paphlagonia, north hv the Blade Sea, nl
south by Phrygia and Galatia The Goqri
was introduced into this province ataaeM'
period. (Comp. Acts iL 9 and 1 Pet L l)
There is a remarkable testimonv in ecdeB*
astical hifttory to the purity and firmnea of
the Christians of Bithynia, at the doae of tki
first, and the banning of the aeoond oeatuq^
Pliny, who was governor of that provinoe^ M
left on record a description of the chinfr
tcr and manners of the Christians under Ui
government This document, in the form of a
(lesi)atch to the emperor, is one of great rat
terest, from which we give the lollowiac
extracts : —

"Pliny, to the emperor Trajan, wUmA
health ana happiness . • •

" In the meantime I have taken thia ooom
with all who have been brought before 111%
and have been accused as Christians. I haw
put the question to them. Whether they wen
Christians 7 Upon their confessing to me tint
thev were, I repeated the question a eeoond
and a third time, threatening also to pmdih
them with death. Such as still pernsted, X
ordered away to he punished; for it was ne
doubt ^'ith me, whatever might be the natmt
of their opinion, that oontumacy and iip
flexible obstinacy ought to be punished. Then
were others of tlie same infatuation iriiA
because they are Roman citiMns, I have nolil
down to be sent to the city.

" In a short time, the crime spreading itMlt
even whilst under persecution, as is nsoal ia
such cases, divers sorts of people came in nxf
way. An information was presented to 111%
without mentioning the author, oontaimng tfai
namee of many persons^ who, upon examina*

BIT
«d tkat thar w«i« ChiiitiMM^ or had
■o; wlio npeoUd after me an invo-
tha god*, ana with wina and tnnkiii-
1« anpiJieation to your iiuage, which,
pmpoM, I had cMind tobetnnight
gfore thim. togrtbar with the itaMae
ntiea. MonoVfr, the; rariled the
Ghrirt, none of whidi thingi, ■■ i«
r «rho are reallr Chriiti«o« can W any
oompelledtoda TheM, thenfora, I
proper to diMJiaige. Othen ware
f an infonner, who at fint eaaUnad
■a ChriatiaiuL Mtd afterwarda denied
at iHd they bad been ChriitialH, but
than,— aome Ouee yean ago, eome
ad one or men above twenty yean.
1 wonliipped your ina^ and the
'm god*; th

, en a atated day, before it waa light,
{ among UienuM*<a, altematelv, a
I Chri<t aa God ; and to bind them-
r a aoiemn oath (mctatiieato), not to
nianon of any widcedncea, bet not to
y of theft, or robbery, or adultery,
1 Eal^ their word, nor to deny a
ommitted to tlwm when called upon to
. When theae tbingi were perfoimed,
heir nutom to aepaivte, and tbeti to
gether agun to a meal which they
xjmmoQ, without any diiorder: but
T had forborne rince the publica-
my edict, by which, aeconliDg to
munandfl, I pni]jiblt«d aiwcmbUes.
eceiring tbia account, I judi,'ed iC

1 eril MideiceBsive gupentition. Sns-
Uwrefm, all judicial proceedingH, I

1 onto me ■ matter highly deuerving
ttion, especially upon accouDt of the
imber of perHona who arc in djingtr
ing; for many of all agea and every
both Bei« likewise, are accused, finii
ccused. Nor baa tbe contagion of this
ion neiied cities only, but the lesser
ao, and the open country. Nererthe-
Kms to me that it may be restrained
Kted. It is certain that the temples,
ere almoiit forsaken, begin to be more
ed ; and the sacred solemnities, after a
:n>ua>ion. ar^ revived. Victims like-
everywhere brought up. whereas for
le there were few porchasera. Whence
7 to imacine what nnmbera of men
■ reclaimed, if pardon were granted to
^rfuJl repent.''

X, the capital city of Bithynia, was
the year 3^, the moat famous of the

BBN [Im. zxilv. ll]-^Kime bird of
Iwhita, that fre^uenta nuu and other
plaoea. The bird known in modem

day* by thit nans inhabita fens and iiiai Jm
and han a deep hoarae cry, which is often heard
in the twilight, from ita lonely haunbh The

language of prophecy (Taa. xiv. 23; xxxiv. 11:
Zeph. u. 14) importo the utmost solitude and
desolation. But writera of no mean name,
SQch as Bocbart, suppose the porcupine or sea
orcbin to be the animal intended. Immense
numbers of these animals are found in the
viciiuty of the Euphrates, and cluHe to tba aito
of tbe ancient llabvlim.

BLACK, BLACKNESS (Job six. 30;
Joel iL 6) are wiirda used figumtively, to
denote shame, terror, perplexity, dvsiiair,
moumiuK, &c. We often find them employed
at this day, in eastern writinp to express
shame and confusion, "Why bos your face
become so black!" is the common mode of
putting the question. What ailutb or dis-
treHMth you !

.AJras - - . -- .

from the fumacca (brick-kilnii, iierhnpa) were
taken by Moees, a hiuidful at a time, and
scattered to the winils, and wherever tbey fell,
on man or besat, they caused this dreailf ul din-
ease toappear. Might not those luhes of the
kilns producing such annojim- maladies be the
symbols of that servitude in wliieh the Hubrews
hod been kept, and be meant to r^'miud the
Etyptians that the opiireBsion of the race of
Awaham was the sourv-e of tlieir tormi-nts?
Perhaps reference is mode to this plague in
Dent, xxviii. 2T.

BLASPHEWY [CoL iii. 8). Tlie wordin
its original use denotes all manner of detraction
or caJumay, such as is expressed by tlie terms
rail, revile, sjieak evil, 4e. ; but in the re-
stricted sense of the Scrijitures, and of common
use, it denotes reproachful, irreverent, or m-

^a^oraMXto^"{L^r?:»iv. l(Vl'°'wh^
everthinkaofthccharocteroEGoa ss infinitely
holy, just, and good will not be surprised that
this offence is rejrarded as very heinous, and is
BO fwirfnlly pumshed. It is the highest fonn
I of impiety. Aa lying is wilful fataohood, ao
75

BLA

Uaspbemv is wilful, wanton pirof anity. And
there is auo no reason to imppose that the sin
of protime swearing, so oommon at this day,
is less odious and offensive to God than it was
in the time of Moses.

Blasphemt against the Holt Ghost (Matt
xii 32)— such as the Pharisees were gmlty of
when they ascribed the miracle of curing the
blind and dumb man (who was also possessed
with a devil) to the agency of Beelzebub or
Satan, is declared to be unpardonable. Such,
as the context shows, was the sin against the
Holy Ghost It was tne wicked and gratuitous
calumny that Christ was in lea^e with the
spirits of darkness. It was not a sin of thought,
but one of open si>eech. The Spirit dwelt in
Christ, and all imputations of such a nature
were (^umnies against the Holv Ghost This
sin in its first fonn was limited, to the period
of our Lord's abode on earth. It was un-
pardonable. It was an "idle word"— a sin of
usincerity — and betokened a state of mind
which shut itself out, by its own voluntary
criminality, from all interest in Christ He
who was guilty of it put away by his own act
all means of forgiveness — stifled me rising con-
viction that he was opposing the cause of (jrod
—branded Him who was " anointed with the
Holy Ghost'* as a deceiver, and so brought
down upon himself the wrsth of the Most
High, who had sent ^ Son into the world as
our Redeemer.

Many persons are apprehensive that they
have fulen into this sin, and henoe give them-
selves up to despair ; but it is probable that,
however dangerous and fatal may be our
offences against the Holy Spirit in rejecting his
gracious influences and refusing to yield to his
persuasions (Heb. vL 4-8; x. 2f>-31), the fear is
sometimes groundless. • This very fear is proof
that they are free from it How near the
ridicule and contempt of religion and its ordi-
nances, the sporting with the work of the Holy
Spirit on men's hearty the imbelief in, and
opposition to, the Scripture, which is all given
by this divine a^ent, and contemj>tuous sluider
cast upon Christianity, which is the "minis-
tration of the Spirit,'^ mav approach to the
fearful extremi^ of guilt wnicn the unpardon-
able sin must involve, the judgment of the
great day will reveal

BLEMISH (Exod. xii 5) — whatever renders
a person or thing imperfect The priests under
the Jewish law were required to oe free from
personal blemishes; and the defects which were
accounted blemishes are particularly described.
Lev. xxi 18-20; xxil 20-24. Their corporeal
perfection was a symbol of the immaculate
purity of Christ wno offered himself without
spot to God. bo also of animals (Deut xv.
21). The word is figuratively used, 2 Pet iL
13 and (8poU)J\ide 12.

BLESSTfeLESSED, BLESSING (Gen.
xii 2; xxiL 17, 18). These words are of fre-

auent occurrence m the sacred writings, and
tieir particular force may generally^ be oeter-
mined by Uie connection. Men are said to bless
God when they ascribe to him the pniie and

BLI

glory which are dne to him, (Pa. ok
blesses men in bestowing upon then
ally mercies, spiritual and temporal
12; Ps. xlv. 2). And men are saiid
their fellow-creatures when, as in and
in the spirit of prophecy, tney predic
ings to come upon them, lliia was
of blessing which the patriardhs pn
(Gen. xlix.) So Moses blessed Ibm
xxxm.)

The form of blessing prescribed by t
ritual (Num. vL 23-2?) is admirably si
sublime. It was pronounced standii
loud voice, and with the hands raise
heaven (Luke xxiv. 60). National
and cursings were sometames pronomu
xxviL, xxviii.), as at Ebal and Gen
xix.25).

The cup of blkssino (1 Cor. x. 16

OF SALVATION (Ps. CXVi 13) ftTS 91

derived, as we suppose, from a costo
lent among the Jews at their feasts.

The master of the feast took a ca
in his hand, and solemnly blessed C
and for all the mercies whicn were tha
ledged. It was now passed to all ti
each of whom drank of it in his in
aptness and force of the figures employ
alwve passages are thus made obvioai

Blessing. yALLsr of. (See Bsrac

BLINDNESS. In the histories of
gelists frequent mention is made d 1
sons coming to Jesus for reli^ ':
record that this distressing malady!
versal frequency in the East Man]
causes in those countries unite in <
deleterious influence over the organs
The sun is hot, and in the atmosphe
very fine dust, which enters the eve.
in •tne open air is also detrimentaL T
of France and England, which were
Egypt during the Frencn war, suff erei
from ophthalmic disease. It is comx
from one sufferer to another, and pe
by the habits of the towns. In the tc
blindness is very common among ad
of the children, generally beautiful iz
form, and in other respects healthy,
are whose eves are not in a state of ]
disease. The swarms of flies whic
upon the open sores of the begga]
streets, leave them for the eyes of tne
and from thence carry infection fro
another of a people who, from hah
from reliAon, inure themselves to tt
of these nltiiy insects, and appear t
sense either of torment or disgust '
them to brush away an annoyance
any but Egyptians would be absol
tolerable.

Jesus often cured the blind, and i
in such miracles employed a symbolic
such as anointing the diseased eye
(John ix. 6). Blindness vras some
flicted as a punishment (Gen. xix.
xiii. 6), and it was often threatei
penalty (Deut xxviii. 28). The J
enjoined py the humane lawi of Mosi

BLO

ndneat and oonsidentioiii to fhe Uind
dx. 14 ; Dent xxvii 18). No one affected
bis infirmity conld officiate aapriest (Lev.
)). Blindness is often used in Scripture
ote ignonmce and error.
X)D (Exod. xxiz. 12) is tlie flnid of life
animal body. Its use was ezpready
ited to Noah when eveiTthinff else was
siven him (Gen. iz. 4). By the Jewish
Jso, it was expressly and solemnly f or-
I, (Ler. xvii 10, Ac) The reason <n this
iction is, probably, because blood was
ly apprvpriated (Lev. xvii 11). The
li ritaal abounds with the use of blood
ix. 22), and the manner of employing it
ed with minuteness in Heb. ix., x., where
ts use and effects are shown in striking
At with the blood shed upon the cross,
ilso Acts XX. 28; Bom. v. 9; Eph. L 7:
14; Heb. viL 27; IJohni 7.)
is the blood that maketh an atonement
t soul,^* or, as the clause mav be rendered,
bkxMl maketh atonement oy the souL**
k)od or life of the victim was accef^ted in
' the bkMxL or life of the offender. " The
the flesh in the blood"— life departs, if
xtd be shed. Blood is the chosen symbol
Christ^s blood was poured out for men
life was siven for theirs. Their life was
ed, for death was the i)enalty of the
I covenant. Therefore, to redeem them,
vionr died in their room. Our salvation
ibed to the atoning blood of the Son of
The blood of ftnhnftl \'ictim8 was vile
xnthless — ^the law demanded a nobler
X — ^the pardon of men involved a mightier
ntion, and so Jesus '* appeared in the
the world to put away am by the socri-
himself." The notion that the blood of
iuDst waei peculiarly sacred to the gods is
aed on all ancient pagan mythology.
HBisr.)

prohibition of eating blood or animalB
re B^nngled has b^n always rigidly
ed by the Jews. In the council of the
m held at Jerusalem (Acts xv.), it was
sd that converts from paganism should
subject to the legal ceremonies, but that
lonld refrain from idolatry, from fomica-
rom eating blood, and from Huch animals
re stranded and their blood thereby
d in their bodies. Thec«e decrees were
s ofpeace meant for the churches ref errefl
r Paul, in the epb>tles to Rome and
h, argues in a different way as to the
m. of eating meats offered to idols.
term has a number of secondary mean-
It often denotes relationship. ** Flesh
ood " signifies human nature in itself, or
Tast witii higher or spiritual beings not
ted of humanity; and in 1 Cor. xv. 30
ixmse signifies our present constitution
Xisition to that spiritual body which
gives believers — a mime fashioned "like
is own glorious bodv.** llie cause **be-
blood and blood ** (Deut. xvii 8) is one
ng capital punishment, if it be satis-
ly established. Wine, from a very

BLO

obvious analogy, is called the "blood of the
grape."

Blood axd water. When the heart of
Jesus was pierced and opened by the spear of
the Roman soldier (John xix. 34), ** forthwith
came thereout blood and water. " This peculiar
phenomenon has excited much discusnion. By
some it has been regarded as miraculous and
symbolic — the blood an emblem of pardon, and
the water of purification. Whence came this
peculiar fluid ? Some regard it as proceeding
from the pericardium, which had been cut bv
the spear, and which usually contaiuM a smaU
(quantity of lymph ; so that * blood and water **
signifies blood mingled with water issuing from
the wound inflicted upon a dead body. But it
is objected that if Jesus had been dead, the
blood, would not have flowed so copiously, for
it stagrnates in a corpse. The brothers Gnmer,
in their essay on the reality of Christ*s death
(Halae, 1805), affirm that Jesus was not quite
dead when struck by the spear ; therefore, that
his blood was as yet in a fluid state, and was
poured out from that wound which at once
must have extinguished vitality. It has been
said that blood will not flow from a corpse, but
the statement is not wholly correct — ^for much
depends upon the depth of the incision, the
spot where it is made, and on the time that
has elapsed since death took place. But there
seems to have l>een somcthin^^ unusual in tlie
case of the Saviour. Special attention m called
to it by John, under the guidance of inKpiration.
It might bo one puqx>se of the Evangelist to
show that Jesus nad really died, or it mi^ht be
his design to show that Jesus was in posset^sion
of a real humanity — a humanity which wuh not
a mere phantom, out actually comiMHje<l of flesh
and bloo4l. Still there was Kometliing peculiar
in the phenomenon, especially when taken in
connection with the Saviour's very speedy
death on the cross. Crucifixion was a lingei ing
torture, and many lived on the crosn a nuiii>>er
of days. Our Lortl was in the prime of life,
not weakened by fasting or other voluntary
emaciation. The human nature of C/hrist wan
perfect, and the union of his soul and Ixnly was
held tc^ether by no weaker l)ond than that
wliich ordinarily belongs to mankind. A recent
author,* a physician by pri^fession, a man of

J»iety and ot no mean learning, has pu>)li8hed a
[issertation to prove that the cause of Christ's
death was ** agony of mind producing rupture
of the heart. His ar^ment preHents the
evidence of a high probability, and bears closely
upon the subject of this article: —

"In the ganlen of GrPthsemane Christ en-
dured mental agony so intense, that, had it not
been limited by divine interjKwition, it would
probably have destroyed his life without the
aid of his other sufferings; but having been
thus mitigated, its effects were confined to
violent palpitation of the heart, accompanied
Ijy bloody sweat On the cross this agony was
renewed, in conjunction with the ordinary
sufferings incidental to that mode of punish-

• A Treatise an the PhyKical Cause, of ChrisCs Dtfith, ^
by William Stroud, ILD. London, IHil.

77

\

BLO

rnent; and having at this time been allowed to
proceed to its titmoet eztremiW, occasioned
sadden death by the mpture of tne heart, inti-
mated by a discharge oc blood and water from
his side, when it was afterwards pierced with
a spear. Agony when intense produces violent
palpitation, bloody sweat, oppression of the
chest, loud cries, and ultimately rupture of the
heart Such rupture is usually attended with
immediate death, and with an effusion into the
pericardium (the capsule containing the heart)
of the blood previously circulating through that
organ, which, when thus extravasated, although
scarcely in any other case, separata into its
oonsti^ent puts so as to present the appear-
ance conmionly termed blood and water.

"The immediate cause is a sudden and
evident contraction of one of the ventricles,
usually the left, on the column of blood thrown
into it by a similar contraction of the corre-
sponding auricle. Prevented from returning
backwards by the intervening valve, and not
fimlinpr a sufficient outlet forwards in the oon-
nectea artery, the blood re-acts against the
ventricle itself, which is consequently torn
open at the point of greatest distension, or least
resistance, by the innuence of its own reflected
force. A quantity of blood is hereby discharged
into the pericanlium, and having no means of
escape from that capsule, stops the circulation
by compressing the heart from without, and
induces almost instantaneous death. In young
and vigorous subjects the blood thus collected
in the pericardium soon divides into its con-
stituent parts — namely, a nale watery liquid
called serum, and a soft clotted suljstuice of a
deep rod colour, termed crassamentum ; but
except under Rimilar circumfitanceH of extra-
vasation, this dintinct separation of the blood
is seldom witnessed in the dead bcnly.'*

Should this theory be allowed, the pheno-
menon of blood and water is easily explained.
The Saviour's sufferings M-ere princi])aUy men-
tal, for he bore the awful load of human guilt,
and by this ph\'Hical result a complete death
was endureiL Blood of necessity flowed into
the pericardium, seijarated into its constituent
elements, terum ana craMiamentum, and in this
state issued from the orifice which the spear-
wound produced.

Bloody sweat. In Luke xxiL 44 we read.
'* His sweat was as it were great drops of blooa
falling down to the ground." There are some
who only suppose that by this phraseology the
mere size of the drops of ijenpiration is indi-
cated ; but the plain meaning of the language
is, that the sweat was bloody in its nature —
that the physical naturo of our I^ord was so
deranged uy the violent pressure of mental
agony that blood oozed from every pore. Such
a result is not uncommon in a sensitive consti-
tution, llie face reddens with blood both from
shame and anger. Were this continued with
intensity, the blood would force its way through
the smaller vessels, and exude from the skin.
The author referred to in the preceding artide
■ays, ** Kannegiesser remarks. * If the mind is
Mued with a sudden fear of death, tho iweat^
78

BOA

owing to the exeeaiye desree of oonatridia^
often becomes bloody.* The uminient Ytmm:
historian, I^ Thoo, mentions the case cf m.
Italian officer who commanded at Miiiiln TifM%'.
a fortress of Piedmont, dnringthe mibn, lr>
1562, between Uenzy IL of Fnmoe and At
emperor Charles V. Hub officer hannff bM%
treacherously seized hv order of theaoillt
general, and threatenea with public tiiiffiiitlM
unless he surrendered the place^ was soaoitiM
at the prospect of an igncnnimoas deadi IM
he sweated blood from every part of hia bo^pl-
The same writer relates a similar ooe
in the person of a young Fbrentine at
unjustly put to death uy order d Pope
V. in tne beginning of his reign, and on
the narrative as follows: — *Wn«n the
was led forth to execution, he

commiseration of many, and through

grief was observed to sued bloody tean^ andlvj
discharge blood instead of sweat mmi hia whfllfl
body.'" Tj

Medical experience doea so far eamheam
the testimony of the gospels, and ahowa thil
cutaneous hsnmorrhage is sometimfla the imA
of intense mental a^tation. The awful ■■■
guish of him who said, " Mv* soul is •***— ^Tf
sorrowful, even unto deatn,** was siiffliiaf
cause to produce the bloody perapiralioii cm a
cold night and in the open air.

BLOf)D. AVENGER OF. (See AVKHO^ CiR.)

BLUE. (See Colours.)

BO ANERGES-soiu of Thunder (Maik &
17) — the name given by Christ to James mI
John. Some have supposed that this mm
indicated the power which those apostles shoaM
exert in the introduction of the Gospel di^
pensation. It seems out of place to snpiMi
that it refers to the mode or tone of uirir
preaching. Perhaps there was an aDusioQ to
the request which these two disciples mads fli
a certain occasion, *'Ijord, wilt thoa thatvi
command fire to come down from heaven, aid
conmime them, even as EHias did?**

BOAR (Ps. bcxx. 13). This is the origin
stock of the common hog, and^ in a wild stalls
is a very furious and formidable •^nim^l In
tusks are larger, sharper, and stronger, thaata
the tame heras. Modem travellers tell na tinl
they are found in great numbers cm the faanki
of the Jordan^and among the reeds of the sai
of Tiberias. The allusion of the psalmist, in
the above passage, may be to the coming foftii
of the animal from the shady marsh or woods;
or it may be to his well-knonvn habit of tnraiBg
mv the earth in search of roots for food, and m
this way destroying cultivated ground. (Sst
SwiKE.)

BOAZ, or BOOZ—ttrength (Ruth IL S)— wM
a descendant of Judah ; and through him is
traced the regular succession of Jewish kiagi
(Matt. L 5). Boaz was a man of wealth mi
position; and from his conduct towards
nis poor kinswoman, Ruth, we justly suppoN
him to have been a man of strict integrity, mi
of an estimable (duuacter. He at once ad-
mitted the claim which Ruth by law had npoa
him aa a near kinaman, and mamed the pooff

I

BOL

id 10 became an hoDonred anoeator
ad DftTid*8 aon, the Meniah. The
ratiTe praaenta ua with a baratiful
aiiioere affecticm, matio aimpludty.
iy nuannera of an age when artificial
bftd not namped the place of wann
il ezpreanona of attarhmenti (See

D rEzod. ix. 31). The cxproaaion,
boUed,** meana that it waa podded,
in a atate to be gathered, and ot
loaa of it waa much nune aevere
lid ha^rt been ai an earlier atage of

BONDA6KB0NDMAN, BOND-
, BONDMAID. (See Skbvant.)
rra. (See Clothk, Mitbk.)
[Exod. xrii 14). The term ia snp-
M related to beech, becanae in the
ooontriea of Europe booka were
nnde of the bark, or of thin amooth
eeek'Wood. The use of wood as a
or writing on ia very old. In the
•ea there is reference to it (Num.
n Eaek. zxrdi 20 occur the words,
a whereon thou writesL" The cus-
vevalent also in early Greece, and
ma of it oontmned to a recent period
i^rea. StiduL with peculiar notches
em, were usea up tul very latd|v in
e aooounta of the Exchequer. Toese
dgers were named UUliet; the per-
EmI charge of them were called
ftnd the more modem form of this
!», is still applied to persons holding
ices in hamu and other monetary
a. What we call books were un-
the ancient Jews, at least in their
nvenient form. Letters were en-
stone, brick, metal (as lead and
r wood, and also on doth and skins,
iter period on parchment (2 Tim. iv.
ets of lead and brass or copper, of
uity, have been discovered in modem

iest mode of preserving inscriptions
praving on a rock. Such inscriptionB
tr to the eastern traveller. Job is

0 refer to this mode of writing, when
lap. ziz. 23 —

. now my wordn were written !
in ft boi>k they were iJD«cri1>eUt
irlth ftn iron styloii and lead
•rere farrowed apon the rock for everl "*

of Hesiod were written on sheets of
awn of Solon were carved on wooden
id the decalc^e was engraven on

of stone, inscriptions were also
let or bricks, which were afterwards
tj being burnt in the fire.
iinp taUe mentioned Luke i. 63 was

tablet covered with wax, or other-
red to be written upon (Deut xxviL
h tablets were used in England as

1 year 1300. The Latin name of
et waa codex; hence our word code,
phraae aa % code of laws. Stonea

BOO

covered with aome adhesive subatancea were
also used on peculiar occasions. "And it
ahall be, on the day when ye shall pass over
Jordan unto the land which the Lord thy God
giveth thee, that thou shalt set thee up great
stones, and plaster them with plaster. And
thou ahalt write upon them all the words of
this law, when thou art passed over ; that thon
mayest go in unto the bmd which the Lord thy
God ffiveth thee, a land that floweth with milk
and noney; aa the Lord God of thy fathera
hath proxnised thee " (Deut. xxvii 2, 3).

Leaves and the bark of trees were also used,
and were often prepared with much skill.
Thus of old, men spoke literally when they
spoke of the leaves of a book — a term we still
apply figuratively to the component parts of
our mooem volumes. The people of Ceylon
write with a bodkin on broad ana thick leaves,
out into narrow slips ; and these leaves being
fastened together znake books, which they caU
OUat, The missiunaries often prepared tracts
in this form, before paper and printing were
introduced upon the island.

The inner Dark of trees was also employed
as a material on which to TiTite. This bark,
or rind, ia called in Greek, BiUoe (a term also
fi^ven to the iiapyrus), which, in course of
tune, came to signify a 6oo^ and has been so
kindly naturalized m our language as to be
employed to rejiresent our book of books, tlie
Bible. The Latin word liher, a book, denoted
originally the same material for Mrriting. In
Sumatra, and among the Indians of jN'orth
America, bark is Btill used for making letters
and pictures. Leather and linen or cotton
cloth were also used. Tlie most famous of
tins species of writing material was parchment,
a kind of prepareil Hkin, which derived its
name from Pergamtis, a city of Mynia, because
its manufacture was carried on and improved
to a very great extent in the time of Eumenes,
about 200 years before Christ. Parchment,
the costliest kind of which was named vellum,
was often beautifully tinted, and preserved
from corruption bv being dipped into an oil
extracted uxim cedar wood- Tlie art of pre-
paring and colouring skins was known in the
age of Moses (Exod. xxvL 14) ; and in all like-
Imood the Pentateuch was ori^nnally written
on this soft and flexible material. These
were prepared in the form
of long rolls, 12 or 14
inches wide, and fastened
at each end to sticks
(like the rollers to which
majM are attached), and
which were rolled to-
gether till they met mid-
way. From this mcMle
of shutting such books,
by rollmg them together,
and of opening them by
a process of unrolling, is
derived our word volume,
a term from the Latin,
which signifies something to be rolled. Some-
times these leaves were connected in the form

79

BOO

of modem books, and opened in the same way.
In thifl caite the sheets were fastened to nxu,
and these rods passed through rings, and thus
formed the bock of the book. The sides of
such a book were protected by wooden boards ;
and so we now apply the same designation
to the outer covering of our books, whatever
may be the material of which it is mode.
The writing was generally in capital letters.

INTHEBEQI

VNINGWA8T

HE^^'ORDAN

DTUEWORD

WA8WITHO

ODAKDTHE

W0RDWA8O

ODTHESAME

WABIKTHEB

EOINNINQW

ITHGODALL

TUINGSWER

These columns could be divided from one
another, and used separately, as we ma^ cut
the columns of a newHjtaper which is pnnted
on one side only, and arrange the extnicts as
we like. Sometimes the reading was what is
called furrow-wiiie. The firHt line was from
right to left, and tlie second from left to right,
and so on alternately, like plougtiing a field.
This appears to have been the oldest form of
writing, and was called by the Greeks Bous-
tropheclon — turning of an ox, V. f., as an oz in
I)louglnng. The Eant und West have each
selected from this double process its own
method — the former writing from right to left
on a page, and the latter from left to right.
The roll or l)ook of cun<eii which Kzekiel saw
was 30 feet long and 20 wide, l^e writing
was usually on one side, but not always.
"And when I l(M)ke(l, behold, an hand was
sent unto me ; and, lo. a roll of a book was
therein; and he spreaa it before me; and it
was written withm and without: and there
was iKTittcn therein Lmientatiuns, and mourn-
ing, and wo" (Ezek. iL J), 10).

When the roll was done with, it was care-
fully dejiosited in a case. The roll was some-
times sealed. ** And the vision of all is become
imto you as the words of a book that is sealed,
which men deliver to one that is learned, say-
ing. Read this, I prav thee: and he saith, I
cannot ; for it is sealed (Isa. xxix. 11). "And
I saw in the right hand of him that sat on the
throne a book written within and on the back
side, sealed with seven seals. And I saw a
strong angel proclaiming with a loud voice. Who
is worthy to open the book, and to loose the
seals thereof? And no man in heaven, nor in
earth, neither under the earth was able to open
the book, neither to look thereon** (Rev. v.
1-3). In sealing the roll, it was wrapt round
with flaxen thread or cord, and then wax was
poured upon it, and stamped with a signet.
This roll, in the A])ocalyi>8e, seems to have
been composed of seven smaller scrolls, each
sealed by itself, but the second scroll wrapt
round the flrst, and so on— while all the seals
were so placed as to be at once visible on the
margin. A very good idea may be formed of
an ancient roll, by supposing a common news-
paiier to have rods or rollers at the right and
left sides. The reader takes hold of the rods,
80

BOO

and withoot pcmctQation ot divmoB (■ wonR
and when used, the reader unroDed the Ma
as far as the place wfaidi he wished to taL
and kept before him just so much as he wmk
to read.

The pages resembled the following in lUr
general appearance, thoughthey wera^ of oanaa
wider and longer than these, and woe Ml
from right to left : —

EMADEBTHT

MANDWiniO

L'THIMWASN

OTANYTHIN

OMADETHA

TWABMADE

mUlMWABIJ
FKANDTHELI
FKWA8TBELI
GHTOFMEXA

XDTHZLIGRT
8B1NETHTND

John L 1-IL

and unrolls the sheet until he comes to tiis 4h
sired colunm. Thus in Luke iv. 17, the plos
" opened the book,*' would properly reaia''i»

rolled the scroll ;** and in ver. 20, for
the lK)ok,** read "rolled up the vohi
''scroll** lliis shows the force of the
(Isa. xxxiv. 4), where the heavens are
scented as rolled together as suddenly ai'lll
opposite ends of an unrolled scroll fly toaiil
each other when the hand of the irnkt k
withdrawn from it.

An im])ortant and interesting ipedei it
writing material was made from the stelk d
an Egyptian vegetable called papjrns, or papv
reed, which is still found in various putiit
India. (See Bulrush.) The name pappus
given to this bulrush of the Nile, is the ev^^
origin of our familiar term paper. It
called charta by the Latins— the evident p
of our word charter. The stalk was dit wlk
a needle into plates or layers as broad ai |
thin as possible. Some of them were ID V |
15 inches broad. These strips were luid Hdi |
by side ui)on a flat horinmtal suxihoe^ ai
then immersed in the glutinous water of Ihl
Nile, or in a thin paste of wheaten floor, wlndh
not only served as a kind of aicing, mit abi
caused the edges of the strips to adhere t^
gether as if glued. The sheets thus fomed
were dried in the sun, and then covered witti
fine wash, which made them smooth and fin-
ible. They were finally beaten with hainma%
or pressed by a cylinder often formed of gins
ana then polished. Twenty or more <ji then
sheets were sometimes connected in one roll

The tiapyrus was employed till about thi
eleventh century. But the i)aper now in v»
among us far excels in utility anv of its pie-
decessors. The rag that is trodden in thi
wintry mud of the streets becomes, through
the skill of man, a leaf of the book of ma
What an advance, too, is the art of prutoV
upon the previous methods of hand-writiBg,
wnen books can be multiplied with such nur-
vellous ease, correctness, and speed.

In the middle affes, when ignorance ptewtM
so extensively, the book toade was so ymj
insignificant that the booksellers had vo
shops. Literature could not afford anch •
luxury; and those who dealt in books had
only stalls or stations in the itreeti^ expoifld

I

BOO

ares cm itandBy and were therefore

Stationers,

CQ wad made of some hard substance,

not unlike the instruments used by
to cut glass (Jer. xviL 1). This i»en
ed a stylus, whence our word styit— to
the mode which one emplo3rB in oom-
; and the word pen itself, from the
mna, a feather, is vocal evidence of its
^n. The metallic stjle was sometimes
Tou*> weapon. When Caesar was at-
in the senate house at Rome, he used
• in self-defence, and wounded severely
the arm of Cassius, one of the con-
i. Uiton tablets of wax an instrument
;d, one end of which was pointed, to
e letters, and the other broad and flat,
s erasures. Pens or styles of copper
used by the Ceylonese. On soft sub-
like linen or papyrus, the marks were
with a fine hair pencil, as is practised
he Chinese to this day. Most of the
nations now use the retd pen, which is
bh an instrument used as we use the
i (Jer. xxxvi 23). The pith is re-
and the bark or rind being snlit like
retains and properly sheds the ink.

hard or stiff enough to be used with-
ding.
ra4 prepared from a variety of sub-

!\Iaiiy inkii were made from the soot
s, «jal of ivory, various combinations
ry, gums, metaly, and vegutable juices.
Qcient inkrt w^ere very durable — many
almi^t unfarlini^. es]>ecially when they
austic, or aidea by the agency of fire.
k). And those who wore skilful in
wore an inkhom fast<.*ncd to the girdle
K. 2), which is the present mode among
ians and the Mours of Barbary. (Sec

*.)

>le3 were unknown, the paper, or other

« written uyxin. was laid upon the
r held firmly with the left hand,
phraste, "eating a book," signifies
uy to under<tanii its contents, and to
exi>erimental acquaintance with them.
-hajKS the figure will not api)ear so
e, if we remember that a certain por-
he papyms was edible, and was a corn-
icle of frx)d in Egj'pt. (See Bulruhh. )
OF THE CEyKBATios (Gen. v. 1 ; Matt,
ifies the genealogical history or records
Uy or nation.

OF THE Livreo (Pa, Ixix. 28), and the
phrase. Book of life (Rev. xxL 27)
>ose<l to aJIude ti> the genealogical M^tm
ers kept by t^e Jews, from which the
f the dead w^ere erase<l (It«a. iv. 3).
lys (Exod. xxxiL 32), "If not, blot mo
hy book which thou hast written " — a
x> die, rather than see Israel disowne<l
Tlie "Lamb's book of life"— a rnU
m it the names of all who escape the
eath— is a figure denoting the certainty
il feUcitv to all who are genuine dis-
id the ^viour's perfect Imowled^ of
al number, and thorough recogution

BOS

of them as individuaU, whatever their country
or age. The aptnes.s ami force of ^e figurative
use of the terms are suificiently obWous.

Book of ji'Dgmext. " ITie judgment was
set, and the books were oi>ene<l " (Dan. vii. 10).
The allusion here is probably either to the
practice of opening books of account to settle
with servants or labourers, or to the custom of
the Persian kings, who ha<l a 1mm tk in which a
daily record was made of special scr\'ices per-
formed by any of their suDJects, and of the
rewards which were given to them for merit
(Esth. vL 1-3).

Book of the wars of the L«-»rd (Xum. xxi.
14), Book op Jasiiek or the richteoi's (Josh.
X. 13; 2 Sam. i. 18), and Book of the Chron-
icles (or annals) of the kings of Judah and
Israel (1 Ki. xiv. 19, 29)— are the names of
ancient writings known to the Jews, but not
preserved in the sacred canon. The B4M)k of
the Wars of the Ix^rd appears to have been a
military journal, formed of seiiarate odea. The
Book of Jasher, whatever the origin of the
name, seems, from the quotations taken from
it, such as the song of the Bow (2 Sam. i. 18),
to have been a ctiUection of national ballada,
the earliest form in which history is written.
And the Books of the Chronicles of the kings
of Judah ami Israel were public journals, writ-
teniierhaps by the chief secretaries of state.

The remark oi the \*Tse man (Eccl. xii. 12)
on the subject of making books in supix)seil
to amount to this: — Why com]H»se so many
v(»lumes, why 8i>end time in elalM>rating ^t
many literary productions, when the whole
duty of man may be comprised in two brief
sentences — ** Fear God, and keei> Lis command-
ments." (See Wkitin<;).

BOOTH. (See Garden).

BOOTY. (See Spoil).

BORDER. (See Clothes).

BORROW. "Tlie cliiMren of Israel Iwr-
rowed of the Egj^itians jewels of silver, ami
jewels of gold, and raiment" (Exol. xii. li")). Tlio
meaning of the wonl here translated fn/rrow is
a-nky and does not imi)lv anv ])romiae to return.
Tlie Hebrew had toiled lonir in unrequited
servitude, and ere thoy left the countiy they
demanded compensation, which in the i)anic
was promptly rendered. They left Ix'hind
them nmcn tixed or real ]>roT)erty in the houses
and lands they had occuniea, and which would
l>ecome the ix)s.>>e88ion «»i tho^t- who now iravo
them presents. Josephus, to magnify liis na-
tion, says th(»se presents were givt-n of gooil-
will, and to honour the departing tribes— a sup-
Ix>sition not verv ])n)bable in the circumstances.

BOSOM (.John xiii. 23). Tlie ^b-ess of the
Jews was such as allowed 1 them to carr>' within
a fold in the Ixisom «)f the rol^e what coulcl not
be carrie<l in the hand. Hence the expressions,
Isa. xL 11 an<l I.uke vi. :W. It was also used
to denote a place of rest an<l security. Hence
the term "Abraham's Ix.sfrtn'' is figuratively
six)ken of as the alxnle of liozarus. *' And in
hell he lifted up his eyes, Ix'ing in torments,
and seeth Abraham afar oflF, and Lazarus in
his bosom" (Luke xvi 23). The figure of the

81

parable in very beautiful wid pathetic The
wonig, Alu^i^un'x bnwiiu, migpnt tlie idea of a
bnininet. llo who had been omtuut to tat of
the unuiilH — wlio lay at thu rich man's u-Bti'—
'• ' ■ ■ ■--■ ■ -■-- Eifri^nikand

tlir ulci'j

riii].le iBBt-ar,

feaxt, anil lirousht ioto immediate h
with mic iif the mmt hnnoural <if its rkUiuiik
cuwt'- Kn iiatDo awakened duch amx-ciatjons
in the mind of a Juw aa that of Abraham
(LukC!Eiu.:»; JiihnviiL33,3tl, 07; Act* xiiL
36). The uw of thio bnn (.luhn i. IK) im-
ports tlic)>rouIiar. tnyat«riiHi», and perfect unity
of the Fiithi-r uul Sim. <See Vucnuen.)

BOSSES. ■' Hb runneth uiHin him, even on
IiIb neck, DiHiD the thiukbuwetnf hiibuckleni"
(Jub XV. -2li). The iminiinent or i<ruieL-ti>«
[Artii i>f the buckler, and uf coone the thickoit
and Ktrotiguat.

IIIITI'LE (Gen. xvl 11). Ancient bottUx
were mode uf the vkiun uf nninioLi, whivh were
projierly drewcil for the purpiise. The ci|>eQ-
.j, iuB* uf thu akin were eliwed, ex-
cept at the neck, thnju^h which
the Iii|ui>r waH to lie received and
diflChoT'.n'd.andwhich w.-ufaattni-d
by actrinslike a bns. Tliuywero
uf cuiiive of different MXi.li, as tile
■kiu<i uf kiiU, giiato. or oxm miKht
be iistil. Itnica itiiicribi-* parti-
ciibrly a In-ttlu which he mw in
I Aralrio, mode in this nianner, iif
an ox-ikin, which wouM hold
Nity t'nUou". <u>d two of which
were a liiml fur n eaiiu-L

'Ilia (hlKimiti'H lff<ni'.'ht U-
Jodhua "iilil,tui<lrcnt,auillK>iiud-
lip" lintt1oi>, as if til iinivetliatlliey liHilcome
by a lunv and tniliioinc m.irch. l^e raetlii<d
eiik|doyed to "bind up" n^t liottleii ih often
cluiinr eiiiiiu;h. Kir-lohn (.'luiniiiiMiyis "tlutt
thej- nu'iul the 1> .ttk'i wiiiietiuiua liy wttinK in
a piece, luiinttiiiii-a by gatlieriiij; up tlie turn

place in the manner of a pima, and ■miiiiiw
thuy put in a round flat piece of wood, udta
that mcaiu stuli the hole."

Traveller) in eoatem countriei fiiiiiirij
fipu:ik of the ^uat-HkinB and leathcnMlla
in ttliich they carry water in their icnnqb
Where tht travelling; in much, and t£a tmm
likely tniitrikca^nBt each other, theyonoiA
[if the naf i»t matcrialii that can be fbnnd. Hi
iikimi (IT bottles tunl for new wine were d tl*
frvHhe*t and must flexible kind, in order M
the; nuKht the better endure the prow it
fermentation. The freah akin vaa aoR^ flojU^
coitily dixtendeil, an in the figure employitd tr
.ro^xxxiLln. '■MybeUyiea.wineidiidltal

Rut the Hkins when old were hard, diy, ni
ehiivelled, nnd easily burst by any intend
presmiro. Therefore our Ixird any*. " Neitlw
donienimtnew wine into old bottles; elKtto
Ixittlea break, and the wine runneth out, ul
the bottles perish : hut they put new wine iust
new bottles, and both are preserved (Mw.
ix. 17). I'he effect of smoke on a akin bot&i
would be to blacken and ahrivel it (Pi. eiii.

say.

Bottles an<l vases of many other kinib it
mati'rinK of alaludter, poivrLiin, and mitil
are found Hiunng the relics of ancient Ec^tiu^
ami cinild not Iw unknown to thcBsbcMi
(.Iudl.-.iv. lit; v.i'.).

IHtVi. (See Ammoik.)

llnw (<;.-n. xixviL 1(1), To bow down ow^
self is a imeture expieuinTe uf i;reat Tevcttasi
ami humility (Gen. xxiv. Sl'i, 48 ; 1 KL L (Si
ii. I'J). It WOK iL ctiiumon mode of sjlntaSa
in the Kost to kneel uiion one knee and bai
the head until it touched the gruund. (Sat
Fkayrb.) It is still the custom in uImt
eastern naUons fi-r Mibjects to kned htfon
the tliroiie of thu kin;: and buw their bswk '
sLiwly till they touch the earth. Sir Williw
Juuea, in his histiiiy of Nadir Shah, sqi^

that R!< Nndir Hii]<r<>»ehefl, the penp1<

tlidr h'wlH with slii.me, ami toni:lu-tl the

eortli «ith the forvhead of liumilintion.

Tim preccdint; cuts represent soinu of the
forms (4 i Mental bowin;; ur uduiatJoii.

In Ova. xxxiil 3 tlia fullnwiiu,' iun*nG is
idni|Jy anil iMthetienlly nnrratel: "And he
jsMsed fiver befiire tlicm, ami laini'il himaidf to
the Kiinind seven tiniM imtil he mine near to
his InntlK-r." C)n this truly Oriental encounter,
Mr. liiilit'rts, in his Oriental IllostrHiion'S re-
mark B — " There is mimething very toiichiiiF'.nnil,
to nn Ensteni mind, very HiitHnit, in this uution
of Jacob's. His arrangements, also, may be
seen to the life at this day. His wi ^

children wore placiil behind him : theyimiiU
In; in a iwiiarutu i,i>iu|>, in order that Esse
luislit thu more cosily see them. He would
tln'ii walk forward, nml nutt himself on tbs
earth, and riae ii^n, till he had bowed ana
times ; aftw which (as he wunld walk a short
distance eveiy timo he anwiO, he would bs
nearer to his brother. I'saa could nut bear it
soyhiUSer. and ran to meet him, and fell on
his neijc, and kissed him. imd wept. Tltaa
came tlie handiuniils ami their uhililren (ItUnk
I see them), and biiwcd themselves before Ew
the wives, alao, acconlin" to tlwdr age, sna
tiieil children, i>rostrat«(T themselves befon
him. Wh»t with the luoki <d the little onas.

BOW

iainei with tho*e of (he motlKn, Eun could
not help iKing zootbiL
" P«D«le in gnat dintrais berin to bow to the

Hith vLiii thev an mt » cunaiuerable diaUuice
faro th* man they wiah to appeaw. But the
ngular mode of psjing reapectd ii aa fnllowx : —
To * kiiu. a lather, or an elder brother, bow
ma ; before a priest, the temple, or the goda,

BOWELS (1 KL iiL a>l. This term » used
V tti<: "''■^l writen evidently in a fi^pinLtive
taut, for a&ectii>iu or emotions of the heart
(CoLiiL 12; IJohn iiL 17).

BOX TREE (laa. xlL l!l)-an STeiKreon,
vliiiK perfect pruportions, beauty of foliage.

K,.-

BDZRAH (Gen. xxxn. S31, «UM by the
Ghttiaod ]!'>■] uuiHH'>-tra,w(L<>Hituatud about
SI and) ivuthMraiit of IMteL It is iifteii luen-
bftttd in the Hcriptnrva as tlie cfaiet cftjr (if
SlutD iIho. xxxiv. G: Uiii. 1: Jer. xh-iiL 34;
dit ]:i. 22! ^VnK* L IS). It is caJle.! by
Jctmuih a >ity i-f the Miialntcs, and it wim
SfW.ly taken fnim Amnion by tbe Eilomiti-H,
tnAizna fri<m the EdomittM 1>y tbe Mnabitt^
A) it iri. Mtrmtttl npon the oontines of neverol
oitstrie. uhn were oftvn at war with each
Jtbtr, thi«e chanj^-s w^n- likely to lukppen.
It u mw the lai^-ei<t dty in that district, and
u Inn celeLvated w li strouchoM uf the
N"*MTain. The propliecdm respecting this
^o^. •bue til wfaich arc dteil above, are among
t^BKirt wiiodnful ami Hublime on record.

iMBf arv inclined to identify nnzrah witli
r<r:Ta, tluinuh withont ndcinatc friiinilatiou.
ftiiuton remark^— '"Hie place cl-ItiuaiTeli,
^ ennii soiith f^ TQlllch, si-ems to bear in ita
Uait icrlrire tok.'ns of antiquity. It is now
iTilb^ iS almit tif ty hoiues, ntiiatcd on a hill,
« the t.^. <•! whii-li is n rnnall cahtle. The
iaiic funo Busuiroh i<< n dlniinutiie iif Buh-
pli, the nre*ent Arabic name of Bnzrah in
Dunn, the Uoctm of the Gmiks anit Kmnans ;
*Uch LitttT lia« been reiianted as a dty of the
AJiUiiit ^ tboncb lyiii^: far beyond the limits
d thru territory. But tiie name cl.BuRaireli
jBonls rt«win to Bappu:^ that another Boirnh
Ivhrrv within the proper limitsofEdom, and
■u fr'r a timo the capital of the country.
TMi hyiHithcsia is itreu^hened by the fact,
tint in scripture Bonah u often coupled with

BRA.

tho lanri of Eilom iUelf, while the prophet
AmOB MiwaltB of it expreHjly in connection with
the land of Teman, or the south. Further,
both Eiisebius and Jitrome mention a Bosah
as existing in their day in the mountains of
Idiunen. disUnet from the northern Buzroh.
In this way, as it seems to me, we are relieved
from the incongniilv of supnosin:,' the chief
city »f tho Edirmites tn have lam at the cliKtaiico
of several days' journey away fruni tiieir terri-
tori™." — K'lmreim, iL, ii. 5iO.
BllACELET (Uen. xxiv. »})-an ornament
ilasp) worn on tho arm. Among
-' is a Ixul^ of royalty, and

raatem p]

wospnibably regarded as mich in the time of
David (2 Mam. i 10). Tha royal bracelet was
of much rieher materials, and was wnm aluk-e
tho elbow ; the cummon bracelet was wum on
le wrist (Kzek. xvL II).

This ornament seems Vi have l>een univirrsolly
npluyed. It was often of eonsiilorable bulk
id weight The poorer peo)ile wore bracelets

lufacturt

•e of tbii ni

<l bracelet in

M>fthe

Hel»()w terms a
I^-lish version.

BItAXOH (Pi. civ. IS). Thiswiird is often
fignrativelv used by the racreJ writen {Va.
liix. 15 ; .ruhn iv. b, 6) and is also one of tho
titles i>f the Mesriau (Isa. xi. 1 : c-m:ip. with

• ~ ■ '"i. 8; vi. 12). Tlu- family

-- _.j.lundiTtlie fif.'iiro of tlio

stock 'if a tree tlnnly ruobsl ; and tlio ciiininft
of L'hriKt fniin tbu Hewl of J)avid is ri-jireiK'lituU
OS tbo shiKitinu forth of a linmeli, wliu-h is hero
c^led. hy way i>f ilistinution luid tuiinencv,
"THB BRAN'CH;" tvrit luiiy well Iw mi<i
that Chriit, even in his cnmmi>n imtmr, far
Hurpossud all tho li«(we of Itavid in thu dignity,
{Kwer, aiid Khiry, both of his perncm and ofticc.

An abiHaiiialile bmneh Ilia. liv. I'.i) is a
biiii^h on wlii<^ amalefoebirhail Ixen Iioninil,
'hicli, occordin;! tu Maimonidus, was
Bl<ing with him. The iHirrjin-,' nf a

or tuig in a iicculior firm was siiine

nmtic rite of idnlntrcuis worsliip (J'izuk, viii.
17) i and this cnsbitn rdlnrletl to kcliiis tu lia\'c
been omuiiuin over tlie Eiist.

BILVMS [den. iv. *>], Tim cimiKviti'in
which we call lirii-» was ii»-eiited iw Uite us tho
thirteenth century. It is (jcuuroll^ nuulc <if
twi>.tlunls copiH-r anil idui-tliiitl iino. That
which is Tutmetl bniis in the lacroil writings
w.is pnibiJiljr wtiat wo call coiiiht, or nttlHT
' ■" native prisluittion, dng iiHt

if the hills .if (.'aiiaon (Deut. viil. !l|. it wan
, hf IiuTposeiiaJiiiiitthrteiiu'lo.
uiil ohm (or fetters (Jndjf. i

a variety of iim

.,. __ (I Sam. xvii. r<, (i), and musical

instruments (1 Chr. xv, W; 1 Cor. xiii. 11.
Wilkinson infurms us. however, that bronie
was manufactured very early in Egyl''. auil
tliat wyniH.ns, niim«v, and iirOMiiBiiU were
fabricated out ot it at a very remote period.
The wonlfl bran, )mt;™, &c, oeonrrum uiider
the wonis AHMf.fii, Altau, 3(ook, &c., bto
used in mnfunnity with the common English

BRA

traiuUtion of tliG Ulblii, and not witli twlmical

iiiibkni of durability and

It ii ooly a difFurvnt Bix'Uicg of the term yet
diTT¥nt m ScutlAnd — bniv^ ffrava. to di-note

hiive bwn tfateniu very early times HJtb almost
nij prvputEtion; but ofttrwardH it woa pn.'i>arud
fur lootl by beinc parchnl (Kuth iL 14).

To mkku bruad, hovevtir, the material* vete
pTFiHired u in mwlem ilayB. (Sue MlU.,
SiKVK.) The pntew. of knca.ium it WM_ !>«-
formed in kuen>-lin^''tmuKhH (Gen. xxiiL 6;
Kicxi. ilL Si ; -Ter. vii. IM) or wo.«lpn bowl,
such u the Arabians uw? at this day for a like
portHHie. It hail been bui'IkkhI l>y wime that
the kneading was done upon a rimilar piece
of Imthir. BUch lUi ia now used in Tersia and
by Ibe Jkdoiiin Arala, and whith would be
tiiure prOTHTly called a knea<liti),'-lia", as It
drawn up like a knapsack. Either of the uten-

drawH up Lk
Hill wouhl b<

Mi ii

iwrtod.

were ehaiied like a plate,
were onliuorily of the thickneBs of one's little
Gnger. The process of baking was uften ;nine
through with great rapidity. The l*iitical
laWH deH-ribo TOrioUii ways of i)re))arinK bread,
by a reference to the utoiiHlXs iu which it is
cooked. In the Ea«t, corn ia ground every
moniing, and era 20 minutes elapse from the
commencement i>f this operatiun, it is baked
Into bread. Ehjah found, when Seeing frum
Jezi-bel, a cjiko which had been bakeil on the
ooali (1 Ki xix. S). Ei>hraiQi (Hoa viii. 8) is
compared to "a calio nut turned" — only one
aide of which was awketl, while the other waa
raw. donghy, and onpalatable. (Sue Table. )

The unleavened bread waa very thin, and
was bniken, mrt, cut (T.ani. iv. 4 : Mntt. xiv.
19; IV. W ; ixtL 2i;). It has been said tliat
the thicknesa or tbinnesa of the loaves waa
regulated by the time thev vere to be kept ;
that which was to be kept longest being made
thick, that it might retain its moiaturB. This
ia Dontrary to moilern philoaophy oa this sub-
ject, as we see in the manuiacture uf ship-
bread. (For the nianniT of baking, aae Ovenb,
Cake.)

The term bread is often used for food or pn>-

aingei

EraL

vbeat, barley, or any
bread waa made.
Tha Gsurative cziacauoni, "bread of NT-

rowa" (Pa. entriL 2) and "bre«_

(Pa. Ixix. 5), ninv denote that the suSaiEgd
sorrow and the shedding of tears tukd be<n>
an much a part of the diet of every day H ort
dnily bread. Bo the "br<^ of wickednaa*
(I'rov. iv. 17), and " bread of deodt " (RW
IK. 1*1, denote nut only a Uving or estat* tb
toined by fraud and ein, but that to do wi<^>4
ia aa much the rn^rtiou of a wicked man^fl
04 to eat his daily bread.

SiiOW-RHEAD (Eiod. iiv. 30) wa,
bread prepared anew every SablnUi, ii
sented hot on the golden table, in 3 "' -
Esquare or oblong shape, acoordiag _ _. .
ber of the trihcs of Icrael. Salt aodiu
were presented at the same time. Itii _
p^i»e<i Chat the loaves were placed eithfr iaM
piles or in two rows, with 6 loaves id each,J
It waa railed aAmc-iread, or bread of lit M^—
or the bread ef itttiHg br.fort, becauae it M^^B
continually before the Lotd. According tottlH
Jevrisb doctors, the loavea were equarBiBfamfm

so that the consecrated bread miefat pmmi ■
ita freahncas. Thus there " waa meat in GvA M
house" — a portion of his owngoodtuasMtW-B
fare him in gratitude — a aymbo], too, of Ml
generous bencficenoe which aocompaniai 1 — '
piety. " Thy prayers and thine ainui'' i
the nngel to Ci^eUui), " are come i
moria.1 before God." The old loav
moved every Sabl»th {Lev. iiiv. B). and, sia
1,-eQHral rule, were to bo eaten by the piiiM
alone, and by them oDly in the court of lk
sanctuary, (1 Sam. iii. 1-6; MatL nl ^ &e|
(Soo BiKE, CaKB, Oveh.I
BREAKFAST. (See Meals.)
BRFASTPLATE. L {F.iod. xn-iiL 15) A
part of the official dress of the Jewish higk
priest, tho geucml appearance of which ia ««?■
"-' -■ * thefollo' ■ - -

posed to bo given

>e following CI

' l^^^3 ^^^3 ^s^2

»• ->y "' . - jj. - - - ■

a pk>™ ot cTubrolJi-rcd lu.rk, about 10 inchw
square, and made douUe, with a front and lia-

BRE

( to answer for a pouch or bog. It
ed with twelve jmcaoaa atones, as in
ling representation. The two upper
ere fastened to the ephod by Dlue
Tom which it was not to be loosed
viiL 28). and the two lower comers to
The ringa, chains, and other fasten-
of toM or rich lace. It was called
ial (Exod. xx^-iiL 12, 29), inasmuch as
ed the priest of his representative
in relatittn to the twelve tribes ; and
called the breastplate of judgment
viiL 15), periiaps because it was worn
bo was, instrumentally, the fountain
aad judgment to the Jewish church,
* decisinns were, by divine influence,
infallible— rvpreiK'nted by Vrim and
1, fit^ktt and ptrfcctkm, (See Ubim

[VIM.)

. vi 14) The breastplate was also
le of ancient armour which protected
b. Its fi?urati\*e use in the paav^
ed, and aim in Isa. lix. 17, is sum-
\nona. (See Arvocb.)
?HES. (See CL0THI3.)
Z (Ckn. XL 3). Brick was a building
jnoni? the Jews ; but the sire of their
w mudi lar^r than ours. Bricks
on? the ruins of Babylon are a foot
ad resemble tiles rather than bricks.
•e ufriially hardened by the heat of
althi.'Ui^'li kilns were not unkn«>wn
dL 31; J*tt. xliii. 0; Xah. iiL 14).
'itian^ forced the Hchrovi-s to toil in
fa^ture of bricks. Clay alx>imded
anks of the Nile; and in jjlaced
33/1 nrit the requii>Ite consi.itency it
d with straw. These brick?* were
every variety of architectural prir-
lay be eetn at the present day. The
; making bricks was a dirty and im-
e druil£;er>'. Slaves were therefore
ilnyed to work at brick-makini^, and
ewa in their servitude were doc»med
loble and fatiguing task. The sculp-
the £g3rptian monuments represent
as engalred in this work, and the
;ter," with his stick, is a prominent
the scene. It is plainly stated that

BRO

From the Monnmentii.

swB were forced to an unusual ilnid?-
the E^Tptiazm made the children of

Israel "to serve with rigour, and they nuvle
their lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar
and in all manner of service in the field. ^ On the
monuments, all the parts of this hard and
ancient bondage are faithfullv depicted — the
carrying, tempering, and baking of the clay,
and the moulding and drvin? of the bricks.

BRIDE. BRIDEGROOM, BRIDE-
CHAMBER (See Mabriage.)

BRIDLK (See Harness.)

BRIGAXDINE (Jer. xl^-i 4)-suppn«pd
to be the same with the haber^'eou and coat ux
maiL (See A Rif ou R. )

BRniSTONE (Ps. xi 6)-a well-known
mineral substance, exceedingly inflammable,
and when burning it emit^ a suffocating
smelL We are XaAA. that the citiesi (.<f the
plain were deFtniyeii by a rain («.'r st^rm) of
nre and brimstone. There is nothin'^ incredible
in this, even if we suppnjie natural agencies
only were employed in it. The soil in that
and in many other {tarts of the earth is such
that a violent eruption might fiU the air with
inflamed substances, falling down in streams of
Unuid fire upon those dt-vot«fl cities. Bitu-
mmous substances float in lar^re masses on
the Dead Sea or Lake of Asphalt, as it is
named from these phen"menab The word is
often figuratively used Mob xviiL 15; I«l
xxxiv. 9). In the Ltst of thes-.- passavrv^ there
is manifest alln-ion t<"> the a"Aful destruction
which overt* iCfk the citi^-s of tLe j^Iain. The
wor»i in thnse verses which de-scribv the future
suffering's of the wicke«l. exiirerji'."? all which
the human mind can c«-'nceive yf excruciatin,'
torment. (See Salt Sea. j

BKDOK. <See Water.)

BROTHER, BRETHIJEX (Gen. iv. 2;
xliL 13; — a term which pDj-erly don«>te^ th»*
nearest couranuiiinity, that i.', niiJe chiMron <"»f
the same partntii, as in the texts al.-A'e cite«l;
but sometimes persons uf moiv rein'.-t*' kin«lre«^l.
or of the same nation (Gen. xiiL >< ; t'tk x. 3;
Acts \-iL 25, 37; xiiL 2»'»>. or even th«.!«e who
are cl-Hselv unite«l in affvrti' .n (2 Sam. L 2»V.
In the 5j^ew Testament tl.e t».rm Is more
frequently applied to the ppirit^ial relati' innhip
which the true folLiwers of Christ sustain t-i
him and to each other in the h-jusfhold of faitli.
The " BRETHREN " of Je^us are H^metimts
mentioned in the Gospels, and that in a ]>eculiar
way. Thiu they are rcrft-TTud t<.« nine times in
the' four Gosi>elsj once in the Acts, and once in
the first ernstle trj the Corinthian-'. From
these incidental notices we ^am the fuUow-
ine:— 1. The *']>rothers*' are a p:»rty dis-
tinct from the apostles. Thns, ''After this
he went down t^j Capernaum, he. and his
mother, and his brethm-n, an«l bis disciiilcs''
(John ii. 12i; "While he y/t talked to the
people, behold, his mother and his brethren
sto'xl ^-ithout. desirinjr t^» s|^»eak with hina. Then
one said unt*j him. beh-^M. thv m«ither and thv

, his mother called Mary ?" and his brethren,

00

JanMa, and Jcwefi, uni SLmno. ami JikUk! functjonal,

»inihiiiBistera,an;theynotiilI with UH?" (Matt "" ~ — '"

Tiii 55.) " la not tiiiii the cofpenter, the bud nf

Ktiry, the hnither of JniDV*. anil Juhm, and of

Juilo, and Simon T anil are niit his mattin hero

with luT" (Mark li. 3.1 " HiH brothcn Raid b>

him, Depart hence and go into Jiulea, Uiat thy

dinciples also maj tev tlui works tliat tlioa

dwmt. For neither did W« bnith*r« lielievc on

him. Bat when hin bnithem tt-ent (tone np,

tiiOD went he al»i up untii th« friut" (John in the rich pniiturei
Tii. 3, 5, 10), i'lna timcn do this party no were atronK ' '
nearly related to Him [>aw befiire uri in the
Guapel liutoiy, immediately afli.T hia liniC
miracle; an wixhintf an iDterview with bim;
u SDeeringly referred t" by his fcUnw-towna-
men i and aa not yet belienni; "H hiiii. The
KUDO distinction is Ktill mu'ki'd ufti.-rthe aaci'n-
' ' The«e all (the ap»«tle») continued with

BUB

congregational in iti me. U
thu simple and natural mewung ba M
been tuaally adopted, and the bintben mi
aupposed by many to be the children of JeMk
by a funner nmrisge, by otheiH ta ba OOl
ooiisinH (Matt. xiL Bo). (See Jjius.)
ItlTCKLBR. (SeeAHMIICS.)
BUILDINUS. (See DwELLUCS.)
BXIK (SeeMosTH.)

; hence iLej «

ud with his brethren'' (.\ctH i. 14). The pWa
of the ^KXitle Paid iji — " Have wu not pnwer
to hjad about a ainter, a wife, uk well aa other

appear always in connection with Mary, i
in John viL — tho scene and exi>reiiiiion 111 their
unbelief ; and she cuulil not lie entan^ilud in

that unbelief, and she ia alwaya round in
company witji thoni, oavo in Luke iL 43,
Joaeph b^ng then abve, uid in John xix. L£5,
where ahe woa cnnunencled to John, and not to
one of them. I'uur timca is ahe— a nidow
pnibably by this time— connectcil with them aa
their parental heiuL 3. As a family, they are
once named m consulting at four bn>tlier>i,
"James, and Jmufi, and JudHs, uid i^iiiitin,"
uid of at least lico siiiteni, im the word " all"
hrSaai iil\^^•al) wfluM seem tu imply. 4.
We have, in Gal. i. I'J, "Janics the Ivord's
brother," not to distiD);iU!ih hitn from the mm
nf Zcbedce, on Hug supjiiweti, for then hia
patronymic Alpbaid wondl liave been nuite
■niffiuieut. He woa therefure one of theiw
tniithers.

Kow, had there been no theological interren-
tion, no peculiar views as to the jieqietiuil
Tirginity of Mary, or at leant, no inij>n.-«Kii>n
tliat the worn)) chiHcn for thoDivino infant was
■o aacred— su aet apart in aolitary honour and
dedication that it coqIiI have no other or sub-
sequent tenant — the natural or ii^mal domeeitic
meaning would have been the only one j^vento
the pre viiras quotations, and Jesus, hia bn>thern,
and hia mstim, would have been regardeil aa
foming one hoiiwhold, having the common
ri'lationahip of children to Mary their mnther.
The employment of the onomalmis duuble
plural, brethpen,"* instead of "brotheni,''
in all Uiese placea of the authorized vemioii
lesaens or diverta the impression on the Knglish
reader; for " bretiiren" now never denotes sons
of the same parentu. but is official, national.

I -cullectlTes,' rwlur

chiMcn as symbols of cruel
enemies. (Aee BahHjUC, Ox.)

BULRUSH (Im. iviil S)~a apecin 4
reed which is fonnd im the monhes of tti
Nile. It grows to the height d U
or 13 feet The stalks wen pliaU^
sjiil eapnhlu of Iwins intenrvM
very dosel}', SA is evident from ti>ar
being iisei! m the consbnctioacfadl
or lioskets, as that in which JbM
wosexpoeeirl (Eiod. ii 3, 6),aDdsni
uE ships of liugerdimennoDai BnA
vessels are alluded to by IssithjnB.
2). I'liny. Lucan.l'lutaidi.allnlK
to tliis use of the papynM by tkl
Kcvjitiana. It was from this rrft-
tuble that the papyrus wis derini
which was uewl for wiitilu. Itim
maileoftheinsiilehark, whiA •« ed
into stripe, luid the t
together and dried in
tact that the papyrus wm oasd M
food when prcpoml in one w^iUf
for writing when prepwed in aoOlW
way, explains the paaeagca m which the eatil(
nf buukH, ftc , ia munUoneil ( Jer. zr. 16 ; EsiL
iii. 1, 3; Ki-v. i. H-10). Herodotus attests Ot
:if the papyrus for food (Ii. 93>— "Tk

from the other portions. The part of tbs
stalk that is left, about a foot and a half
in length, U sold as an eatable article." [Sea
Book.)

BULWARK. (SeeWAB.)

BUllDEN (HalL i. 1). This worA, wba
used in connection with aome cdty or natin
(as the "bunlen of Moab," the ^'burden d
Nineveh," &c.), exprcHses the disaatnraa (c
calamitous import of the prophecy. Tb0
" bunieti of the desert of the sea" (Babyke),
the " burden of the valley of viaion" (Jernsalan),
and similar eipresaiuns, are exiilained by Av
subject or connection.

BUKIAl., BURY (Gen. xiiii-
xxvi. 12). It was customflry among
for the chilitren or near kindred to
cyea of the dying (Gen. xl^'i. 4), a

and genenl wailing followed the deoi ,_ .

xi, 19, 31. 33), and continued many days after
burial. The body nf the deceased was washed
and laid out (Acts ii. 37). It was wrapped ii
folds of linen cloth, and the head bound anHml
with a napkin. It is aoid that Laiaras was
bound, "band and foot, with gnve dotlHi*

i Uatt

<e(J(ilia

BUR

Tohn xi. 44) ; an»l it is wpiviiscd by niany that
icL limb hsA iU mriiamte wrapper, aa it was

Errrf'a.n FimeniL

TUft To^.iry in Esn-pt to wraj) even each finger
in a iMrpanite eluth or liand, »> that hitndreiLs
rf VArJ.-* of cloth are oftvn iinwouiul from one
of tlif ummniicit. \Mi«*n tliiis boiin<l around,
it was ]>]aceil ttn a bitr. in narlineHs to bo
borne to the jrrsive. (See BiKR, Embalm.)
The nearest relatives did the last offices (Gen.
uv. S, 9; XXXV. "J*. J).

"Hie climate, nnd the nncleannesB which wa«
rintracted. nnder the law, from contact with
& lieail Ihxly. or even coming intr> the name
ipartuient with it, would naturally lead to
LTif cu-stom of early iutcnuentH. In Persia it
jj Cot customary to keep the dead over two or
iiree h' I'.ir?, ancl the European Jews univerHally
wiy their dea^l early. There were many ex-
vjitions in thin re?*iK.*ct. however. The practice
'f emlcdmin;:? wa-i not jjreneral amonjj:the Jewn,
Ihiujh spicHj*. &c., were UHt'«l in their burials
rith a w.x-steful profusion. Thus it is recorded
f Aio, that they *• laid him in the br-d w hich
Fii* tille-i with KWtH.t ruloius and divers kimU
f tqiices* prei'are<l by the apothecaries' art;
nd they inad'' a verv yreat burning for him "
i C'hr. x'.i. 14). i'ive hundred iwr^ons are
aid Z" have carrietl 8i»ice3 at the funeral pro-
e>9ii.in of Heri»«l ; and so the description of
he iionenisitv of XicmlemuH is in unis<.iu with
lie '.i>a^e of hiri times (.John xix. 40). Jaci^b
ni] .r'j?«i:-|>h (whose lK><Jie-a were ouibalmed)
i.txh died m Et'A-]it, where the art of embalm-
a*^ Wis \tiry skilfidly x>ractised. In Jacob's
SkAe we are told that Josei>h commandetl his
rnants!, the iihysicians, to eml.talm his father,
nd then he was j»lacetl in a coffin in E{?v])t.
Ind thence hL* Ik»<Iv was carried to Mtochjie-
jh, in (anaan, and buried (den. L 2, 7, 8).
-offin>» were u.«ied in Ei^T* and Babylon; but
T»» urikni)^^!! in the flfiHt, even at the present
av, except when a bo<ly is to Ije conveyeil to

distant J 'lace. (See Embalm.)

All civilizetl nations have been agreed in
ttendin;; with some solemnity the burial of
heir <lea<L Amonj? the Jews the bier was
'jU«.»wfcd ti > the ^Tave by a few of the nearest
dations i'2 Sam. iiL 31 ; Luke viL 14). Other
ierrf<»ns attended, and sometimes mourners (or
ather wailers by profession) were emjdoj'ed to
ttend the b«vly fJer. ix. 17; Ezek. xxiv. 17;
.latt. ix. 23). "Therefore the T-K»rd, the God
f h«'w«ts, the Lord, f<aith thus ; Wailing shall be
3 all KtreetM; and they shall say in all the
ighwavM, Alas ! alas ! and they snail call the
u.4>andTrian to moumin4,% and such as are
kilJhJ of lamentation to wailing" (-iVmos v.
oj. This in the custom still in many eastern

BUR

nations (Oen. L 3, 10). This scene n»minds us
of the picture of Rachel: "A voice wiis heard
in Kanuih, himentiition, and bitter weejring;
Rachel weepin-jf for lier children, refused tt»Be
crimfortwl for her chihireii, because they were
not" (Jer. xxxi. 15). Goiu;? *' Uf the grave U)
weep there " is a cust^nn still common in the
East The tumult sometimes ma<le (m such
occasions was very l»«)isterous. OrientiJ feel-
ing is not acciLsti>m^Hl to self-restraint, and in
stmie i)eri«>ds the custom of self-nmtiUition,
common ainon^ the (jlentiles, seems to have
found it^ way into Ilebrciw funeiid usages.
**l^)th the great and the small shall die in
tliis land: they shall not Iw buried, neither
shall men lament for them, nor cut themselves,
nor make themselves bald for them : neither
sliall men tear themselves for them in mourn-
ing, to comfort them for the dea«l; neither
shall men give them the cup of consolation to
drink for their father or for their mother'*
(Jer. xvi. H, 7).

The vUnliM) of the Irish is precisely the same,
both in sense and sound, with the oi<x>lih of
the Arabians, which is a very strong and
mournful crj', set up by the female relatives of
a deceased ]>erson, the instant of IiLh death ;
and continued, just like the Irish rauinnn^ at
inter\-als during the night. — Hai'uura Obsirva-
tiou», iii. 41.

Sir Walter Scott, in a note to the *' Lady of
the Lake,''t]ius d»rscrilx,'S a similar lann-ntatiou
that finee eehf»e«l through the gleiis of tlie Scot-
ti.sh Jligldau'ls : — '* The Covoii'irk of tlie High-
lander-", like the Ulal'Hui of tlie Romans, and
the Vliil'H) oithi: Irisli, was a wild expression
of Lam«;ntation, poure«l fortli by the iTiounn.-rs
over the ImuIv of a departed frit-nd. WIhmi tlie
words of it weiv articulate, they expressed the
praises (»f the de«;ease<l, and the loss the clan
would sustiin bv his death. The f(»llowing is
a lamentation of this kind, literally trMUslatfil
from the (lanlicj to some of the idi-as of which
the tt.'xt stands nidebted. The tune is so ^hij-u-
lar that it has since become the war-niaieh or
gathering of the clan.

' O.yi.nni-h cm Sir Laiti'hlnn, Hih'j of M-i,\iin.

* Which of all tho Sonaehios

Cau tra''0 thv liiu* from the root up t.> Pvira li.~o,

iJiit Macvuiricli, tho Hon of F« r;:ii-?

No H(Kjnor hail thhie aneiont htatcly tree

Tuki.Mi llmi ri")t hi Albion

Th:in OH'* of thv forcfalhors fell tit Harlaw. —

'Tvi'as thi'n we lust a chief of ilL>athle.-h liUUiOi

* 'Tii* no ]».iao woeil— no pi an tod tree,
Nor a K^Hiiiinp of las^t Auiunni;
Nor A Kij)UnK jtliiiitod at IVltain :

"Wide, wnhi aruuml wrro HjirPinl its lof fy brmche? —
TJut th«* f<)j)nn>-t boiijzh is l«'\vlv l;M«i !
Thou hu-'t ttu'siikfu \xh l>More Sawaiiio.

'Thy dwollinj^ is tho winter h"nsi»; —
I^ud. Kul. Ha«l, luiil niif^hty i.-, thy (Ji^ath-son^I
O i"ourtoous champion of M<iiitr-»><'s!
O stately w:UTior of th<> Cclti.' i~lr>!
Thuu hhal. buckk" thy harucsr' on no nioivl'

"The conmach has for s<»me years past Wen
superseded at ftmerals by the use of the ba''-
pipe ; and that aL*o is, like many other High-

bT

i

BUR
land paciitUritiCT, falling into dinue,
rvmote diitrictB." But cuistoinii svlrlnm cfaui)^
in the Eiuit; fnnuB and cerumnnin wliich eiiatuil
tboQNUidii r4 ya>n agu btb to be witnosKd at
the iinaient duv.

Alter the f iihtTal, thu mimrners lartook of
ttluuiquet (K»k. ixiv. 17; Hon. ii. i).

Cvrtoin iJacrt were «iii)ropri»ted liv the
Jevi Ut the purxxwe of burying the deoil, and
they were huth niiUic and private (Gen. x: "
': I 13; Jndg. viLi. 33; svi. Ml ; 3 Run.

Si;

i. 14; -2 KL X

i. 6; Jer. j

. If, 20; Juhn xik. 41). Sometimes
« in fietda (Gen. iiiii. 11). aoinetiniea
in the ajdug of the moiintainn ('J KL
I rocka. Such waa the
tomb that Sheb-

Entnnrc ul a Ti,<iiil) In Ibe nii'k. -. — - .—
bcasla of the
earth : tliat all thr earth may know that there
i«ttl!odinIsracl"ll«am.iivii. 45,4(5). Sucli,
too, wan the doom of Jezebel (2 Ki. ix. 10).
The roeUmcboly tiitc of .me of the Hebrew
Boven^-ns is thus ]jre(lict«d : " Thirrefore thun
Mith the IjiirI conceminK Jehiii.-vkiiii the mm
of JoHUih king of Jiulah ; Tbiy abnll not
lament fur Lini, naYiii);, Ah my brother ! or.
Ah KiKter ! they shall nut lament fur him, eay-
inn. All kir.1 ! nr. Ah liis olory ! He bIiuU be
biuictl with the burial of an aiw, drawn and
cast forth bcyonil thu gates of .leruaalem"
(Jer. xxii. IM, I'J). £ven criminalx iiublicly
cxecuteil were not to remain unliuried afti^
suDsat of the day of their death.

Bumini; tliu di^ad wnn, on extn;me occasinnn,
resorted to, as in the cane of SauL And Auius
seems t<i indicate that, amidirt the awfal niur-
tatity of a plague, the learof infection, or Home
other cause. Khould necessitate a deluLrture fmin
common and natural uK^e (^Vni<ia i-i. 'J, lU).
To do any liolent outrage t<i a Hupulchre was
a pmtlinmoun insult of no ordinary otjgrava-
tkM. or a stigtna which could not be effaced.
And no to show bin abhorrence of the ido]atrips
whi)^ were carrieil on in Judea, and patronized
by kin{{ and bard, the fcitlou-ini; uroclo was
dcKvered tv Jeremiali: "At that time, saith
Um LonI, they Hhall brins out the bones of the
kings of Jndiih, and the bonea of hii princes.

shall be for dung upon the face of Uie i
(viii. I, 2). The grave was called the houM *
hnme of the doa!! (Job xii. 23 ; EccL liL ^
llie burial places were usually in relink

utuatiuna, and b

B the r

t of d^

(Slatt. viii." 28). " They _,

without tJie city walls, but not always; kbp
and prophets were buried in tbeir dtie* «
bouses. David was interred in his own i%,
Samuel in his own house (Josh. xiiv. X, S;
1 Sam. «v. 1; »xviiL 3; 2 Ki. lu. 18:1
Chr. xvi. 14; iiiv. IG ; iiiUi. 20; Ndk. M.
Itil. lliough solitary, they were selected wiA
reference to shade, nroiii>ect, &c The ana-
mente around l^rah's tumb wet« carefaQjr
looked to in the bargain for its site (Gen. mo.
17). So we read aldo in ticn. uiv. S. "Ifait
Deborah Rcbelcab's nurae died, and iht wis
buried beneath Beth-el under an oak; ud
the name of it was called Allan .bachnlL*
(See also 1 Sam. xxxi. 13.)

The desire to bo buried with one's kindnd
was very etrong. We cannut but admire tlw
natural juithoK of EarriDai's request to Darid
~" l*t thy iwnaut, I pray thee, turn haci
again. t]iat I may die in mine own city, and be
buried bv the grave of my father and <£ my
mother" (2 ISam. xix. 37). It is remark^
that the .lews, as a i<cople, in all their diqiv-
sions anrl nufferings. retain an ardent denitta
be buried in their own land. Aa early as tbs
age of Jacob did this feeling exist. Ttit M

Ctriarch felt he was about to die in a foreign
id, and his tboug]its reverted to the baUowid
s|iot in Canaan where reposed tlie athea of ba
family. The teudemess and naturalnea it
nuchsrenes preseiit strong proof of the iiiiMwi
tivity of Scnptnre. "And be dinrged thi,
and said unto them, I am to be gathered oBlB
~iv people : bury me with my btbeta Id ths
wn that ia in the field of Ephron the Hittite,
1 tlie cave that in in the field of Mochpebb,
-liich is before Monire, in the land of Canaan,
which Abraliam bouf-ht with the field of Eph-
run the Hittite for a possession of a bnrync

Clace. There they biinod Abraham and Saistt
is wife ; there they buried Isaac and Kebekak
bis wife; and there I buried Leah " (Gien. ilii.
2U-31). Tl..^ name dnire to lie at last iincH
en kindred was as strong in the heatt ci
._-,ih, thoii^'h he had been so k>ng sevend
from the land nf hin birth (Gen. L 25).

' cording to Jewish authority, — that tl

iphusanri Maimonides,— aspotof jwomisen-

and dirihououred interment was set apart

for the burial uf executed matefactoi*. Sncli

custom explains the lan^nage of Isa. lik 1^

They appomted him with the wicked ba

crave, but with a rich man was he in bil

death." 'ilie rulen had already prepared bin

a grave with common malefactors, aa ns their

custom with sncii as bad been indidallT pnt

> death; but Joaeph interfered, and be^ed

Hid m J^MK wbm dasd lagrin the
ikh mn^iiiftlw scetS. 67).
noi uBonial for • line^ fmflj to
• tiidir drntOSag-hatrndf a nmdl boOd-
ot door or ^rindovy built of stonoor
lUe natenili, wUdi was ciOled Uie

KooM, or ftuDiiy mannon for Hie
bitj wan not unoomnKm in OMteiu
ttoprsMntdaj. Hie folkywiiiff out

4m noand pliB oi a leiNUolire
jandreu fiomia end en&ored in
iipad) in f^yiia. Thmngb, an old
dated cntnnoe he ndned artmiiwinn.
or eifllit ftepe^ to the ohaniber o^ 11

nd about 9 wide. This is a kind of
her. On the ru^t, by a narrow
e entered a chamber, 6, 10 feet by S.
ined six cells for corpees, two oppo-
entranc^ f oar at the left hand, and
nite fimsned at the right. On the
of the ante-chamber e, is a similar
■ifth deren cells* not quite so large.
m passages, 7 feet long, lead to tne
; <L The cot will now serve to
df in scnne measure. The average
he rooms is 6 f eet*

okhres d the Jews were sometimes
y b^t, and adorned or garnished,
idutened at short intervals, so as to
n oonspicoous^ that they nii^t be
r their ceremonial uncleanne8S.7rhese
re generally done in spring and be-
■asover, preparatory to that period,
ids shoiua be filling all the roads to
. Hence the force of our Lord's
laXL zziiL 27). Sometimes titles or
IS were placed on them. "Then
¥hat ^e is that that I see? And
ftlw city told hiniy It is the sepulchre
in ol Grod, which came from Judah,'
aimed th€»e things that thou hast
Mt the altar of Beth-eP' (2 Ki zxiii.
following from Buxtorf are a sped-
have set this stone for a monument
ead of the venerable B. Kliakim de-
ed grant he mav repose in the garden
rith the rest of tne saints of the earth,
men, Selah." Here is the elegy of *a
I have erected this monument on the
le most holy, most chaste, and most
Gtebckah, daujB^bter to the noly rabbi

BUR

l^^yirael tiia Levite, who has Hved in good le-
imtatlon, and who died the 8th of December,
m the year 135** (that is, in the year 1575) ;
' ' let her soul be bound in tne garden of Eden.**
To build a sepulchre for a man was an exprea-
non of lespect and honour (Matt xxiii 89 ;
Luke xi ^ And we read in 1 Maorabees
xiii. 27, — ** ramon built a monument upon tiie
sepulchre of his father and his Ixethren, and
raised it aloft to the nght, with hewn stone
behind and before. Moreover, he set up seven
pyramids, one against another, for his father,
and his mother, and his four brethren. And
in these he made cunnine devices, about the
• which he set great pulars, and upon the
pillars he made aUT their armour for a
perpetual memoir, and by the armour
ships earved, that they mi^ht be seen of
an that sail on the sea. This is the sepul-
chre which he made at Modin, ana it
standeth yet unto this day.**

That sepulchres were not always closed
may be inferred from seyeralpassages of
the BiUe (2 Ki xiii 21). ''Their Hiiroat
is an open seralohre** (Ph. y. 9). (See
AcaOiDAiCA.) Thev were, howeyei% gen-
erally dosed each ay a stone rolled upon
its mouth, and f ormmg a door, to preserve
the corpse from the ravages of prowling
animals. Christ's tomb was sealed; a cord
in all probability being drawn across the
stone, and sealed at both extremities. Thia
stone was of considerable weight. Joseph ob-
tained the body, '*and laid it in his own new
tomb, which he had hewn out in the rock: and
he rolled a ffreat stone to the door of the sepul-
dire, and departed " (Matt. xxviL GO). And
the women who went early in the morning to the
tomb, for the purpose of anointing the corpse,
naturally asked themselves as to the removal
of this impediment ** And they said among
themsdves. Who shall roll us away the stone
fnmi the door of the sepulchre? " (Mark xvi. 3).
There are many sepulchres in tne vicinity of
modem Jerusalem, not a few of tiiem being old
excavations^ one duster being named the
" Tombs of the Prophets," ana another the
"Tombs of the King:**'* Interesting monu-
ments also occur in the valley of Jehoshaphat.
The present Jewish cemcteiy behind the tomb
of Zechariah is very extensive, but the monu-
ments are only slam of limestone covering the
graves. The numerous excavations employed
to bury the dead, and the darkness prevainng
in these subterranean vaults, suggested manv
images to the Hebrew poets. '* All they shall
speak and say unto thee, Art thou also become
weak as we? art thou become like imto us?
Thy pomp is brought down to the grave, and
the noise of thy viols : the worm is spread under
thee,and the worms cover thee " (Isa. xiv. 10,11).
But now the grave has lost its terror for
Christians. Jesus has risen — " the first-fruits **
— and secured a happy resurrection to all his
people. The gloom of the sepulchre is dis-
pelled, the grave is now a cemetery (place of
deep), and Uiere are written upon its jiortal
the cneering words—*' I am the rbsubbbotiom

8&

BTTS
wn THE Lira. Blessed are tfaa dead tb«t die | '
u the Lord." (See Moubk.)

BURNING BUSH. (SceMiwEs.)

BUHNT OFFERING. (See Sacwi

BUSH. (SeeMoHES.)

BUHHEL. (SeeJ'-

BUTLKR— toH/rr
hanour&ble ofBcer of tlie king's _ . . . ,
called cup-bearer jKeh. i. ll),itbeiiig his duty
ti) fill and beu the cup or drinking vewiel '
the kinc. The chief butler bad the chaise

rest (Gen. xl 2).
Jen. iviiL 8). An I

r, is still regaiiied aa a very aKrecable and
rKinahing beverage hy eastern nations, and is
now called lebban (Job ii. 17). Their butter,
HUch as it HW, might have been sometimeH
clarified and preserved in jars, aa at the pnweat
day in Aaia. When poured out, it resembled

The figurative eipresaion in Job iiii. 6,

_.,... 'by and Mangles n
species of culinary prejiaratioi
varied according to the wcaltl
the tribe; wjmetimes we had p

of «

^ed with leh

^^ boiled the n...,..,,... .... ^^

and generally in leban, a custo
t^ripture. Ilia mode of cook
meat very delicious and tender

with the juice of the meat, ii
pillftw of rice or wheat. Som
melted butter and bread ball
nUto, in the form of a pancaki
The staj.Ie of the Arab's foe
leban and bread. The milk n
sented in a wooden bowl, and t
in on earthenware diah."— TVai
BYTHINIA. (SeeBnunr

CAB. (See Meabdbb.)

CABINS (Jar. luvii. 16), or colls, were
probably niches or arched apartments within
Uie dungeon^or the separate confinement of
l>riwnieni. The idea conveyed is, tliat thn
prophet suffered the mott severe and]
imprisonment.

CABU L — bo undary, according to Oeseniui —
• ■ WJosh. ■ —

trict of couutiT presented to I
—a name which, according to .
fiea "dirty" or " diBpleaaing " ii
language. According to Fu
" dry" or " sandy" place.
CtSAR (See Cksar)
C^SAREA. (See Ck-abbj

c^esarea-philippi.

Philippi.)
CAGB (Jar. y. 27)— "coo]

a to h>n bm lupt

Makk In Mm ant vmmm Bto wwd

BIB » bw ia wlnM > dteoT Urd ii
) M OeGfeA temi ao icndaied in
K uB. Innnflai ■ priKML
UUPHa31i^ sL «, nj WM tlw Ugti
U<i a> Jm a tin tin* of o«r SATioin'*
Ii ni<an«MfamM4rkddfarlifai

iit,iriiidi,
i,«lBfated

• to the Jcwtoh

SindBhl mfamcls of nUw X«nnu
■ fti fad mrinasd many ofUin Jew*
■(Utnintbina God; asd the FlMri-
K^ndittlw tnoiMw of hafbUmran,
PMM k (mtcfl, Md pcetandtd tlwt tiMir
M* M> ia dMWCT; thrt the Robmu
i"i<we falOM «f Omb, end thatfliMr
ijAinefMriteU^ » ewMtUiw «M
****»wtito«teA Me niuawM. Then-

■H IdtarOtt he ihooU die thMi%«
gA^MtekinnjlTCdiBniiB. Oeluliee
^■■^(f the oevBdl, end atpMn^ldB
■WiiHiJiiiIi* pntdas Jeene to death, u
K/S^ <' n*ii« t&B nation bom the

weeinaniry,

J*JM»didiMtth«e

'J^<'MJamiini>tdi& lliiiocnuinlwu
^^■M Dnjiut in tba higheet d^;ne ; but,
j~^ la no agfooB ohaiged, it leemed the
2 pawiMr ncoM tat putting Chrirt to
~r^ "^ bigh priest's laiuiuge on this
E^a"" f"'^'?'**'"! thougli he did not
LfLT l"'' ' '^"^ this spttke he not of him-
L^, «■"? bigb priest that ye»r, he pro-
*^ (■lotD n. 5^82). Hemsawiiied

Th^r Spirit had respect
'^!'^l"liiji.i.lio611edit. The avangelirt,
mLT^ ''' Mujtnt o[ this Bitraormnaiy
™™!i oiUrgcs on the prophetic lan-
^^^vj^iai, and sbovs the extent and
^Tjiw ue dupenaatJOD of mercjrthnmgh
T ~™l Nothing cf this, howerer, was
R?^(f tie crnel sad bigoted pontiff.
f^l-intvas arrested, he was airugned
TJWlM, Md anttfort wm DM^to
^"oln ttetimonr saffldent for his oon-
J™^ TUa expedient buled: for though

»'***> upeacM to testdfy, aay did iiot
"n it bat Caiaphas pnt out Sariour
^NQeath. thkt he dionld aay whether
Christ, the Son of God,

■*9w«ith,th»t
^aierttbe Ch
**■ Tin

» amiiavi the Uasi^iamr of 01

CAI

SanonrHi inctenmoiu, and forthwith ^ipealad
to his emued enemiee to say if Uda was iMt
cmoDgh. They answered at once that he de-
■ernd to die ; and then, in "

ChatiuB, thepiedeci

be BCDOanted for ty his creed, for he imrnm 10
have belonged to the sect of Oie Sadduoeea
(Arte T. 17). (SeeAHKia.) ,

CAIN— jaownfion (Qen. iv. 1). He waa
Snt-bont of Adam and Eve, and, of eonree,
the Snt-bom of the human taee. The orinn
of the name is vaiy wparent. Cun was the
flnt-bon of men land ue mother, in tb« novel

ef that k man-ehild was bom into the worid,
^ona giatitDda for her deUrenmce from the
pangaof maternity— the first-frmts of the ou—*

oriedoi ^, „

from the Lord." Some are of opittion that the
eiclamation had reference to the prvmiaa of a
■Mining Bedeamer, in man's nature, to save
our guilty race, and that Eve BupjHised that
in this firet birth the promise was fulfilted.
The literal translation of^her words is, " I have
gotten a man — JehoTah." The Hebrew par-
ticle, tth, before the word Jehovah, though
sometimes a preposition, seems to have in tfua
place its aiuiple, demonstrative sense. Willi
the same signification, it occurs forty times in
the fitat five chapters of Generaa ; anil, an in
the case before us, is afBied tu the prnper
names which fiU the fifth thanter. The Tnr-
gum, or old Chaldee version, fotlnWB the Home
translation, and thus embodies the anciuut and
unbiassed inteipcetation of Che Hebrew church.
Dr. Pye Smith says— "Great would be the
delight when the pain of parturition suddenly
ceased, and a new human creature waa brought
to view. Let any tender mother recollect her
own feelings on her tinit enjoyment of this
blessing: and let her then try to imagine
what mnst have been the feclingB of the
thrtt mother, on tAe firit occoition of a child
bein^ bom into the world I The most vivid
imagmation mi:ut probably fall short of con-

ceiving the reality of this m
It would e ■ ■ '

not

B»e, that the beauteous and iovely creature
thna presented to them by the providence of
thnr God was indeed the destined DeUveret.
We need not impnta to them the gross ooneep-
tjon that tbsirinf tut was actually their great
Creator and SovBr«im-. bnt, putting ttpether
«« «s rireitmj<on(K«, IWonld ask any reBectog
person whether an indefinite idea of lomeUiiDg
connected with the Divine Being, m a waf

CAI
iitt«{]> mpiampled and nnkiiowii, vm not
likely to uve in the miiul of * the mother of
mil iitiag ; ' uid whether ehe might not, from
natural leelingi of hope and eiultation^ sud
MpedallT coosideriug the extreme paucity of
wordi which moat then haie belonged to lan-
gna^, give utterauca to this obscure, yet most
preooiu and j oyoue idea, io the remaxkable man-
ner that is recorded."— ,%t<i>(. Tat, L 231-233.
Eve, however, waa sadly djsiippointed. Cain
was the first murderer, and the victim of hia
malice was hia own brother. (See Abeu) He
was iiiBti8at«l to this violence by envy; his
brother'a offering having been accepted by God,
while his own was refused. On this account
he bet^me defected and angiy, and the Lord

nuired of lum why he indiuged these sinful
inss. If he would do veU, as Abel had
done, he would be equaDjr accepted; and if
ttot, the sin must be upon his own head, for he
had ample facilities to find a victim, which,
like Abel'i, would be an acceptable oblation.
(See Abel.) Certainly he had

■-■■-- towards A'" ' ~ "" " "

iwledpe him , —

i-^-^ to linn all the privileges of birthright.
The eipoetulation waa of no avajl, and when
they were together in the field, Cain took his
life. When the inqiiiiT waa potto him, where
his brother Abel waa, C^n evaded the iineetion,
saying, "Am I my brother's keeper?" But
the Ltnil, as if to eipreea the greatness of bis
crime, replied (Gen. iv. 10), "What hast thoc
DOUBT The voice of thy broUier's blood crieth
unto me from the ground," where it was ahed,
or where the body was buried ; and the dread-
tnl sentence was immediately passed upon him
which doomed him to fruitless toil, and to the
life of a " fugitive and vagabond." Thus was
he banished from society ("the face of the
earth"! and from the favour of God. The
miserable man seemed conpcioua for a moment
of the enormity of his guilt. He exclaimed,
*^My punishment is greater than I can bear,"
or (ss it may be rendered), m^ iniquity is
greater than that it may be forgiven ; and he
was of rud that when it was known what an
absjidoned outlaw he was, he would be killed
by any one that should find him. To prevent
thiSj God not only threatened an extraordinary

pumshmen
but, SB we

so that whoever met him should know at once
who he was. Several commentators, following
the version of the Septusgint, muntain tliat
this mark or token was designed to assure
Coin himself of hie peraonal safety, and not to
point him out to others.

The unhappy man left his home and the
scene of religions privilege and enjoyment, and
took up his abode in the land of Nod, a country
east of^Sden. where his family increased, and
where he founded a city. (See Nod.)

CAINAN (Gen. v. 9-14)— one of the ante-
diluvian patiiarcbsj who lived 910 yean. The

CAL

Hebrew text, bnt rally in tlN f

has either fallen oat of the I
been added to the Septoagint
of its occurrence in the geneala

CAKE (1 Ki ivii Q; ill.
was made of common dongh, ^
leaven. Sometimes it was kni
and sometimes only rubbed oi
with it (Eiod. VTJ. 3),aiidl»ki
of the thicknEsa of a plato, nuc
or bricks (Gen. xriii. 6). Ottie
used, such as a "pan," or "fry
a 1, 4, 6, 7). The law was, in
very minute in its preacriptjo
offerings, in order to guard agai
stitious mnavations, and to <
Jewish ritual from the pagan
surrounding nations. The off
was customary at heathen altar
not turned" [Hos. viL 8) is a
preasion, illuatrating the mij
and idolatry (.Tews and Gent
Ephraimitee) by dough baked oi
and therefore neither dough noi

Among the Bedouins Uie do
into thin cakea, and baked imm
OH the coals or in a shallow e«rt
a frying-pan, or perhaps only ;
laid upon a few atones, and
underneath (Lev. iL 6). In
iron platoa are often osed; bn'
the bread waa ao very thin thai
baked. The AraM around
bake such cakea on the outav
earthen or stone pitcher, whic
coals ineide. (See Bread, BaS

CALAH (Gen. i. lI)-proba
by the ruins of Nimrud ; otha
be KhUBh.Serghat. [See NnJE

CALAMUS (Song iv. H; 1
or SWEET CALAJIUS (Ei<
SWEET CANE (lao. xliiL a
were all probably the same pL
belonged to the some genoa. I

HAT.

(Num. iSSL 0) wm tiM rai of
■di, of tbe tribe «fJiidah. WlM&tlie
ML «a fthdr vMnga from Bgypt to
LHd anifwl at the wiUcnieM of
HoM «■■ inrtraotod by Jehovah to
Nh«mi,omfinmMoli of the tribes
bmi|toTfait thejconilMd lend, end
ieHiritBatiaiMidtetilli^; thennmber
■Bctar, M weD ae the maxmen and
■ cf th> popniatinii, and bring them a
CUib HU Joahna were among the
: ad idHtr making the tour, idiich
d faty d^ri, tlm vetaned to the
(aa bmgiiig with msni, aa they were
Itido^aiiieof the ri^ait podncta of
l» vkidi wwe boftih the emenoe and
if ill M^-" A branch with one
«gnpei. and they bare it between
pm A itiff ; and they bfooi^ cf the
Mtn and of the figa " (Nmn. ziii 23).
jM danwd that the land waa ex-
wWtni: but ten of the eiqikxring
"pimaiuil the Inbabitanta aa Tsry
9* ^m gigniliff in itatimc Tenor,
' *>. tnggwaitiott, gave a pecoliar
lMinwii(MimL siL 9Bi 29. SI
Qd^iMrte dieeouragiag effect ^
pMitim OB the pei^ile^ and pn>-
r 7^ to go np at onoe and mke
Ma of tile bnd, aasaring them of their
^w it He was o^Sdent that God
B9 vUtfol to hie promise, however
"* *Bd fonnidable might be their

^ Ponsted in their diaoonraging re-
«^ until the people, filled with
"^^^KoDfeente, were resolved to abandon
"^P^aod thev and their adherents
^ the point of revolting from Moses
I'oa 1]^ potting theinselves nnder
^'^t to retom to bondage in Egsrpt.
^'"iw, 10 excitabkL were truly as un-
II tbey were foolish. I^sappointed
? in their ardent expectaboDs. a
^ them; the miradea thcrjr nad
^ ««re lost upon them, and they
QopJooB as actoally to qnestion the
ttf and power of Jehovan. **Were
^ for ns to retam into Effypt?**
if. ^) At this crisiB, Caleb and
nieved at the folly and madness of
le, repeated the aasmrance that the

aa exceeding good land, and in
nd fertility all which had been

that if tney would follow God's
, and go forward fearlessly in his
they would easQy subdue the in-

ana obtain complete possession of
tory. So excited were the tribes,
hr the representations of the ten
tne party, that they proposed to
lua aoid Caleb. This oonouct was
dng to God that he caused every
rho was over twenty years of age,
bb and Joahua, to die m the wilder-
bef ore they came to the promised
^ a race needed salutary discipline ;

not competent to the invasion of

CAL

Fbleitine. Th^ then rushed to battle to le-
deon their crediL but were earily rooted
(Nun. xiv. 40, 45). The doom pronounoed
upon the unbelieving offenders was severe
indeed (Num. xiv. ^. 32, 33^ 84). Not one
of them should see the land which in their
cowardice the]|r were afraid to invade. Their
BubmiaaioD, without a murmur, to audi a
penalty, afforda a strong proof of the divine
mJaainm of theur leader; Graves has observed —
"At this crisis, what conduct would human
prudence have dictated? No other, surely,
than to soothe the nzulfcitnde till this exteeme
paaio might have time to subside; then
gradually to revive their confidtnioe, by re-
calling to their view the miseries of that
aervitnde from which they had escaped, tibe
exteaoidinary success which had hitherto at-
tended their efforta, and the conaequent prob-
abilitjr of their overoomin^ the difncultiea by
which thqrwere now dispirited; then gradually
to lead them from one assault, where ciroom-
stanoea were most likely to ensure victory to
another, till their oourwe was re-animated,
and the great object of tbeir enterprise might
be again attempted with probabifity of sno-
oesa. But how strange and unparalleled is
the oondnct of the Jewish leader! He de-.
nounoes against this whole rebellious multitude
the extreme wrath of €rod : instead of animat-
ing them to resume their enterprise, he com-
mands them never to resume it: instead of
encouraging them to hope for success, he
assures them they never ahall succeed: he
suffers them not to return to Egypt, yet he
will not permit them to invade Canaan. He
denounces to them that they shall continue
under his oommand ; that he would march and
countermarch them for forty vears in the
wilderness until every one of tne rebellious
multitude then able to bear arms should
perish there; and that then, and not till
then, should their children resume the in-
vasion of Canaan, and infallil^ succeed in
iV—LecL on the PenUUeuch, p. 8L

Forty-five years afterwaxds, when the con-
quest was completed and the land apportioned
among the tribes, Caleb, being then eif^hty*five
years of affe, applied to Joshua for his share,
reminding him of the promise of God. by which
he and Joahua were excepted from tne general
curse of the people. He testified to the faith-
fulness and kimmess of Gk)d in preserving his
life and health in a remarkable degree until
that time, and proposed to take, as his
share of the land, Kirjath-arba, the Btron^rhold
of the giants, and the centre of their fortifica-
tions. Accordingly he attacked and subdued
Ejriath-arba^ and thence proceeded to Kirjath-
sepher, another stronghold, afterwards called
Debir. Here he proposed to give his daughter
Adhsah in marriage to the man who sh<^d
capture the dty. His nephew, Othniel, under-
took the enteinprise and succeeded, and received

the promised reward. Caleb's possessions were
called by his name (Num. xiii and xiv.; 1 Sam.

I

— 14;.

The character of this patriot and aiunt ia

CAL

given in brief but expressive terms, Xmn. xiv.
24: **But my servant Caleb, because he had
another spirit with him, and hath followed me
fully, him will I bring into the land whereunto
he went; and his seed shall possess it." He
was a man of energy, decision, and faith; brave
among cowards : assured among sceptics. His
arm was nerveu by unwavering trust in God ;
and his heart sustained by confident reliance
on the benignity, omnipotence, and fidelity of
Jehovah.

There are two other persons of the some
name mentioneil, 1 Chr. fi. 18, 50.

CALKB-ErHRATAH (1 Chr. iL 24).
(See Ephrath.)

CALDRON— a pot for lx)iling flesh. Four
Hebrew words are so translated, llie first of
these, which occurs in Job xli. 20, is rendered
in other places "hook," "rush," "bulrush "
and signifies, in the ])assage quoted from Jot),
a cord of twisted rushes drawn through the
nose of an animal, llie second term, found in
2 Chr. XXXV. 13, is translated in other places
"kettle," "basket," "pot" The third wortl
is also rendered "pot; and the fourth word

En>bably denotes a vessel for pouring out
oiling water (1 Sam. ii 14). (See Pot.)

CALF (Gon. xviiL 7). A fatted calf was
regarded by the Jews as the choicest animal
food (1 Sam. xxviii. 24; Amos vi 4; Luke xv.23).

The allusion in Jer. xxxiv. 18 is somewhat
peculiar: "And I will give the men that have
transgressed my covenant, which have not
])erformed the words of tne covenant which
thev had made before me, when they cut the
calf in twain, and ])as6ed between the juirts
thereof." llie reference is to an ancient cus-
tom of ratifying a contract or covenant, in the
observance of which an animal was slain and
divided, and the jmrties ]>as4ed between the
])arts, signifying their willin^ess to be so
divided themselves if they failed to perform
their covenant. In the covenant made by G(xl
with Abraham, the same form was observed.
"And he said unto him. Take me an heifer of
three years old, and a sne-goat of three years
old, and a ram of three years old, and a tiu-tle-
dove, and a young pigeon. And he took imto
him all these, and divided them in the midst,
and hud each piece one against another; but
the birds divided he not. And it came to ]>ass
that, when the sun went down, and it was
dark, l>ehold a smoking furnace, and a burning
]am]> that passed l>etween those pieces" (Gen.
XV. 9, 10. 17). The "smoking furnace and
burning lamp" represent the Shekinah, or
Div-ine Presence, one of the contracting parties,
taking his covenanted pledge after the manner
of men.

Calf, Molten (Exod. xxxiL 4), was an idol-
pod prepared by Aaron, in compliance wiHx
the nnjuest of the children of IsraeL who had
]>ecome impatient of the absence of Moses, and
(lesired some visible image or representation of
the Deity. (See Aabon.) Some suppose that
the calf was made of wood, and overlaid with
gold; otiiers, that it was cast of solid gold;
but in that case, how oouki it have Deen
94

CAL

bomt and ground to powder? It repr
one of the Egyptian deities, the vor
which they had often seen, aod in whk
bans, some of them had sometimet pa
Wnether the calf represented Apis or '.
is not a matter of great moment. A
the form of a live ox. was wonhip]
Memphis, attended with creat oerema
service, and honoured witn public rej<
This ox was of a peculiar colour, andgn
was taken when one died^n eooosing ;
stalling his successor. The ox repn
Osiris, the great ^od of the £g3rptiaa i
logy; and the bestial worship does not i
have been free of an impure and d(
taint The punishment to which Moa
jected the apostate tribes^ who had so n
"changed tne glory of the incorroptiu
into the likeness of four-footed boMti
both severe and approjiriate. "And 1
the calf which they naa made, and bun
the fire, and grounid it to powder, and 81
it upon the water, and xnade the chiU
Israel drink of it" (Exod. xxxiL 201
suppose that he who was learned in all ti
dom of the Egyptians employed somedi
preparation, such as was known to t
cient world, and dissolved the gold by
of natron, or other similar substance,
a penalty was speciaUy nauseous, for tb
and taste of gold so dissolved are fearfi
volting ; and the calf would afford mater
impregnating water in quantity sufiBd
punish the fanatical revellers. The^ di
loathsome beverage the image of their di
the god that they made became a s
scourge. Moses, while he rebuked thdr
stition, checked at the same time a g
immorality, if the ideas of ChamyMlliaz
the nature of ox-worship, be correct, uu
seems^no reason to doubt them.

Calves of Jeroboam (1 Ki. xiL 26-2
plainly appears from the narrative thai
images were objects of worship set up 1
king in the land of Israel, to prevent 1
tril^ from resorting to Jerusalem to w
and so more effectually to separate thee
the house of David. Que of the idols
Dan and the other in Bethel, the two ex
of his new kingdom. It is 8Ui)posed tt
wicked king had become acquainted wit
forms and objects of idolatrous wonbi|
he dwelt in Egyi^t (I Ki xL 40). The
who seem so readily to have comnhe
this idolatrous ritual may have^ nac
lingering attachment tt^ the Egyptians!
tion, now revived by Jeroboam, who, ii
ing a new sacerdotal order, made priest
" lowest of the people wmch were not
tribe of Levi." His sin is almost alwa;
tioned whenever his name is used, — J«
who not only sinned^ but "made Israel
Tiglath-pileser earned awav the calf c
and Shalmaneser that of I^theL Soc
pose, however, that the calves were im:
of the Hebrew cherubim. (See AabOST
boam.)

Calves of oub Lips (Hosea xiv. '

OAIs

mgnSi^Axig liM frotte of
bur dfadngB off piwse to God.
I of tbe figun k giTen Inr the
M &iiit of oar ]n»u gifing tuuiki
(Heh. aoiL 15).

eridei its othir and mon oaamion
iwovd IS oibsn mod in nearly the
•▼ttbof rristwifie. "He shall
nderfol" (Lhl ix. 6)— that is, he
Ij he woodeifa]. Dot shall he
^ oeiiig WonderfoL When men
o SDj one, it is an OTidenoe of the
MT have oome to regarding his
' He shall he called the Scm of the
(Luke i 35Hthat is. he shall be
w Most Hij^ and also men shall
Ml ankiwwleage his pre-eminent

IJGen. X. 10; Amos tl 3) — one of
Bubjlonia, bmlt bj Nimrod, and
beihe same witii Oilfio (Isa. z. 9),
dE. zzvii 23), and the Niffer of
A tones. It was sitoated on the
jftlie Tigrii^ and was a plaoe of
nnoftanceu

ix — sfaiUL It occnrs only in Lake
i is csUed CMgoika, Johnzix. 17.
siMg;iven to a place wMth of the
<f Jcnualem, pezhaps half a mile
B the temple. The spot now so
dun the walls of the modem city,
ume was Golgotha or the place of
ker inaa its shape or from the
e that it was the usual place of
i&tuudfl. The first of these opinions
Hkdy. Hie name is explamed in
otas aplace of skulls, or as having
^ to a scene of ordinary public'
{>Qt as " a place of a skull,^ as if
ud home some resemblance in its
'thii^rtion of the human body.
^itoDe recollected that no place
Calvary— it being only the Latin
<f JLpavlov, in Liuke — and that
fiHar the plurase " moimt Galvary **
ttfignage is not found in Scripture,
'^epithet of this nature is added
vj the evangelists or the eailiest

fB lite of Calvarv has been matter
"Ptite. It could not have been
'^ to the ancient church, though
^systematic attempt to identify,
* tin the fourth century— an age of
option and superstition. There
J that, in the intervening centuries,
yuaie in finding out the localities
in the Gospels. Jerome, in his
letter to Marcella, says, ''During
Qe, from the ascension of our Lord
^ day, through every age as it
"MpflL martyrs, and men eminentiy
' ecclesiastical learning came to
linking themselves deficient in
towledge if they did not worship
>ose places from which the Gospel
bm. the cross.** Other early
hiitonans mention the same things.

CAL

Still theae hints amount not to oertafaity.
Enaehins says that the spot of the resnzreotirai
had, pfior to the period of Oonstantine, '*been
given up to oblivion and forgetfulness." We
never read of the apostles alluding to peculiar
sacred places ; and the Christians of the first
oentnnr seemed not at all solicitous about the
localitTes described in the evangelical history.
Helena^ the mother of Oonstantine, is said,
indeed, to have lighted upon ^e spot of the
crucifixion, after no littie inquiry and examin*-
tion; vet the miracles reported in oonneotion
with the discovery, throw an air of suspicion
over the whole transaction. " A divine inti-
mation had pointed out to her the ajxit; and
on her arrival at Jerusalem, she inquired
dihgentiy of the inhabitants. Tet the search
was uncertain and difficult, in consequence of
the obstructions by which the heathen had
sought to render the spot unknown. These
being all removed, the sacred sepulchre was
discovered, and by its side three crosses, with
the tablet bearing the inscription written by
Pilate. The tablet was separated from the
cross; and now arose another dilemma, how to
ascertain which of these three was the true
cross. Macarins the bishop, who was present,
suggested an appropriate meaniL A noUe
lao^ fd Jerusalem lay sick of an incurable
dis^tfe; the three crosses wero presented to
her in succession. The' two first produced no
effect; but at the approach of the third, she
op^ied her eyes, recovered her strength, and
sprang from ner bed in perfect health. In
consequence of this discovery, Helena caused
a splendid church to be erected over the spot
where the crosses were found." — BobintonU
JUsearchegf u. p. 14.

And even the supposed connection of Helena
with the finding of the cross is not folly
ascertained. ** How are we to accoimt for the
entire silence of Eusebius as to any such dis-
covery by Helena; 8upi)orted as it is by the
like ffllence of the pik^im of Bordeaux, A.]).
333? Possibly Eusebius, the flatterer of
Oonstantine, may have chosen to ascribe all
to the piety and magnanimity of his patron ;
and while the church was building under
the emperor's auspices for six or seven years
sfter Helena's death, her participation in it
may have been unknown or overlooked by
the pilgrim. However this may be, and not-
withstanding the silenco of Eusebius, there
would seem to be hardly any fact of his-
tory better accredited than this alleged dis-
covery of the true cross. All the historians
of the following c*»ntury relate the circum-
stances as with one voice, and ascribe it to
the enterprise of Helena. But this is not
aU. C3nnl, who was bishop of Jerusaleifl
from A.D. 348 onward, only some twenty
years after the event, and who frequently
speaks of preaching in the church erected by
tne munificence of Oonstantine, mentions ex-
pressly the finding of the cross under tlmt
emperor, and its existence in his own day. So
too Jerome, describing in a.d. 404 the journey
of Paula^ relates that m Jerusalem she not only

CAL

nerf ormed her devotions in the Holy Sepulchre,
oat also prostrated henelf before the cross in
adoration. Yet neither of these fathers makes
mention of Helena in any connection with
either the cross or sepulchre." — RohintotCa
Researches J ii., p. 16.

Such peculiar variance in the accounts of
those who lived nearest to the afre of Helena
casts discredit over the whole alleged trans-
action. The silence of Eusebius cannot well
be expUuned. Nor can wo give any satisfactory
reason why Gjrril and Jerome should either l>e
80 ignorant of Helena*s good fortune, or should
let the opportunity slip of recording it, and
loading it with laoorious euloc^. The later
historians, who make a sacred heroine of the
emperor's mother, ant not to be placed above
those writers either in veracity or credibility.
Nay more, the story does not appear the same
in the various accounts of it. Ambrose and
Chrysofltom speak of three crosses, the true one
being known by having Pilate's tablet still
affixed to it. A few years after, Paulinua and
Sulpicius, both in the West, speak of the true
cross proving its identity by restoring a corpse
to life; while the historians, Socrates, Sozo-
men, and Theodoret, aver that the cross on
which Jesus had died demonstrated its life-
giving energy by restoring to immediate health
a suf^ring woman at the point of death. Such
peculiar discrepancies, along with the miracle
for which some of them vouch, and the de-
mands on our credulity which they make — the
want of harmony among the witiiesses to an
event of such moment, and the apparent
tendency to exa^^ration increasing with the
distance at which the writers lived from the
era of the reputed discovery — do certainly
summon us to pause and reflect, or^ rather
leave on our minds the fearful impression that
fraud and deception have been specially busy
over a spot where homage was deemed neces-
sanr to Incarnate Truth.

A splendid church has been built over the
supposed site of the cross and the sepulchre.
The building is vast and irregular, as it is in-
tended to cover so many important scenes.
But the building belongs not to Scripture or
Biblical literature.

^ The great probability is, that the supposed
site is not the true one. The place on which
the church of the Holy Sepulchre is built was
to all appearance within the wall of the
ancient city. But Jesus "suffered without
the gate." On some spot beyond the limit of
the city, and yet not far from it, was the cross
erected; and somewhere in the same locality
was the sepulchre of Joseph. There was a
third wall erected round Jerusalem some years
after our Lord's decease; but the site now
marked as Calvary seems to have stood within
the old second wall. Should this be demon-
strated, the question is setticd. The second
wi^ judging from the topographical descrip-
tions of Josephus, must have included tne
spot which tradition has selected as the place
of the crucifixion and burial of Jesus. It
began at the gate of Gennath, dose l^ the

CAL

tower of Hyppncos, and extended to tti
tress of Antonia, on the north of the !■
Kobinson reasons thus:— "On newi^^
dty f n>m the remains of the ancient l^rpfi
as well as from the site of Antooiit m i
satisfied that if the second widl might bii
posed to have run in a straight line biti
those points, it would have left the obn
the Holy Sepulchre without the eitf ;
thus far nave settied the topognpbkil pi
the question. But it was not ka li^
perceive, that in thus running in a *^
course, the wall must also have left Ae
of Hezekiah on the outside ; or, if tt >
a curve sufficient to include tlds pool, it^
naturally also have included tiie i^ <■
Sepulchre ; unless it made an an^ «sp
in order to exclude tiie latter spot
further, as we have seen, Josepfaiis M
testifies that the second wiUl ran in •
or curve, obviously towufds the north,
ous other circumstances also, which go ^
port the Bame view, such as tiie natof*
groimd, and the ancient towers at tbi
ascus Gate, have already been ennffi
Adjacent to the wall on tiie north tbs*
space of level ground, on which AX
could erect his hundred towers. AH t>
to show that the second wall mni
extended further to the north than iStM
the present church. Or, again, if W*
that this wall ran in a Btn^ght coar<
the whole of the lower caty must h^
confined to a small triangle; and itfi
between the temple and the site of the V
— a space of less than a quarter cl aOL
mile— was not equal to that of many bc3
London and New York. Yet we kra
this lower city at the time of the cr^
was extensive and populous; three 0
from it to the temple; and ten yetf
Agrippa erected the third wall far M^
limits of the present city, in order f
the extensive suburbs wmch before ^
protected. These suburbs could not ^
arisen within the short interval of UO
but must already have existed bdEon '
of our Lord*s crudfiixion.

** After examining tH. these drco^
repeatedly upon the spot, and, as I hag^
out prejudice, the minds of both 10
panion and mjrself were forced to the 09
that the hypothesis which midces tiiiC
wall so run as to exclude the alleged sL^
Holy Sepulchre is, on topograpmcal tf
untenable and impossible. If there «
iudice upon my own mind, it was ceri
favour of an opposite result; f<ff I '
Jerusalem strongly prejpossessed with '
that the alleged site nught have lain
the second wall

" But even if such a view could be M^
the existence of populous suburbs on ti
is strongly at variance with the pto
that here should have been a place oi
tion. with a garden and sepulchre. Tbf
of tne ancients were not usually within
cities, nor among theur habitatmni; si

ll-.-lf -

v is virtually

denies the identity of the Eiiot iif
an, but irdmita that of the Bepolchre ;
A, bodi of Genauiy. Freaiileut
k taaatrjTBtsi of Dr. Sobiiuon^a,
nrdled aftei him in P&lcstiiie,
ima oinnion with these illiiatrioui

inbon, however, in hia '* Lands
i," onnculea vith Kabinion, and so
Mioa from ths Chareh of Scot-
Qated Palestine some reus ^o.
rba WM chaplain to Biuop Alex-
nnlem, made a violent attack on
Mt without overthTOwina his pori-
m followed up by Scbulie. the
■ad in the Holy City. This con-
Lidui^ Lord Nugent, Bucbiugham,
H^ McMor, FeiffUMon, Stanley,
VogOe, Tobler, and other travetlen
led, is so minate and lengthy that
•nn kbrldge it We an satisfied
nbtr of toe present site with the
Dlgotha cannut be eatinfacbarily
• It i* lung since Willibald and
■luiasul their donbla, and mnce
> uineed such doabta, by ascribing
! ta^dity of We«teni heresy. The

(tn^nes. A vivid account of the
■dy fire at Eaater may be found in
WofciK, V. 480.

■B of C Jvan', as detsiled by the
I >n full of pathetic intcrart to
iMdisdi^ After an unjust trial,
' Iht bootiiigB of the multitude, was

itnf beneath the weight of the cross

BhoH' <>t theni uiicnly. triniiiiiliin^ iivi.t tln'in in
it" (PoL ii. ir.). To thi:< m..uu'iit ..F «■..,■ ^>ii<l
I if triumph, of hlinmi' imd •■? -.'[on-, all it'Tiiity
wiU KK>k b.itk. iuid b>.|ii.ld sii, r,i,ii'l'-'l, ■'^■■'■'u
defeated, God reconciled, and & world vavcd.

(See GOLOOTHA.)

CAMEL,— carrier {Matt, iiiii. M). The
name is almost the name in pronuuciatian with
the Hebrew teim Gainal. which denotes this
animal Many give the Hebrew verb, whence
the noun comes, the sense of revenge, and
Buppniie that the camel is named for his re-
vengeful disposition ; and ancient authore ar«
Sioted, such ai Arititutle and Arrian, to jnvve
at camels do not forget injurii-Sj but quickly
retaliate them. But the meatiinc' we have
given to the original term is ita simple primitive
sense; and the name so understood is aptly
applied to tliia "beaut of burden." "The
camels," says the old traveller Sandys, in his
quaint style, "are the shi|H of Arabia, their
seas ore the deserts, — a creature formed for
burden." The cam«l is a wcU-known and
highly useful animal in eastern countries, and,
by the law of Moses, unclean (IjOv. xi. 4; Deut
-^- " He is usually 6 or 7 feetjn he^gbt.

species most generally referred to
in Scripture has upon the back one hump,
while the Bactrian camel has two bunches.
These humps or protuberances yield to pressure,
and form a sort of saddle^on which his bunlen
is laid (Isa. xxi. G). The dromeduy is a
smaller and nimbler apecies (Iso. LivL 20: Jer.
ii. Z3). Within the body ot the camel is a
cavity, divided into little opartmenta or culls
that fill when the animal dnnks, which usually

CAM

and while the process is ^ing od, often otters
ones of anger and impatience. But his perse-
verance is great : day after day he jogs on, with
sullen tenacity, till the journey is completed.
He is fed only once in twenty-four hours, but
his long neck enables him to crop the few
plants which he passes on his march. He can
camr a burden of 600 or 800 poimds, at the rate
of 90 miles a day; and on short journeys, 1,000
to L200 pounds. Chains and other trappings,
iiserul or ornamental, were sometimes fastened
to the camel's neck (Judg. viii. 21, 26). The
flesh and milk are used for food, and tne hair,
which is short, and softer than that of the ox
kind, is useful for garments (Matt. ilL 4).
(See Camxl*8 Hair.) Out of its skin are
made soles, thongs, straps, sacks, and water-
bottles, and its dung is the common fuel The
ordinary life of the camel is from thirty to fifty
years.

For all these reasons the camel has been exten-
nvely employed in the East, and that at a very
early period. The merchants of those sultiy
lanas subjected it to their service in long past
ages. The picture is an old one — " A company
m Ishmaehtes came from Gilead, with their
camels bearing spicery, and balm, and m3rrrh,
ffoing to carry it down to Egypt" (Gren. xxxvii
25). Individuals, too^ used camels for a con-
veyance, sometimes m riding, sometimes in
carrying private stores (Gen. xxiv. 64). So in
1 Ej. X. 2 it is said of the <iueen of Sheba,
"She came to Jerusalem with a veiy great
train, with camels that bare spices." **So
Hasael took forty camels* burden" (2 Ki. viii
9). Their possesdion was, in consequence,
r^arded as wealth. Job is said to have had
3,000 camels; and that Arabian clan, the
Midianites, are spoken of as being, themselves
and their camels, without number (Judg. vii.
12). Camels were also made serviceable in
war. They dragged the heavy and clumsy
armaments of tno«e times. Sometimes they
carried the warriors themselves (1 Sam. xxx.
17). Diodorus Siculiis says, the Arabians set
two warriors, back to back, on each camel,
the one for the advance, the other for the
retreat. The Arabians of the army of Xerxes
were all mounted on camels, according to
Herodotus.

The camel, in addition to all its other ele-
ments of usefulness, supplies an important
article of food in its milk. We read m Gen.
xxxii. 15 that Jacob purposed to make a
present for Esau of ** thirty milch camels with
their colts.** The milch camels among the
Arabs are very highly valued. Pliny says,
in his natural history, that this animal gives
milk for a very long season. Niebuhr relates,
**that among other dishes presented to him
by the Arabs at Menayre^ there was also
camels* milk. That it was indeed considered
cooling and healthy in these hot countries, but
that it was so clammy, that when a finger is
dipped into iL and drawn up again, the milk
hangs down nnom it like a thr^ML* — TravdSy
i, p. 314.
" The singular power of the camel to go with-
98

0AM

out water seems alto to be cf the
as that of the sheep, at kast in ha maa
tion; thouffh in a fiur greaiter degree.
dew and the juice of gnwi and bed
sufficient for them in orainaiy caeee; tl
when the pasturage has become dry, ue
water their flocks every two dajra, ai
camels evezy three. Thelongeefctnuto
we subjected our camds in reject to

was from Cairo to Sues, four days: yet •
them did not drink even tben, aitaoBg
had only the driest fodder. Biit at m
the camel eats and diinka little, and si
little; he is a cold-blooded, neaTy,
animal, having little feeling and littie sa
bility for pain. Thistlea and fariarsand I
he crops and chews with more avidity th
softest green fodder ; nor does he seem I
pain from blows or pricks, unless the
very violent.

* There is nothing graceful or wprif/k
any camel, old or young: all is mis^
ungainly, and awkward. The yoaBff
nothing frisky or plajrful; but m al
movements are as staid and sober ai
dams. In this respect, how unlike ti
lamb I**— /Zo&inson, BeMtarehetf iL p. 6Si

Lord Nugent says of the camd— "l
never young. The y^earlings. of whom ^
large troops pastunnj^ by the sides ol
dams wherever there is a patch of scan)
dure in the desert, never frisk. Thee
the same look, the same action, they afl
the same roar with those of the cank*^
Landry Clastical and Sacrtd, pp. 149.

Admirably adapted to the desert
which are their home, they j^ constit^i
of the evils which travelling m the desert
with it. Their long, slow, rolling, or J
gait, although not at first very unp!
becomes exceedingly fatiguing, so thafl
often more exhausted in riding 25nuL'
a cameL than travelling 50 on hoc
Yet without them, how could such jtf
be performed at all? Nay, Uie horssp
soon i)erish if subjected to the sam^
and scanty food, or the severe and oo9
slavery of the camel The Arabians spi
truth only, when they say^" Job*s ue
monument of God's mercy."

Their well-known habit of lying dow
the breast to receive their burdens, is i»
often supposed, merely the result of tr
it is an admirable adaptation of their na
their destiny as carriers. This is their
position of repose; as is shown, too,
callosities uxx)n the joints of the leg
especially by that ui>on the breast,
serves as a pedestal beneath the hug«
Hardly less wonderful is the adaptation «
broad-cushioned foot to the arid san
gravelly soil which it is their lot ch:
traverse.

Travellers sometimes throw over the
upon the top of his burden, a pair of pa
in which tney ride, one on either si)
covered box, like a carriage body, is son
himg upon the animal in the same mann

dt, vilh iMck, head, and ddei like an eaar
ik Tddiot caipetingocotbvr thick (tull
■ VodnpoD the mok<rf the animal, for "

lied in th« batket, or apart-

tb« txaveller. It ia therefore

■V ta He, fiom tho precediaB cot how
gM idpt have concealed her father^ idola
gtmi 34). The camel i* aaid to choose
^^■end dnolate plocee for faia habitatioDi ;
■iWbbUk force of the prophetic laneiuqe
2«iiiJ Ribbah (Eitk. mv. 6). thongh the

S**y wraU be abundantly verified if the
nnld merely liecome a atnpping place

^MhnDan poi

m in Matt lii. 24, "Ttiseaaifr
"n through the eye of a needle
--- •- enter into the kint"loiD
I. denoting •omething

2*^ ii n«ed aroonB the Malays and by
~»Ufl[uiLrt*pect to the elephant. Some
■""MiilJ Jtet the spelling of the Greek
Ci^™^W'"''. to make it Bigniiy a 'ui/e,
■»»«i«ilaiv proof or necessi^. The Koran
■■»Wia„^nLW too-a proof of its genend
Ely ti t [Biirerb over the >:i«t,-"The
'**"T I'lu}. in bin pride, will accuse our
'"' ' ' ' 11 find the gates of

It roay be remarked that
t," 14 the uonl tued in
a Bible of I5CS. (See

,Cufr. Hair kil-. nuule into ointh (Mai
t'i'Ki. i. «: Zeoh. xiu. 4|. Sometimes
•»tK » M BTooKht of the finest and softest
■" "f tlic ii.iir, and mia then a very rich and
'""mt article of dreoa. A coaner kind

CAM

wai naed for the covering of tents, and for the
^ppergatments of shepberda and camel-driven.
InTellen tell as that modem derviua wear
cloth of this kini!, and also leathern girdles.
We know that John the Baptist's raiment was
(rf this kind, for it is put in opposition to son
RAIHINT (Matt. li. 8: Luke viL 29).
CAMELEON. (See Chaukleon.)
CAMF (Eiod. ivi. 13). This term is fre-
qnently used in reference to the movements of
the cluldren of Israel ; and many passages of
the Leritdcal law relate to things that are
to be done within or without t^e camp.

on the journey through the wilderness are
mentioned in Num. xixiii. The entire space
occupied by the encampment must have been
very large, for its population in whole roust
have exceeded two nullions. A traditionary
deacriptioQ of the " Camp" ia given by Jose-
phns, Book III., Chap, ni, p, 153:— ''When
thej set up the tabernacle, they received it
into the midst of their camp, three of the
tribes pitching their tents on each side of it,
and roads were cut through the midst of these
tent^ It was like a well-appointed market;
everything was there ready for sale in
order; and all sorts of artincen were in
the shops ; and it resembled nothii^ so mnch
city that eometUnes was moveable and
limes fixed. The priests bad the fir»t
places about the tabernacle ; then tho Leviten,
who, because their whole multitude waa
reckoned from thirty days old, wore 2l,8aO
nialex. And during the time that the cloud
stood over the tabernacle, they thuiight proper
to stay in the same place, as sup|"winy tliat
God IJiere inliabited aiuong themi Init wtiun
, removed, they jonmi'yeil ulni.
Moreover, Moses won the inventor iif tho
form of their trumpet, which wuh made of
silver. Two tnmipets beintf mailc, one of
them was sounded when they rei[uireil the
idtitude to come t^-ether to oons.-regntiDn.i,
lien the first of tliem gave a ri^ul, the
heads of the tribes weiv to aneeuibte, anil tn
Rinsult about the offiiiis to ttii'm pro)>erly
belonging; but when tliey gave the siLtmolliy
both of them, they called the multitude to-
gether. Wlienevcr the tnliei'UHetu was re-
moved, it was done in this solemn order. At
the first alarm of the trumpi-t, those who.He
were on the east <|iuirter pre|Kire<l ta
. . ve ; when the secimu signal was given,
those that were on the south ipiafter did the
like; in the next place, the talym-ick- wa*

__ ijc trilies that went lietiire. and <>f nil tliat
foltowcd, all the Invites awustiiu,' aliout tlio
tnbemacle; when tlie tbinl si;;ii!il wiw given,
that part which hn<l their teiiln tuwanlH the
west put thi^msclvvs into miitimi; and at the
fourth signal, tlioso on the nirtb did so like-

The form of encatnidng is jmrticuUrly nre-

8cribedinNum.ii.2;iii. TTio wbolelsirly of the
]>eople, embracing upwards of 1500,000 tighting
men, besidea women aJid children, were formed

CAM

in four divisioiui. three tribes oonstitntiiiff m
division, so that tne tabernacle was enclosea in
a hollow square. Each of these divisions had
a standard, as well as each tribe, and each of
the large family associations of which the
tribes were composed. Each tribe had its
captain or commander assigned by 6od*8 direc-
tion. The view of such a mass of people
maintainiuf^ the moat {K'rfcct order and subor-
dination might well excite the admiration of
the beholder (Xum. xxiv. 2-5).

The mode in which the comj^ was arranged
displays the wisdom and foresight of Moses.
The tribes cherished a peculiar rivalry, and
were jealous of each other — nay, were some-
times restive under the authority of Moses.
The schism that happened after Solomon's
death was the product of feelings long in
oj>eration. E]>hraim and Judah were the
rival tribes, and each wished the sovereignty.
It was necessary for Moses so to diupose of the
tribes as to aUay all such disturbing animosi-
ties, to satisfy each that it enjoyed its honours
and prerogatives unimpaired. The tril)es of
Judoji and JoBeph (or £]>hraim) occupied the
post of honour, tne one in the front, the other in
the rear. They were thus kept as far asunder
as iios8iblc. Judah led the van; but Joseph
could numl)er in its rank the military leader
Josliua. Judah had along with it Issachar
and Zebulun, younger sons of the same mother
with Judah, to wit, of Leah. The tribe of
Joseph, guanling the rear, consisted of Joseph's
two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, along with
Hochel's only other son, Benjamin, lieuben
was the elder son of Jacob, and had forfeited
his birthright; yet liis tribe are soothed by
being placed at the head of another division.
The conspiracy of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram
is explained on these principles. Korah was
sprung from a family^ (perhaps an elder family)
of the some tribe with Aaron, and felt himself
overlooked in the distribution of the priest-
hood. The rebuke of Mcm^s to the Invite
rebels proves this (Num. xvi. 9-11). Again,
Dathan. Abiram, and On belonged to the
tribe ot lieuben, which did not enjoy the
pre-eminence to which it thought itself en-
titled, and on that account was factious and
discontented. Besides, the situation of these
parties in the encampment gave them oppor-
tunities for hatching a revolt. Keubcn oc-
cupied the south sine of the tabernacle, and
the space between Reuben and the tabernacle
was tilled by the Kohathites, to which Korah
belonged. Tliese coincidences in the narrative
prove its authority— show it to have been the

Sroduction of an eye- witness. They are natural
elineations. introduced without artifice —
evidences oi a genuine authorship, which can
neither be counterfeited nor p^ainsaid. Their
strength lies in their simphcity and unde-
signed occurrence.

CAMPHIRE (Sonfi[ L 14: iv. 13). The
plant called oopher in Hebrew, and still
khof reh by the N ubians, is of great beauty and
fragrance. It ctows in Egypt and other
countries of the East and ia called (rf-AemMk
100

CAN

The flowers are dnstered like the VSmo, mi
the leaves, when dried and pnlveiiaed, nnki
an orange dye, with which the females itoi
their hands and feet. The ladies of the EMk
are very partial to this plant. They hold itm
their hands, carry it in their bosoms, and kaep
it in their apartinents. ^ A dye is prepani
from the leaves, which is very much uMd m
staining the lips and nails of the fingem d i
yellowish red hue . The fingers of the E^yptiai
mummies bear the traces of this pecuhar pr^
paration. What we call camphor ia an entndlf
different substance.

CAN A OF Gaulee (John ii 1). AocodSm
to a long-received opinion, it is a small ri^p
alK)ut 5 miles north-west of Naz2U!«th. Tw
village, now called Kefr Kenna, is under tti
government of a Turkish officer, and oontui
perhaps 300 inhabitants, chiefly cathoBca
Some, like Robinson, deny that Kefr KaiM
is Gana, and hold it to be Kana-el-JcH;
for the prevalence of an ancient name amam
the common people is strong evidence for tibi
identity of an ancient site. The modem niBM||
too, is identical with the old one, and stands tibi
same in the Arabic version of the New Tata
ment ; while the form Kefr Kenna can only b
twisted by force into a like shape.

It was in this place that our Saviour ym
farmed the miracle of changing water nA
wine. It was here, also, that the noblcmii
applied to Christ to heal his son, who was ad
in Capernaum, and at the point of death ; aa
by his divine wiU, without a word or actioi
and even at a distance of 30 miles &om til
sick-bed, the disease was checked and the duk
recovered. Nathanael was a native oi tihj
place.

Another town of the same name (Kami
belonged to the tribe of Asher, and seems \
have been near Sidon (Josh. xix. 28).

CANAAN — son of Ham and grandson c
Noah. Ham having been guilty of crimitt
conduct towards his father, a prophetic con
was pronounced by Noah on so much of Hani
posterity as should descend from and thituqg
Canaan. This fearful penalty is thus detailed ^
*' Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servani
shall he be unto his brethren '^ (Gen. ix. 24, 85

To si>eculate upon the peculiar form d m
which Ham committed, or of the connectioii <
Canaan with it, is, in the absence of definil
information, altogether in vain. Some, wid
out foundation, would alter the text, guide
by some of the ancient versions, and read-
Cursed be Ham the father of Canaan. It m
especially in the line of Canaaikthat the con
was to run. His posterity was numerous, ao
were subjugated by the Israelites, the proges
of Shem, when they took possession of tfa
promised land. In this servitude was Noali'
prophecy fulfiUed (2 Chr. viii. 7-9). There i
no warrant for believing that the negro rae
are specially included in this old mal^ctkn
The Syrians and Carthagenians, spnmg&tc
Canaan, were aluosubduedDy Greek and iComa;
descendants of Japhet Hannibal, when h
felt the unconquerable supremacy of Boom

TAX

♦v«. l..:ino«I. as if tlio jtrrssure of tlie anathema
hiul Wfiuj'hctl heavily on hU spirit — *' 1 reanj-
xiize the clix>m oi Cartha^"

Canaan, land of (Gen. xiL 5). The term
CuuaQ siiniifies lew country, in oontrast with
Aram, which means high country or table
Uod. and idj^ities the territory inhabited
by the off.spring of Canaan, who were hence
called Canaanitcs, and which wan given by
God to the children of Ifvael, the ixwterity
of Abraham, as their possession (Gen. xv.
18-211. ThL'ir original Doundaries are sup-
pmed to have been monnt T^ebanon on
the north, the wildeme»s of Arabia (Shur,
Pknm, and Zin) on the south, and the river
JonLin on the east. On the west, their pos-
•ttflons extended at some points to the margin
of the Mediterranean. Their boundaries on
this side were TM^ially resected by the
FhilLbtincd, who held the' low lands and strong
cities ali.'n;r the shore (Gen. x. 19). Besides
the piii'sesaicins of the Israelites, tne land of
Canaan embraced Phoenicia on the north and
Hiiliatia on the south-west (Zeph. ii. 5).

Canartn proper is usually said to lie between
^l'' aDd ;i3= 1 1/ of north latitude, and M"" 126' and
%^ of eartt longitude. The length of Canaan
bfm. north \a> south was about 158 miles, and
the width did not exceed 40 miles in average
bnadth ; but the breadth is vcr^ unequal, being
St «ome p.iints at least 80 miles. Including
the tcrri^^Iy of the tribes east of the Jordan,
it oonids-tcd prrjljably of about 19,000 square
miles, ynth. 530 persons to the square mile. Its
tovns were usually set upon hills— Hebron,
^^J; Jerusalem, 2,610; Bethel, 2,400; Beth-
lehem, 2,704 : Safed, 2,755 feet above the level
di the -ea. It is a land of hills— rounded and
hisipii^h, bile those in the southern counties of
Jyi:Liri<i. The original prf»mise to Al^raham
«3rt»:niif*l be\iind Canaan i»ro]ier, and was real-
\L^\ in the ijarly n-igns of l)avid and Solomon.
It w.iiilil heoDi that the term Canaan was
*Pplie«J at an earlier period, specially, and in
»ccorflani.« with its f»ri<inal meaning, to the
low-lyirr,' coxst.-* of Plupnicia, Tlie woman
ityl*.d ill Matthew a woman of Canaan, is
ca'kil in Mark a Syrf.>-Ph(jenician.

Can VAN. INVASI«>N of. 'ITie country was
enti-rfl by the I<raelit«'H on the east aide, at a
print oi the .Ionian opp<»sitc Jericlio. The
XiWat- 'A Q-m\ and Iieul>en and half the tril>e of
Maiw.'.'M.'li lial ?fl«.'cted ]H>Hiicssions for them-
i«rlvi-.-i r.n the ta.'t i»f Jordan, from the conquests
which had been made on tlioir march. The
camiiiaud to in va^le Canaan, and take po^tsession
of it, i- dttaileil in Num. xxxiii. 51-56. The
appirti'-nuuTit of the land so obtained was
Tjailc by what would be calknl, in modem
phrw.', a bt ard of commisyioners, consisting
"f KJ-jiizrir the hiijh priest, Joshua, and the
twnh** cliiffs of the tril»es ; and this was done
iii »uch a way that each tril>e occupied a dis-
tinct section/ and each family a distinct lot,
hi that every neighbourhood was made up of
f^ily relations.

Tht; expuLnon of tbe Canaanites is an act
Ptrfectly defcnbiblc, and consistent with the

CAN"

stricte>t principli-s of ju.-tic.'. Thir measure of
tlieir iniquities was full (Lev. xviii. 24-26).
The kind of jud^ient visited ujxjn them was
much more strikingly illustrative of the power
and presence of G<k1 than a i>estilence or
earthquake ; and the extermination of all their
authority and influence was necessary to pre-
vent the Israelites from being seduced mto
their a1x)minable practices. Aluch, indeed,
lias been said and written on the invasion and
conquest of Canaan, in dLs|)aragement of Scrip-
ture. The difliculty lies in God's emplujrment
of the Israelites for the execution of his
vengeance. ITiey were to wage a war of
extirpati<m with the inhabitants (Deut xx.
10-18.^ There is some doubt as to the preciso
meaniuj^ of the language employed, whether it
mean that peace was to l>e offered only to
the cities far off, and not belonging to Canaan,
while no terms of amnesty or surrender were to
be proclaimed to the towns of the C.^anaanitcs.
Many hold the ojiinion that C-anaan was to be
subdued without condition, without reserve.
On the other hand, many afiinn that they
were commanded previously to offer terms of
I>oacc to all the Canaan itish cities, and only in
the event of the roiection of this offer, wero
the inliabitants to be destroyed. Whatever
city received this offer, its inliabitants were Uy
become the vassals of Israel- a lot which,
according to the mild laws of servitude, was
very tolerable. The chi<if proof adduced
for this opinion is founded on Deut. xx. 10,
&c "Wiien thou comcst nigh unto a city
to fight {gainst it, then prr>claini peace unto
it. ^Vnd it shall be, if it make thee answer of
I>cace, and oi)en unto thee, then it shall be,
that all the x^eo])le that is found therein bhall
l>e tributaries unto thee, and they shall stTvo
tliee." It is no doubt exi)rorfjsly stated in tliis

iiasnage that, when alnnit t«) be.sie^e a city, tlio
sratrlites were lx>und to offer, in tlie iirst jjljice,
tenurt of ^>eace, which if accepted, the live-i of
the inhabitants were to be* Kpareil; but the^
were to become vassals. Hut in ver. \o it is
stated, with ef|iial explicitness, that this rei,'ula-
tion api>liefl oidy to foreign enemies C'Tlnis
shalt thou do unto all the cities which are very
far off fn)in thee, which are not of tli(^ cities of
these nations ") ; while in ver. Hi- IS. its ai)pli-
cati<m to the Canaanites is iixju'cssly disallowed,
and their t<ital extermination conniiaiKled.
**But of the cities of these j)eniile, \\liieh
the Lord thy Gtnl doth give thee fi»r an
inheritance, thou shalt save alive nothing that
breatheth."

Besides, the period of .Tewish hi story to which
the <iuotation refers is misiinderstoiMl. Meii;^-
stenberg, and those who hold the view which
he atlvocates, supj>ose the command to ri'fer to
the inva.»<ion of Caiuuan, aiifl to ilescribe tho
manner in which the llehn'ws wen; to take
ix>Rse.ssion of the C(Hintry. liut we understand
it to rc'fer Uy warfare practised aft t they were
Lxjated in the hind of i»romiHe. 'i'lie command
BUjiposes the nation already s<.tth?d. It sui)-
poses the invasion over, and refers to battles
fought by ^em after the establishment of tho

101

CAN

oommonwealtlL The passage which f onns the
theme of dispate, though appearmg to stand by
itself, in consequence of the arbitrary division
of chapters in the English versian, is in reality
only a portion of a section of the Mosaic law,
the preamble of which is found in Deut. xiz. 1 :
" When the Lord thv God hath cut off the
nations, whose land the Lord thy God giveth
thee, and thou succeedest them, and dwellest
in their cities, and in their houses." Bearing
this in mind, we find that the law^ with re-
gard to the Uanaanites, is more easily under-
stood. It refers to Canaanites unsubdued at
the first conquest of the country, and still
remaining in the land. There was danger of
forming an alliance with them^ and they were
therefore to be treated as miplacable ene-
mies. If this view of the ambiguous section be
adopted^ it must be regarded as givinyg no dis-
tinct opmion on the controverted topic of the
invasion of Canaan.

StiU it is true that the war against the
inhabitants of Canaan was one of extirpation
(Exod. xxiii 31-33). The origmal dwellers
were to be dispossessed of their territory. But
we do not suppose that this ejection needed to
be one of wanton cruelty. Some circumstances
bhow that it was accomiumied with mercy.
All the inhabitants were not destroyed. They
remained even to the age of David and
Solomon, and in the reign of the latter were
reduced to a state of servitude. Such evident
weakness on their part implies that they might
have been extenmnated had their conquerors
chosen. Perhaps the command to destroy
them refers as much to their overthrow as
nations, as to their massacre as individuals
(Deut. vii 1, 2). The Gibeonites, indeed,
obtained a league by fraud from Joshua, and
represented themselves as not belonging to
Canaan, but as having come from a far country.
It has been argued that they denied their
country, because they felt that if they were
ascertained to be Canaanites, no alliance could
be formed with them on tne contrary, they
would all be slain. But it is to be remembered
that the Gibeonites made a profession of faith
in Jehovah (Josh. ix. 9). Now, what they
wanted was a Ics^^ie on equal terms, an
advantage which none of the CanaanitLsh tribes
could obtain. They knew that no such league
could be formed with them had their country
been known (Exod. xxxiv. 11, 12) ; and so, to
secure their end, they feigned that they had
marched from a great distance. Another
proof that extermination did not necessarily
miply individual massacre is found in the
record of the connnest of Canaan g^ven in
Josh. xL 10-20: *' There was not a city that
made p^ce with the children of Israel, save
the Uivites, the inhabitants of Gibeon: all
other they took in battle. For it was of the
liord to harden their hearts, that they should
come against Israel in battle, that ne might
destroy them utterly, and that they might
have no favour, but that he might destroy
them as the Lord commanded Moses.** It
d appear from the last verse that oppoa*
102

CAN

tion in battle was neoenarj to wainii
destruction without £avour; and it se
be implied, that if no contest amd ha
had taken place, life, on certain oon
might have Deen spared, and **fa,Toat^
have been found, and that the purpose 1
with Israel sprung from that reckkas ob
and sullen mfatuation which, as also
case of Pharaoh, is reinnesented as a hat
of the heart by (jrod. The Jews have a
tion that Joshua, before he invaded anj
seven nations, accompanied his dedaia
war with a tnreef old proclamation, wh
quoted from the Rabbi Samuel "Ben Nai
runs thus: "Joshua sent three lettefs
land of the Canaanites, before the la
invaded it, or rather proposed three \
Let those who choose to fly, fly ; let the
choose peace, enter into treaty; let tbn
choose war, take up arms, in oonseqn
this, the Glrgashites, believing the ^
Grod, fled away, retreating into Afnc
Gibeonites entered into a league, am
continued inhabitants of the land of
the one-and-thirty kings made war am
Selden remarks, '*That what is here :
of the fliffht into Africa wondeifnlly
with the history in the Talmud, accon
which, the Africans applied to Al»-r^tif
Great, and laid claim to this part of tl)
of Israel as their paternal territory, <
very pretence; and also a^^rees wit]
ancient inscription in Mauntania Tin
preserved by^ JProcopius, which declari
the ancient inhabitaints had fled thitibc
the face of Joshua, the son of Nun. £
emigration of the Gir^ashites may no
been universal, as their name occun
list of the nations who fought against I
(Josh. xxiv. 11). Yet as it occurs on
once, while the other six nations are oon
enumerated as carrying on the war, tbi
tion of them seems a recapituLatioii
nations whose land Grod delivered iz
hands of the Jews, according to his |
(Deut. vii 1; Joeh, iii 10), rather
positive assertion of their having bee
severingly engaged in the war. If thi^
its very commencement, this aooounts t(
having been mentioned exactly as thi
before the invasion under Joshua began
divine promise that the seven nations
be cast out, and in this recapitulatk
nowhere in the distinct history of the
winciilence vf}nch strongly confirms th<
tion of their flight, and of tiie cause to
it is imputedj the warning given th
the proclamation of Joshua mentionet
(Graves' Led. on iht Pentateuch, p. 196)
But God employed the Hebrews to i
dispossess the Canaanites. True, but '
ments also warred against the aborigin
insects were sent among than. The ii
were taught a salutary lesson. Th«
trained to feel Grod's own abhorrence of i
and pollution in the very punishmenti
they were instrumental in inflicting, an
taught through this sad experience toe ]

It the Jews tlukt they vert cotiunanilfd
minate the fevvn uatinn^ iii>tfr<>inaiiy
;•>{ liersonair^wQtiui-iitnrnati'inalbiiB-
iit merely aj cnmiiiald, condemned by
id th«7 were lolemiily bonnd to eiercue
the una ■ererity towudi any of their
ioa wlko ihoold spoatatin to idolatir.
Utraw Bebtcw city or Hebrew tribe
be talaUp •Etaminktsd aa well as the

ol CaiMUL If tb* nunt beloved

01 ihe eluMeil Mend of the Jew, the
hia bomn, or tho child of bia hopes,
roidiipfalM God^ it ma commuided

ahonld pnmui Uua dearat object of
tun CTtn unto death : "His eye vas
■!«, neitlier was he to show pity unto
And theaa reasoiu are in full harmony

•entimenti of the Psalmist, when he
I Uu expolaion of the Canaanitea (Ps.

01 it tn^be objected that the Hebrewi
l^t » t*d leiaon in their being com-
to rob another nation of its property.
be replied that God hae a aarereign
9'IIm) pRtpertyand possessions of men>
. W offending him, the hnman owners
' claim tbey ma^ have for a season
Kahop Batler, in his AmUpps, truly
onndly says ;— " Indeed, there are some
IT pneepti in Smptnre, given to paitd-
nusu, raqniriBg actions which would
Ktl Utd TkiMia, wen it not for sncb
. Bat it ia easy to aee tfaat all these
idi a kind aa that the precept changes
c nature of the caae and nf uie action ;
' :■ and sbowa that not to be

-;.-n.»ndH
<• aivi.K-.l

liam wiiiid.-r..-.I tlinnu-Ii its p
witiiiiut ni<>l—tnti'<n. iiii'l ij-t
th.;c.miilr>-li-i«,-MitltriiiwiUi..'
llut it was diffi-rent nhen (.'wiwui wiui con-
quered by Juehiia — the population was mors
numerous, and the ctaims of the indnstriotiB
occupiers of the soil wens fully establiahed.
The notion of Epiphaniua, in opposing the
falsehoods of the Mainchieans about uie charac-
ter of Israel's God, is peculiar ; — " Tho fo')ls did
not advert to this, that the Israelites did no-
thing more than reconquer their own land, and
demand what moet justly belonged to them.
For Noah, after being with his family saved
from the deluge, diridM the whole earth among
his three sons, Shem. Ham, and .lapheth, and,
as is hi);lily probable, and certainly no lie or
fiction, cast lots for their several shares at
Rhinocorara. For the Hebrew word, Snl, is
(viz., by the LXX.) rendered Khinoconira,
and the city is actually w> called in the lan-
Ruage of the country : and this won), Xtit in
Hebrew, means r<rf." He tlien goes on to relate
what countries fell to the share of each ; and
particular, that Shem, the ance^itor of the

wns togethei
among them,

should break in upon hia brtjther's share, or
attempt to defraud him. But (.'anaan, the son
of Ham, from his selHsh di^jiuaition, seizeil on
Palestine, and kept possession of it; so that
from bim it got the name of the land of
Canaan. For the Und that fell to his share
did not please him, because it lay in a hot cli-
mate, and therefore be established himself in
the land of Sbem, and particularly Jn that part

CAN

to Egypt only for a time, on account of a
famine, and it was with the hope and deter-
mination of returning again, as the divine
promise given to Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 4) confirms ;
and Jacob and Joseph both went down into
Egypt with a conviction that their descendants
shomd, under the divine guidance, return to
Palatine; nor would Jacob allow himself to
be buried anywhere else than in his own
hereditary sepulclire in Palestine, exacting
from his son Joseph an oath for that purixise
(Gen. xlvii. 29-31).

The Canaanites do not appear to have
been the aboriginal inhabitants of Palestine.
These were the Anakims, descended of the
Kephaites, or ** giants," the Kmims, and
Zamzummims, and the Horites, who dwelt
in mount Seir. lliese clous appear to have
been of Shemite origin, and to have been
afterwards, to a great extent, dispossessed by
the Canaanites, wlio came from the borders of
the Hed Sea, and idtimately taking possession
of the coasts to the north-west, were called
by the Greeks Phoenicians. These foreigners
seem to have bcn^n a Humite race, while
Palestine, which thev seized, appears to have
been originally a Sucmitc country. When
they were, tlierefore, expelled by Joshua, thev
were only forced to give up a land to whicn
they had no claim. Further, Abraliam,
Isaac, and Jacob lived as princes in Palestine,
occupying ground in any quarter they chose.
Abraham nad 318 home-bom slaves trained
to the use of arms, and made war on the five
kings who had carrier I Lot captive. He made
alliances with tlie kings of Canaan, and ai)-
pears, in short, an indei)endent sovereign. It
IS true, lie is called ** a stranger," and he had
to buy a burial-place. He was a stranger, for
Palestine was not the land of Ins birth; and
his purchase of a burial-pia^e may only prove
that the 8|>ot selected had been already claimed
and cultivated by the children of lleth. It
will be seen, too, that all the descendants of
Abraham, save those in the direct line through
Isaac, received lands out of I'alestine. I^ot
went eastward, and his sons had possessions
beyond the Jordan ; Ishmael and Enau, and
Abraham's sons by Keturah, removed from tlie
promised country. Does not this arrangement
mdicate something like a recognition of the
claims of Jacob and his progeny as the sole
po<«seH8ors of Canaan ?

But nr) human claim of Israel to Palestine is
expres.*4ly mentioned or dwelt ui^on in Scrip-
ture. 'There are incidental facts which may
have been designed to leave tliat impression ;
but Goil's i)urjK)se did not indeed require any
formal declaration of such a right. The in-
vaders were to acknowledge him as the Sove-
reign Disi)oscr of events, and to feel themselves
his ser\'ants and soldiers. And at all events
the conquest of Canaan, of its heptarchy, and
of its smaller septs, can bo vmdicated on
many grounds, all of them in unison with
the rectitude and benignity of the Supreme
Governor of the world.

The history of the oonquert under Joshua,
104

CAN

by whom twenty-one kingdoms wm
thrown^ is fully narrated in the book
bears his name.

Canaan, Settlestent of. The pos
of the Israelites were extended by conqi
beyond the limits of Canaan proper,
the time of David and Solomon they st
to the Euphrates and Orontes on t
hand, to the remotest confines of £d(
Moab on the other, and embraced upv
26,000 square miles (I KL iv. 21 ; 2 Ch
The population varied in a like pio|
The number of the Israelite who cms
Jordan is estimated at 2,000,000; whilf
an enrolment made for David's aim)
presumed by soAie that the populatioi
have exceeded 5,000,000.

Beginning with the tribes located <
east of the Jordan, it may be remsrkc
the territory of Kcuben was in the so
district. It extended from the nor
Ci^asts of the Dead Sea along the <
banks of the Jordan, and was divided
south from Midian by the river Amon;
north from the tribe of Gad by anotha
river ; and was hemmed in on the east
by the Moabites and partly^ by the Amm
whilst the Jordan ])arted it on Uie wm
Canaan, properly so caUed. It had i
brated range of mountains — Nebo, I
and Peor, or Phegor. On the nortii t
Kcuben was seated the tribe of Gad, '.
likewise the Jordan on the west, the A3
ites on the east, and the half tribe of Ma
on the north. It was no less rich and
than the former, especially in its lus
vales and ample i>asture-grounds. Iti
towns were Mahanaim and Penuel, b
named by Jacob ; and Succoth, where 1:
his booths; Mispha or Maspha Rabbi
metn)ix»lis of Bashan, since called B:
and more lately Philadelphia, Bamoth I
or high lands of Gilead.

Northward of Gad was settled the ha
of Manasseh. having that on the soul
Jordan and bamachonite lake on the wi
hills of Bashan and Hermon on the eo.
part of the Lebanon on the north,
several large territories and considerable
1. Gaulonitis extended from Persea (jf
Lebanon. Its capital, once a famed al
given to the Levitical tril^, of the fsi
Gershom, and was made a city of n^
Gilead, so called from the son of Madi
grandson of Manasseh. 3. Batanea wi
perly the land or kingdom of Bashan, b<
l>y Giload and the Ammonites on the e
the brook Jabbok on the si^uth, bv
Hermon on the north, and by the Jor
the west ; the canton of Argob was par
4. Auranitis, or Hauran, was another
canton, situate between the upiier sj»
Jordan and the country of Gesnur.
I)lace it along the sea of Tiberias ; and
told that the S>TianB and Arabs calle
coast by that name; and Josephus m
the same with Iturea^ &. Machoni
Maachonitis, from its capital Maarhnh.

I

loested cm

I BMT the IimmI ci IIm Josdaii, on
of tt^ in the wij to Bunaioiu.
tribes and hiOf
I of the Joidaib
ibe of AAn oocoined the north-
ing on the north ada to Phenioe,
the MediteiTmneMi on the veat»
he nnCh, and Nautili on the east
I ooimdaaUe citiea near the aea^
leatwat of anj note. It waa ao
xon, wme, ofl, Aol. of the beet
it fuDy zeafiaed the hiftwdng whidi
looh gaTo to ft, — ^that the bread of
fa^ aod that it dionld yield royal

be of Naxihtali Ut on the east of
een it and the Joaroao, OTor against
ibe of ManaMeh. It was very
had on the north the springs m
t and extended aiang the westem
eriTer, from moont Lebanon down
fTlbeiiaa.

) snath of Asher and NuifatoH was
f Zdrahm or Zabakn, having the
Mm on the west, with the aea of
thsaast; bong parted on the north
r lij the valley of Jlphthahel, and
di tram Tssachar br that of Kishon.
inity to the sea, the nmnber of its
hrooiesB oi itn commerce, it exactly
le UessiDgs given to the tribes both
udMoKs.

iMt tribe in lower Galilee was that of
boonded like the former by the
oeui an the west, by Zebulun on
)^the Jordan on the east, which
^jooi that of Gad, and on the south
vf tribe of Manasseh. Its most
*^ places were the mounts Caimel,
w the valley of JezreeL
« Zebulun lay the other half tribe of
>i and south of this, that of Ephraim,
r the name of Samaria. The terri-
■^ two tribes, though contiguous,
^ much, some parts being moun-
1^ locky, barren, and even desert ;
Ji^ and by much the laiger, were
<«^ and well inhabited. That of
^ hemmed in north and south by
<Bd Ephraim, and east and west by
J and Mediterranean. It had great
I phuns, mountains, valleys, and

e of Ephraim took up the south side
K and extended, like that of Manas-
aitioned. from the Mediterranean on
io the Jordan on the east; being
i the south by the territory of Ben-
psrt of Dan. Here, likewise, some
rodcy and mountainous, tnouffh
h trees and good pasture^ and the
lie exceedingly nch, f rmtful, and
int

B of Benjamin lay contiguous to
the norUi, to Judah on the south,
on the west, which parted it from
mnean. It hi^ not nearly so many
nrns as moat of the rest; but this

CAN

waa amply compensated by its oontaimng the
metropoiiB— the celebrated dty of Jerusalan,
the centre of the Jewish worship and xeligion,
and the seat of the Jewish m/mf^Tn.]^ ^q3
pontiffs.

The canton of Judah extended aonth of
Benjamin about 27 miles— that is, quite to the
roonntaina of Seir or Edom, wlu^ were the
frontierB between it and Idumea; and waa
bounded on the east by the Dead Sea, and on
the west by the tribes of Dan and Simeon,
both which lav between it and the Mediter-
ranean. Judah was rockoned the largest and
most populous tribe of all tiie twelve, and ita
inhabitants the stoutest and most valiant. It
was, moreover, the chief and royal tribe, from
which the kiuj^om was denominated ; for the
Jew was originallv a member of the tribe of
Judah, The land was beautifully variegated
with fertile pLiina, hills, dales, small hikes,
springs, ftc., and produced great plenty of
com, wine, cSL and fruits, except where it lay
contiguous to Idumea^

South-west of the tribe of Judah, between it
and the Mediterranean, lav the two tribea of
Dan and Simeon; beyond which were stQl
aeated, along the sea coast, the ancient PhiUs-
tinea, once masters of the whole, from the
confines of Phosnice on the north, to those of
Idumea on the south. The cities along this
coast were so strong and populous that the
Dauites could not presently wrest them from
their brave inhabitants. They were forced to
gain them by degrees as they could, and at last
to leave the Philistines in quiet possession of
five of the most considerable — viz., Gath,
Ekron, Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza, together
with the territories belonging to them, whilst
they contented themselves i^ith those Which
laynorth of them, up to Jopi)a.

The lot of Dan wa^ bounded on the north by
Ephraim^ on the west by the Philistines and
the Mediterranean, on toe south by Simeon,
and on the east by Ju<lah and Benjamin. Its
greatest length m>m north to south did nut
exceed 40 miles ; and it was exceeding: narrow
on the north side, and not above 25 miles broad
on the south. But what it wanted in room was
in a great measure made up by the fertility of
the soil, and the industry and bravery of its
inhabitants^ some of whom, rather than be
confined within their narrow limit^i, ventured
so far as the city of Laish, in the utmost
northern verge of Palestine, after new settle-
ments. As K>r the country, it al)oundcd ixath
com, wine, oil, fruits, and aU other necessaries;
and here was the famed vall*3y of Eshcol,
whence the spies sent by Moses Drought such
noble specimens of its fertility to the Israelitiah
csmip.

The tribe of Simeon was confined to a very
small lot on the most southern comer of Judea,
being bounded by Dan on the north,, the little
river Sihor on the south, which parted it from
Idumea, by Judah on the east, and by a small
neck of land towards the Mediterranean on
the west The greatest part of it was moun-
tainous, sandy, and barren, especially that

105

CAN

whicli lay on the south side of the river Bezor,
which ran across it, and on the north of which
was but a very narrow slip of fertile land. It
was, moreover, so harassed by the Philistines
on one side and the Idumeans on the other,
that, finding neither nxim and sustenance
sufficient, nur any quietness in their inheri-
tance, they were obliged to seek their fortune
among other tribes ; from the very b^inning
hiring themselves out to assist their brethren
in the conquest of their lots, for the sake of
having some small share awarded to them;
whilst others d is] Horsed themselves among all
the cantons, where, it seems, they served as
scribes, notaries, schoolmaHters, kc. So truly
was their father Jacob's curse verified on them,
as well as on the tribe of Ijevi, on account of
their bloody moiwacre of the Shechemitcs:
" Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce; and
their revenge, for it was inhuman : I will dis-
perse them in Jacob, and scatter them in
IsraeL" Their to>%*nB were few, and none of
them of great note.

Finally, as to Jerusalem itself, there is no
more doubt of its ancient locality than there is
of Rome or Carthage; and there is not an
important place in the whole land which is not
so connected both ^dth profane and sacred
history as to furnish an unbroken chain of
reference to it. The writings and traditions of
the Jews before the birth of Christ, ami the
writings and triulitions both of his friends and
enemies after tliat event, would have a general
reference to ]>laccs of ])articular intepHst in the
history of the nation and in that of individuals;
and even the elforts of pagans to desecrate the
most hallowed 8|K>t8 have served only to i>er-
I)etuate the remembrance of them.

And besides all tliis, the land of promise is
still a imrt of our earth. The liills Ktill stand
round about Jenisidem as they sto<Hl in the
days of David and of Salomon, llie dew falls
in Hermon, the cedars gn)w in TA>l>auon, and
Kishon, "that ancient river" (Judg. v. 21),
still draws its strL'-om from Talxtr, as in the
times of old. The sea of Galilee still ))rc8ents
the same natural accomimniroents, the fig tree
springs up by the wayside, the sycamore
spresids its branches, and the \'ines and olives
still climb the sides of tlie mountains. Tlie
desolation which covered the cities of the plain
is not less striking at the j)ri'tsent hour than
when M<mes, with an inspired jnyn, recorded
the judgment of (vod. The swellings of Jonlan
are not less regular in their rise than when the
Hebrews first approached its lianks; and he
who goes do^^n irom Jerusalem tr> Jericho still
incurs the greatest hazard of falling among
thieves. There is, in fact, in the scenery and
manners of this ancient land, a peri>etuity that
accords well with the everlasting import of its
historical reconls, and wluch enables us to
identify with the utmost readiness the local
imagery of every gn^at transaction. The his-
torical and geographical associations wliich the
mind connects ^%ith Palestine are of great
number and thrilling interest.

All that can delight the eye and feed the
106

CAN

imagination is lavished over iti mnbat
lovers of scenery can find there evei7 fc
variety of landscape; the snowy
liebanon with its cedars, the ^wley
Jordan, the mountains of CanneL Tabor>_'
Hermon, and the waters of Galilee, er^
beautiful as in the days when David laof wj
jraise, and far more interesting by the MonJ
ation of reminiscences. The land, nnfanfcP
by the toils of the husbandmen, yet enjoyi k^
sabbaths; but Eshcol, Bashan, Shaivn, flP
Gilead are still there, and await but tlu i^
pointed hour which some find in prophMi'
to sustain their millions ; to flow, as of ■(
with milk and honey; to become oooe MMi
a land of brooks of waters, of fountains mi
depths that spring out of valleys and Idb;
a land of wheat and barley, and vinesj lad ll
trees, and pomegranates, and of oil-ohve; nfl
to re-assume their rightful titles — *' thenrai
of the Lord," and *'the glory of all findL*
What numberless recoUectionB are crcmdd
upon every footstep of the sacred soil! SiM
the I tattle of the five kings against Coat;
recorded in the 14th chaiiter of Gencrii
2,000 years before the time of our Savim
until the wars of Napoleon, 1,800 yean afti
it, this narrow but wonderful region has aeiv
ceased to be the stage of remarkable eveali
If, for the sake of brevity, we omit the en
mcration of spots signalized by the exphsti <
the children of Israel, to which, Lowever,
traveller may be guided by Holy Writ witlia
the minuteness and accnracv of a road-boc4
we shall yet be engaged by tne scenes of nam
brilliant and roniantic achievements of tl
ancient and modem worhL Take the plain <
Esdroelon alone, the ancient valley of iT
a scanty spot of 25 miles long, and
from (i to l-l in its breadth ; yet more
tions are called up here than sufiSce
annalrt of many nations. Here, by the ban)
of that ancient river — the river Kishon— **tl
stars in their courses fought against Siaen
the object of the immortal sonuf of Debon
and liarak ; and here, too, is Megiddo, gigwa^liM
by the death of '*the good Josiah." Eau
vcar, in a long succession of time, brcrag:
fresh events ; the armies of Antiochns and
Home, Egyptians, Persians, IHirks, Araba, ti
fury of the Saracens, the mistaken piety oC tl
(.'rusaders, the invafling mania of tne Frenc
have found, in their turn, the land "as ti
garden of Kden before them, and have left it
desolate wilderness."

But how small and transitory are all soi
reminiscences to those which must rivet tl
attention and feelings of the pious believe
If Johnson could regard that man as little i
be envie<i who could stand unmoved on loi
or Marathon, or any spot dignified by wisdoB
bravery, or virtue, what must we say of oi
who careil not to tread mount Zion or Calvar
or could behold, with unmoistened eye,

"* those holj fields.
Over whow amn w.-ilked thoMe ble^wd feet,
Which eiffhtHftt hundred yearn ago werv naUed,
For oar advantaga, on ths bitter croas *'?

CAN

• MBlj of tlM oooBtaT; Ibt •viteM
^ ItodbMMltti&aiiMiMotii
IfDML «'Var tiM Loid tiiy God
,te into » food laad; • land of
vitavaf fiNiirtHii% and depths that
tcfnulimaiidhilb; aland of wheats
f, Md TUML and fig tnea, and pome-
ahadof ou-o]ivaaiidhoM7; aland
ba lUt oat broad without acarae-
dwknotlaflkaniilifainginit; aland
man hoByaad oat of wiiooe hiDs
Ht ig bfaaa" (PmL ifUL 7-9).
Iption Is folljr anpported by pvo6ui6
«iilaabytM|K«Mnt dianioter of
ilhfiQg^ UM mueraUa oonditkni of
I and tho doaolation of war hftvo

nQT ptopCT onltiYation in later agea^
if^^'Tlie two Gafflfw hare ahraya
bo make m etroog wfatawffo on all
twnr; for the GalUeano are inured
n tfaor infanoj^ and have alwm
mmewma. lliar toil is miirenaily
dtftd, and fun of plantationa of au
as; to tiiat iti fniility iniritee the
ol to take paina in its cnhiTation.
r, the whole of it is ooltiTated hf
iBti^ and no part of it liea idle,
he greater part of Pensa is desert
ndmiioh Iom disposed for the pro-
the milder eorts of fruits, yet in

it has a moist soil, and produces
fnuts. Its plains are planted with
sorts ; the olive tree, uxe vine, and
Be, are principally cultivated there,
raffidently watored with torrents
om the mountains, and with springs
r fail to run, even when the torrents
itheydo in the dog-daya Samaria
of the same nature with Judea.
ries are composed of hills and val-
are moist enough for agriculture,
f fertile. They have abundance of
ire full of autumnal fruit, both of
grows wild and of that which is
of cultivation. They are not
atered by many rivers, trat derive
moisture from rain-water, of which
o want The waters of such rivers
re are exceedingly sweet; and in
» of the excellence of their grass,
Bared in these countries yield more
k> those of other places. " — JoHph,
IL, lib. iiu c. 3.

id Tacitus both refer to the extra-
rtility of Palestine, for the very

cut into tCTraces and covered
with soiL Canaan could easily
•nance to its teeming population
ameei The quaint and ssgacious
who was chaplsin to the English
ana who travellecT in
^-^^'It is obvious for any one
that these rocks and hills must
iDciently oovered with earth, and
and made to contribute to the
B of the inhabitants, no lees than
ryhad been all plain; nay, perhaps
; fonanrach as sodi anurantainous

,^^it

CAN

md nnsfven sorfaoe affords a laiger spaee of
groond for onltivation than this eountiywonld
amoont to if it were all reduoed to a peifsot
level.

"Fbr the husbanding of these moantahuL
their manner was to sather up the stonea and
plaee them in several lines, along the sims of
the hills, in form of a walL By such borders
they supported the mould from tmnbling or
being washed down, and formed many beds of
ezoeUent soil, rising gradually one above
another, from the bottom to the top of the
moontams.

"Of this form of culture you see evident
footsteps wherever yon go, in all the mountaina
of Palestineu Hius the very rocks were made
fmitfuL And perhaps there is no qwt of
ground in this whole land that was not fonneriy
miproved to the production of somethhig or
other, mimstering te the sustenance of human
life. For than the plain oountriea nothing
can be more fruitful, whether for the produc-
tion of com or came, and consequently of
milk. The hills, thouj^ improper for all cattle
except Koats, yet bemg dispoaed into such beds
as are before deecribed, served very weU to
bear oociL melons, gourds, cucumbers, and sudi
Iflce garden-stuff, whidi makea the principal
food of these for several montiis in the vear.
The most rocky parts of all, which could not
well be adjusted in that manner for the pro-
duction of com^ might yet serve for the
S reduction of vmes and olive trees, which
elight to extract, the one its fatness, the
other its sprightly juice, chiefly out of such
dzj and flmty^ places. And the great plain
joming to the Dead Sea, which by reason of its
saltness might be thought unserviceable boUi
for cattle, com, olives, and vines, had yet its
proper usefnlness for the nourishment of bees,
and for the fabric of honey; of which Josephus
gives us his testimony, De Bell, Jud., lib. v.
cap. 4. And I have reason to believe it, be-
cause when I was there I perceived in many
places a smell of honey ana wax as strong as
if one had been in an apiary. Why, then,
might not this countrv very well maintain the
vast number of its inhabitants, being in every
part so productive of either milk, com, wine,
oil, or honey, which are the principal food of
these eastern nations? the constitution of their
bodies, and the nature of their clime inclining
them to a more abstemious diet than we use in
England and other colder regions."

Hie climate of the Holy Land varies in
different localities. It is cooler among the
mountains, and hotter on the plains. But the
atmosphere is mild and salubrious. The seed-
tame lasts from the end of September to the
bM^nning of December, and the weather is
ramy. fkrlv in November the former rain
begins to fall, and by the end of that month
fireis are used in the houses. From the begin-
ning of December to February is the winter,
when the cold in the higher regions is intense,
and the roads to a great extent impassable.
Severe hail-storms sometimes occur. After
this period oome the laUer rains, to bless the

CAN
"■prinjnngof Uiaeuth." TbeharmtiitTetchn
tnan tlio ammienceiiiciit or middle of A]>rit to
the month of June. Frum -lunc to August it
■miiuier wentliw, anil from AuRiDit till Octolier
in tiiu hilt B«ui)ii. when tlia wanuth it pcciili-
ftrly int«DH:. But the dimntc varies un tho
■es-ciant, ani'in^ tile muuntiun niu;;uH. unil on
the eiu^^m |>laiii>^

The K>^iieral iiutlinc* of the niirfnce of the
country niay be thus loiil iluwn. The Junlan,
whiuh riiKvi iiniliT the h.fty iicnkH of muimt
Ijelunon, siiil Hone in % lUn.'Ctiini uliiio«t cuu-
HtaDtly niiithwanl, with the liiki.' of Tibniiiu,
tlinnigh which it jusmrn, nnil the Dvnil Sea,
which it Ibniu Iiy ita iliKhaiw, iJividcii I'al&i-
tine from nortli to imuth. In the w<?st«m
division, butwevD the Meditemuiean and the
Like of Tilieriii)!, lie the tno Ualilifa^ l'ht>
phin of Emlrarlon, whiidi occujiiis tlw greater
jnut of thin tiiLutl being ttvo lUya' joume}',
or ncarlr 50 miles in len^h nnil 'JO in
bTBwIlb, u dcBcribeil by travdlere as one vest
meadow, covenil with the Ticlieiit puitiuv.
This phtia in vnclowl on nil kiiU's Iij the
UKRiObuDa, owl n<it » boiisc or a tree in to be
dincivi'red in it. It iii oumiilctely cunmaiiiteJ
Inr Anliii, Ml that the jiossciuiir «f tliut ]»>rt in
the Innl of odd of the lichcxt tiTriturien in the
Huly Lnnd. Tu the mnth of Ualiko tit's the
diBtrirtdf andenttJunnria: It U munntaiuoiiii,
bat well ciiltivateil, and forms at )aviiciitth«
mostflirtirlihink'linrtof theHulyLoniL Jude.-i
Proper cunipriseii the territiiiy extoniling fTuiii
the lleoil Hea, to the Alrditerronean, and a
oompuwd of a ranfw of limcatune hilla. ri^in^
I^ itwe* horn the level of tlic coast, nnd be-
«Hiun:: mororugsed uiul nwky as yon apiinach
Jensialein from Jinqia. Itetn'wD J<>jii>.t and
nazo. wivtwurd of thn nuiuutainH of JikIpo,
lies tlie tmct ilistincnishoil us thi.- i4afn of tlw
Moditi'iTiini-an Hen, tho niujent tciritury of
the PhiliktiiiLi. inuloilini;, as we have luuil, the
five nti«:4 of (iaia, AHkelon, AhhitiKl, Uath,
and Klcnin (Josli. xiiL 3; 1 aiaa. vL 17). 'Hus
district Ntill bean thi' name of I'haluxtin, and
hrins It >«|KiRit(' pguihalic; it mny be di^tin-
guiiduHl an i'aleatine I'roper.

As to thr KfoloOT of I'aJestine it may be
Kmiui:oi1, tliat all tho mountains of Syria are
prini-iiiiil^ comiHiaed of linientfine, hard in
lexlniv oihI in culoiir light or ycHoH-ish. I^ikc
all calL-an->ms diHtricti. there are in tliP n '
great iinnibeMof cuvtmi. Near thii Uiuid
dieTuukHars KRinitk in charactir i ami in
pminnuln of Kinai Kraiiitc in tlie chii.'f ri—..,
■lims with ereeiiHtona and purjihyry. In the
neJKribinirlioud uf Cana there are several nn'ks
luvinx a Iraxaltic aiijM'araiiCR. The lime tockii
He covereil in nianj- in»t*nc«il^ softer ohalkv
Mtrata, which contains s great variety of ciiral,
shell, ami other marine ^odnctivas. and, oh in
all cretaceons foniiatiotu, flint atones are very
couuion. Itituminoussljolcs. i>aiiiuni[ occs ' ~
ally into slaten, occur in the vlcinitv u
Ucail Sea. 'Dien are hr>t npringa at Tib
'■'race:! of volciinic action ore numerui
various finrt« of the country.

AloTije iwrtion of CauMn i« truly, as ita :

few yeaiB. Lying pan]]
of the Kleditemmean, at the dj
than 50 miles, there apprars not
the slightest suspicion in bye

alike visible, und the Egypban I

'ihor might easily have IM tothr

-flme unusual cause. Nor does

of thU dupresflion H^ipearto ha e

pnn-lriiu suspicion of it. Ii

i«ra. Moore and Beke m

ey of the Dead Sea. were

observations*" " """'" '"

the boili

j.point of V

aHtoniiihcd nt tlie result, which

of alxjut 600 Knglish feet. \ d ir

later, Schubert's luinnnetnca it

: it at 59A-5 Paris feet. In
and also Bertou, made it oi

IT to be more than 1,200 P«

measurements of the lake of

Schubert and Bertou were etill

and inconsistent id their results.

made the dcprea *on of that h

Porin feet, onl> 05 feet I us th

Deail Sea; while he made the

liric^'e just south of the HOleh

feet above the Med terranean

of tISU feet in the d stance of

Berlou gave the dei rets on o

Tiberias at ab ut UO feet an i

imieh itself at almut 18 fe

ihijtteiuaon uf the D ad Sea hi

taincd by exact tni{ nometncol

UontiaiaDt Svmonds, of the

Knmnvure, surv yeit, D 1841 tl

of Jndca and the rec on amuu

&drae1<in by tnangulat on ao- ..^

it, carricl a doable bns of alt ti

sea at Ylfa to Ne y 'Umwt tbvoat

another double 1 ne ti the D< 1 a. H<

fimnd tlie hater to be 1 i37 f w tha

Mediterranean By h m lar o ns be

oacertuiiLed the like of T berui. v4 (vt

below the Med terranean '^ luu ^ ckoiIis

have been arrived at by the j>Te8ent explmif

exiicdition under Capta n ^ laan. (bca SiU

And the natural ponition of Canaan fttladit
to l>e a centre of moral influence. It was "art
in Uio mitH uf other lands," and lay at the pan<
of connection between the eastern and viaMm
world, brinipiu{ the fervid imagery of U*
Oriental spirit into contact wiUi the tboogUM

fitted for every ebroate. Such, from its _„ _
and allusions, is its univeriial adaptatiall, ttat
it finds soma counterpart '" ..-— ~--.trt

of summer and winter;'' ai

ings are intclligiUe alike to

the torrid dime, where cold is absent aodta

GA9

^jad % taagtad

?% of mhUmri .
^ ib liiiloiy and

It lad the

and the xiren

; and ao it

to Qmrenal

Ul Hmrosr or. At the time the
A <i Inael took poaaeflioii of Oanaan,
' tofmed by jieiij kiMii. ok Yariooa
« pTOfineefc Tlten Joums beeame
UfftiiBezpTCnaiiidioffilyaiid dlnetioji
wih. After Joakm^^ for a few 7«an,
Wiuwul waa adiiilinntwrwd, by elden.
nethejodgea for about Snirean; and
a Idigi for iipwacda of 600 yean, or
M ccnqaaA off the ewuibry by the

■It lOKWu'Cwa of the hmd ol Camaaiiy
poww off italdiMi^ may be eetimated,
maMRne^ not osfy from tiie oonaidera-
b irfaich it waa regaidedby Bgyp^
A Aiqrii% but by the itrcmgth uid
Hi of the Idngdoma into wmdi the
ry. aa it waa mder David, waa

BttydiridedL InthenignofSdlomoii,
a ie?olted and ahook^ff the Jewiah
jt Ua death, B. a 971, ten of the tribea
d thdr aHegianoe to the throne of
md Conned the Idnffdom of laraeL
amaria for ita ciqiital; whfle Jndah
amin remained together, with Jem-
r a caintaL In the year B.a 721
r kingaoni| having existed 250 years.
Beteen wicked kingik waa conquerea
Aasyrians nnder ohahnaneeer, and
Bto captivity. The hitter existed
) yean hmser. and was then snbdued
waste by Netmchadneizar. and the
Jerusalem destroyed^ B. a 588, (2 Ki
!far. xxxvL ; Jer. xxxix. ; liL)
wd of Canaan remained nnder subjec-
lie Chaldeans, Medea, and Persians.

323, when it fell into the hands ot
( off S]pi% where it remained until
arhen it became a province of the
npire.

tune of the coming of Christ, Canaan
led into ^ye provinces: Judea, Sa-
lUlee, Perea, and Idnmea. Using the
imoB, it mav be said that Judea con-
^ tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Dan,
xm. The rest of the Holy Landl

to the Boman division, coninsted of
Galilee. Perea, Decapolis, Gaulon-
iditis, Batanea, and Auranitis. Sa-
xtained Ephraim, Issachar, and the
I of Manasseb. Galilee, the tribes
m, Asher, and NaphtalL Perea, on
aide of Jordan, consisted of Gad and

Decapolis was part of the half tribe
■eh. Gaulonitia was north of it,
kditia was a hilly oountry, extending
mt Lebanon through the half tribe m
^ and the tribes of Grad and Reuben,
lorth, in the half tribe of Manasseh,
nea, and more northward still was
, or Itniea. Beyond this, bordering
ritory of Damaams^ waa Tjachonitia.

CAN

On thateth off Herod, ArdiehMis, his ddsil
aoB, snooeeded to the government off Jodan
(Matt u. 22), Samaria, and Idnmea, with the
title off tetrarch, Galilee beixig assigned to
Herod Antipas, and Iturea (Lv£e iii 1), with
the adjacent oountriea beyond Jordan, to the
third brother, Philip. But in less than ten
years the dominions of Archelaus beoamean-
nexed, on his disflrace, to the Boman province
off Syria, and Judea was thenoeforth governed
by Roman procuraton. Jerusalem, after its
final destrdStion by Titus, jld. 71, remained
deaolate and almost uninhabited, till the em-
peror Hadrian ooloniiedit, and erected temples
to Jupiter and Venus on ita site. The empress
Helena^ in the fourth oentury, set the example
of repairing as a pilgrim to the Holy Land, to
visit the scenes consecrated by the Gospel nar-
rative; and the country became enrioned by
the crowds of devotees who flocked there. In
the beginning of the seventh century it was
overrun by the Saracens, who held it tiU Jeru-
salem was taken by the Crusaders in the
twelfth. Then, for about 80 years, the Holy
Land dnuok continually of Christian and
Saracen blood. In 1187. Judea was conquered
by Saladin : on the decMne of whose kingdom
it passed through various revolutions, and at
lei4r|di, in 1317, was finally swallowed up in
theTurldsh empire.

** Trodden down
By all in torn, Pamn, and Frank, and Tartar,—
So runs the dreadanathema,— trodden down
Beneath the oppreBsor: darkness shrouding thee
Frcmi eyery blessed inflaenoe of heaven ;
Thus liast thou lain for ages, iron-bonnd
As with a corse. Thus art thou doomed to lie,
Yet not for ever.**

In the modem distribution of the territory
we find the pashalio of Acn^ or Akka, includes
the ancient territory of Ashen Zeoulun, Is-
sacharj half Bianasseh, and Naphtali. The
pashabc of Gaza, now united with that of
Aero, embraces I)an, Simeon. Judah, Ben-
jamin, and Ephraim; and the pashalic of
Damaiscus has Reuben. Gad, ana the other
half of Manasseh. Tne population of this
interesting oountry now consista chiefly of
Turks, Syrians, Arabs, Jews, and Greeks.

The land of Canaan was called the land of
Itrad (1 Sam. xiiL 19), because it was occunied
by the descendants of Jacob or IsraeL The
hhly land (Zech. ii 12], because God's presence
was continually maniiested there as the leader
and ^vemor of his chosen people; and
especially may it be regarded as such, since
the sufferings and death of Christ have con-
secrated it The land of promise (Heb. xi. 9),
because it was promised to Abraham and his
posterity as their possession. The land of
Judah (Jer. xxxix. 10), because Judah was the
leading tribe; the land of the Hebrew* (Gen.
xL 16), or the descendants of Eber, an ancestor
of Abraham. The modem name of Palegtine^
or the land of the Philistines, was originaUy
applied to the region lying along the coast 6t
toe Mediterranean, south-west ci the land of
promise: but in its present usage denotea

liOd

CAN

the whole country bounded by the Jordan
on the east, the Mediterranean on the weet,
Arabia on the south, and Lebanon on the
north.

It may be remarked that the ordinary
Hebrew term for Canaan or Canaanite is
rendered ** merchant dty" in Isa. xriii. 11;
''merchant** in Hoe. xii. 7; Prov. xxzi.
24. (See Ph(ENICIa.) In fine, the word
Canaanite has sometimes the narrower mean-
ing of a tribe west of the Jordan (Num. xiiL
2iff, but ujnially the broader ttieaning of
all the inhabitants of the country other than
the Israelites. (See Palibtikb, Stbia.)

CANDACK (See Philip.)

CANDLE (Job xviii 6) is often used
figuratively by the sacred writers to denote
light generally. (See Lamp.)

CANDLESTICK, GoLDEN(Exod. xxv. 31)—
was a splendid article of the tabernacle furni-
ture, made of fine gold. It consisted of a shaft
or stem supposed to have been 6 feet high,

with SIX branches. The branches came out
from the shaft at three points, two at each
point, as in the preceding cut, and the ^idth
of the whole candlestick across the top was
about 3.) feet. It was richly adorned with
raised work, representing flowers, and alno
knmis or knobs, and little bowls resembling
hall an almond shelL At the extremity
of each branch there was a socket for the
lamp, and also at the top of the main
shaft, making seven in all (llev. i. 12. 13, 20).
Ton^ to remove the snuffings, and aishes to
receive them, as well as oil vessels, were articles
of furniture belonging to the candlentick, and
were all made of gold. The lights were trimmed
and supplied <1ailv with the purest olive oiL
They were lighten at night and extinguished
in toe morning; though some supixwe that a
part of them, at IcoHt, were kept burning
through the day. The candlestick was so
situated as to throw its radiance on the altar of
incense and on the table of showbread, occu-
pying the B^uiie aiwrtment, and from which
the natural light was excluded. Josephus
thus describes this ornamental light-bearer: —
'* Over against thi<« table, near the southern
wall, was set a candlestick of cast gold ; hollow
within, being of the weight of 100 pounds, which
the Hebrews call cinhartB: if it be turned into
the Greek language, it denotes a UdcnU It
110

CAP

made with its knc^ and IaB^i ■
pomegranates, and bcywls (wlikilL
amounted to seventy in all^ br whkifc.
the shaft elevated itself on nign from
base, and spiread itsdf into as maojl
as there are planets, including the son ^
theuL It terminated in seven heads is
row, all standing parallel to one anodier;
these branches carried seven lamns, cw
one, in imitation of the number of tliejphii
these lamps looked to the east and to \
south, the candlestick being situate ohlk|a4
— ^n^uttiec, L, p. 136u

In Solomon*s temple these lunnstsndiv
multiplied, and ten golden canodabn i
their radiance over the holy chamber. B<
the restored temple there appears to havs b
onlv one candlestick. It was takoi to Bi
with the other booty, and its form was so
tured on the triumpnal arch of l^tus, vl
its mutilated remains are yet to be sen.
was carried in procession at the triumph ik
as Josephus, who was an eye-witnass, tssti
— "But for those that were talcen in
temple of Jerusalem, they made the grsi
figure of them all: the golden tahte cl
weight of many talents ; the candlestick <
that was made of gold, though its oonstroc
was now changeafrom that which we ■
use of —for its middle shaft was fixed m
basLs, and the small branches were pnidi
out of it to a great length, having the Ifte
of a trident in their position, and hid e
one a socket made of brass for a lamp at
top of them. These lamps were in nm
seven, and represented the digni^ of
number seven among the Jews.** — Wam q
Jew9. b. vii., pp. 247, 248.

When Genseric sacked Rome, he took
trophy with him to Africa. Belisarius It
it there when he defeated the Vandals,
brought it to Constantinople. From the eai
metropolis it is said to have been deepatchi
Jerusalem, but it has no more been bean
How it disappeared no one knows.

The canuletitick forms the material <
beautiful and significant vision in Zech. i
3. 11, 12, and occurs in the vision of Joh
Patmos (i. 12). The seven lights whidi J
saw in vision were the seven lamps of
golden candelabnim — ^a iierpendiciuar i
with seven shafts.

CANE. (See Calamus.)

CANKEI^\VORM (Joel i 4). It is .
where called the caterpillar (Jer. li. 27),
was one of the army of destroying insecti
which the land of «j udea was laid waste,
voraciouHinesM and multitude are suffide
indicated by the ct)nnection in which i
mentioned (Nah. iii. 15, 10). It is not <
to fix upon the precise species of ani
indicated. By some it is said to sig
the yoimg locust in the last st^e of its in
changes. (See C.vterpii.lab, Locust).

CANNEH. (See Calneh.)

CAPERNAUM (Matt iv. 13)— a dtj
the western shore of the sea of Tiberias, w
our Saviour often resided, so that it is a

OAF

[

i flK Ato BBOCv PflillWiCl

■Ik wtthUi. k 1, S). Not-
I JMtnwIinni of Ifaa Lord of

loMoOt of IIm IBIllt foMful

btt^Sl-M). TlibDndOo-
AwMkiwagofiilfillad; and

» • digr Of voMywii, the Mte il

idBwriboitiHiiim Bobinrai

k plue oaDed Eluia Min jah.

in kb lifa^ that In • Aiimidi

whm it ontfln the lake of

a aonk and fell in the manhy
eh aooident hia wrist bemg
■a oaixied to the village of
d tiienoe the next nifl^ to
aonth end of the laka Thia
I aaania wan^ without modi
n; and Joaephnawaanatnnllj
Hit road akmg theahoie^fint
thaitoTaridi«a; thediatenoe
n the entnmoa of the Jordan
kmn LBemanha. in., p. i9S).
Evxed Dj many, time mllaa to
Ded Teu-Himi, iddoh aeema
e wen with the deaoription of
I Land and Book^ p.

Inch the Son of God lumoored
, where he spoke ao many
lee, and wrought so many
he chose an apostle, and to
tender appeals were directed,
led and profancL suffered the
of heaven, ana haa left no
ormcr existence.
JAPHTORIM. (SeeCBXTB,

[A (i Pet L D— one of the
»Tinoes of Asia Aiinor. and the
I bomided east by Armenia,
, west by Ly caonia, and south
istianity was probably intro-
pmvinoe at an early period
1 the existence of Christian
I easily traced up to a period
ith century.

as a region of ignorance in
it enlightened and purified by
exhibited at a later period a
us names of teachers in the
and the two Gr^^ries.
3eut. L 15) — an officer in the
hoee rank or power was desig-
mber of men under his com-
in of fifty, or captain of a
he commander or cnief of the
called the captain of the host.
' the army were regulated in
y the division of families, as
nilies were usually officers (2
aptains of hundreds, or lareer
probably what would be called
s staff omoets, and formed the

. CAP

eoimeils of war (1 Chr. ziiL 1). (SeeABMOH^
CnrruBiov, Wab.)

Caftaih of the nofPLi (Acts ir. l)--either
the oommander of the Roman gamson sta-
tioned near the temple, or the ohief of the
priests and Levitos who kept gnacd aroond
and within the temple.

There was a gamson pUoed in the tower of
Antonia for the guard of the temple. This
tower stood in the north-east comer of the
waD, which parted the mountain of the hoose
from the dtv. It was built by the Asmoneaa
Hyroanns. the hish priest Hiere he himself
dwelt, and there ne udd up the holy garments
of the priesthood whenever he put them off,
having fimshed the service of tiie temple
(Joaepnns, Antiq, lib. xviii cap. 6). Herod
repaired tlds tower at a great expense, and
named it Antonia, in honour of Anto^. It
was used as the depositonr of the priest^ gar-
ments, till the removal of Arohelana from his
kingdom, and the confiscation of hia estate.
The tower then came into the hands of tiie
Bomans. and was kept as a garrison by than.
The hJgn priest's gannents were thai ki^
there nnder their power, till Yitdlius restored
them to the Jews (AnHq. lib. zv. oap. IC^. The
0H>tain of the temple may have beisn the oom-
mander of the company who had the keqpingr
of the castle.

CAPTIVE (Gen. xiv. 14) usually denotes
one taken in war. Among eastern nations, as
by Babylonians and Assyrians, such persons
were treated with ^rreat cruelty, and were sub-
jects of merchandise (Joel iii. 3). The poor
captives were sometimes ftrippea naked and
marched in such a plight to the land of the
conqueror. The commonest rights of humanity
were oftentimes denied them, a hook was put
into their lips, and they were sold into hopeless
slavery. Zion is sometimes threatened by
Jehovah with these fearful horrors of captivity.
What a sad spectacle of enslaved misery is de-
picted by the ancient poet 1 —

** Shared oat by lot, the female captiveci stand.
The Bpoils divided with an equal hand:
Each to his nhip conveyR hin rightful share.
Price of their toil, and trophies of the war.*|

The mother of Sisera is represented as ex-
pecting her son returning witn such booty. —

Have they not sped? have they not divided
thepreyrto every man a damsel or two?" (Judg.
V. do.) Prisoners of war were subjected to the
most degrading marks of servitude. "They
came near and put their feet upon the necks of
them" (Josh. x. 24). This practice explains the
allusion of Ps. ex. 1, "The Lord sai(l unto my
Lord, Sit thou at my right hand, until I make
thine enemies thy fciotstooL" Messish's en-
emies are to be completely subjugated. Cap-
tives, if their brave resistance had provoked the
victors, were sometimes doomed to a fearful
penalty (2 Sam. viii. 2). The meaning of this
language seems to be, that a portion of the
captives, measured off by a line, were capri-
ciously selected and butchered; and yet the
sparing of so many captives seems to have
been a merciful mofUfication of oriental usage,

lU

HAP .
on rnuHi nccariooi. vhen the whole captured

army might have 1]«?n put to death. Such an
atrocity vr flml ia 2 Chr. xv. 12. Priaonen
were Bometimes also subjected to cruel mutila-
tion. Their eyfK werr often turn nut. Samnoa
(oflered this privation from the Philistines ; so
did Zedekiah, tlio last king of Judnh, at the
hand of the kinj' of Babylun. But there was
» reeneroent of cruelty in this latter ease— the
poor royal ca;itive wk« forced to buhold his
■ODB put to death ere lie was cruelly deprived

deprived of one uyc only, to wit, the ri^ht one,

D that o

_.J8; for t_. ..„__ _. _,_ _.

itercapted by the shield, they mnit ril
uisuse this ix>rtion of armour, or mm> ■
the combat unguarded. We r^d of inailK
species of barbarity in Judg. L ft-7, "Ada!-
bezek fle<I ; and they ponued aftar Um, ai
caught him, and cat off hii thombiullk
great toes. And Adoni-beidc «ai^ TlntMM
and ten kings, having their thmntM aod tUr
great toes cut off, gathered their uMt oiv
my table : aa I have done, ao God hath raqdM
me. This was not a mere wanton ontnn ^

the deprivation iif these members made the
victim almtwt wbi'Uy unable to engage in
ancient warfare. ITio Atheninns cut i«,tlie
light hiinda of the inhaliitants of ..^inL. The
Itunutn who shunned a military cunsvription
■■"■ "' is thumb, and " *'

especially the |*pulatii>n of lUbboh, bos
rise to mnvh diHciusion (2 Sam. xii. 31). t/..u.> ,
takius the common venacn ns correct, attirm
that David inflicted on the hapless wretches all
the tortures hei deocribed, — aaw-inK thtin into
fragments, tearing them to tattin with tlie
teeth of humiws, grating tlieir fli.i>h uihiII the
■harp and rugg«! Hhtrds that layin the bottiim
of the kilns. But we question if the text
warrants such an intenirctatiun. The Hebrew
preptmition {Beth) prefixed to the wonls, saw,
harrows, and axes, signifies (u ofti-ner t1i:in
wider; and B<> the words may bo renderwl. he
put them to saws, &c — subjectnl them Ui this
species of tlaveiy. He "l)n.«glit out" the
peoi>leiuidsett1iem to lalwur in these forms of
■ervitwlc. It is snid in Chronicles, "he cut
them." Tho word translated he nU (Arm, is
found diilerentlv spelt in many manuscriiits. —
•pelt ns is the word in ^muel rendered, "he
put them." But retaining the i)resent spieling

iiluiitTate tho conduct of David, irtiopcd^i
set the ciomplc followed by hia aon nid m^
ccwior. But still, granting that the Bid*
version is correct, the following is the eipfas
tinn and defence by Michaelii, in his Om-
mrittirii on the Late nf Mnnt .-" —

" David acted with much greater aeventy 9
.Sam. xii. 31) to the inhabitants of Rabbah,lka
Ammonitish rapitoL He put thnn all Is
death together, and that with m«t pa^ftl
and eiiiuisite tortures; which, however, wn
not unusual in other countries of tiu Esi^
But we must consider how very diflenottfak
warwaa fr>im othcrwart. TlieAmmoniteafail
not only resisted tii the last eitremij
fltone by the Mosaic law was au

t' utify the victors in putting them
lit tney had, moreover, by their ffrov o^
tempt of the amliaiwadon whom Sand lad
sent with the best intentions, been gnfltyat*
most outrageous breach of the law 5 pdiaa,
■-'- - ifcHtcd their implacable hatred

the israeliteit. Tavy sliaved half their MhS
(an insult which, acooriling to the ■aooat rf
Arvieux, the Arabs nf the present dH le^N
OS great an evil aa death itself), and tLeB tt^
rut off the lower half n[ their laments, aal ■
this ignominious jilight sent Uiem hack U*

wont to ei-

CAP

which n much the mora cloail; de-
1 their nniTcnkl enmity igaiiut the

■nd > Tiolatian of the ]aw of nstdrau
oMuI jtutly pruToked them
'toga than thej '

kdmit the mudm, that the Um both
and nations allom me to treat mr
they, if victorioua. would have treated
ny in ISam. n. 2 fnmiBheB a strong
I of David'a conduct. These some
B had, in tiie beginninK of bis pre-
reign, betn »o eitramely crnel as to
Jie Israelitdsfa city, JabeBh, which
ntrerted, and which was inclined to
rithout resistance, no other termi of
n than that, by way of insnlt to the
ji general, all its inhabitants should
late thtir riyht eyes put out. Now,
ny of this descnptic^ and who at
their ambassaduni, whose persons
both of nations and nature hold
lid any punishment in use in the
been too cTuelT We find, however,
oracter of the Ammonites wa> the
Fry age. Tbe prophet Amoe (L 13)
tbem as ripping up tbe bellies of
b child, not m the fury of a itorm,

ately,

■a tbe I

i?lit«i>. and thus to enlarge their own

« act« of David, then, appear to us,
■•ay Mcrrre (for who will deny that T
t live* in our days would not wish to
differently in Ah place?)— but uryM»(,
either t-i our confuanding the modem
icient law of nations, or with the law
teelf; and thuK juH^ngof them by
Terent nile frtim that which we are
pply to simitar actions which we
uur youth."— Michaelis' Com. on tht
*a, L, pp. 328-33a

The Somana sometimes compelled a capti7«
to be joined face to face with a dead body,
and to boor it about until the horrible efHuna
destroyed the life of the living victim. Vireil
deecribes the pnnishirieDt In hie eighth JEnfo^-^
' Wmi words an Mint Ihow e.opnible times.
Tbe Kublectt' nunVriiiKH tnd Iba tyrauu' CTlmttr

On bl> own hcsTk Tna on'bK lmp?ouii"'™«.

TilT?b™£ wiih"pn^Mu 1o«lli«l onibiiT™ ilea.
Tbe Lngering wreuJiM plnei] away ami dJed."

If in Horn, Tii. 24 the apostle does not refer to
this practice, it may at least convey a vivid
idea and illustration of bin meaning, that he
felt Bin to be a nauneotis, intolerable, and fatal
burden. " O wretched man that I am! who
shall deliver mu from the iHxIy of this dcathT"
CAl^IVITY (Num. xii 29) -a term
usually employoil to denote an important era
in Uiehiativyof the Jewish people. To punish
their rebellions and idolatries, God suffered
them to come into frequent bnnilage to sur-
rounding nations. Severol of their captiviti™
tookjilace at on early period of their hist

. a particular account i« aiven in die

rt ten chapters of the btK Jt of JTui" -

No

TnwUng on the Xec^

there recorded. Soon after the
cluso of Solomon's '.-lorious reign the kingdom
was divided. Ten of the tribes separated
tJiemselves, and took the name of the hingilom
of Israel, leaving the tribes of Judah nnd lion,
janiin to constitute the kingdom of Judoh.
>2acli of these two kins'Ionis sitffureil a <lis-
tinct capUvity, That of T-raol is cnllwl the
Ai-syrian, and that of Judoh the Uabylouish

Tiglath-pilescr, the kin;; of Aiuyria, made
war ujion I»ruel, and carried a large number of
their {leople (chiefly those of the tribvs of
Reuben, God, ami MonoiiHeh) into captivity
(2 Kixv. »; IChr. V. aU).
l)ut the residue Kmainol
under their un-n king, but
p.iiil tribute to the Asnyrian
giiveniment. Aftiirthflaiisa
of twenty ycara this tributa
or annual an-iewimbnt was
refuAvil, and thervfire Shul-
mancMir, l>u»ieged and after
three years caliturud and de-
stroyed Saiiiana, the capital
of the kingdom, and tlie great
mans of tlie ]H!fi|>le wuro
trunn]H>rtE»1 to provinces be-
voi«l tJio KnphrateH, and
i;i>me dunbt ■■ eiitertidned
whiither they ever returned
(2Ki.xviL.\0; Jiviil.10.11;
Hos. i <i). Jewish bisloiiana
Miytiioy never did return. But
tbe following, aliiims other
] ia«sim«s,oro eroploj'ejlto mip-
irt an oinimrite opinion: —
iLGO; vL ICi viii. 3.1;

.; >.> 11. !i. 12,

Ir„

13 i Jci. i

ii. IM;

CAP

XXXI. 7-20; xlix. 2; Kzek. xxxvii. 16; Hcmi. i.
10, 11 ; Amos ix. 14 ; ObiwL 19-21 ; Mic ii. 12;
Zech. ix. 13; x. & 10. (See Hebrews.) So
Hoseaxi. 11, — ** They shall tremble as a l)inl
out of E^i>t, and an a duve out of the land of
AMvria, and I will place them in their houses,
saitli the Ixjrd," &c. ; and Amos ix. 14, — ** i
M-ill bring a^^ain my XHH>ple Inrael from their
captivity." Obad. 18, 20.—" The captivity of
this host of the children of Israel shiul ijohscss
that of the Canaanites," &c Isa. xi. 12, —
"The Lord shall assemble the outcasts of
Israel, and gather together the dispersed of
t)uda)]." Ezekiel received an order from God
to take two pieces of wood, and write on one,
**For Judah and for Israel:" on the other,
** For Josei)h and for Israel ;" and to join these
two pieces of wood, that they might become one.
to symljolize the re-union of Judah and Israel
(Kzek. xxxviL 1()). Jeremiah is equally ex-
press: ** Judah shall walk with Israel, and
they shall come together out of the north, to
the land which I have given for an inheritance
tt» their fathers" (Jer. xxxi. 7-l», 1«, 17, 20; xlix.
2, &c.; Micah ii. 12; Zech. ix. 13: x. «, 10).
Amonj^ those who returned with Zenibbabel
are rcckoneil some of Epliraim and Manasseh,
who settled at Jerusalem among the tribe of
Judah. When Ezra numl)ered those returned
from the cantivity, ho only imiuireil whether
they were ot the race of Israel: and at the
first ]>assover, then celebrated in the temple,
was a sacrifice of "twelve he-goats for the
whole house of Israel, acconling to the number
of the tribes" (Ezni \i. 10, 17; viiL 35). Under
the Maccal>ce8, an<i in our Saviour^s time,
Palestine was i)eoijled by Israelites of nil the
tribes indifferently. These i>as8nges seem to
show that ninny of the ten tribes did return,
that the numerous Bi>cculations as to their
history and present locality either in Arabia,
C-hina, N(»rtli America, or, with I^r. -V.-ahel
Grant, among the Nestorians, are wholly use-
less. Many, in arguing for some living race
iLs the remains of tlie ten tril)es, mistake for
characti'ristic Jewish customs the usages which
are common to aJmcmt all tlie eastern w« )rld. Ilie
twelve trilK.'3 are also twice meiitioneil in the
New Testaiaent as forming the *lc\\i.sh nation,
( Jas. i. 1 ; Acts ii. )

The first ca^>tivity of Judah t<K>k place under
kin<,' Jt:h(>iakim, when Daniel and his coni-
I)ainons were among the cai)tives. The second
was in the seventh yenr of Jehoiakiui; the
third in the reign of Jehoiiichin. The
fourth, or seventy years* captivity, was under
Ze<lekiairs reign, in the year of the world
341(5. (For a ]>articular account of tli«'se
events, sec 2 Ki. xxiv. ; 2 Clir. xxx\i. ; Jer.
XXV., xxvi.,xxix., xxxii.,xxxiv.. Hi. ; Ezek. xii. ;
l)an. i. 1, 2.) The sufjferiiigs in which thtrse
capti\itios involved them are afFectingly de-
scribed in l*s. cxxxvii. 1-5, and Jer. iv. 19-31.
The Jews were at length allowed to return
(Ezra i. 1) ; but it was not until seventy years
from the i>erirKl of their fourth ctiptivitv that
they were permitted to rebiuld the temple.

'Iheir last captivity yet endures. The
114

CAP

slaughter at the making of Jemaaleni wti
immense. According to Joflephiu m iniDka
fell, and nearly a hundred thouMnd thniqgh-
out the nation were enslaved. Of them, ndl
as were under seventeen yeftn of age wm
sold into private slavery, thonmndi woe dti
spatched to work in Egvpt, and maoj Ml %
prey to wild beasts at Koman dhows aBd.a4
tertainments. Under the emperor Hadite
devastation fell again on the Jewidi inhaWti^
of Palestine. Xow, and ever sinoe that pcao^
they are scattered over the earth. TU€ix&
I)ersion and degradation are a very itriUig
and awful fulfilment of their own ancieiitiii^
phecies. But this doom in not for evK A
bright destiny awaits the aona of AhraJM
(Rom. xi. 25, 26).

In the meantime the Jews cherish ^jp^
reverence for the land of their f atheiB. Tiai
is no wonder, for its associations in their ndndi
are powerful and endearing. The oounbgrii
yet theirs. But low and fantastic supei'ititoBM
are mixed up with their love of JPalwtiiia
lliey l)elieve that the resorrection will tda

Slace in or near Jerusalem, where art tba
ewish burying-grounda. Those who die ort
of Judea are exposed to great torment eratiMf
can bo raised, for God is to form tunnels iiiid^
neath the earth, and through these subtemMHi
passages, beneath the heavy mountuns, mi
under the angry ocean, are they to be roQid
fn>m the spot of their sepulture in Poland.
Britain, or America, and conveyed to themwHl
of Olives. The lamentations chanted bj ~
in their captivity are very pecxiliar and i
trie. One scene of sorrow is often refored
the wailing-place, as it is called, of the J<
It is hard by the southern part of the tenmb
area, that part of it on which stands the nofllWr
of the two mcMiues, the mosque of Akm,
covering what is supposed to have been tti
site of the Holy of nolies. Soon after tti
rc-mlmissionof the Jew^, who had been expeUed
by Hadrian in j>unishmcnt of their seoond t^
volt, they obtained leave to weep hers ow
their desert-ed sanctuaries, their fallen dtj
and prr.>scribed nation, buying from the Romaa
soldiers the i>rivilcge of moistening with their
tears the ground where their tkiihen had
bought the bl(XNl-slie<lding of the Lord. A irt
ruiuam smc vis Jit re licccU civitatiSy prttio rtH-
muvt. Vt qui quondam tmerunt mmffuintm
Chri»ii cmant lachrymas 9ua». "And they
Inrnglit with a price the i)ermission to weep
over tlic ruin of their city. As those who for-
merly bought the blooil of Christ, they bar
their tears" (Hunm. in Zcpfiav, i. 15). Lara
Nugent sajT* — "Their posture of abject sonov
— their ai)]>earance— of all orch and of either
sex, in tlie disttinctive and historical garb ol
their i>eoplo (they are no more a nation now,
but a people still)— the low and pecaliai^f
plaintive tones in which their voices blend-*
yoiuig men, and elders, and *daughten of
•f enisalem wee]>iiig for themselves and for their
chiMren,' clinging, as it were, to the rentskirti
of their city's ancient glor>% and )>ra>ing tbs
God of their fathers again to * turn his fiics

I

CAP

neglected Tine which he fostered
ing care/— all this forcibly and pa-
icalli, alonff with the words of pro-
dly ▼erifieu, those yet unfalfilled,
onto her that her warfare is accom-
her iniquity is pardoned* " (Isa.
uU, ClauietU ana Saard, iL, pp.

I daring this captivity there are
Jews in Palestine. Y et they are
larison— not passing eight thousand
inions that anciently belonged to
tribes. And these appear to be
» representatives of the Jews all
rid. Thev praj for their expatri-
pmen, ana receive in turn substan-
if gratitude from their brethren of
»n. ^ Dr. Wilson says — " The result
loniries amongst the Jews of the
I Europe simply is, that the Jews
the wond, in tht pretent state of their
prophetical miiinterpretationf'atteTl^
idea of colonizing the land of their
1 restrict the grounds of their
ited settlements there to rdiffious
u. I beg the particular attention
vpists and the friends of Jewish
lis statement." — Lands of the Bible,
i27.

cied epoch of their conversion will
ive, and with it, it may be, unex-
es of deliverance. **0h that the
Imael were come out of Zion!
iringeth back the captivity of his
•b shall rejoice, and Israel shall be
L6).

', CHTLDREX OF THE (Ezra iv. 1)—
ijure of sy>€€ch denoting those who
vitv, oTT)erha])8 sometimes literally
ty.' **Tum again" (Ps. cxxvi. 1).
j-^' (Jor. xxix. 14), "turn back"
SO), or "bring again ^' (Ezek. xvi.
itiWty,'' are tigiirative phrases, all
the Jewish nation in bondage, and
to Canaan. A similar expression
ation to individualii, as in Job xliii.
ord tiime<l the cii)ti\'ity of Job"
e n*lea.scd him from the unusual
d perplexities to which he had been
and caused him to rejoice again
r of Go<l.

CUTIVITT CAPTIVE (Eph. iv. 8).

nay mean, ha led those as his cai)-
xl made captives of others. Thus
ade Ix>t his captive at the pcricnl
• taken bj the confederate Kings,
ond cai>tivity by his relative was
lance. He made a joyous captive
had been detained in forced cap-
ist makes captives of his o^^-n, all
He captures them wlio w^ere
tlie hr»iTele>w captivity of Satan,
[jtive by his grace the victims of
:y over which the devil presitles.
ipler way is to regard tne word
as the aMract for the concrete—
e all his foes in a body ; or, ha\-ing
!oed, he made x>risoners of them.

CAR

The original phrase in the 68th Psalm meana.
" Thou Last mustered or reviewed thy captives.*^
(Compare Judg. v. 12.)

CAItBUNCI.B (Ezek. xxviii. 13)— a pre-
cious stone. Its colour is a deep red, mingle<l
with scarlet, and when held up in the rays of
the sun, it loses its deep tinge, and resembles
burning charcoal. It is not certain, however,
that the carbuncle of the Scrii)ture8 is the same
species of gem to which wo give that name.
The Septuagint, Joeephus, and Vulgate, render
it emerald; and it represents in our EnglL^
version two different Hebrew terms.

CARCHEMISH (2 CTir. xxxv. 20)-a town
on the Euphrates, and commanding one of its
passages. It is apparently called Karghamus
on the Assyrian monuments, and descri))ed as
the capital of the northern Hittites. It couM
not be far distant from the present Koum-ealeh.
It was long conjectured to be Circesiuni ; but
the city at the confluence of the Chebarwas
(^led Cirki. It was taken frr>m the Assy-
rians by the king of Egypt (2 KL xxiii. 29),
who left it in charge of a garrison. Nebuchad-
nezzar, king of IJ^bylon, afteru-anTs took it
from tne E^mtians with great slaughter (Jer.
xlvi. 1-12).

CAKmEL, mount (Isa. xxxiii. 9) — one of
the most remarkable points on the shores of
the Mediterranean. It is the highest peak of
a range of mountains of the same name riuin.\'
in the plain of EsdracUm, and extending IS
miles, till it terminates in a promontory on the
coast, south of the bay of Acre. It is at its
east end from 1,500 to 1,000 feet, and at its west
end <)00 feet above the level of the sea (Amos
ix. 3). It b composed of limest<me, and in
shape resembles a flattened cone, anci it is the
finest and most beautiful mountain in l^alcstine.
Its soil was once fertile and liighly cultivated
(Isa. xxxiii 9; xxxv. 2; Jer. 1. ID). Its name
signifies **a fruitful flel<l, or a country of vino-
yards and [gardens," and it ha« usually the
deflnite article, "the Carmel." Modern
travellers tell us tliat the oaks, wild vinrs,
olive trees, and frajp*ant flowers, still indicate
its former productivenens, thou^di it bus suffi-
ciently deteriorate* I to fulfil the prediction of
the proplict (Amos i. 2). Tlie graceful form
and verdant Ix'auty of its summit are alluded
to, Song vii. 5. The base of the mountain
was washed by "that ancient river, the river
Kishon" (Judg. v. 21), and the pLain of Slianm
spread out towards the stnith. While Lebanon
raised to heaven a summit of naked and barren
rocks, covered the gre^iter i)art of the year
with snow, the toj) of Carmel, naked and sterile
as is its jiresent ajipearance, was clothed with
perennial verdure ; so that the genius of Isaijdi,
guided by the spirit of inspiration, coidd not
find a more apx>roi>riate li^nire to represent the
flourishing state of the licdeemers kingd<mi
than "the excelUncv of rarmel and Shanm."
The summit of Can'nel is remarkable for its
pure and enlivening atmosphere. The traveller
who has in him even little i)oetic susce]>til.nlity,
yet feels his soul enlivened by a survey of
moimt Carmel and its sceinM-y, while the

113

i

CAK CAT

TBptiire, Bfl he atteiupM to dt-Hcribe the ehirs bouniL

uE tha hill and the country lying ot its t«t. CASEMENT. (See Wijr_

This iminioiib.ry ia a iilacr <if dwn intcrFxt CASLUHIM(Geii.x.U]— apeoplepiobdd*

in tlie annala ot theJe«,-8(lKLsviiL 111, 42; of Upper Eey,"'

~- ■ - ■ «.« CASSIA (El

'J Ki. iL 25; iv. 25), anil was o
■if crowds iif Christian dev '

.. iintiT of HKinkii culk-il ConnclitvB,

who hod a ciinrvnt thtm. which wax |>illsj;e<I
nnd dctitniyi^ by tlio Arabs after tlic ivtmat
■>f thi! VivniJi knnv. in ITW. vhu UMil it an on
hiointal f[>T tlivir inuk and Hvuudvd dtirinK ths
hiv)fQ of AcTtf. Then are many tnuliticfiu and
■npcrBtitirjiis which trHt'cUc rs have iirenrvcd
about the cavea ami unittuii wliich ubuund in
thin tniiuntaiu, Init tliey will not he in iiincii
here. ItisuuHcaUeilMarKlynii. (SrrEuj.vil.)

('avukl, tiiwx iif (Josh. XV. fhjj a city
and liill, Iwtween tlie wildvmuB «E Ziph and
t)ie wilderntnH uf Maun. It wan ttiK rmidi'iice
iif Xaha], and i» n;|)reiienti<l l>y tlio niorlvm
Kaimcl, alwut G Diites loutli uf Hebron
II Sam. XXV. 2; xxviL li).

CAEI'KNTEK (fniin the Tjifin mnKxIun,

ft watT.'on, and tlieri'fiire, litunilly, cart-writiht). Liniin,un„u.
It n!|>n-ffint8 the (in-ck wonl •>f..T<.,v iu the CAST OUT, to (Jolin iz. 23 and U), w

UonK'lx (Matt xiiL 55; Maik vl :t). Thin to exiinnnianicate, was to cut uS fzaa At

oriuiDol tcnn sicuifies aitizaii ormechuiiic; but privilvuraof the Jewish church,
when UHed Vy itself it generall.r deu.ites one CASTOIC and POLLUX (Acts xzriiL H).

who wnrha in woul — a jniuer or huaii»car|ien- In heathen mythology they were the naiMS ■

"" ■■ ' ' ' a prtwin who works twin sons of Jup''" ~' " ~ "" ""

[ adjective is itcces- pi*ride over tbc ■

Ills aiiuilaT toUiatof nn inia|{s TvprrscD...^

-..- .-..n imlth omiinK tlw coniiuim lien|4e in tlie|irowof ancient iuu]w, like the

ScotlaniL When they Hi«ak uf a mtflh, thcv nf OHHlem da\->L

usiiallynivanftwork.-rinina): Imtwlienthey CArEltPfLLAR (1 Ki. t-iii .t7)-a no. i

refer t<i una emjikiyed in other inetalis they uf iniwcta of vaot number and HnitructlTe Tim- ]

|irefix a diHtJnctivu ei>itlu-t --an UiiMuith, ciii- vit}:. The ancient verdons differ ai ta 4a '

l>cn>uiith. It ia the iiiiiniun uf CIiriHtian iwrtioular aniiual intended. It maybe •■■•

nnti([uity that Joseph, Uie iviiutc^ father uf Hiiecin uf locuxt inits tarra iitate. Wliatnv

JcsuD.wiuuijht inwixxL Accurilint' to JuBtin, tliey wire, whether the "chaffer" or "mJi

he niaile "iJonglia and yolteii." .IcBiia suenn cricket," these insects were often empkiyed M

to linvu folIowLil JuA-ejih's nccnpatinn. "J« (unnts in the eiecution ot Ciod'a ja^BMOh

not this tlw carpenter!" the multitude cried (Ps. Ixxviil 46; ov. M). FiEtirat]Te& Ifair

iin oiiD occaKioD. The Son uf (iod suhmitted reprewnt a great multitude (laa, laSi Ij

to the curae, cumcil hi« brt'od by tli« Kw«it of Jer. IL 14,27). Thejr ■ — '—' — —

liis brow, and ho coniircnitcd thu»e manual toils the most desolating vi

which are the lot of the groat majurity of (See I'akkeb-w(>rii.)
mankind. CATTLE (Hen. L 25). In the oonnn

CAUltTAdPIS (ActH xxL I-'>)-tho load or scriptural user>f this term itembtaoatheln*

Inirden wliich man or beast carries i baggage i|iiailnii>cds employed by mankind, a* OK^

(Tsft. x.2S),orroat.onwliiehnuytbingiscamud h..rwt., Blieep, oimels, goata, ftc Gtai. xiiL

(lSam.xvii.2ll);iiYnrft.orB(«(rc';/(/«'mi-™iHf*, 2; Kx.«l. xii. W: ixxiv. 19: Num. xx. 1);

may be a ranipsrt made of the arniy liagguge xixiL IU; I'a L 10; and Job i.' 3, where lla

(Isa. xlri 1). "They took uii tJieir cnrriuecs" won! tnuiohitcd Kibilana would be moc* lao-

- -1. 1. . they packed up their liTffgago, and com- jicrly rendereil callle.
meiicwl their journey (Aclx xxi. 151. In thoseimstoral countries cattle werewttltk

l.'AKT. (Si'e WA<!c:n!i.) (Gen. xxx. 43). Of Job it is mwrded, bl

CAHT-ROl'E. "Woe unto them that draw '-Hi» sulHtnnce ahio was seven thonianddiKA

ininiiity with O'nls of vanity, and nin u> it wore and three thoosaiut camels, and fire hnndiei

with a cart-roiw" [Imt v. IM). TliiK is a atmn!; yoke of oxen, and five hundred ebv^aMli, ui

tifrurativeeipreieion.the muetnatuml meonini; a very great household ; so that thismanml

<rf which is shown by two JewLili Ki>-inipi — the greatest of all the men of the east" (Jflfc

"Woe to them that begin to nin a little, and i, 3). Rich men made ^resenta of their e»t

they go on and increase imtil their sins are as to one another, as Abmielech (Oen. ix. 14

BCiirt-niper and, "The evil imni.-ination is ut and Abmbiun in coune of time retnnKdtli

first like a spider's thread, but at lost it is hke compliment «len. xxi. 27). The cattle_<<

tocart-ropes." There may be a remote alloiuDn Abraham and Lot w
116

GAU

old not eonftain tiMm, and thflj
ioammfeei Jiidea,oooautiiigof
7, affordi » Uzge nnge of ezoel-
nnmda. Tlie ownen theniMlTes
L the f eedmg of than, did not
n oocniMtioii benMth them, and
« ezpoaed to all 'vicinitodei of
sobaayi^ *'Thas I was; in theday
BOMnTned me, and the frost by
7 aleep departed from mine eyea^
fo). During In* «Dle Moaea fed
iua father-in-law, ud David was
I the aheepfold to the thnme of
a waa a herdaman, and Shamgar
im the aame pnrBoit to be one of
laraeL And the women laboured
vocation. At Jaoob*a first inter-
adiel, she came along with the
ded. "And whUe he yet spake
Rachel came with her father's
le kept them. And it came to
loob saw Rachel, the daoffhter of
oOier's brother, and the sheep of
ither's brother, that Jacob went
tiled the stone from the well^s
watered the flock of Laban his
ther* (Gen. zziz. 9, 10). The
Jeihrowere also shepherdesses;
presented in Exodus (ii. 16-21) has
and reality of pastoral life : —

**Siich M ArcsdUn tKmg
rrom andent nncorrapted timet,
at rastom had not nhackled man,
follow nature was the mode.**

if shepherd or cattle-feeder was a
ne, and oftentimes demanded no
i in warding off the attacks of
nld animals. (See Sheep, Shep-

1 in Job zzxvi 33 is explained by
certain animals of this class are
uritive to that change of air and
irhich precedes rain and thunder,
a. iiL 18) — the attire of the head,
nrork and ornamented. In Hoe.
ill rend the caul of their heart;**
1 denotes the membranous vessel
DS the heart. The figure repre-
g beast of prey seizing his victmi
out its vitals. One of the two
ed "caul" is given as "midriff"
i : and the other word is translated
•D xxviiL 15, because that metal is
mporoQs.

AY (1 Chr. xxvi. 16)— a raised
(2 Chr. ix. 4). In most of the
re it occurs it signifies any public
road, and indeed is so translated
. 31, 32; 1 Sam. vL 12; Prov.
same word is rendered ways in
\, and there signifies the ways to
ch the devout Jews ascended to
e temple, and the remembrance of
ntinually present in the hearts of
red them, and who loved also the
d service to Which they led.
en. xix. 30). Caves were very

CED

flommon in Jndea, and were made use of as
temporary dwelling pl/uei (Gen. six. 30) : aa
places of eoneealment (Josh. x. 16; Jndg. vL 2;
1 Sam. xiii 6; xxiL L 2; xxiv. 3: 2 8am.
xxiiL 13;lKixviii4; xul 9: HebixLSS);
and as Imrialplaeei (Gen. xxiii. 17, 19; xlix.
29; Johnxi38)L Robinson says, '^ We went
first to some caverns on the south-west side
of the Wadv leading up to Santa Wann^h.
near the path by wmch we had approaohea
from Kubeibeh. These are artificial excava-
tions, having partly the character of those we
had seen near Deir Dnbbftn, but of much more
carefol workmanahip. Besides dcnnes, there are
here also long ardied rooms, with the waUs
in general cut quite smooth. One of these
was nearly 100 feet in length, having along
its side& about 10 feet above the level of ike
floor, a line of ornamental work like a sort of
cormce. On one side, lower down^ were two
nidies at some distance MMot, which seemed
once to have had images standing in them ;
but the stone was too much decayed to deter-
mine with certainty. These apartmente are
all lighted by openings from aooveii In one
smaller room, not lighted, there was at one
comer what looked like a sarcophagus hol-
lowed out of the same rock; but it was too
much broken away to enable us to speak
positively. The entrance to the whole range
of caverns is by a broad-arched passage of
some elevation ; and we were surprised at the
taste and skill displayed in the workmanship."

The principal caves in Scripture are— 1. The
cave of Adiulam, in which David lived iivith
his followers (1 Sam. xxii. 1 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 13).
2. The cave of Makkedah, in which the five
kings of the Amorites took refuge from Joshua,
(Josh. X. 16, &C.) 3. The cave in the wilder-
ness of Engedi, in the "thighs" of which
David and his men remained undiscovered bv
Saul (1 Sam. xxiv. 3). 4. The cave in which
Obadiah hid fifty prophets of Jehovah from
the vengeance of Jezebel (1 Ki xviii. 4).
Besides the above, are the cave above Zoar
(Gen. xix. 30); of Macphelah (Gen. xxiii.,
XXV., xlix); " *the' cave" in Horeb, the scene
of the vision of Elijah (1 Eli xix. 9) ; and a
cave in the north of Palestine, near Sidon,
literally rendered " Mearah" (Josh. xiii. 4).

Tlie word is rendered ** holes " in Isa. iL 19 ;
and " den" in Isa. xxxii. 14; Jer. vii 11.

CEDAR (2 Sam. vii. 2). The word some-
times refers to other trees, but it is properly the
cedar. One of the most valuable and majestic
trees of eastern forests. It grows to the height
of 70 or 80 feet. Tlie branches are tJiick and
long, spreading out almost horizontally from
the trunk, which is sometimes very many feet
in circumference (Ezck. xxxi. 3, 6, 8). Maun-
drell measured one which was 36 feet and 6
inches in the girth, and 111 feet in the spread
of its boughs. The wood is of a red^ colour
and bitter taste, which is offensive t» insects,
and hence it is very durable, having been
known to last, as historians assert, upwards
of 2,000 years. It was used for the most noble
i and coBUy edifices. This timber aexvod itfi^ d

117

CED
onlr for beams fur thi frame, and bnardi for
oavaring buildinsi, but wu kbo wrought into

the irall» (1 KL ^■j. 36; liL 12). The moun-
tain of Ticbannn vere famoUH for the growth
of the cedar ; but travt'Ders tell lu that the
wnnU of pmi'hecy am vcrifipii, for Dow a
".child may write them" (I(«i. i. lit), (Soc
LeIja.NOS.)

Of tha eiaot mimb*r of cedars on Ijehanon,
Tarioui accountti have bi-un civeu bytravtllurti
both in put and [ireaent tiiiicH. Iliuy have
differed in their eaUmates IwcaiiHe some cuunted
^B younger trvce and others did not

iaSsffi™:::::::::

UsBeee "

- f

igiSffl-—. r.-

=3

aESS!5;.==-— ::?

IKlB. Itwikinoliaoi.'

lliiwllor IJarewrTolL. - ...,_.,..

uid DO an of eoniddozable ilifl.

And Urtly, Dr. Kitto archly runmrkB, that
there are now greatly more ccdam Bfiwinj; in
England than in the whule oF ninunt Jn^banun.
Ilie cedan are found in what in temii'd the
cedar CTove, tn'o days' juumuy from Btinit,
(;.400 feet above the level of tlie ><va. and »,000
feet below the mmmiit; but Sevtzi-n eays thi
there are other erovca of eijunl cKt*iit ; an
eome eiploreia have found thin noble tree i
variooB i)attH of the rani;u of I^banun. £vi>t
reader of Scripture ia insensibly initiated inl
a familiar acquaintance with the cedar,
lilla his iuiaeiuation with an imptuHiOQ [>f i
tallneKi, symmetry, bulk, and fragmncB — "Tl
trees of the I»rd are full of eap ; the cedam of
Tjebanon, which he hath pLmted" (I'n. civ. 16).
The cclar is an eversreen— " The riKhteous
■hall fluurinh like the palm tree; he nhall gnyr
like ■ cedar in Lebanon" (Pa. xciL 13). Tb.
long branches of the cedar oive it amajentic

CEL

from iti odoriferous bark and bouglu a peedar
fragrance, wbicb ia diffoaed over the monirtaia
— "^jlia branches shall sprotd, and his mil
as Lebanon" (Hiw. liv. 6). This "gkiytf

the desert mich nmbrageoos ibdtcT is aot Is j
' ito^; bcQoe Jebonh't unwpectsiaai |

re goodness to his people is repnsNM

~^— "- the wildntMsa the oriv"

!r in his Sandbixt m

a his planting "

Isa. xU. 19). Porter in his Sandbixt an-

'At the head of Wady Kadlsha tbemiia

milM i[

a the uentral ri

e of LebanoB,

Syria, streaked with ft-

:iuai snow. ine summita are white Md

lunded, and the aides descend in nalud wA

_ irm slopes, in the fonn of ■ aanidida. !■

the very centre of this recen, on a Btds

irregular kniill, stands the clnmp of Cein.

They are all alone. There i* not MwtiMr M«

-- (t^t There is scarcely » bush or patlh a

rilure on the surrounding wMlivitieB. VlM

.1 see them from a distance we f«clbitlstt-

appointment, for they lookHkaaneAflkat

vast mountain. But oa euteriitf tnejmsil

feelings uf disappointment vaniah. laa As

beautjfiil fan-like brandica and gimciful MB-

dal forms uf tha ymtnger tnea; ItoMM

inksof the patriarchs, and thurgTMtniM

bnuichvB extending far on ench nde, and iat*'

shade they make in the midst of a UsB d
liuht— all tend to exdte feeHiigs of hi^trt
admiration. And when we think of tliciiU^
aatiqiiity, their ancient glory, the purpiM t>
wliiLh tbey were applied, we am comptAwd
the wondroiiB attraction that baa for usntaiisl
dtawn numbers of plhgiims from the ends ill
the earth to this lonely spot

" The whole ^ro ve in now scarcelvhalf awdkfa
drcumference, andmay contunabont4(IOtnsi
of all aizcs— the young onea mortly on th« a^
skirta, and the oldet^t in the centre. Only a
few, perhaps a dmen, very andf nt trs M IWBsll
There are, hon-evgr, 30 or 40 others li ra; 1»
Hiwctahle cliniensions; some of than 3l 4,Md
■ oof theddal

and irregular.

patriarchs, in fact, are all hacked tai

The refcrv-nces to the cedarin Script

that other wuods may have been Intendad-M
the (.'eilrus Deodara and the Scotch fir. I«m
is said to be a oorruption of the Aialie BsW
of the cedar, pi-arz.

CKDRON. (See Entitoit.]

CKII^ (SeeCllLlKO.)

CELLAlta (1 Chr. iiviL 27). Of oAn

known in the Kast, if we exoapt ^ ■A-mVi
which are uaed in Fetu for tha stotioi i

CEX

I jin or other vesiiels of wine. Amonsr
brews and Greeks these Ian were buried
the neck in the ground. The word is
nee rendered "treasure** and "store-
." (See Wink.)

fCHREA (Acts xviii. 18)— a seaport on
item side of the isthmus of Corinth, on
romc Gulf, and 0 miles distant from that
It was the scat of a Christian church
XTL 1, 4). (See Cobikth.)
^dER (Lev. z. 1)— a vessel or fire-pan
n tile t(3nple service for the purpose of
ng the me in which the incense was
1 The implement in daUy use among the

Egvptlan Censers.

> seems to have been nuule of an inferior

Those of Korah and his rebellious

erates were fastened as plates on the

altar. But the censer iis€^ on the great
a^'>nt'mentwas made of pure gold (1 KL
; Heb. ix. 4). The censer was held in
ind. and contained the fire taken from
•ri>etnal supply on the altar of burnt
g. The inct^nse was carried in the other

and as the hi<rh priest, once a year,
i the holy of holies, he strewe<l the i>ul-
1 inc«-nue uixtn the fire, and the cloud of
ascended up in a dark volume, and filled
artment with its frai^nce. it is called
n. Num. vii. 14, and a vial, Rev. v. 8.
•fTURION (Matt viii. 5). The title of
cer of the Roman array, who hail com-
>f a centiiry, or 100 soldiers. The number
1 varied, and there were sixty centuries
egion. Several centurions in the New
aent were }>ersons of i>iety. Of one of
Roman officers it Is thus testified in Luke

**He loveth our nation, and he hath
m a synagogue." The evangelist reconla
fing of another who was on military duty
croM. in this striking language : "\Vhen
nturi^n, which sto<>d over against liim,
at he so cried out, and gave u]) the ghost,
I, Truly thU man was the Son of Go<l"

zv. 3*.0. And the first fniits of the
e world to Christ was in the Rr)man
To Cornelius was Peter sent bv a
I messi^^ to preach the Gospel. Tliis
mishe^i s^ildier wtui a man of earnest
for, acconling to the testimony of inspira-
le was "a devout man, and one that

God with all his house, wluch gave
aln« to the peo]ile, and prayed to God
■• (Acts X. 2). According to Polybius,
ions were "chosen by merit," anu were
: decision and energy. (See Armies.)

CES

CEPHAS (John i. 42j— a Syriac surname
given to Peter, which in tne Greek is rendered
Petros, and in Latin Petrua, both signifying a
rock. (See Peter.)

CEREMONIES (Num. ix. 3). or ORDT-
NANCES (Ueb. ix. 1), denote the external
rites of religion, or the forms and circumstiinces
by which it is rendered solemn and ml^^ificent,
iMurticularly under the Mosaic dispeu^tion.
These ceremonies form a grand and imtK)sing
system; its x>omp and s]>Iendour caugnt the
fancy. Nor was the ritual less revere*! for its
national extent, its peculiar and restricted
adaptations. A system so symliolical was of
course material and temi>orary. The Jews too
often forgot this, an«l sought salvation in the
mere observance of the ecclesiastical routine,
as if it iK)Ssesned some jwwer in itself to change
and sanctify the heart. They placed ixisitive
above moral duties. This folly is severely
reprimande<l by Jehovah (Ps. 1. 7-15). In tho
first chapter of Isaiah, too, the same infatua-
tion is exposed and castigated.

The ceremonies under the New Testament
are few, simple, and significant, llic ajipeal
to the senses in baptism and in the Ijord's
supper ministers to our faith and excites our
gratitude for the gcMxlness and condescension
which Christ has displayed in founding these
emblematic institutions.

CESAR (AUGUSTUS) (Luke ii. 1)—
nephew and successor of Julius Oa:sar, em-
peror of Rome. The name Augustus, signify-
mg aufjnst or noble, was a compliment'irj' title,
decreed to him by tho Roman senate, whence
is derived the name of the month Auffiutt.
Csesar was the regal title of tlie emperors, an«l
hence Tiberius is called C;esar (Matt. xxii. 21),
and Nero is called Ca?sar (Acts xxv. 11). 'J'lie
title Augustus was a personal diHtinction ; but
after the death of the individual to whom it
was first given, it was reg:irde<l and u><.*d as a
l)art of tlie roval title. (See Arau.sxrs.)

CESAR (CLAUDIUS) (Acts xi. 2S)-an
emperor of lU^me, who succeeded <.'aius Cali-
gula ^\-l). 41. Four different famines are
mentioned by profane historians as having
taken place during his reign ; one of which was
very severe in Judeo, extended int4) adjoining
countries, antl continued nearly three years.
Such a faiuinc was ])redicted l.»v a prophet
named Af/fthus, who came from tferusideni to
Antioch, about the year a.d. 35 or 45; and
the expressi<m, *' throughout all the world^"
evidently intends its general piwalence m
i»ther ports of the wtjrlil besides Judeo. (See
AoABrs.)

In the ninth year of bis reicni, Claudius. l.»v
a decree, banish etl the Jews (probably inelud-
ing the Christian converts) fn)m Rome (Acts
xviii. 2). (See TiBKRirs Cksar.)

CESAREA (Acts xxiii. :«)-a considerable
town on the coast of the Meditorninean, be-
tween Joppa and T.vre, about 70 miles frt>m
Jerusalem. It Is s<»nietimes calletl (laisarea
of PalfMtine, to distin.,n.iish it from Capsarea-
Philippi (see next article). Hennl the Gi-eat
contnbuted chiefly to the magnificence of the

1V3

CES

city by building wme ci the most iplendid €i
its edifices, and oonstracting a fine harbour for
it. He called it Cesarea in honour of the em-
peror Cesar Augustus. Josephus gives a full
description of Herod*s operations :— Upon his
observation of a place near the sca» which was
very proper for containing a city, and was
before caUed Strato's Tower, he set about get-
ting a plan for a magnificent dty there, and
erected many edifices with great diligence all
over it: and this of white stone. Me also
adomea it with most sumptuous palaces, and
laige edifices for containing the people; and
wnat was the greatest and most laborious work
of all, he adorned it with an haven, that was
always free from the waves of the sea. Its
largeness was not less than the Pyrseus Fat
Awensl and had towards the citv a double
station for the ^ips. It was of excellent work-
manship ; and this was the more remarkable,
for it was built in a place that of itself was not
suitable to such noble structures, but was to
be brought to perfection by materials from
other places, ana at very great expenses. This
dty is situate in Phcenida, in the passage bv
sea to Egypt, between Joppa and DoriL which
are lesser maritime cities, and not fit for havens,
on account of the impetuous south winds that
beat upon them ; which, rolling the sands that
oome from the sea against the shores, do not
admit of ships lying in their station ; but the
merchants are generally there forced to ride at
their andiors in the sea itself. So Herod en-
deavoured to rectify this inconvenience, and
laid out sudi a compaas towards the land as
might be suffident for an haven, wherein the
great ships might lie in safety; and this he
effected by letting down vast stones of above BO
feet in length, not less than 18 in breadth, and
9 in depth, into 20 fathoms deep; and as some
were lesser, so were others bigger, than those
dimensions. This mole which he built by the
sea-side was 200 feet wide, the half of which
was opposed to the current of the waves, so as
to keep off those waves which were to break
upon uiem, and so was called Procjrmatia, or
the first breaker of the waves ; but the other half
had upon it a wall with several towers, the
largest of which was named Drusus, and was a
work of very great excellence, and had its name
from Drusus, tiie son-in-law of Csesar, who
died young. There were besides a great num-
ber ot arches where the mariners dwelt. There
wasflJso before them a quay For landing-place],
which ran round the entire naven, and was a
most agreeable walk to such as had a mind to
that exercise; but the entrance or mouth of
the port was made on the north (quarter, on
which side was the stillest of the wmds of all
in this place. And the basis of the whole cir-
cuit on the left hand, as you enter the port,
supported a round turret, which was made very
strong in order to resist the greatest waves :
while on the right hand, as you enter, stood
two vast stones, and those eacQ of them larger
than the turret which was over against them ;
these stood upright, and were joined together.
Kow there were edifices all alcmg the circular
120

CBS

haven, made of the finest rtone^ i
elevation, whereupon was ered
that was seen a great way off 1
were sailing for that haven, and 1
statues, the one of Rome tne M
as the dtv itself was called O
dty was also itself bmlt of fine i
was of a fine structure; nay. thf
ranean vaults and cellars had no
tecture bestowed on them tiian ha
above ground. Some of these '
things at even distances to the
the sea ; but one of them ran o
bound ul the rest toeether^ so '
rain and the filth of the dtizens
carried off with ease ; and Uie sc
the flux of the tide from witho
the dty and washed it all clean,
built in it a theatre of stone ; anc
quarter, behind the port, an amp]
capable of holding a vast numbei
conveniently situated for a prosp<

After the destruction of Jen
Judea became a Roman province
the chief dty of Palestine (Acts :
1, 13), and was often visited by I
30; xviiL 22; xxi 8). It was
made his eloquent defence before
and AgrippM (Acts xxiiL, xxv.
here^ he Huffered two years* i
Philip the evangelist resided he
8), and also Cornelius, who, wil
were the first-fruits from among
tmder the preaching of Peter, (A
rea is now a scene of utter desols

Napoleon encamped here aftc
siege of Acre, and speaks of the
ments of marble and granite o
surrounded him.

CESAREA-PHILIPPI (Mj
Mark viii 27) was a town in
port of Judea, in the vidni
Uermon, and close upon Tell
eastern source of the Jordan
andent times called Paneas,
^jotto sacred to the god Pan.
18 yet preserved in the model
BaniAs. This name, Bdnids, **
Arabic pronunciation of the ai
of the Greeks and Romans, si
easternmost source of the Jordai
Great erected here a temple
Augustus. From this grotto Uie
unquestionably acquired the nam
whether it already existed before
Herod^s temple or sprang up a
are not informed. At a later pe:
made part of the territory of^P
of Trachonitis, was enlarged an
by him, and named Csesarea-Pl
tmction of the Csesarea of the sea
this name it appears in the Ne
and was visited by our Lord, j
wards gave it the name of Neron
Vespasian visited it; and Tit
capture of Jerusalem, exhibite
spectacles, in which the capti'
compelled to fight with one ai

CHA

A^ and many perished. Coixui of
?«BetL M it WM also called, are still
ntbe tonrth centniY it waa already a
iPhoBnicia, under the patriarchate of
iti biahop, Philocalns, waa present at
lofNioea^in A.D. 325; ana another,
, at the ooondl of Chalcedon, in a.d.
be dsyi of EuaebinB and Jerome the
ne, Paneas, was again predominant^
ontiniied current under the Moham-
nunion to the present day. It was
wrtWly point of our Lord's journey-
a6Mi(Ni, iiL, p. 35&
I (See Feet.)

CEDOXT (Rey. xzL 19)— a predons
nd in Europe and in several districts
sited States of America. It is a
(raaits, may be got of almost every
juour, and occurs sometimes in lai^ge
V it may have been what is called
tenld.

D£A (Jer. i 10), CHALDEANS
). Tbe country of which Babylon
a^, and which was hence called
^ a a level i^on of Asia, watered
ipbatea and Tigris, between which
vu rituated. These rivers, when
rthe n'aterB from the mountains of
overflowed their banks, fertilized the
ntry, and formed a vast alluvial
!Bce the strong fiinirative language
• 1; Jer. i. 13. 1 lie plain is about
0 length and 100 in average breadth.
!ediu;:ly fertile. Crops of all kinds
nrnK^n^e return. "VVTieat fields, after
rice, ofTi^rded abundance of fattening
tie. The produce of the palm was
mdant in the year B.C. 030 the
not unlike the modem Arabs (.Tub
mded from Taurus and CaucoRiLs,
:8teru Asia, dcMtroyeii Jcnisalem
.\.if. 3410), conquered Tvre and
ind founded an empire which ex-
e chores of the Mediterranean, and
them was called Chaldea. (See

EZZ.\R.)

36 thi.<4 vast country was united
, and in a.d. 640 tiiey both fell
(minion of Mohammed, and finally,
to the hands of the Turks, who still
The two names, Chaldea and
appear to have been often applied

country (.Ter. xxiv. 5; xxv. 12; L
ii 13). ilie original name of at
>n of Chaldea waa Sfiinar (Gen. x.
. 1, 2). (See Bauel, Babylon,
ar,Ur.)

»■» were long captives in Babylonia,
Uv aorjiiired the Ixuu^age of their

^rhe knowle^lge of Hebrew was
[t leaKt ami>ng the common people,
re, tc> enable them to niideratand
fA, paraphrastic translations were
Old Testament into Chaldee, which
»lled the Targums.
STOXES (Isa. xxvii. 9)— a soft
wtanoe resembling what we caU
To make the stones of the Jewish

CHA

altars like chalk-stones is to crumble and
destroy them.

CHAMBER (Gen. xliii. 30). Usually the
private apartments of a house are called chium-
bers, (2 Sam. xviii 33; Ps. xix, 5; Dan. \± x.)
Particular rooms of this class in eastern houses
were designated by such significant terms as
the f ollowmg : —

Chamber, guest (Mark xiv. 14). This seems
to have been a spacious unoccujnod room,
usually in the upper part of the house, and
furnished suitably for the recei)t-on and enter-
tainment of guests and social meetings. The
proverbial hospitality of the Jews would make
such provision necessary, and especially at
Jerusalem, in festival seasons, when every
house in the city was the strangor^s home
(Mark xiv. 15 ; Luke xxii. 12 ; Acts i. 13).

CirAMBEB, INNER (2 Ki ix. 2)— a cluimbcr
within another chamber.

Chamber, little (2 Ki. iv. 10)— an apart-
ment built upon and projecting from the walls
of the main house, and communicating by a
inivate door with the house, and by a private
stairway to the street.

Chamber, upper, or IjOFT (Acts ix. 37), is
supposed to have occupied the front part of
the Duilding, over the gate or outer entrance,
and to have been used to lodge strangers.
(Comp. 1 Ki. xvii. lU, 23 witli 2 Ki. iv. 10.)
(See Dwellings.)

Chambers of imagery. This peculiar
phraseology occurs in Ezek. viii. 7-12: "Son
of man, hast thou seen what the ancients uf
the house of Israel do in the <hirk, every inun
in the chambers of his imagery? for they wiy.
The Lord seeth us not ; tlie I^ord hath forrfakeii
the earth." The whtde of this graphic chapter
describes the manner in which the S[)irit of
God instructed the propliet as to the nuiiit>er,
variety, and nature of the sins with whicli the
house of Judah was chargeable, and for whicli
the auger of God had fallen on them. Their
idolatries were ^)te9que and debasing. Tlie
form of superstition present («l in the verses
quoted was Egyptian in its nature. The
paragraph contains a vivid and correct de-
lineation of what is often found in Egyptian
tem])les, palaces, and tombs. Many o^ those
have been described by Belz«»Tii, Wathen,
Wilkinson, and others. Madden, in his
Travels, ii., p. 212, speaks of himself as
having all but reidizeil the im)j)het's vision.
In relation to the Temple oi iMlfou he savs
— ** Considerably below the surface of the
adjoining buildings he [the old man hU guide]
pointed out to mc a chink in an old wall,
which he told me I should creep thniugh on
my hands and feet; the aperture was not 2.i
feet high, and scarcely 3A feet bri)a<l; my
companion ha<l the courage to enter first,
thniriting in a lamp before him. I followed,
and after me the son of the old man crept also ;
the passage was so narrow that my mouth
and nose were sometimes burieil in the dust,
and I was nearly suffocated. After i>n)ceed-
ing about 10 yarils in utter darkn**ss the heat
became excessive, breathing was laborious, the

V21

ii«r!i|>inition ponrcl dovm my face, and I would

oitmpaiiion, whove peivon I could not dia-
tiiu^iiisb, thmigh his voice wiu audililc. called
•lut to tne til cntwl a few feet further, nnd tbat
1 nliould End plenty of Bimce. I joined liim at
k'ngtii, and had tlie incxpremiMe mUsCaction
iif HtaiidinK ones more iin my feet. We found
'lurevlves in a efik-ndid aiartment i>f great
ina^mituile. adiinml mth Bocrcl )iuntiiigs ani'
liiemf;) VI lilies, llie ceiUnR, wluch v-u aL«
ludntaL W(i8 luvimrti-d by sevcml rows o
ViUnn. How ■imilar to tliui wa« the entranc
■jf the iTO|.het, thmuKh ' a hole in the Hill,' t
n "imiliir ohaml)eT of imi^ory in the I,ord'i! owi

TSVlAMBBRING (Rotn. liii. 13). TU:
-u-iird nitiiitiBa low intcii{ue for liccntiinu pur-

'ThAMBEBLAIN (2 KL XHii. 11) — !

niRcor who hu charge of the myal chnoibei

iJT the Vms'' lodirinoii, wardrotK.-B, Ac ]

rastem court* eunuchii were i

iiloyed f.T thin wrvice (E«th.

iTie Biith officer of the Britieh crown

KiM hiifh chamberlain. The title in Rom.

xvi 23 denotes the rteward or tn-amirer of

the dty-

CHAMELEON (Lev. xi. 30)-a «i>eciei of
the lizard, of very sinfrnlar conatrartii
niipearance. Ttfl tail in ae lonp an ite
body, and, beinR wuund round the branchee of
treen. a^irtfl the bjiihulI in climbing c
inc itself. It {ee<ia on inBecta, an<
tbem, it 18 provided with a tongue ^ ..

long aa its body, which it darts out and Uien
diawi lack ■cam, contracting it '
123

compaiH. TLii orean ii covered widi ■ d
ttnous lubrtance, by which fliea aod M
insects are arrested and drawn in fir t
animal's food. Its colour is cjiangcalil^ t
not to the extent nor from the cauat* wU
vulgarly mippoaed It ia by no ON
tiui the chameleon known to v ■

1,""^ m.

L The ami
y bdcng b
unins of mi

the animal which w
the Levitical law.
a ftjirdcs of Arabian
translaton took it fur Hjin<
mon streni^h.

CHAMOIS (Deut xiv.
intended in this pusage i
family of nnt«lo[)es. The <

natural histoiy is fonnd ii

Switzerland, Geimaay, and Greeoe, at I
hoitfht and in the same clitutv wiA I
mountains of Judea. The Vulnt* and &
tuiwiiit make thii animal the glimffe — aai
unlikely opinion. Bochart and fl rarinlm It
for it among the gazelle family, while Oik

mppme it to be a epedi ' ^ -'

the MoMio law it wai »

»(rf wiidal

CFA

( PIOX. This t«nn it ominected with
:«>iiic word bamp, denotiiig combat,
npion, in ancient warfar^ was one
UenjLjred a f ne to single combat, in the
of c«>ntendinff annieB (1 Sam. xvii 4).
e of the battle was lometimes staked
an encounter. Thus, Xanthns, sove-
Bceotia^ challenged the king of Attica,
i in the stnigi^e. Goliath, too, bade
; to all the armies of Israel m vaunting
1 Sam. XTiL 8>10). The tones of the
"t were not kxt an his enemies—" They
liimayed and greathr afraid.** The
al David accepted the haughty ohal-
4 his gigantic and disdainful adveiBary,
'on an easy victory — **And when the
ones SAW that their champion was dead,
led." An okl fonn is jret Kept np at the
fttion ci tbe kings of Britain. An armed
paon appeaiB at Westminster during the
lony, niM proclaims by a herald, that if
hofud deny the king's title to the crown,
rendy to defend it by single combat.
IAXCE (1 Sam. vL 9) might be better
ered omirrenee, and is so rendered in
ral ancient versions. In EccL iz. 1-11
oacred writer is illustrating the weakness
blindnesn of man« an<i showing that all
eventi! and occurrences of his life are
ointed by infinite wisdom and power. In
pa»ai;e first cited tbe wonl implivs
ipiy thiis — that if the cattle, without any
dance of man, should leave tneir calvoD and
ir pau>tiires, and the roads which thev were
i2*tr»nietl tu go in, and should draw tue ark
rards B^tfashemesh (the nearest {Kjint uf the
d of Isravl). then the Philistines might infer
m tLift sii]>cmatural occurrence that (lod^s
id had alHicted them as a punishment for
ainin;^ the ark; but if nothing like this
mid appear, they mi^'ht suppose that their
;^ular affliction was the result of natural
ni^h unknown causes. What men speak of
hapf-euin^' by chance, are those occurrences
iu.tx t;ike place without any api>arent cause;
in Luke z. 31, ^* It so happened tliat a
ieet,'" kc ; t. e,, he hod no defogn to pass by
t wounded man, &c. ; though they are not
? Ie3» actually the result of divine appoint-
mt. The word, in its atheit>tical use, is as
ii^ilosr'phical a^ it is impious.
CHAXCELLOR (Ezra iv. 17)-a distin-
ished officer of the Periiian cr^urt, of whoKe
irticnlar functions we have now no know-
liire. He was virtually a roval prefect.
CHANGEABLE SUITS OF APP^VREL.
ee Clothes.)
CHANGES OF RAIMENT. (Sec

LOTBES.)

CHANGERS OF MONEY, or MONEY-
EL^NGERS (Matt zxL 12; John ii 14).
Iten Judea became a province of Rome, the
rwB were required to pay taxes in Itoman
irrency, and at the same time the annual
ibnte for the senice of the sanctuary was
le half shekel of Jewish currency. To ex-
lange these, one for the other, was the em-
Ajymcnt of the money-changers, like the busi-

CTIA

ness of some mo<iem bn>kerfi. To obtain trade
they stationed themselves in the courts of the
temple, the place of general resort for strangers
from every part of «Tu(lea, and their opi)res8ive
and fraudulent practices probably justified the
allusion of our Saviour ti> a ** den of thieves."
Perhaps they were also accuHtome<l to j»ay and
receive interent on loans, and this practice is
recognized in Matt xxv. 16-27. (See Z^Ionet.)

CHANT. (See Viol.)

CHAPEL (Amos, vii 13), or SANCTU-
ARY— a place of worship. Bethel is called
the king's chapel by one of the idol pritwts,
because there the kings of Israel paid idola-
trous worship to the golden calves. (See
Bethel.)

CHAPITERS (Ezod. xxxvi 38), or CAPI-
TALS (as they are called in modem archi-
tecture), are the m\>\hst or ornamental part of a
column. (See Pal&i tbee^.)

CHAPMEN (2 Clir. ix. 14) arc calletl in
the corresponding passage (1 Ki. x. 15) tpi^c-
merchants. They might be distinguished as the
merchants and grocers of m<Mlem days. Tho
revenue to the king was probably in the form
of duties on their im|)orts. (See Mekchamts.)

CHARAN. (See Haran.)

CHARGER (Num. viL 13; Ezra i. 9; Matt
xiv. 8, 11)— a shallow 1k)w1 or baKiii, U8C<1 for
ruceiving the blo<Ki at tlie i»reparation of the
sacrifices; and sometimes a coiiiiiion basin,
somewhat large, and ilat in form. (See
Censfr )

(^HAUIOT (Gen. xli. 43; xlvi. 2H; 2 Ki.
X. 15; Acts viii, 2.s). Until within 3(;o or 4<J<)
years the convenience and even luxury of
modem vehicles of pleasure were unknown.
The chariots of the early a^^es were pn)l)al)ly
little 8ui)eri(>r in style or convenience to moilerii
carts or wagK'(>nH. Travellers deHcril k; a cIuuh v
carriage used in Asia at the present day, which
is fonn<id like a lar^e wicker biuskt-t, S foot
long, 8n[>i)orted by four solid wheeLi. convex on
each side. These carriages were inaiie of w< m kI,
and were often burnt in war (i*s. xlvi. U ; Nali.
ii. Hi). The "chariot'* in Soni; of Solomon iii.
9, 10 was pn>liably a palanquin, i )iie of the.-^e
in iLse by an Indian kiiit^ is thus d«.>scribed by
C^iintus Curtius :— ** ^V hen the king shows
himself in [)ublic, his servants go before hiui
with silver censers, which fill the air thron^rh-
out the way along which he is borne in the
palanrpin, with delicious cnlimr. He liiinsclf
IS rechning u^wn a ^'olden couch, covere<l with
I)earls and veiled with puq)le curtains, enibroi-
<lere<l with gold ; tho life guanl brin;; nj) tho
rear." The chariots of the nobility were in this
way omainenteil with very costly decorations.
Homer thus descrilx'S .1 mio's car, —

"ITolio ti> tho rhJiriot rolloil
Tho bmzen wliooN, niid joineil Uiein t-i tho siuoulh
Stt^ol arlo: twico four HiK)ke>4 (Uvidoil iMir-h,
Shot fn)in tho contro to tlic vor»;o. Tlio vorgo
Was gold, by follioa of etomal bra««
fiuardetl, a dazzliuK «»h<iw. Tho ^hlnlnp naxoa
Were Hilvcr; Bllvcr cordH, and curib< uf gohl
The seat ui>l)ore . . .
The polo was argent all, to which 8ho bound
Tho golden yoke."

12^

/

CHA
Umij formi of uicient duuiob lure been
oopied from the Eeypt'"' monumenbt. Wo
Snt read of tliem in connection with Fhanoh
(Exod. liv. 17). The Cuiuuites bad cavkUy
MHJ ch&riot*. Th> Philistine* in Saul'i time
had 30,000 of tbem, vith numeroiu cavalry.
David^ after hia victory orer H»d«dMer,
burned 000 chariots and hunstrung their
hones. The Ugyptiana aicelled in the art of

lea waa oommcni, frnptoMOj inn
) hone* do not M<ai to bwcbMiib

icedto'ths wan, bat to ba jebA*

diariola dedicated to tUi famiiuiT. b
olden mythokicy the mm b luiuliiatii
drivins throoBb the baavens Ut hamH
with fiery coonara. lliia aotka aif]
_. ......i rtitjcmnfaiedte. I

{ZendateMa,

riaetotheaaniititicninteiedte. I
a aacred book* of the aacuot P*
ateMa,pvt iL, p. SU), Hisaid, *B
._jsun that driree witii font bno h
.^pidconrae." InkaolemnHoearindai
by Xenophm {Cgnptdia, h. viii. «n ^
after four incompanUy Sua balk, >U-
■actjficed to Jopitet. foOawedthehonKl
aacriflced to the aim. Cnitiiii (L iJLa^
deacribea a dmilar piumaiuu. In liU
bya, " The iJtariot ooneecnted to JnjlM

iiu.Hng chariots, and the Hebrcvn. in Solo-
mon's tjtoe. Hvm to have imitated them.

Where chariots are mentioned as of iron
(Josh. ivii. 18), it i* nmbable that the iron in-
struments with which they were often heavily
■nned g&ve them such a designation. The
word chanot is used for the horees by which it
fa (IrsH-n {2 Sun. viiL 4 ; z. IS), and agun toe
the riden of luiraes and other animala (Isa.
xxi. 7-U).

CllAR[OTn, CAPTA1K9 OF (Eiod. IV. *), or,
literally, nioi'«(n( Ihra-Handcri. This eiprea-
aian. in an Em,'liHh translaCion, might be snp-
poeed to denote the ufticur or officers who hid
charge of the chariot forces ; but it ^robaUly
refers to an old ciutum or arrangement in which
three men attiodupon the chanot, two of whom
are prepared forsction. while the third manage"
the horses. They were probably selected fo
their valour, and perhajw formed by themselve
a distinct diviKion of the army, ami each hai
ita distinct officer (Eii-d. liv, 7). On utat
occasions the thin! |K.'nH>n held tlie character
istic myal umbrella, as is often seen on th
Egyptian and AsjijTian monumenta.

IH) means the frame work on wliich the chi-ni
hims mteil, and one pattern of which might
resemble the boiiy of a chariot, (Sue AUHiSf

Chabiot c:t:es (3 Chr. i. U], or citie* so
designated because in them were stored up t^e
chariola of war during the time of peai
magazines and anwiuils of modem aati

that were peculiarly fitted, by size, spirit
docility, or s|>vcial training, for servim i
cliariots; HH carriage, draught, and saddli
horses of later days.

Charkt h.u) (2 Chr. iviiL 33)— driver c
charioteer. ,

CllAUlOTB OF TBI BOB (2 EL xxilL 11)— h

animals." Isidore of ^ville obasrm (
iviii. cap. 36), "The Bomanap^

a chariot drawn by foor hotae*, nk

their colonrs, were to represent the ta
sons and the fonr elements." SirV-J
in hi* Easay on the God* of Greece, W3
India ( WortM. i, p. 208) aaym th*t^'i««
Uiudooe, Fhtebus or the pefxcniified «>■
sun, ia adored as the cod Surya. Ti**
and painten deecribe his chaniit aa dlW
seven green horses." The BabUuBM
that the horaes deatroyed by Josiah lia<
by his idolatrous anceetois yoked 1^
sacred cars, and that the king and lutaW
drove out in them every morning, tea'!
point, to meet and salute the ririiiK H*-
CHAHinrs (OF WAB) (Judc, ivTa). ft*
of chariot* thus denominated were nMo '
common vehicles of princes and g*
These, as ne Icom from Homer, «*>*
hi);ldy ornamented. Another clssa i
chariots funned the moat terrible of 1x1
oni^nca, and were employed in greatatf
|1 Sam. xUL S ; 1 cV xviiL 4). li»

toths citranitUi of tha tudc* o
nfoQghtiti

'•KluriM ot Iran arnMd irilh Scrlhcii.
T lafani* fmin them npnn tfac

^ cnuugh W permK twenty luen

cWioto U soinetiiD« ii»ed fignra-
««ta or uniin (I's. liviiL 17);
" praycTH, uiil cuiuliuIb, and power
?• it " clmriot and hi>rtteQirn of
u. u. 11, 12), ino-miuch tui he did
no Han aU Uie chariot* and horgc-

lio; Hjidil master. The mighty
"trti artillery— iBroel's cavalry.

J Mne in hor-us; hut we will re-
name of the Lord oiir God" (Pa.
t cavalry and chariuti of E};.vTit
I in the nm-ient world, and tha
^'Ih in Gill, often Ojurtnl :i1)iAnce
Tliit folly id severely reprimanded
L Ip H-m. liv. ;( the retumina
proof nf their sincerity, are ex-
■toCrxl, "Aiwhur^aUiiotiave

"Wo ti-ill not ridt

CHA

, . ., expresg the Bcatiment intended. fRe«
iyx.J Charity, in the iHiiiular acceptation
of the wunl, in almBgivina.
(See Alux.) Charity, in its
oM Knt,'li«h seiue, meant love;
■ ■ Scripture denotes that
. CJod and to man which
ia the fulSlment of the Iiw, tho
entire cuin]>IemeDt of ita obe-
dience. In UiiH iKn*e charity
covers the multitude of sins —
love overlooks faiilta, throws
orer them the mantle of ohH-
vion. Theapinitle'adcacription
of charity, in the l;(th eha|>terof
his finit upiBtlo to tliu Corinth-
iana. has been oftvn adminid
for its succinct and luminniu
delineation of this Christian
grace. Love is eawntial to
the perfectjon of the Christian
character. Eloquence and em-
dition are but an unmeaninn
voice without it (I Cor. liii. 1).
Profound ociiiiiremenlM and
sapematural giftn aD<l unilnw-
ments, even of a brilliant na-
ture, are only gnu dy hullownun
where love exiatit not The
■elf-sacrificea anil conminiinjr
toils of I'tiifessud philanthropy
l>Ti>miit«.'<l by love.

of its fuvoun— ;;li>ws with bvneviilint
ardour — docs not raslily wiUidraw ibi re^-ard—
never imputes Binister motives -is not of a sus-
picious temperament — is not cciworious in its

From itH spirit as vun^reftd or lualilfnant rctidiv
lion. The daraliliK jrifts of tiie oariy Church,
the powers of Tmiiihecy. language, iuhI de<;pcr
insight into Uia ('bnatian mysteries, have
povied away, but love still remains. Kay.
riiile other gracea remain al'inK with it, it i«
superior to tlieni. It rinua aliuvi) the fiiimer
cifta and the present t^roces of the Holy Snirit.
'* Now abideth faith, liope, cliaritf , tlicso three;
but the (rreatcst of thuHu is chanty;" "([real-
est," for faith and lioiro unito in lirndiiciuit it:
greatest, for it shall (-luw in tlie ludevmott
husom when faith and hope in their present
form shall have ceased tii exist; gruatoit, for
the poBSBBSion of it gives tis a nean^r resem-
blance tu Ilim who u lAVe tlioii eitlietfidth
or hope con ; greatest, in tine, fur it is the iwiue,
enibiidiment, and final consummatiun of _aU
]irevioua feelings, prineipleis and Rraciii, which
at length diaapiiear in love as the Hower is
lost in the fruit. What iiuiiieeuient, then, tii
us to iiut on that "charity which is the bond
of perfection."

CH^iiRM, CnARMEK. (BeeAln)ER,Asp.)
We have spoken of the iHiculiar elfeet of niuHio
upon the adder in these i>rcceilini; ortieles; and
we now transcribe a sliort i>ara^raph from a

CHA
recent work to allow that •mnetbinff like
cbanning is rtill pnctised in 'EgfiA, though
mingled up with a eoi<d deal of myateiy wl
importurer— " Tho Paylli, or Eifyptian eerpent

channeri, a

y house (in I'hebes) o:

ig-placen They are
hidden in the innErmost recoanes of the wsUi.
They afterwards went to a tomb where Mr.
Bonomi resided, and seemed to cliiinn from
thdr holes another serpent and some Boorpions,
but failed in enticing a Gno iierpvnC which Mr.
Bonomi kept in a tin case. The lid of the case
was fin this occasion purposely kept open;
therefore, had their incantatiuna really poa-
SBMed any influence, exceiit over the reptiles
which had been trained to obey their call, this
homed smike woulrl must assuredly have made
its appearance. Many travellers have beheved

a highljr proliable that the
secpenta and acorpiona which they profeaa to
find are only thoae that they have themselves
let loose, and whiiji have been previously
accustomed to be aunuaonFil in some peculiar
■ irfood. Tho Paylli

TiSl

CHEESE (1 &

CHB

and ever »fter safe from tb* Te

Bconuons, or any otlier hmtial n
Hoskina' Vuit tat^Ortat Otuu,m.i
OHAKRAN. (See Hauh.)
CHATTER. (See CsisE. Swiiuf.)
CUEBAR {Esek. L 1, 3)~aiii«i
land of the Chaldeans, Aeoknydb
resided here, and the prophet EiU
with whose predictiona the place hi
intereatinE assodationB. Itia<»IlsdHd
2 Kl xvii. 6. and it is the Chabotni <
Ureeks. It waters a licK and faUl m
and empties lt«elf intu the Enphial^ ■
from Cui^ainm. But othen (oppcM k
the Euphrates: and others still ooW
to be the royal river or great nnal nid
excavated by Nebuchadnezzar.

CHEDORLAOMER (Geo. liv. 1,C
of the IctncTB who formed an aliiauoe ifril
five cities of the plain, and whose ^di
taken from them b^ Abnun. (See Al
He hai been identified with Kndorw
whose title is "Bava^cer of the Wat;
the identification haa not been folly im
CHEEKBONE (Ps. iil 7). The Gfi
language of this paMage presents the pi
surrounded by hia enemies as l>y a lHn<
bewta, and denotes their complete de|>i
of the power of seiang upuu or dBVoniit

L IS). 01

bat

cord of milk, was a tt
article of food mxa
Jews, and is IMW

The word occnn M

n£g t

rentier them inaenidble to poison. They matter
over them in Arabic several invocatdona to
pronhets and aainta no one ever heard of before,

certainly mi affinity to any otIiiT, and which,
in pljuti terms, would be called gibberiah-
Thi-y adminiater a draught of water, in which
they mi^ n powder, and render it more effii-a^
oious by Piiitting into it ; and a seriient, which
they apply to the atrancer'a ear, having bitten
it until the bliKxi fluws, he is then declareil to
be initiated into the mysteries of tjieir craft.

tell ua that new cheese
curd of cream nitti,
luxury of the lichert
The milk woaeepust
rude sort of chuimi
Bi:rTi£), was eoagol
summer by the flowed
wild artichoke, and II
was placed in a closi
rush or wicker bsakst
pressed as to retain il
Still it was only, after
"-" a kind of aott cuid,

BtiSened and grew ha
age ; and each Af
M-ldom more than
poimda in weight Ten baskets of c
thia kind were not an unsuitable pre
Jesse to make even to an crfEcer ol
aniiy. (See Mile.} Id a pastoral
Buch as I'aleatine, cheeae-nuJciajf mi
been both a common and conatant empli
One purti'm of -iBninalem is called the '

;er'B volley ," or 'l\-ro-pffion. (Sec I

-HEMAK1M.S (i!ci.h. i. 4)— then

idol-goda, aa in 2 Ki. xxiii. 5, and ft

LH-«1th till- ilcfi

It .-jterw.-irdi
be o! Bvnjomiu. uid wan ocini-
w if ter thou rutam from cap-
oLX; Eamii23;N«b.vu.3y).
il it under the name nt KeDr,
Iran Jenualcm Mid 2 weat of

lUS (Eietc xxT. ir,), CHERE-
m. m. 14). Theae nomeg ue
It (< B&v-id'i army {2 Sun. iv.
il Menu to bare tierai b diatinct
im. l&lSr It il prulalile they
iwinally Philistinea, ikilful in
ia»m. III, H, 16 with Zeph.
1 qnalified to become a, Bort of
tlw kin;: or that they were
were wiUi Diviil amoDg the
Qiaetfaite*, and hence their
•n by this name in the army.
Bity j^rined «i^ the Feletbites
Uj, who are (apposed to have
nelita of the trflw of Beuben
1) or Jndah (1 Chr. iL 33),
D the etymuiogical meaning of
"ioi than, " aiecutionera uid
tte fmictiona implied in those
ft Hpadally tn an oriental body-
Tvpnn ra»<l«— "Mche™ uid
id toe Septnasin^ following
ii or tradition, baa "Cretans."
n timed aa light aimed tionps
KL Whoerer the Chertthim
1 Darid'a lif «-«nard>, bonnd by

). 51— a small brook

rt(Kx.-l. ^

whose S:kv «lmiililbL' t
winfMshriiil.U-oviTtb
l«-2ilf. Fnnii Wtvm

bini UodcuininuiuilwitliMtweiiuu „

children of IsraeL Thus it ia ivourdcd. Num.
vii. 81), "When Mosea was gone into the tab-
ernacle of the coiigre}ntian to apeajc with him,
then be heard the voice of one speakiofi unt<i
him from off the mercy-aeHit tiiat was upon tht-
■ric of tentimoDv, from between the two cheni-
bimramlheHiwJceuntoliinL" 'like name isoftvii
used in Scripture nrbcn the aymbolic dwellin^-
plico of God ia referred to (I Sam. iv. 4 ; IV
Ixxx. 1). The cherubim in Solomon's temple
were higex and ooetlier tliaii the original ones
in the tabenuicle. Thuir aizo and abape aru
described jiarticularlv, 2 Chr. iJL 10-13. Nvhen
we turn to the prophecies of Gzekiel, we fmd
a pecoliar descriptiun of the churubim as
oampound figures of unimatod nature (Kzek.
i. e-M). Kz^-kiel recognized these anomoloua
beings aa the chonibim, fur he savM— "And
the cherubim were lifted uii. This ia the
living creature that I aaw by the river of
Cbebar. And vrhen the cbiirubim went, the
wheela went by them ; and when the cherubim
lifted up their winga to mount up from the
earth, the same wheela aluu turned not from
beside them."" Laatly, an alluuiim to these ex-
traordinary foims occurs in the AimcalyiMe.
iv. 7, H-''^The first Lea«t was like a Hon, and
the second beast like a calf, and the thinl
beaat had a face as a man, and tlie fourth beunt
waa like a Sying eagle,"

These scnptoial symbols open a wide field
for oonJectiiTU and apecalation. To rejieat
these would serve little tiuquBc. The Jewa
themselves began the mj^tical imiuiry, for
Philo thousht the chonibim liad mime con-

CHE
nanta of the earlieat religion. Some dim
notion of the cherubim seems to have been
universftUy Bpre*d over the world Compound
flgurea of aninmLi prevsa in >11 the religious

Kennof the East They abound in Babylon,
jria, and Ptreia, and yet rarvive among
tbeir Bct^ptures, aa winced and buman-headed
bulla. (SeeAanvBii, Nineveh.) TheBpbim
■0 characteristic of Kgypt, waa a lion uid
■nan, a Bymbul of courage, atreneth, and m-

11 Korth-Wait Palace, Nlmrond.

telligence. The word cherub, too, ia not ei-
cluaively Hebreir. It is found in Sanacrit, the
cultivatiKi tongue of a jieople of long part
ages. It aiipean in Greek in the fnim y/ii^,
■nd in the term prtjfin. belonging to the weat-
tem m^holoKy (nee lluiuten's E^spt). Tiie
ladical idea of^these word* ia that of laying

rotoctiug— the «ame that

remaAable that when ' — _

cherubim to be made, be g>T« m &■
aa to their form or likenCM, It ia pah
strained inf ereoce from tliu rilenos a H
imagine that the ahape of the dwntt
wellknowTi both to thenacbaniitivhol
them and to the people gensnlly. 8)
futma not nnlike tbe chCTubim lud i>i
Egnit. Not that HoMi
them, for th^ va« notSl
in their origu^ bnt wen <
to Egypt, with other I
One marked diSemueiL
other countriea tha dicnu
a public poidtion in front d
and templffi ; but miaang t
they were conockled ma
gaie— in wlamD darinua
attangely - ahaped diaca
mttched the golden frail
gardena of Uielleaperidea
a, fanciful reproductiom of
cinal cherubim of tba a
Eden. Yet the cbeniEi
found in Egnit ahow na n
of the pienultiw id««, the

of actna] and degndimri

The monnmenta yet esUl)
composite animal shapee, ooverine «i
wings the sacred cheat or ark. It ta
to come to a correct idea of the pacnli
of the cherubim, if we do not take I
myetic repreBentatdnn. But theahapei
■L-vm to have been uniform. Porticoaed
„ were atrangely oomUned alaovi
[the Egyptian god*.

Egyptian Ooda
"The cherub," remarks Bahr, "is such a
being aa,Btaiiding on the highest grade of created
existence, and containing in itself the most per-
fect created life, is the best manif^atation of
d the divine life. It is a represcQtation

of crration i

the

The vital

jbest grado —

cated b

izcd. so f ar aa they came into viai
works of creatiim, whilst in the aphiia
— a differpnce which cannot be coaiiii
portant. The cherub is an ideal creat

--ilently intended to be ao. Stn

is to cherubim, they are tl

creatures who are repreeented as an

tbe throne of tiod, (see Ezek. i. 10, ■

pare Itev, iv. 6 aq.) Hence tha ay

' them were carved on the walla irf the ti

I and temple, and images of them pli

' the iiiei«y-«Mt^ l/iea Exod. xxr. 18 a

tl'ini,^ ti> ai;}i i>f thv four. Is nut tliia
iii<)t-i that Teal cxiiit«nc«i cannut be
S<i like tu each iHhrT krc thef, a»
1 in Eiek. i. and lt«v. ir., uul yut tm
beiiig mnQKifitc in the fomwr and
1 tb latter, that it ii very difGcnlt to

S tlM tree of life. But

it which rendi

irtuMd, and whidi nor prarait limits

• tadiMnMatlai^ Farliapa it iii«;

■alktacton aohiboD of tht imagarj
I toRHgotthBt, MdwOUTestauuit
*" "Mff ii that of ominMite beingi
rfaoM, and aa the olBca bere ii one of

V Matdiing eff ectnallT, ■> as to pn-
■ae^ to t£e tree of lite, bonci with
I and foD of stcs in ertrjjnit (Eiek.
■BP. B«T. iv. 8), not unlike in this
o the poetic Anrui with his hundred

deagnated as the symbol of a most

Knarding <m the part of Jehovah
(Dther access on the part o! m&n to

of fife. "The fl*"''"^ sword which
FeiTw:v'(Geu. iiL 21)— that is, which
M br the hands on each of Uie four
Bk. L 8) — would effeclnoll^ guard in
«cticiD the gate* of pandise^ I can-

ttri"''i"e uat this mnple and easy
IrOB ia tog probable one. And I am
. iirf""i-< to believe that ^mbol only
■ted by the name of chenibim, because
id eominaiHiinent forindi the Jews t»
ny likeness of any thlAg which is in
Juve or in the esitb boieatb' (EimL

iz«l i.y tLi- fni,

:<r<liis

Lviii

itii[..P

i'.f

:licrubiii ...

'Ilie cherubim a]i]>ear to lie tu iurjitulv the
highent fonns of auimatod oottire with which
we are acqnunted, in perfect and harmoninus
oombination, employed in the loftiest senice
to which living creation con aspire, entire con-
secration to God. Tbey api>ear as gnardiaiu of
tho divine thnme. keepinj; it from profane in-
trusion—a Irsson to man of tliat profound
adoration which he ehould cultivate when he
comes into the presence of the Lord. They
contain in them a aincentration of all that
distinguishee animated being, as God is worthy
of all tJieir homage and service, for be is the
■ouTce of all created eiceltmce. Now, as the
angels often appear aurrouDding the divine
thniue, this combination of various forms may
be a symbol of that streu)^, oourage. intelh-
gence, and fervour which beliine to them, as it
embodies in itself the noblest characteristics of
the inferior creation ; or ttiis emblematic union
of all the powers of life, connected, at the same
time, so intimately with man's fall and expul-
■ion by the station of the cherubim at K<len,
and ssBociatcd so closely atfain with his re-
covery anil solvation by tlieir 'positinn on tho
mercy-seat, may foreshadow tliat ultimate per-
fection which redeemed humanity shall reach
when it shall be "equal to the angels," and
live in immediate oneness and communion with
Ood, the spring of existence ami glory.

CHESNUT TREE (Gen. in, 3f]—a well-
known tree which is figuratively used (Kzek.

to Ulustrate the greatness of the Assyrian
kingdom. The tree known tv ns as the plaaf
is supposed to be intended by the sacred

CHI

thoie chiefs or pnesta were holding games at
Ephesus when the tumult was excited in that
city because Paurs preaching interfered with
the personal interests of Demetrius. These
people were friendly to the apostle, and ad-
vised him not to cxix>8e his person unnecessarily
to the fury of the i)opulace.
CHIEF miEST. (See Priest.)
CHILD. CThildren is a comi)ound pluraL
Clulder being the simple plural, and en^ another
form of pluml tcnnination, as in oxen, being
added. A great feast was made in ancient
times when cliildren were weanetL '* Abraham
made a great feast the same day that Isaac
was weaned" (Gen. xxi 8). The child*s name,
as we see from nimierous instances in Scrip-
ture, was often an expressive an<l character-
istic epithet. The nurses of children seem
often to have remaine<l attached to them all
their life. Wlien Kehekah left her father's
house to become the wife of Isaac, she took
with her her nurse; and such was the im-
portant station which this nurse held in the
new household, or such was the interest which
ttie family felt in her, that we find the follow-
ing statement in Gen. xxxv. 8 :—** Deborah.
Kebekah's nurse, died, and she was buried
beneath Beth-cl under an oak.*' Children
wore enioined to respect and obey their pa-
rents. Filial reverence was indicated by Kacnel
when she said to her father, " Let it not dis-
please my lord, that I cannot rise up l>efore
thee" (Gen. xxxL 35). ('hildren^ among the
Jews were to be instructed with i)eculiar
tenderness and care (Dcut. vi. 20-2^^). The law
was, *' A bastard shall not enter into the con-
gregation of the Lord.*' Perhaps the term
bcutard does not mean illegitimate children, but
children sprung of nu incestuous connection,
or one included i^ithin the prohibited degrees
(Deut. xxiii. 2). (See Birth, Concubine.)

The power of a parent over his children was
great. ITic'V coulil be taken for slaves to pay
IMurental debts (2 KL iv. 1). This was in
accordance with the law expressed in Lev.
XXV. 3y-41 : "And if thy brother that dwelleth
by thee be waxen i)0<»r, and bo sold unto thee,
thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond-
servant: but as an hired sen'ant, and as a
sojourner, he shall })e with thee, and shall
8er\-e thee unto the year of jubilee : and then
shall he deiiart from thee, lx>th he and his
children with him, and f<haU return unto his
own family, and unto the poi^ses-sion of his
fathers shall he return.*' Our Lord alludes to
the same old statutes in one of his parables :
"But forasmuch as he harl not to pay, his lord
commandeil him t^) he sold, and his wife and
children, and all that he ha<l, ami pa^-me.nt to
be made " (Matt, xviii. 25). (See Deht. j Nay,
further, the authority tr) which a father was
entitlca extended not only to his A^ife, to his
own children, and to his servants of botn sexes,
but to his childri'n's children also. It was the
cust<^>m anciently for sons newly married to
remain at their father's hou£<e, unless it had
been their fortune to marrj^ a daughter who,
having no brothers, was heiress to an estate:

lao

CHI

or nnlen by loaie trade, or by ooinmcroB, tnv
had acquired sufficient pnyerty to €u3m
them to support thdr own familv. It nMft
of course be expected, while they Hved in twir
father's house, and were in a inaTinffr the p»
sioners on his bounty, that he would
his authority over the children of hii
well aa over the sons themaelyea. In thii «■§
the power of the father had no juarraw VmSk^
and whenever he found it neoeanzy to nan ,
to measures of aeveri^, be was at liberty li
inflict the extremity of ponishment (Gea. ziL
14 ; xxxviii. 24). The magistrate oooU noCrf
his own authority take up the can. Bolh
Iiarents, mother as well as Dathe^ nmit Mib
a complaint against a son ere the law eorij
interfere ; and it waa enacted that the Jadp
should pronounce sentence d death vftm. tti
son. if, on inquiry, it oonld be proved thilki
haa beaten or cursed his father or motlMr, c
that he was a sxiendthriftb or aaocy, or eoit^
madous, and could not be refotmed (Eni
xxi 15, 17; Lev. xx. 9; Dent zxL 18-211

The property of parents was geaenof ifr
herit<Ml Dy their children, but in ouffenal pi»
portions. Thus— 1. As it respected tOM."^
The property or estate of the nther, ate Ml
decease, fell into the possession €i his aia%
who divided it amontf themselves equally, wA
this exception, that the eldest son received tn
portions. 2. As it respected the amu <if tme^
6ine«;— The portion wnich waa jsiven to that
depended altogether upon the feelings ol tte
Abraham

father.

uun gave presents^ to

amount is not known, both to Ishmari aadH
the sons whom he had by Ketuzah, and uA
them away before his death. It does ■<
appear that they had any other portian in At
estate ; but Jacob made the sons whom he hid
by his concubines heirs as well as the otboi
(Gen. xxi 8-21; xxv. 1-6; xliz. 1-27). Mow
laid no restrictions upon the cboioe of fstiMB
in this respect; and we should infer that Ai
sons of concubines for the most part reocmd
an e(|ual share ii^ith the other sons, firam As
fact that Jephthah, the son of a oonculte
complained that he was excluded without aaf

rrtion from his father's house (Jndfi^ xL 1-7).
As it res|)ected danghtert : — ^The daiidifen
not only had no portion in the estate, DBt, H
they were unmarried, were considered as mak-
ing a part of it, and were gifted by tiidr
brothers into matrimony. In case there mn
no brothers, or they all had died, they took ^
estate (Nimn. xxvii. 1-8) ; if any one dkd in-
testate, and without anj offspring, the propeiff
was ditipofted of accordmg to the enactaneBti in
Num. xxvii. 8-11.

This term Is often used metaphorically ia
Scripture, to denote a variety en intimate re-
lations. A man*s descendants are calkd Idi
children, as the children of £dom, of XtnA
A teacher's ])upils are called his childrai,'-
thus occurs the phrase. The sons of the pro-
phets. To denote their origin, character, and
destiny, the f^xA are called children of God,
children of light, children of the kingdom:
and on the otiier hand, the bad an namni

'<M\iS a child (G^" jUv. 207.

v are nut ti su[>|>ose t)iat the

1 whet mockiid ElUlia wtru eittiur vcTy

1 of EHjili^ tnnaUtioD, and
'« it, and b«wl in mde ud im-

,a hit jnccwiDT, " Gio op, thoD

■a"(3EiiL23).

1, anunt modem Jewi, paranti have
M thoT ohildnii in the elemente, they
m to idio^ and even moming befors
\ tha mother providea them aome-
> Mt, irttidl i> nioally aweetcned with
«r *aK>^ uul aervei them both fnr
at BDd lor initmction: for at giviiig
Id tU» aweat moiiel aha iinsi these
-■• Aa thia ia aweet to thy palate, lo let
[beaaMttothytmud." Andehegivei
n* how he ibonld behave himaeU at
aa that be ii to oce DO 6]thy worda, but
t be nada in the law ; because God
Ban Hpe^ pore and vholeaome discoaiM,
t an ™».«ntinif»Hnii oo^^t to ba agiee-
tha UTina Word ; next that the child
at apendUe time in i^ talk, to hia
idnnce, cv to hia fellowi'; urith other
a modut'a owe and aSectioD
At five yean of age the

vellen mi

hi havt' rtjutfil im their juuruiy

inuarningl

: the Pentateuch ; ana
put (if they

. leUuchna,.

■ita of the Talmud: which oontain the
their institutes l>ariiiK tJie time tha.t
ia leaniiiit; the five bo^cs he ia callL-d

HXKY,

CUINXEKETH (Nam. iixiv. II; Dent.
iii IT), or in Uk plond form CHIN'NEBUTU
(Joah,ii2;mL3),orCIKNEEOTH {1 Ki.
XT. 20), were namea <rf a lake in Lower Galilee,
andjwobab^of aplaceakoon itaalu>re. lie
lake ia,l7acliangeofletteia, called Genncavet;
also tlie wa of Galilee, and the eea of Tibeiiat,
which last ie ita preiieiit name. There ii no
port of Palertine to lie compared with the
environs of this lake for climate, fertility, and
richness of icGnery. Many cities of note (as
Capeinaum, Bethuida, and Choniin) stood
upon its shoreg. The river Jordan flowa
through it ; and it formerly aboonded with fi^
and gave occupation to four of the first dia-
ciplea of our S»\iour, who were bom in its
vicinity, and were called from their woridly
busineBS to follow bim. Much of the time oif
bis ministry was speut, and many of his most
wondecfol works were done, on thene shores.
Though this lake was less than twesty mUes
Ions, by rii or eight wide, it was mibject tu
violent squalls. The wind from the south,
sweeping doK-n the sides of the mountain^ and
setting Dp against the strong current of the
Jordan, rendered Uie lake boisteraua and full
of pcriL No croft ia xeen ujion its wutera in
mmlem days. The Arab fisbennen wade in
with hand-nets, and take what fish they can.
For a full description, we under Tibebiah.

CHIOS (Acts XI. l&]—amount^noiis island
on the coast of Ania Alinor, between Lesbos
and Samoa, 32 miles long and on an average 15
brood, inhaliiteii by Greeks. It was famous in

The apostle Paul

for 'its figs, vL
aul passed it 01

CHI

<if the Rons of Javan, and mndton of Japheth.
HiB descendants, iays ufMephiw, emigrated
from Phnmicia to Cjnirua. Pn)bably thia '
name was ori^nally applied to the island of
Cypnis, but afti'ni'unls ijecamc a }i^meral name
for the maritime conntries an<l idlnntls of the
Mediterranean. In iKaiali xxiii. 1, we are told
that the nt^WH of the rlfstniction of TvreHhoiUd
be revealed to the phips of Tani<liirth as they
parsed the lan<l of C'hittini or island nf Cyprus.
The projihecy of ]>ahuim (Num. xxiv. 24), of
the visitation whieli nlionld come on AsMhur
(Assyria) and KIkt (the Hel»reWH) ]irrjl»ab\y
referred to the (ireek and llomau invasion of
those conntrit's resiKH-tivi'ly. In the AiKKTy-
pha the Kittiiii art* the Maceilonians ; and the
Vulgate, in Dan. xi. 3f), renders the wonl by
KonianK. (See CYriir.s.)

CHIUN. ** Mi»l»)ch and CTiiun yourimages,
the star of your gi.Ml" (Amos v. 2t)). An idol
which tlie Israelites inatie and worshipiied in
the wilderness. It a]ti»ears to have Wen the
planet Saturn ; and C.-hiun is the Hebrew form
of the Arabic Kaivan. Keiiiphan is the Coptic
api>ellation of Saturn. Star-worship was a
very early form of idt>latry. (See Remphan.)

CHORASHAN. (See Ashan.)

CHORAZIX (Matt. xi. 21)- a town on the
shore of the soa of Tilwrias, where (-lirist
wrought miracles; but its precise liKation is
not known. It was, acconfiiig to .Temme, 2
miles from Cai»ema\nii. Robinson identifies it
with Tell-Hmu -which others supiiose to be
CaiM'niaum.

CHRIST (Eph. ii. 10). rimst is the Greek
wonl ChrMoM^ which signifies anointrti. ITie
word Mcsfitth in the Hebrew corresjiondM to
Chriatos. Hence the Jews or HiOirt'Ws speak
of him as the Mtnitth^ and Christians s])eak of
him as t?ie Ckrint. He is called C-hrist, »»r the
anointfd^ in allusi<tn to the custom of anointing
with oil such as were set apart to a sacred or
regal office. Prophets were set apart by the
oil of consecratii>n. and so were i>riests and
kings (Kxo<l. xxviii. 41; xxix. 7; 1 Sam. ix.
16; XV. 1; 2 Sam. xxiii. 1; 1 Ki. xix. 10).
This unction was a coinsecrating ceremony,
making the i>erson of the subject of it sacreiL
Cyrus, sot apart by Gcxl for a special serx'ice,
is called his auointeil (Isa. xlv. 1); and the
priests and kings, on Iwing so dedicated, were
the special ])roi)erty of G<hI (1 Sam. xxiv. 6; 2
Sam. xix. 21 ; 1 (-)tr. xvi. 22). It was also
emblematical of the clfusiun of the Holy S])irit
(1 John ii. 20, 27; comj). Matt. iii. 10, 17;
John iiu 34). Tlie Son of Cltid, the j>rophet,
priest, and king, was pre-eminently the
Anointed (1 Sam. ii. 10). So in the seconrl
Psalm we have the title ** his Anointe<l." And
thus Messiah describes his own inauguration—
"The Spirit of the Tjonl God is upon me;
because the Lord hath anointed me to preach
good tidings unto the mcisk" (Isa. Ixi. 1).
Daniel, too, refers to him as the Messiah or
Anointe<L "And after threcHcore and two
wiHiks shall Messiah l>e cut off, but not for
himself" (Dan. ix. 25, 20).

On the other hand, the word Je9U8 is derived
132

CHR

from a Hebrew word ngmfyiiigfoMn^oraeal
to aavt (Matt i 21; Lnke iL II, 21). TIn
word Joshua has the same meaninff, and ws
very common name among the Hefamn, sid
would have been more properly uaed in Acto
vii. 45 and Heb. iv. 8 than Jetug,

The term Christ was originally nseiL nol m
a i>art of the name, but as indicative of chmfr
ter or office. Thus Jefius, the Ckridf whs
descriptive phrase, like John thsBantutCiUKL
xxvi. G^i ; Mark \'iii 29 ; xiv. 61 ; Joim i 10.28^
41;\i.00;vii41;x.24;zi. 27: XZ.31). SbA
an official api)ellation was necessary to diitiD*
guish the Reileemer from others who «n
called Joshua or^ Jesus, llie word Jma
try itself occurs in the Gospels nesify 711
times to designate the Redeemer. It vw
his human name. The name Christ fav itHK
is used about 60 times in the Gospels aid
Acts, and nigh 240 times in tiie EputlsiMd
A])ocul>i»se. In these last books the nnpb
term Jesus is not used much above 60 tisK
llie form Jrsus Christ is found but 5 tinM
in the Gospels, but 160 times in tiie Epiilka
The o]ipoBite collocation, Christ Jesus, WMSMt
happen at all in the C^i8])e1s, bat is oommoB ii
the Epistles. The human name Jesus thus mi
in the course of time absorbed in the iMasl
designation — Christ. The Evangelists^ dssorib-
ing his human life generally, caJled bnn Jams;
the writers of the Epistles, oonoemed dikflj
yrith. the great work to which he had been M
aT>art, name him ChrisL The personal aii
official name were not conjoined durinr oof
Jjonrs life, but as soon as be had gone to^^oni
you find them associated in the Acts of urn
apostles and always onwards. Our faith msj
l>c summeii up in this brief sentenofr-
" Jesus is the Christ." The man who bore tht
name of Jesus is the Anointed — the diviady
commissione<l, divinely qualified Redeemer.

When God was pronouncing the draidfvl
sentence of condemnation uptmourfirst paivBti^
it was his sovereign pleasure, without ay
solicitation or act of man^ to intimate a purpusB
of mercv in the following langnage: — "And
the Lord God said.unto the serpent, I will pot
enmity between thee and the wonum, and
between thy seed (posteritv) and her seed; it
{or ho, i. f., her seed) sliall braise thy head,
and thou shalt bruise his (or its) bed." In
this single verse lies the grand principle of all
true religion. It is the root and substanoe of
all the prophecies and promises of after>timeL
The war between sin and holiness was then
waged, and has since been prosecuted withoot
intenuission (Rom. viL 2^1). The Son of God
and all true believers are "the seed of ths
woman.** (Comp. Acts xiii !£l: GaL iv. 4j
Heb. ii. 16, with John xviL 2123.) The devil
and all his sen'ants represent the serpodt and
his brood (John \'iii. 44 ; 1 John iii 8). Hie
temptations, sufferings, and igncnoainioos decA
of (/hrist, and tlie fierce opposition and croei

Serseciition which his true follbwem have en-
ured in various ages of the world, axe sisnifi-
cantly described by the bruismff td the ned;
while the complete victory whi£ oar gkfkof

CHR

litnJ.H'Tner has himself achieved over sin and
d«ath, and which his grace enables the believer
alao to oVftain, and the still more perfect and
universal triumph which He will finally ac-
eomplifllu are all strikingly illustrated by the
ImiiuBff of the sezpent's head.

The Dookfl of neathen mythology furnish
carioon analogies to this wonderful passage of
tiie Bible. In one of them Tkor is represented
M the eldest of sons, a middle divinit3r, a
Bfldiatcr between God and man, who bruised
tbe head of the serpent and slew him ; and in
OBe oi the oldest pagodas of India are found
two sculptured figures, representing two in-
carnations of one of their supreme divinities ;
the first to be bitten by a serpent, and the
asoond to crush him.

ITie text in Genefds is the first intimation of
a Saviour which was given to our work! after
It waa ruined by sin; and throughout all
siiooeeding ages of the Church and of the
world, in the wonderful system of sacrificial
and ceremonial observances, in all the types
and shadows of the Jewish law, in the whole
cnnent of prophecy, and in all the changes and
leyulutions of^ ancient kingdoms and nations,
the Hebrews were so clearly instructed in the
character and offices of the promised Messiah,
that their unbelief and rejection of him, when
he actually appeared, seem unaccountable on
aaw oUier hjrpothesiB than that they were
JQdidally blinded; and especially must we
thus regard their conduct when it is considered
how accurately the minute circumstances of
fail fanth, life, and death are predicted, so that
it haa been truly said^ that a very full and well-
eoBcectad life of Chnst could be prepared from
the matenala which the prophecies alone would
supply.

Tile Jews, as a nation, grosaly misappre-
hended the character of the Messiah and the
porpoee of his mission. So clearly were his
advent and offices predicted in the words of
prophecy, that a general expectation of the
upearance of some great dehverer prevailed.
'niey were even accuHtomed to regard his
*>ntnir%g MB the grand era in the annals of the
world ; for they spoke of the two great ages of
history, the one as preceding his incarnation,
and the other as following this wonderful event,
they called * * the world to come. " Their views.
however, were on the whole very narrow, ana
in the maas of the people were elevated very
little, if at all, alx>ve the temporal advantages
of their nation. They groaned oeneath a foreign
yoke and sighed for emancipation, and so hoped
for a Messiah that would fight their battles,
and drive the lemons of Home from their sacred
territory. Their foolish hearts were too much
darkened to see that his kingdom was to be
spiritual; that their deliverance was to bo
fmm the power and dominion of sin ; that the
hlesdnga he would confer would be holiness
and life pverlastmg ; and that the benefits of
his atonement, mediation and glorious reign,
would be shared by all, both Jews and Gen-
tiles, who should repent and believe his Gk)speL
How long these gzonndless appreheDsiona pre-

run

vailed, even in the iiiin<l.- :.f tli^st^ who l:a«I tlio
best oDportiinity Ut know the truth, may be
seen, Luke xxiv. 21 ; Acts L G. Even after He
rose again from the dead, his disciples had not
risen to the ennobling conception of a spiritual
Messiah. Yet this carnality was not um versal,
for we find that about the time of the Messiah's
appearance, Simeon, Anna, and others of like
faith, were eaj^erly expecting the promised
salvation. I'he scene in the temple, when
Simeon took Him up in his amis, has a peculiar
and tender interest, for it was a triumph of
faith amidst surrounding scepticism (Luke iL
25-38).

Chiist came into the world to offer himself
a sacrifice for Kin; and the hiHtory of God's
dealings with the Church of Christ, from Uie
beginning hitherto, abundantly shows the per-
fectness of his sacrifice and intercession, and
that he is the end of the law for righteousness
to every one that believeth. Clear, full, and
satisfactory instruction hath been given us
from him who lay in Uie leather's bosom (Rom.
X. 4). He Li the way, the truth, and the life ;
and no man cometh to the Father but by him
(.Fohn xiv. 6). He has made a ])erfect atone-
ment for human guilt, and the efficacy of his
blood can never be exhausted. As our great
high priest and intercessor (liom. viiL 34 ; Heb.
iv. 14; vii. 25; 1 John iL 1, 2), he hath entered
by his own blood into the holy place, having
ootained eternal redemption for us. He hath
put away sin by the sacrifice of himself (Heb.
IX. 26), and thus hath perfected for ever them
that are sanctified (Heb. x. 14), so that they
may have boldness to enter into the holiest by
his blood, by the new and living way which he
hath consecrated through the veil, that is to
say, his flesh (Heb. x. 19, 20). He has, by tho
gift of his Spirit, made i>r*)vi8ion for our Hancti-
fication, for era<licating inmi our heart8 the
very princij)le<<i of sin. He hath also imi>arted
to us a perieet rule of duty, enforced by jiower-
ful motive and recommended by his own ex-
ample. ITius the 8eed of the woman hath
bruised the seriJent'a h(!ad— the stinjj of death
is removed (1 Cor. xv. 5o). He that had tho
power of death — that is, the devil — is suUlued;
and they are delivered who through fear of
death were all tlieir lifetime Kubjoct to ])ondage
(Heb. ii 14, 15). Life and immortality are
brought to ljj,'ht (2 Tim. i. 10). Bijcaiwe he
lives, we shall live also (John xiv. H>; Kom.
vL 8; 2 Cor. xiii. 4; 1 Thea*.. v. 10; 2 Tim. il
11). He comforts, suHtainH, and guides all true
believers, of whatever countr>', c^ilour, or de-
nomination they may be, throu«?h this world
of tribulation ; reveals to them fountains in the
wilderness and «])rin«:H in tlie tlesert; passes
with them through fiamea and floo<l» ; gives
them the victory over win and death ; and
bestows on them, as a free gift, etemjd life
and blessetlnesB— a " crown of glory that fadeth
not away."

Whoever seriously examines the great plan
of salvation by (Jhrint, in all that preceded and
has thus far attended its veir partial and
incipient development, will bo led tu Q]Lclaiia

LuO

CHB

■with the aixwtle, " Without controversy, great
is the mvstery ot godliness : God was manifest
in the ncHh, justified in the S])irit, seen of
angels, ])n;ache<l unto the Gentiles, believed
on in the world, recoivwl up into plory" (1 Tim.
iit IG). Tlio n.>vc'lutiun of the incarnate Son
of God sliu<ls light on all ])receding and suc-
ceeding time. It lifts the veil through whicli
the institutions and ordinances of the Jewish
dispensation seemed lik<^ a vain and bunlensome
ritual, and shows us of what glorious things
they were the imm*rfect tvjKJs and shadows.
It discloses a moae of redemption from the
curse of God's violated law, — safe, suitable,
and plain for man ; ju»t, consistent, and glori-
ousfor the lawgiver,— and it reveals thesanction
of a judgment to come, in which the ]>rineii)los
and puri>oses of the divine government will be i
earned out in the uncliangeable destinies of
men and angels. All GoiVs ways will ])e \'in-
dicatcKl in the \iew of an assembled world, and
his perfect attributes will shine forth in new,
endless, and infinite glory.

It has been well said that the sum and sub-
stance of the entire Bible is, ** Jesus Christ

CRL'CIFIED TO SAVE LOST SINNERS." The whole

Bible is the "Word of Christ." Its great
theme is salvation by the "woman's seed,"
and its great objt^ct is to summon attention to
the "I/amb of God which taketh awny the
sin of the world." The moment we low night
of this grand and amazing design, — which
eternal love and mercy c«)mbincd with infinite
justice and holiness* to conceive and execute, —
the Jewish Scriptures from l)eginning to end
presi^nt only a vain and peqdexing sliow, and
tiieglory of the divine revelation is extinguished.

It may l>e i)roi>er to glance more «i>ecially at
A few ]M>ints resiwcting Christ. And we may
consider —

L i/w Mcst'uthnhip. — ITie son of Mary \s the
promised Messiah— the expwtvd Christ. He
came at the predicted period (Gen. xlix. 10).
Not to enter into any minute; examination of
this i>roi>hecy alxmt the Shiloh, sufhce it to
remark, that Judah maintained a tribal exist-
ence till the birth of (^hrist, while the other
toibes had l>een long dis[>er8ed. The general
tenor of the oracle (Dan. ix. 24, 25) is clear
and decisive, and it intimated that after a cer-
tain ywritKl, c<.)mmencing with the restoration
of the temple, had fully revolved, the Saviour
should appear. All calculations show that
such a iHTiod expireil about the birth of Christ.
( 'hrist, acc«>nling to the ])re-intimati(>n of Hag.
it 0-1), w.os to come during the continuance (>f
the second temple, which, not long after his
death, was laid m niins.

He was lK>ni in the predicted i>laceBeth-lehem
Ei)hratah (Mic v. 2). By a i>eculiar provi-
dence, ('hrist was bom in the city of David.
]^Iary had come to Ik'thlehem to be registere<l,
in obedience io the llomnn decree, and Joseph,
too, was of the house and lineage of David.
During their necessary and brief sojourn at
Bethlenem, Jesus was bom.

( -hrist's rank and career corresponded with
mndcnt prcflictioiL Zechariah had sung,
1J4

CHR

"Behold, thy King oometh onto thee: hb u
just, and having salvation; lowly, and ivfiif
upon an ass, and upon a ooH the foil of aa
asd" (Zech. ix. 9). llie Son of God waibon
in a ^>oor and lowly condition ; and at the dm
of his life tills remxirkable predictioii wm
realized when he made his last entiy isto
JerusaleuL His character was one of static
ness and amiability, jiatience and ocmaeiocB*
sion, and it minutely corresponded with tht
old delineation — *'Hc shall notciy, norliffciqi^
nor cause his voice to be heard m the ibeet
A bruised reed shall he not break, and ^
smoking flax shall he not quench : he ibaH
bring forth i udgment unto trnth ** (Is^ zlil % 3^
l^e works ne performed were no less in laSam
with the oracles of the Hebrew Scripkana
He said to John^s disciples, who had been »ak
to inquire if he was the ChrislL ** Go and dMNr
John again those things whicn ye do hear ani
see : the blind receive uieir sight, and the kme
walk; the lepers are cleansed, and the deif
hear ; the dead are raised up, and the poor
have the Gos]>el preached to them" (Matt xL
4, 5). In this tnie account of his own actsooi^
we hear again what Isaiah had long acopn^
mised — "Then the eyes of the blind shiuibi
opened, and the ears of the deaf shall be Uh
st*Tipped" (Isa. xxxv. 5). i

Ine scenes of his death, too, were a viTid
fulfilment of the ancient propheciea. He died
a foreign deatli. David had eaid, "ThV
] )ierced my hands and my feet ** They dividM
one portion of his raiment, and cast lots for
another. Ilio psalmist had again declared,
"lliey part my garments among them, m
cast lots uiM)n my vesture " (Pa xxiL 18). Hi
was offered upon the cross peculiar potionii,—
the same writer had made it known, "Thiey
gave me alw gall for my meat; and in my
thirst they gave me \'inegar to drink ** (Pa IxuL
21). Thev mocked him when he was dying;
the very language of that mockery had been
given long ago — " All they that see me laugh
me to scorn : they shoot out the lip, they mk»
the head, saying. He trusted on the Loird that
he would deliver him: let him deliver him,
seeing ho delighted in him" (Pa y»ii. 7, 81
He was crucified l>etween two thieves. Isaiih
hail disclosed such a position — '* and he wM
numl)ered among transgressors.*' He was to
die a malefactor's deatn, yet was he to bi
buried in a rich man's sepuldire — "He made
his grave with the A^icked, and with the ridi
in his deatli" (Isa. liii. 9). How strikingly
was this fulfilleu, as the events are rccordeoDy
Matthew, xxviL 57-60. It was foretoU that
he should be rejected by the Jei»ish natioD,
yet in a new life after he cUed Rhotdd he triumph
over all his antagonists (Isa. liiL 1, 2, 3, li^

The old t>iK's and ceremonies were also iB
fulfilled in him. So reasons the apoeUe:—
"Above when he said. Sacrifice andf offering
and burnt offerings and offering for sin thoo
wouldest not, neither hadst pleasure therdft
(which are offered by the law) ; then said hi^
Lo, I come to do thy will, O God. He taketh
away the first, that he may Twtahliih tM

PER

Bcci ihJ '' (Heb. x. 8, 9). Many other arguments
nii^ht be adduoecl, but sureK' theM are sufficient
to prove that Jesus of Nazareth is the pro-
Biiaed Messiah.

It ia true that the nation did not leoogniae
ili proDoiaed deliTeier, for he came not in a
»**»■'***• corresponding to their proud and
mrldly antxdpationa. But if he hadoonf ormed
to the Tiewa of the Jews^ there would have
been three direct testimonies that he was not
bom God. (1.) Because their views were par-
tial, prejudioed, wicked. (2.) He oould not
^ve conformed to their views and sustain at
the same time the character of a perfect in-
alractor. (SL) He would not have fulfilled the
pndictknu of the prophets eoncemlxig him.
Sot, on the other luuod, if he conformed to the
fmbets, and assumed the character of a
pcrnct teacher, his rejection by the Jews was
absolutely certain. It follows, therefore, le^-
timately and conclusively, that Jesus Christ
was the Messiah ol God, oecause he pursued
that coarse which would^ from the nature of
the ease, result in his rejection by the nation ;
which conduct in an imix)stor would be im-
posdhle — but in the true Messiah it was the
neoeMUT course.

IL HUDivinitif. — L The names and titles
«f the Supreme Being are applied to him (Bom.
ix. 5; 1 John v. 20; Rev. i. 11 : comp. Isa. vL
1-10 with John xiL 41). The proof contained
m these two last j^assages is very striking.
Hie scene in Isa. vl 1-4 is very striking and
ao^Dst And an inspired commentator leaves
Qi m DO donbt as to who he was that sat en-
ttnned in this glory, and received of right
thi« exalted homage ; for the Evangelist John
affimu, ** Those Uungs said Esidaa, when he
saw his (Christ's) glor>% and sfiake oonceruing
hnn."

2. Hie principal attributes of God are
ascribed to Christ— as Etekmtt (John L 1 ;
TiiL 58; Bev. xxii 13), Osinisciekce (Matt
ix. 4; John xvi. 30: xxl 17; Bev. ii. 23),
OMriPOTEXCE (PhiL liL 81; CoL iL 9, 10),
03C!PiPSESjE5CE (Matt. xvilL 20; xxviiL 20;
John iiL 13), and Ukchakoeableness (Heb.
±jL 8).

3L The works and prerogatives of God are
awribed to him. The Cueatob of all things
(I«a. xliv. 24; John l 1, 3 ; CoL L 16, 17);
th«rir Peepebvatiox (Heb. i. 3) ; FoBorvENEss
OF ffi5S (Dan. ix. 9, comp. with Ps. cxxx.;
Matt ix. 2, 6 ; CoL iii 13) ; he is to baisb

THE DEAD, AST) JUDGE THE WOBLD (Matt XXV.

31-^3; John v. 22-29; Bohl xiv. 10; 2 Cor.
V. 10{.

4 lie is the object of religious worship (Phil,
il 10, 11 ; Heb. i. 6). The scene of univer8al
worbldp in the Bevelation is indeed magnifi-
cent (Kev. V. 9-13). Now, Christ is worshipped
in heaven : and if he be not God, then saints
and an^ls are guilty of idolatry. Saints
worship nhn— their song is heard first; angels
take up the anthem, and the universe rings
with delighted chorus : all give homage to Him
who died for man, to the Divine Bedeemer.

The following paasagesmay also be cited:—

: Ps. xlv. 6, 7 : comix Isa. vii. 14 with Matt i.
23; Isa. viii. 14 with 1 Pet ii. «; Isa. xliv. 23,

20-23; iv. 8-11; Phil, ii 0, 9-11; CoL iL 9;
1 Tun. iii 16; 2Pet iiL 18; Bev. L 5,6; v. 8;
viL 9-17; xxL 22, 23; xxiL la

The divini^of ChriHt is the comer-stone of
our faith. We do not — we cannot put our
trust in man; — our faith is in God. Were Christ
only a man, atonement is impossible, and wo
must bear our own iniquity. Were he but a
prophet, proclaiming our duty and unfolding
our d(»tiny, what comfort would we derive
from his mission, since, no sacrifice being offered
for us, our guilt still remained unexpiated. and
the sentence of death unrepealed. The scneme
of salvation takes for granted this precious
tnitli— it proceeds uix>n it llie Bible cannot
be understood without it It does not seek to
prove it — it relics upon it as a first principle
already received.

If J esus Chrifft were not God, nor a true
manifestation of the Godhead in human nature,
but a man, or angel, authorized by God to ac-
complish the redemption of the human race
from sin and misery, then what he has done
draws the heart of every true believer unto
himself as tiio supreme or governing object of
affection. And if he is not Gorl, then he has
devised and executed a plan by which the
supreme affections of the human heart are
dniwn to himself, and alienated from God, the
proper object of love and worship ; and God
naving authorized thL) plan, he has devised
means to make man love Chnst more than the
Creator, who is over all, blessed for evermore.

III. Mtdiatorial Nature of ChrUt. — Tho
mediatorial person of Christ consists of a diviau
and a human nature, so united as to form one
subsistence. That humanitv cimsists of a
true body and a rational soul. Divinity and
humanity are united without mixture or con-
fusion. Tlic divine nature ilid not absorb the
human, nor does the limnan contain and cir-
cumscribe the divine. Many errors have
arisen on this subject — one on which men are
not at liberty to si)eculate, but which they are
lx)und to receive as true, on the authority of
God.

Some in the early ages doubted or denied
Christ's humanity, because tliey believed in
the inherent sinfulness of all matter. Misled
by such miserable i)hilosoi)hy, they tlumght
that as Jesus was holy, w) he could have no
material body, but only p«wsessed in lieu of it
a species of phantom, that gave him a resem-
blance to the sons of men. But if Jesus was
not very man, he coidd not die for man in liia
place and room. The Arians in an early
century impugned the 8ui)reiue divinity of
Christ, an<l held that the T^)L'o8 was but a
created being, though of the hij,'hest order.
Others, maintaining Christ's supreme divmity,
fell into various errors as to the nature of his
per8(»nality — errors resulting from "the oppo-
sitions of sdonce falsely so called.'' M.«sl

1^

CHR

forgot to receive the kingdom of Grod as little
clmdreiL For exAm])lt\ Apollinaria and his
followers held that the divine nature supplied in
Christ the place of a human soul ; but now. if
this theory were true, could Jesus grow in
wisdom," for the divine nature or TiOgos is
omniscient? The Apollinarian heresy was
condemned by the Council <»f (Constantinople
in 381. The Eutychians denied the douole
nature of Christ, and held that the one was
wholly merged in the other ; while the Nes-
torians went to the opposite extreme, and
maintained that Christ was possesseil of ti^'o
persons as well as f)f two natures— the union
oetween the natures l)eing only that of will
and affection. All these vain heresies sprung
from a desire to i)hilosophi2e on points where
we are to believe.

IV. ChrifCa Chararter,— "His character was
pure and i^ithout a flaw. ** For such an high
nriest became us, who is holy, hannless, unue-
nled, se])arate from sinners, and mode higher
than the heavens " (Heb. \'ii. 20). To his ene-
mies he could say, "Which of you c<invictt*th
me of sin?" Julias the traitor l>ore a dving
testimony to his Master's integrity. " Then
Judas, which harl l>etrayed him, when he saw
that he was condemned, rej>ented himself, and
brought again the thirty pieces of silver to the
chief priests and elders, saying, I have sinned,
in that I have betraye<l the innocent bhxKL
And they said. What is that to us? see thou to
that" (Matt, xxvii. 8,4).

Christ was tndy i^H»rfect— the onlv perfect
being that the worM luis seen. '1 ho sexes
api>ear to divide iH'twcH.'n them the elements
oi i)erfection, and a fKTfect man or a i»erfeot
woman might not be a ]>erfect human being.
But all that is tender and graceful in woman,
and all that is n(»ble and robust in man, met
toge^er in Jesus. Nature is never prodigal
of her gifts. Binls of gay jilumage nave no
song; strength is denied to creatures endowed
with swiftness. I'hus it is (»fU>n said, and with
justice, that as one man is generally distin-
guished by the predominance t»f one virtue, or
one class of virtues, and another man by the
ascendancy of a different kind of excellences,
so the union of both might realize ]>erfi'ction.
Hail the peculiar gifts of Jolm and l^aul been
blended, the result might hav<j Iwen a jwrfect
aiKwtle. Were the intrei>iility of Luther, the
tenderness of Mclancthon, and the calm in-
tellect of Calvin combined in one person, you
would have the mcnlel of a faultless reformer.
Had Wliitfield possessed W'esley's tact and
power of management, or Wesley W^hitlield's
restless vigour and burning el(»quence, would
there not be the type of a com])lete evangelist?
Out of the distinctive talents and acquirements
of Coke, Bacon, and Hale might be evolve<l
the ideal of a finished judge. And would not
he be a paragon of statesmanship who hivl tlie
tongue of Chatham, the soul of Fox, and the
shrewd and practical energy of Peel? But
Jesus was distinguished by the rarest union of
int^fritv and goodness. Every grace ^ that
adoniB humanity was in him, and in him in

CHR

folneBs and symmetry. No yirtoe joiM
another out of its place. None rofe iiAi
extravacance— none jnned in feeUe reilriD'
tion. There was room for love to a JuAm
in a heart filled with love to the world. Hi
felt that he was djring an a Soiij whUfl ki
was making atonement as a Savionr. Bi
patriotism was not absorbed in the wide ivi^
of his philanthropy. Wliat amiabiHty in bi
character— what meekneea and patience in tti
midst of unparalleled penecution ! No from
was ever upon his face, and no sconi wwenr
upon his tongue : but his eye was offeai flU
with tears, as his bosom overflowed vilk
sympathy and his lips with oonsolatiaiL Si
one pursuit was the good of men. For tint
by night he prayed and by day he labonni
Opposition did not deter him and ingratifiili
did not sour him. With what pains mA
patience he taught— with what dignity mA
heroism he suffereti To attain the nobM«(
ends he died the most ai^ful of den^ths. Helhvl
in the luxury of doing good, and expired in tki
triumph of a perfected enterprise. Thenvtf
no step for selr. No unworthy taint soiled fSk
purity or allojred his merit. He realindtlM
end of humanity— the ghiry and the aOof^
mcnt of God. The multitude hungered, am
he fed them ; they erred, and he rebohiA
them. The disciples trembled at tiie stank
he arose and rebuked it. He summoned oB
of his Her the yoimg man of Nain, and
he migHt have claimed him as a follower i
an apostle, he gave her only son back to
mother. Wine was exhausted at the man
feast; and not to expose the poverty of
newly-weddeil i)air, he createci a furtberii^
ply. He took the little children in His IBM
and blessed them. ^ He could not keep thi
weeping mourner in suspense, but said ottli
her — ** Mary." The sisters of Lasams sobbidl
in sorrow, and he raised their brother. Fstar
denied him thrice, and thrioe he camfurtid
and commissioned the }>enitent. Judas sslntBd
him with a kiss, and in the blandness of Ui
sorrow for the traitor he called him ** FHcnd.'
So ])erfect in every relation of life— so vise ii
sx>eech and so pure in conduct — so large i>
compassion and intense in beneficence —so
replete with ever^iihing that charms into it^
tachment and rapture, he was the inrsmatif
of universal lovclm&ss.

llie idea which Christ's disciples ^ye us of
his character is elevated and peculiar. Thsn
is in it this peculiarity — though always un-
attainable, the character stands before us in so
much tlie greater dignity and jiureness, ths
more highly we culti\ate our own spirits, and
the more strenuously we endeavour, under ths
influence of love, to assimilate ourselves to it
Every attempt, therefore, to represent ths
fulness of Christ's morad nature must rf
nec*essity 1)0 but partially successful.

Thus the events of Christ's life give tkt
impression that he had the greatest f nhnnnw.
clearness of mind, and discretion, united with
living, deep enthusiasm. It is not the vehement
strain, he flaming spirit of Jjudah and Snkial

ut veheiQenw lui'l paisioD. l[u <!■*<
iiIiH-rvi^t anil aimlns: wh.ttvvi'r ht'
■cnrely fiuLiheil, aiiil accmnplishiM its
Ivvn vhni, with holjr reluctaucu, he
repniva in word or m detiil. it is no
«nooil feeliii^ that veuta itself, hut
■ tha indignMiDii of love — bolj, free
dfiah Aim, hnt'ig the vice, but yet,
iooM, loTing tha

And ii

■Uthii

jt the boundi of moderation.

gpft end mild ; he seelu, above all,

tike helplen, (be deqiiied; and oE
Tee will leti himseU down to the
eradalion, >nd the moat iKnominouH

out from nader the ral at poverty
la which ooren him there Bhines
iToy aitaatiMi of hit life a high,
irit H« poBHMad that talent for

)t, tiiat mmmmiling poWeT, by

iriuch great miodi are always and
bdr own maatets; by which they
be mort ambananiDg rituatioiu, and
oompoaiire of one fzee from doubt,
ia ru{ht and fit to be done, and
they hold a away over other minda
:e enchantment. With thie dignity.
t mien, sealed by his apiritaal great-
tha BBioe Jeniia who had luit where
bead, more about amuDa bia friends
at hmw^ bafoie hii foes. "Hia
deaaiTe aa his word, hit word as Ua
lian: hii cnen^a* taught to lay maraii

' :ind dk{ Lr.»<l -fi.-lN"<i ti.- |.'"<r \:, 1.»lv m..l in
-Iririt -bl™*,l ij,il.ir.-ii i,l.»,;,.J biuw.lf on u
level with the leaot of bia bnttlinm ; fur wh'icver
oomforta one of theee lea^t with a cup of water,
hath done the aune unto me. Nutbing that
concerned humanity was furui^ bum him ;
every mui atood near b> bim aa a brother,
Hia characteristic actiiin woa, to raine up again
the bruiaed reed, to enkindle anew the ^iLm.
merio); wick. He wept over the dty that re-
jected bim, and prayed on hia cnHw fiir thoee
who had nailed hun to it. Hit whole life ma

11 attack!,

rpowar of mind repeUec — _

rli waa convinced that hia hour had

lOrace — a nlenoe which waa then

He waa the beat of aona, and performed the
dutJea imposed by the tili^ relatiun with the
tendeieatlove,evenin tbuhuurofileatb. But
at the same time he made all that waa per-
Honal in eucb connection? atibordinate to what
was higber — to the Keneral giiod, to the glory
of hia Father. An the Meaaiah, hia office waa
of greater moment tu him than all these rela-
tioua — aa the founder of the kii^^dom of (rod,
he recopiizcd in every one who did the will of
God, hia mother, bid brother, biy aiater, — and
he required of every one who «utere<l into this
)(Teat a^irituol covenant, that he nhoiild be ready
to lacnfico the most precioua pergonal cvmnec-
tiona whenever the law or the dcaiKn of the new
kingdom demanded it. So, likewine, -TeauB
waa ft pious Jew, and observed tbe reli^ous
cnatoma and laws of bia nation with aa much
acnipulouiDeBa aa liberality of apirit ; yet
nothing at all of on umwemly natiiinaL preju-
dice waa mingled with hia obaervancea J not a
shadow of that which puintetl out a Jew, aa
Buc^ to hia disadvanta^ He puHserMed the
virtues of hia theological nation, aa it may not

cim

second to none of the greatest heroes ; but he
])erformB his lalx>iira and makes his sacrifices,
not barely for his o^'n nation, but for all man-
kind. Free from every impulse of that national
feeling that stints the soul, he developcs him-
self purely from within from his own resources ;
nn<l as he cxliibits the im:^;c of a man in his
-whole unsi>otteil, iKjrfcct nature, and is the first
hy whom the idea of ]iurti humanity, in the
highest, and at the same time realized sense
of that wonl, was presenttxl to the human
mind, so is ho the first who, breaking over all
the bounds of national preililection, embraces
in his efforts and viith holy love, the whole
race — ventures for the whole race to live and
to die.

Moreover, the character of Jesus, though
thoroughly in<lividual and unlike every
other, has yet no such eccentric or peculiar
feature as results from a disim)]^K)rtional com-
bination (»f the inwanl faculties. On the
contrary, there is in his nature the most perfect
lianiiony and com]»k'tfnoKs ; and his acts bear
the stamp of universal projiriety and rectitude.
AVho can say tluit the i)eculiar characteristic
of Jesus was soundness of judgment, or ten-
derness of feeling, or richness of faucv, t>r power
of execution? lint all these excellences are
found in him just in their due proptrtion, and
they work together in unintenrupteil harmony.
High fervour and gracious mildness ; heavenly
serenity and absorbing H:uliiess ; elevation al)ove
earthhr pleasures and conditions and a pure
cheerful enjc»\'ment of the same; regal dig-
nity and self'^denying humbleness; vehement
liatred toward sin and affectionate forl)earance
toward the sinner.- ull these (lualities are com-
bined in his nature in one inseparable whole,
in the most perfect unison: and tliey leave on
the stHxrtator the lingering idea of ix'ace and
IK'rfcct sul M)rdiiiati< >n. Never wa-* .Jesus driven
out of his own path : it wtm a (piiet ])ath, and
always even. All the nianif* stations of his
Bi)iritual life have one. great aim ; his whole
ctiaracter has a unity that is perfect, comjdete
within itself, lliis unity and coitipleteness in
the s]^iritual life of Jesus dei)end on the unity
of the principle from which all his manifesta-
tions of feeling proceed, ])y which they are
per\'adcil and animated. And this ])rinciple is
not in any respect the a1>Htract moral law — not
in any resj^ct a mere endeavour, in conformity
with the judginent, to act right and perform
duty ; but it is the simple, great, fundamental
pnqjose, bom out of free-hearted love, "to do
the will of Go<l." It is ap]>arent from multi-
plied expressions of Jesus, and from all hia
acts, tluit tlie will of his Father, which he was
entirely certain that he i>erfectly understooil,
was the only nde and the living power of his
conduct. To God, as the source of his spiritual
life, was his soul ever turned ; and this direc-
tion of his mind was a matter of indispensable
necessity to Iiim. It was his meat and his
drink to do the will of the Father. Without
uniting himself to God wholly, consecrating
himself to God unresen'edly, foelinff himself
to be perfectly one with God, he could not have
l38

CHB

lived— he could not have been st petoe i& Vi
si)irit a single instant. By this mMHi ttil
morality of Jesus became perfectly rdukm;]
it was not merely something which flowed fina
a sense of duty, it was a holjf sentiment of 111]
heart

If we glance at the greatest chancteni
have been exijuiBitely portrayed to u bj
creative power and art of the most gifted poil^]
do we find in these charactcnv anythug UutU ^
which is developed in Jesus ? And these pU^
uncultivated Jewish evangelists, th(g, fanoc/^
desired to invent such a character ! tkqf, kh
sooth, were able to invent it ! How fsr, si ■{
unaided man, did each of these wiitett d^
Memorabilia stand below Xenophon and Fliti;
and yet how high, in its silent maicstv, sCnil
the simple image of Jesus, which tne mk^
tercd evangelists present, above the dundv
that is given to the wisest Greeks liy the tM
masters of language and rhetoric !

Some of the preceding paragraphs havebsa
selected from an Essay on the Sinless Natni
of Clirist, by Dr. UUmann of Heidelbog^

V. The Plan of Christ.— The enteiniMrf
salvation to a lost world is vast and sj^enffil*^
It never entered into the mind el any Inmtfi
being. The phrase wo have used, ** the play
Christ," is sugpisted by the title of an adn^
able Essay, iiublished some years ago in G»
many, by the late I>r. Keinhard, of ]5resdfli,rf
whicn we give the following brief abstract:—

The extent of Christ's plan comprebendid
the world. This plan he gradually developid
in his teai-hing, lor in the first year of M
puljlic ministry he said to a Samaiiftn
woman (to whom the destruction of thi
Je\VLMh ritual could give no offence) that tkt
time was come when the true adoratioQ of
Gixl shoiUd not be confined within such ■a^
ntw limits as before— when all worship meidf
extemtd, whether by Jews or Samaritaai^
sliould l>e abolisheil — and when the Dci^
should be everywhere worshipped *' in s^im
and in truth** (John iv. 20-24). And oertamtf
ho could scarcely have intunated in deanr
terms the design of substituting a religion hdSk
universal and reasonable, in place of a ritol
which was imfavourable to spiritual hosnagu^
and which ccmfined among a single people, in
an insignificant comer of the globe, the defO:
tion due to the only God of aul It is oertaii
tliat Jesus was in the habit of speaking of At
api)roaching fall of the Jewish sti^ and the
entire destruction of the temple. Mors than
<mce he ])ublicly ijredictetl that disaster (Lake
xiii. <'U, 35; xix. 41-44; Matt. xxii. 7; zxiiL
33-39), and he jiaints the det^ls of it in colovn
so lively, and represents the period of it as ao
favourable to his enterprise, that it cannot be
doubted that he looked forward to it with
firm and certain expectation, (Matt, ndr.;
Mark xiii. ; Luke xxi.) And when, therefore^
he separates so expressly the success of hii
undertaking from the maintenance of the
Jewish constitution — and even r^ards the
overthrow of the latter, and the destractioB
of the temple, as events which mn to aood-

miaa of Jtma, h it il rencsented
li lacgtaplienL we find indubitable
. be extended hie vieira (v beyond
tiTC Und. He imifoTmly acted u
ru oecn[ned with s mnch grralcr
tB tb*t of ivfonmng the religion of
Tinen. He frequently cwt his
pan fordsMra, embnuang in the
of hieeodl the whole nee of men.
ODght ^oa flie be«tban— that their
Jill III uid moial condition found
lia meditmtione—WM proved on vari-
Bt when he mcmtioned them in his
aiMO. T. 47; vi. 7-^; Mukx. 12).

■le oonnectiona withpagun 0»t he
daliie the intolemit JewaJ, he naier
I tharhearins hia initmctioni whm-
^nrtimitT offered. Hmee, partly,
d cf Ub keeping company with
ud «miur> (M^tiL 1& 16; Luke
13; Kix. 7); for, acooidiDg to the
r m thjMS unea, we are to under-

, ..jdIy.S™wiB».

itt. JCTiiL 17: XivL 46; Luke xviii
;GaLiLltL{ It ii the more likely
wm muiT pagana amoiiK the pnb-
anae the latter were the paid eer-
ie Rmnaa eoyerametit. And it is
mth probouHty to nippoae that

t»aiiinltitiir)(>iu»ili'-«'i't iiliitv. tiu rli'~!,-iiiit.tl
liiniwlf unriir thu tmLl.-ni <if tli>' 1in.'»a -i Mfi-.
whioli hod iliiHri'iidoI fiiim lii-:ivi-ii t<> ii'iui'i-h
moctliU U'lt bu aiUs. tiKit tliH lii^:iv«iily
food, so for from bviu^ destined fur the Jewa
aloBe, was to be given to the worM — that is. to
all, without distinction or restriction, who
■honld cordially receive it (John vi. 33-51). It
is in the sams sense that, in calling hiinself the
light of the world, he represenbi himself as the
teacher and benefactor r^ the human race, like
the suD which sheds eveiTWhere its salutary
inflnencea (John iiL 10; viiL 12 : ix. 5 ; xi. 9f.
A few days before bis death, when a woman
of Bethany anointed bim with precious balm,
he said to his disdplee, who were displeased at
what tbey deemed a wasteful ^irofuaion " that
in the wliole world, wherever his Gospel shonld
be preached, this fact would be mentioned to
her eternal honour" (^Matt. xxvi. 13; Mark
jdv. 9). The resignation with which he met
death would, he said, be a proof to the world
of the love which lie bore to his heavenly
Father, and of the enactness with wliich ho
executed his comtnanda (John xiv. 31). He

Eimised his npoetli-s to send to tbem, after
death, the Spirit of troth, which should
convince the world of sin (John xv. 8-11).
This eipiession, which denotes the universality
of his viewfc occurs very frequently in ihe

n.yer which he addressed to Gud not long
ore his death, (John xviL) It is into the
world that he is to send his disdplvK, as God
bad sent him thither {v. lH) ; and it is the
world (the whole of msakind) that is to be
convinced that he was sent of God Ir. 21).

Wo may therefore conclude, with the most
perfect certainty of which a matter of the
kind is nuceptible, that Jesus was occupied

OHR

bevond his own nation. In the very first year
of iiifl public functionfl, dues be not sav to the
Jews (Matt viii. 11, 12| that the heathen
should l)e admitteil into tne kingdom of God ;
and did he nut then, too, represent to the
woman of Samaria (John iv. 21, 24) the whole
earth as tlie teni])le where God was to be
worshipped in spirit and in truth ? The
nearer, indeed, he approached the term of his
earthly career he cx[)re8sed himself in a clearer
and preciHer manner.

VL The IttsuUt of ChriM't Itclipion.—ltB
effects uTM>n the world have been great and
beneficiaL If all were to live habitually imder
its influence, earth would become the type of
heaven. It rebtures a man to the image of
God, brings peace into a household, stability
and liberty into a country. Its princiules are
those of unchanging truth, rectitude, and
benevolence for men and nations, for it enables
its disciple "'to <lo juHtly. and love mercy, and
wal k humbly witli his Gou. '* War and slavery,
and all forms of tyranny and sensuali^,
are cc»ntrary to its s[)irit and influence. It
encourages industry and establishes order— is
profitable both for the life that now is and for
that which is to come. Civilization is debtor
to Christianity, and it is slowly^ leavening the
worhL In short, we conclude with the appeab
of two of the old advocates of Christianity,
who flourishtMi in the second and third cen-
turies:— ** Inquire,'' says Origen, in his cele-
brated reply ti> the ca\ils and objections of tlie
philosopher Cebus, " Inquire into the lives of
some amongst us; comi>are our former and
present mode of life, and you will find in what
imi)ieties and impurities men were invi>lved
beturc they embraceil our doctrines. But since
they embraced them, how just, grave, mod-
crate, and constant arc they become! yea,
some are so inflamed with the love of purity
and gfMxlness as to abstain even from lawful
enjoyments; the church abounds with such
men wherever the ductrines of Christianity
provoilecL How is it ]X)SHible thev can lie
pestilent memlHsrs of s(K*ietv who have con-
verted many from the sink of vice to the
practice of virtue and a life of teiiii)erance,
conf(»nnable to the dictates of right reason?
We reclaim women from immodesty, quarrel-
ling with or parting from their husbands ; men
from the wild extravagance of the s]x)rts and
theatres ; and restrain youth, who are prone
to vice and luxury, by painting not only the
vileness of lust, but the ])unislmient reserved

for the Wcious and dissolute.**

**They are not Christians," says I>actantius
(who flourished A.D. 30r>), ''but pagans, who
rob by laiul and commit piracy by sea; who

Eoison their wives for their doweries, or their
usbands that they may marry their adulterers ;
who strangle or expose their infants, commit
incest \%ith their daughters, sisters, mothers,
or vestals, who prostitute their bodies to un-
natural lusts, seek heaven by witchcraft, and
commit other crimes odious to relate.** The
same writer also, contrasting the contradic-
tiooi between the dootiinei^ precepti^ and
140

CHR

jiractice of the philooophen, and tfai
effects that resulted from them, witliihi
and efflcacy of the Gospel, has tiit ' '
animated passage : — " Give me a ~
choleric, fJbusive in his language,
and unruly ; with a very few wradt— tke
of God — 1 will render mm as gentk ai i
Give me a greedy, covetoos, puaBflrifl
man, and I will presently retan DimtojM
generous creature, freely bestowing Uiafll
by handfuls. Give me a crael nd M
thirsty man. instantlv his ferocity AdJ
transformed into a truly mild and iMVO^j
position. Give me an unjust niSB,aW
man, a sinful man, and on a raddoi hi ■
become honest, wise, and virtaoiUt SogMik
the efiicacy of divine wiBdom, that vha ■
admitted into the human heart it eipdili
the parent of all vice; and in aewMUlM
this great end, there is no oocaskmnri
expense, no absolute need of bookaorii
and long study or meditation. The mmI
conferred gratuitously, easily, expeditiw
provided the ears ana the neaari thirtti
wisdom. Did or could any of the hni
philosophers accomplish such impoiinl|
IMwes as these? ** — InstiL IHrin. lib. m,

Chrtsto, FAL8B (Matt zziy. 24^ Ov 1
warned his disciples that false Chrirti A
arise. Not less than twenty-four diffcfcsl
sons of such pretensions have appeared ; •■
defence of their didms to thn Ytwiaiahihi]
ooet the Jews a great expanse of life and
sure. One of them, Cazibat or Baitbod
lived early in the second century. Hi
himself at the head of the Jewian nal>
their Messiah ; and they adhered to hioL
Romans made war npon them ; and the
thcmsel vesallow that m their defence of tU
Messiah they lost between 500,000 and ft
souls. In the twelfth century not lea
eight or ten deceivers appeared under the
name, and were foUowea by great numh
the Jews. Most of them were capitally
ished for their imposture, and nsuai^ m
a multitude of their deluded followers in ]
ciition and death. For example, in the
1137 there api)eared one in France, vh
jmt to death, with many of those who fol
him.

In the year 1138 tlie Persians were disk
with a Jew who called himself Uie Me
He collected together a vast army. Bi
too. was put to death, and his f<Jlowenti
with great inhumanity.

In the year 1157 a false MeAsiah ttini
the Jews at Corduba, in Spain. On this
sion almost all the Jews in Spain wa
stroyed.

In the vear 11G7 another faLw Mt
arose in the kii^om of Fes, who br
great troubles and persecution upon the
that were scattered through that ooontq

In the same year an Arabian setup
for the MessisJi, and pretended to
miracles. When search was msMle fa
' his followers fled ; but he was hrooffht I
1 the Arabian king, and final^ bfben&di

kU

ii.Hhuiiui<lfaiiiiiUr|irctuii<ii>ii!'j
tliu t4r-rt4 tliatn-rre naiiv to

vol liluMriw «'XCCUtl.lL

1199 & fainou* ch»t ind Teb«l

" ■ '^ama. oOlod Durid el

an « learmng^ k great

M ■ OMO « uanung, a erran
pnfMMd to tie Um Meadah.
ny acadaat tbe king, but was

ida adied again and be-
lt numban <rf thn Jews were

taking part will) this impniitor.
1 el tmaOux falie Chiiit in thin
r bj Haimrniidea and Solomrm.
ia tte jear 14!^, we Bud anotber
wfaoaa nBina wai lamaet Snphni,

tha Jewa in SpaiiL Be aleo
I bii f cUowen.

IfiOO, Rabbi Lanlem, a Gennan
iM, dcdand bimaelf a foreninner
ao; and, poDing down his own
■oiacd nil bRtnim Uiat thev
tbdi bread in tbe H0I7 Land

■r 1509 one wboae name wa*

I Jew o( Cologne, pretended to be

He aftenratda affected, faow-

f>aiil, thiiiiirliat.ViiticM'bis

ceiveth it." Nor do the Ureek temia em-
tdoyed by Luke at all favour this theorv. In
the activofonn anil in the early Greek, ifniiia-
T{^a ligniGes to truuact biuinewi. An a|i|>lic(I
to royal persona^, whose chief biiHiiieim it
waa to hear petitinng and i;Tant reilreiei, it
dt^otea to give public snuwer. 80 it is often
lued in Jniephiiii, and even amons the I'loii-
nciL When used with reiq^ect to God, it tbiM
came to mean hi> regal TthiHiniiea. either an

JuaephuB, in many iiaxaWM unuall? addiiLi.'d
by leiicograpben. Sudi a meaning luiine
would faaten on the word in thie cimnecti'in.
In Huch caxes there are ecncnitly nomu diit-
criminative terms to ^ide thoxeiuie, frequently
a genitive, denoting the ageut, and govemi'd hy
' But in the later Greek it often hi --"

e the n

: itself a

I the __
n in Plut

1 the

r U34, Rabbi Salomo Ualcho,
it b« was the Meanah, wa* burnt
lurin V. of Soun.
ir mS a psendcrOiriat amee in
tea, and waa greatly f oDuweil by
■• Jcwa wbo were acatteied over

u w Dv wfl pq^e^ou, m cub lamuy uinr
d of the Jins of Nathan. He | the ci

___jected. 80 the .._

Diodonu SIguIujs Polybiun,
the later era. It appears from the phnmnjliiey
of the veme, from the silence i>f the K-riUr, nnd
the total omiisioD of the name by Paid, that
the cognomen given at Antiuoh come not from
divine mggntion.

2. A aecond notion is, that they gave it tn
liemselvett— a supposition aIt/>Kether contrary
D thebr recopded nuage. Thi'ir interchange-
ableappellationswereof another nature. They
' new one another as " believcm, anintJi. breth-
cn, discigiles." Had the name originated ii

CHR

by the citizeiiB^ of Antioch. Theie heathens
ooold not enter into the spirit, nor comprehend
the meaning of such terms as brethren or saints,
nor could they enjoy the paltry spleen exhib-
ited in such contemptuous epithets as Nasa-
rene. They must have known that the new
sect were not Jews, and so they were in want
of some term of distinction. Now, what could
be more natural than to call them after the
name of their founder — after him whose name
must have occupied a peculiar prmninence in
their conversation? The onlv other jj^laces
where the word occurs favours uie supposition :
— "Then Agrippa said imto Paul, Almost
thou persuadest me to be a Christian ** (Acts
zxvi 28). The kingused the word in a Roman
or foreign sense. '* Yet if any man suffer as
a Christian, let him not be ashamed " (1 Pet.
iv. 16). The apostle uses the tenn as it was
used by heathen persecutors. The very name,
as Tertullian hiUB said, was persecuted; and
no wonder, when such a man as Tacitus could
write, quot, per Jlas/itia inrijof, wiigut Chrit-
tianos appellaboL The Roman historian un-
derstooa the origin of the name, as appears in
the following sentence: auctor nomtnu <;ia
Ckrittutf &C. (Taciti Ann, xv. p. 44.) To be a
Chrifltian, to bear the name^ was enough to
render them obnoxious to their enemies ; such
seems to be Petcr^s allusion. The same refer-
ence is found in a (tassage of Justin Martyr :
" We hold that ever^ one convicted of wicked-
ness ought to 1)e pumshed, but not simply as a
Christian." The name has a Latin, and not a
Greek ending ; and Wetstein has said that all
parties opiM»ed to Caesar received appellations
ending in a ni— as Pompeiani, Pertinaciani, &c
Others suppose the Komans to have been at
least chiefly instrumental in the invention of
the name, as Usher, and Witsius de Vit&
Pauli, sea 3, num. 4. Heuman, in a disserta-
tion on the subject, has remarked, that in
Laertii Historia Philosophorum Gnocorum, no
sect is mentioned whose name ends in anut.
There is an adjective derived after the Greek
form iKov used by the ecclesiastical writers
(S<izonieii, lib. vi. cap. 36). But bo these
philological B^>eculations as they may, one
thin^ is certain, that the heathen, both at
Antioch and ebsewhere, were accustomed to
call phiIoso]>hical sects and political factions
after the names of their founders or leaders :
and the men of Antioch, knowing little oi
Jesufi, but hearing much of him, called those
Chritiians who professed themselves devoted
adherents of ChrittL Whether any reproach
were intended in the name as originally given,
it is difficult now to decide ; probably it was a
term more of convenience than of ridicule.
Ancient authors have remarked the giddiness
of the Antiochians. and their proneness to
coin nicknames. However ignominious the
term might he, the followers of the Lord very
soon rejoiced in it. The churches of Vienne
and Lyons, in rehearsing their sufferings, call
it honourable, glorious, and refreshing. Such
seems to us to lubve been the origin of the name
—not given by GodL nor by themaelyes, nor by
142

CHB

the Jewi, but by thoir heatliMi BBigU
markthemasanewseott anddwamtefl
tion to Him whom they aoknoWledgad
origiiL The new sect seem to han
increased at this period— a oreat mn
lieved— much people was adoed to &
and hence the more neoeenty for aa
distinctive appellation.

The tenn Christian in now emplofe
contradistinction to Pagans and lIi
dans \ and, 2. To denote the opoi B
of religion, in contradiatinction mm fl
are not pirofeasora. In some conat
still a term of bitter reproach ; and thi
tion of it is attended with penecnlMi,
and death.

CHRONICLES a KL xiv. 1^
NALS. In its eenoral synifkratifln,
denotes a chronological histoiy, or M
of facts and events in the order of ta
thirteenth and fourteenth books of
Testament are called the first and wee
of Chronicles. In the Hebiew thqri
Book» of Day§—ihMX is, diorteL "bj
tuagint translators they are named
pomtna^ thingt omitUd, or gMppUmoA
they seem to be in some sense scqiplK
the two books of Kings whidi praec
They appear to have Seen compfled
national diaries or journals; but it
satisfactorily appear who compik
The probability is that Eara was tb
as the histoiy is broujsht down to fa:
The books of Chronicles whidi we
considering are not to be confoon
these i^ubUc records^ often refened
Chromcles of the kings of Israel an
The compiler of the canonical books <
icles haa before him all the availabi
of Jewish histoiy. He has made c
Pentateuch, of the books of Samuel a
and of manyoUier public annals no
existence. He refers his readers to
of Nathan, the vision of Iddo, the bo
the seer and of Samuel the seer, the
of Ahiiah the Shilonite, the yvasm *
book of Jehu and of Shemaiah the pr
Chronicles of king David, and the
tions for Josiah. All these were i
information patent to the inspired
None seem to be identical with ai
canonical books, but were in use an
tion when Ezra flourished. The st^
which the books of Chronicles ar
corresponds with the mixed and c
Hebrew in common currency after the
It employs many words peculiar to thi
of that country in which the Jews
for seventy years. In the Hebrew !
books of Chronicles are placed last,
the conclusion of the inspired volimu
The principal object of the autho
books seems to have been to point
the public records, the state of tb<
families before the captivity, and thi
tion of the lands among them, that i
might, as far as possible, obtain tl
inheritance of their Aithen at the

CHB

Mktiu mrtion ol the Old Twfawniwtmay
■idarca ai an epitome of all the sacred

!^,bat more wpecially froni the origin of
iwiih nitioa to their retom from the
c^ptintY, embnciiig a period of neariy
lynn. The fizst book tnoei the deecent
M ddldrsii of Inrnel from Adam, and
■ into ft Tery full and oircomatantial
Bit oC the raign and tranaactiona of David :
NDoad oontinaea the nairative. relatea the
jm and diMohition of the kingdom of
di jppiit from larael), to the year of the
laof Ae people from Babylon.
hiibook (tor both were originally reckoned
«M in 06 Hebrew Scriptorea)^ therefore,
Hi eoutncfckni and deaign oiffera from
nd aad Kings. Samnel ia more biograph-
ii iti utore; wMle Kinga ia a theocratic
■f-fthistaiy of tibe nation aa the people
BOO, lod yet forming a human oommon-
J^.Tbe book of Chroniclea ia more
■Mtie initi atmcture — ^ia more concerned
k At Jewi H a church than the Jewa aa
Ml The Older and anangement of the
■B wniiup occupy a jirtuninent place.
nnvin and victoriea are aubordinated
MMaKir Qidinancea which he apedally
tfn for the national aerrice of Goo.
ipnpmtioiis for building the temple are
■My detailed and fully dwelt upon ; and
^^portkna of Solomon^s life rehearsed
jwi are those in connection with the
™Ba and dedication of that magnificent
gaiy vhich fonned the most glorious epoch
™.wp>. The brief accounts of the other
^H^u hare also generally some relation to
'jMgioog etement (»E the government. This
•tawDykeptin^iew. Under Rehoboam,
■•RtftheRclunn, we are told,— " The
"jBiodthe Levitea that were in all Israel
■W.to him out of all their coasts. For
k12^ ^ ^*^ suburbs and their posses-
y^came to Judah and Jerusalem; for
^°^ and his sons had cast them off from
?™8 the priest's office to the Lord " (2
^^^* U). Again, when Ahijah and
J2""*«e met in the field of battle, the
Jr J^FPOTted to have delivered this ad-
"t^w ye think to withstand the
^^the Loid in the hand of the sons of
"«; and ye be a great multitude, and there
Jl? yoQ golden calves, which Jeroboam
lyjwRwla. Have ye not cast out the
?^ we Lord, the sons of Aaron, and the
2#?^ have made you priests after the
*^<^ the nations of other lands? so that
*^oitt)eth to consecrate himself with a
^P^pock and seven rams, the samo may
^1^ of them that are no cods. But as
JJ'jLord is our God, and we have not
^Mm; and the priests, which minister
^ Wi, are the sons of Aaron, and the
^ ^t upon their business ; and they
^ the Lord, every morning and every
% bomt sacrifices and sweet incense:
ovbread alao aet they in order upon the
^; and the candlestick of gold, with
ipi thereof, to bum every evening : for

CHR

we keep the charge of the Lord our Grod; but
ye have forsaken him** (1 Chr. ziiL 8-11).
Aaa^s reformation is fully described, as well aa
hia religioua homage, and his gifts to the house
of God, — "And tnev offered unto t^e Lord
the same time, of tne spoil whidi they had
brought, seven hundred oxen and seven thou-
sand aheep . . . And he brought into the
houae of God the things that his father had
dedicated, and that he himself had dedicated,
ailver^and gold^ and vessels** (2 Chr. xv. 11,
18). The eodesiastical deeds of Jehoshaphat
are also brought out,— ''Moreover, in Jerusa-
lem did Jehoshaphat set of the Levites, and of
the priests, and of the chief of the fathers of
Israel, for the judgment of the Lord, and for
controversiea, when thev returned to Jerusalem
. . . And, behold, Amariah the chief priest
is over you in all matters of the Lord . . .
Deal courageously, and the Lord shall be
with the good ** (2 Chr. xix. 8, 11). " And
when he (Jehoshaphat) had consulted with the
people, he apoointed singers unto the Lord,
ana that should praise the beauty of holiness,
as they went out oefore the army, and to say.
Praise the Lord; for his mercy endureth for
ever'* (2 Chr. xx. 19, 21). The part which the
priests and Levites took in the proclamation
and coronation of Joash occupies a consider-
able space ; and this king's dedire to repair the
temple is almost the oiuy incident of his life
recorded, though he reigned forty years. In
ElingB it is told that God smote Uzziah or
Azariah with leprosy, but the reason is not
stated. In Chronicles, however, you find a full
account of his sin and punishment. The crime
which brought upon hmi this jienaltv was an
invasion of the priest's office (2 Chr. xxvi.
16-19). A long account is given of the life of
Hezekiah, who had much of David's spirit
within him, in reforming and re-inntituting the
public worship, and in afterwards keepinp^ a
solemn passover. This period was a revival
not unlike the first dedication of the tem}»Ie,
and so it is copiously and minutely narrated,
— "Thus did Hezekiah throughout all Judah,
and wrought that which was good, and ri;;ht,
and truth, before the Ijord hi^ God. And in
every work that he l>€^gan in the service of the
house of God, and in the law, and in the
commandments, to seek his Go<l, he did it
with all his heart, and pn)8pered" (2 Chr.
xxxi. 20, 21). The n>ign of JoBiah has, for
similar reasons, a special ]irominence ^ven U)
it, — " So all the service of the Lortl w;w pre-
pared the same day, to keep the p.xssover, and
to offer burnt (►ffurings uim)U the altar of tho
Lord, acconlin^ to tho conimandmuut of kiii^
Josiah. An<l the children of Lsrael that wore
present kept the passover at that time, and
tho feast of unleavened bread seven days.
And there was no passover like to that kept
in Israel from the days of Samuel the iiroj^het ;
neither did all the kings of Israel keep sucli a
passover as Josiah kept, and the priests and
the Levites, and all Judah and Israel that
were present, and the inliabitants of Jerusa-
lem** (2 Chr. zxxv. lG-18). Now, these sectiona

143

CHB

of Jewish history are either omitted altogether,
or bat slightly referred to in the books of
Kings; and this peculiar construction of the
book of Chronicles, this peculiar selection of
materials^ proves that it is to a great extent a
church history, and that it was meant to im*
press the Jews returning from Babylon with
the neoe^ty of estabUshing and organizing
anew the national ritual. This purpose is kept
constantly in view throughout the entire nar-
rative, and gives it its distinctive form and
aspect Still Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles
should be read and compared together, as they
relate substantially the same reoordSj though
with different degrees of particularity, and
with different means of information: so that
the whole contains but one history, and what
is obscure or defective in one part may be ex-
plained or supplied in another.

The followmg useful table, taken from De
Wette^s Introduction, may facilitate the study
and collation of these three books : —
TcMe o/Patsaga paralM with 1 Chr. x.— 2 Chr. xzxvL

IChr. x.1-12 ISttDLXXxl.

— xL 1-9 3 Sam. T. I-IO.

— xl. 10-47.

— xilL 1-14

— xlv. 1-7 .

— xlv. 8-17.

— XV. xvi. ,

— xvli. ...

— XTiU. ...

— XIX

— xx.i-a

— XX.4-&

— xxi

3 Chr. 1.2-18 1

— i. 14-17

— 11

— UL l,v.l

— V.2-V1L10

— vil. 11-22

— vlU

— lx.1-12

— 1X.13-S1

— X. txi.4

— xiL 2. 9-11, 18-16....

— xiai,2,23

— xiv. 1. XV. 16-19.

— xvl 1-6, 11-14

— xviii

— xx.atxxLl

— XXL5-10.. 3

— xxai-9 4

— xxlL 10. xxlli 21 .. ..

— XXlv. 1-14, 28-27 ....

— XXV. 1-4. 11. 17-28....

— xxvi. 1-4. 21,28......

— xxvlLl-8, 9

— xxviil. 1-4

— xxixl,2„

— xxxii. 9-21.

— xxxiL 34, 26,30-33. -

— xxxiiL 1-10. 20

— xxxiiL 21-26

— xxxiv. 1, 2. 8-28

— xxxiv. 29-38.

— XXXV, 1, 18, 20-24. »

xxxvil t

— xxxvi. 2-4

» xxxvi. 6, 6, 8. <

— xxxvi 9. 10.

— xxxvi. 11,12

— XXXVL22, 28

144

— xxiii8-3a

— vi. I-IL

— V. 11-16.

— V. 17-25.

— vi 12-38.

— vii

— vili

— X.

— xl. 1, XiL 26.3L

— xxi 18-22.

— xxiv.
Kings Ui 4-15.

— X. 26-29.

— V. 15-93.

— Vi, vli 13-51.

— vlii

— Ix 1-9.

— Ix. 10.2a

— X. 1-18.

— X. 14-29.

— xli 1-24.

— xiv. 31-31.

— XV. 1, 2, 7, a

— XV. 11-24.

— xxli3-36.

— xxii 41-51.
Kings viil. 17-24.

— vlii 26-29, ix. 16-28,

X. 12-14.

— xi

— xii

— xiv. 1-14. 17-20.

— xiv. 21, 22; XV. 3-5, 7.

— XV. 83-85, 38.

— xvi 3-4.

— xviii 2. 3.
xviii 17-35; xlx. 14,

15,35-37.
XX 1, 2. 8, 9, 12,

sqq., 20, 2L
xxi. 1-10. la
xxi 19-34.
xxii
xxia l-2a

xxiii 21-23, 28.3a

xxiii 81-S4.
xxiii 86, 37, xxiv.

i,a

xxiv. 8-10, 14, 17.
xxiv. 18, 19.

( „

■ _

The antlieiitidty ci the CStraaid
be^rond dispute by a vast yariatyc
evidence. There are tome greats
it is true, espedally in nmnben, I
previous parallel panages; for u
of the Hebrew aq[>habet w«te «
numeration, and many of them are
oo|)yist was in such matten peeo
to introduce variations. This Jei
thouj^ reaching back to so remote
precise and mmute, and the ab
correct registers, preserved by f
tribes, and incorporated in these ai
us in no doubt m the great troth,
according to prophecy, was the S<
ham and Son of Da via.

The object of the writer of Chra
be full^ understood unless we b
that his purpose was to teadb
history ; to illustrate by the psst e
the nation certain important and 1
truths connected with their p
destiny. His grand theme is this,
the bsysis of national prosperity—
to the certainty and impcntanoe c
annals of a thousand jeara bear 4
thrilling testimony. If these hoc
in the light of this idea, their wia
nant aim will be warmly admired.

CHRYSOLITE-po^-jtone (R
This was anciently a ffeneral n
precious stones in which a golde
colour was prevalent. It more
denoted a stone resembling in
modem topaz. The word renden
in our version, in the text onot
Apo(»dyjpse, but not so renaerei
xxviii. 20, is derived from the Se]
sion of the latter passage. ^<
called chrysolite is ipeen, tinged
It is not very valuable, is seldom :
than a buck-shot, and comes ohi<
Levant.

CHRYSOPRASUS — ffold4ed
20)— is rendered berprl in other pa
ture. Some make it the chaloet
said to be set in portions of Bgypiii

CHUB (Ezek. xxx. 5). Rom
tion of this word, it is presumed
an Ethiopian tribe or province.

CHUN (1 Chr. xviu. 8)-caUec
2 Sam. viii. 8. (See Berothah.)

CHURCH rnie word is the 1
German kirche, and is derived b;
kilrtJi, to elect; others think it ;
Saxon ctrr, cyrtc, and the Scotti
maintain that these terms have
the Greek term, tcvpioKov, Xoref t J
word is variously used by the sac
but its import is generalhr to be i
its connection. It may oe suffici*
particularly some uses of the term

Sometimes it denotes simply an
persons for any purpose (Acts xix
the New Testament it is applied
to Christians as a body or onmmu;
47). It is also appliea to the peoi
all ages of the world, whether jS

CHU

BM (Acts viL 38; itii 1; Eph. iii 21j v. 25).
(cr iItboi]gh there have been two dupeiuia-

^, that of the law by Moses, and that

■»e Guspel by Je^us Christ — ret the religion

''JM BiUe iij and ever has been, and ever

2 ^ uDe religion ; whether they lived be-

2* « ifter the cominir of Christ, true be-

*>Hi IK all one in Christ Jesus (GaL iii

4^ Of this church or oompan^r of the re-

f^|tted the Lord Jesus Chnst is now the

M, and the church is therefore called the

WrfCoL L 18, 24), and comprises the re-

^Boied who have grme to heaven as well as

we vjio are or will be on ike earth (Ueb.

Kvticnlar portions of the whole body of
>Vtftiaiu are ako called the church, afl the

^hnrh at Jerusalem, at Corinth, &c. (Actsi

«iLl;lGor. l2; iv. 17).
bk modem times the word is applie<l to

UrioDs associations of Christians, unitetl by

a eoaimon mode of faith or form of irovem-

■ot, as the Episcopal C*hurch, the Baptist

Chirch, the Moravian Church, &c
Hie Eni^liiih term church is often applied to

the bnililing in which Christian*) worshi]).

ThisF ate i^s anrect. accr)nling to our etymology,
/■■r it iiriginally denoted the sacred edifice.
ThK however, is not the Scripture use and
Draning of the wonl rrdeitin^ iKKXritria. This
Gne«k wurd never clearly mean^ the house in
which Christ's disciples assemble. We want
a good Engliz^h term to si^fy the con^';;a-
tido, in contrast with tlie place which they
nccajyy. The term syna^of^e bore the same
ambbpions meaning am(»ng the JewH aa the
name church does with us. It denoted a
oumpany of men — **the synagogue <»f the
Libertines," and sometimes the Imildiugs in
which they usually met— *'Hc loved our na-
tum, and built us a svTia^^'igue." PerhaiM
in 1 C^tT. XL '12 the Crrcek term has reference
t> the building, — " What ! have ye not houses
to eat and to drink in? or desjme ye the
chorch <if God, and shame them that have not?''
The force of the apostle's ap{>eal lies in a con-
tiBfit between the private house's in which
ordinary meals should l>e taken, and the
I»rrf 4 Qoui^e, in which the Sup{)er, or love-
fearts sboaM be (^IwervetL

Am the incarnation, death, re.Hurre<.-tiou, and
reigning rif Christ in heaven cr^iiiititute him
the founder and heail of the Church, an it nr>w
exists, he is onmi>are«l to "the chief conier-
'•ti'ne ^ in the building (}]ph. ii. 20), on whom
the whole structure is deiiendent. For this
borpu^e God **hath put all tilings under his
i^^. and given him to be the lK>ad over all
things tf) the cliurch, which is his Ixxly, the
fulness of him that iillcth all in all" (Eph.
l22).

The figurative language which is employed
by Christ himself, as well as by Ids aixwtles,
to denote the nature of his relations to tho
Church (as o>nipoHe<l of all true believers),
ami its relations to him, is of the most signiti-
c^nt character. Some of them have been in-
timated above— others are, that of husband

L

ciru

and wife (Eph. v. 30-32) ; a vino and itn
branches (Jolm xv. 1-0); and a sht«])herd ancl
his flock (John x. 11). And it is generally
supi)«>sed that Solomon's Song is a highly
iigurative and rnieticul illustration of the
mutual love of Christ and the iwople of his
Church in all ages.

The Church universal is a Kpiritual com-
munity—small at first it was, but it is destined
at length to fill the world. " C;]«»rious things
are s^xiken of thee, (") city of (io<l." Her one
head is Christ- her tme charter, the Scriptures
— her one life, the Sijirit— and her one member-
ship, only those wno are the subjects of re-
deeming grace. This couiinunity has tho
promise of a ijerjx'tn.il existence, — '*the gates
of hell shall not prevail against her." Sections
of that Church may aiH>i*tatize, and the Spirit
may desert them, but yet the Lonl's work in
other portions of the world is still a<lvancing.
The persecutions which have fallen <in tlm
Church have l>een many and severe, yet she
has survived them, nay, they have cc»ntribut<!<i
Ut her gnjwth and spiritual i)nisjH?rity. " 'ilie
bhxKl of the martyrs is the setjd i>{ the Church."
But there are a few i joints in n>ference to tho
Church which may oe briefly noticed under
separate heads.

CHlIiril, GIFTS OF THE EAKLV. (See GlFTH.)

CurucH. TNiTV OF TUK. A brief historic
glance at liie acknowled^nncnt of unity on the
part of the varioiLs churches may afford in-
ti*resting iustniction. Tin? assertion of Scrij>-
ture i.>, that the Church of the Jtedeemer is
tme; that there should be n«) **sc}iism in the
l>«Mly ;" but that there is "one Lord, one faith,
t)ne liaptism."

The one faith is the organ of her justification,
ami love is the index of her sanctiHcation.
Partakers of the same nature, aud originally
under the same curse, rescu«?d by the xuni»
redeeming love, and introduced inU) the suine
holy fellowshij)- -with similar fi'.ira and liop«'s.
l>rofessions and dutii;s - the churches have c«ini-
iu<»n Byini»athios, trials, and enjoyment -*. In
reality they are all one in ( 'hrist -nicnilHTs of
that lj<Mly of which he is the head -branches of
tliat vine (►f which he is the r<Mit -living stones
in that tenijtle of which he is the foundation.
Ijut the frailty and pas-it ms of even sauctifieil
humanity have produced jeahmsies and aliena-
tions, 'rhese Ixmuful effects wert^ f«lt in the
infant churches of the a|K»stolic era. Then- were
contentions in the church of Corinth, pnHluced
by ovenveening attachment to gisxl men -
almost canonizing them ; *Nino saving, 1 ani
of Paul; another, I «if Ai)olli>s; anotlier, 1 of
Cephas." Similar feuds pr<» vailed in the other
churches. The writings « »f the a] fost* >lic fathers
contain many allusions in such disseiLsions.
I'Varful divisioiis ensurd, from ci»mipting tho
simplicity of tho (ioM)el, by the intrtMluctitm
of tenns and phra'«es tnun the current sysU-ms
of philosophy. One party n-siling from tho
truth in one din-ction, created another at its
remote anti] sides. Aud, in subsequent times,
the h»vo of Christ to«» <.)ft«;n degenerated into
bigoted attachment to the m-culiaritiea of

140

^^ nit

CHU

some creed or iiymbol ; the lore of the brethren
WM If«t in ravening factions ; zeal consumed it-
self in internal controversy, as if enniged in a
war of extirpation against the inhabitants of
some modem Canaan, and so the temple of the
Lord has presented the melancholy spectacle
of a house diWded against itself in proud and
vindictive scorn. Yet amidst all this "envy-
ing and strife," followed by "confusion and
every evil work,** the churches acknowledged
their theoretic unity, and not a few were found
to exclaim in earnest pathos, "Behold how
good and how pleasant it is for brethren to
dwell together m unity.*' Irenaeus describes
the Church as possessing and being animated
by one soul and one heart. Again and again
does CHirvBostom of the Greek Church incul-
cate the doctrine of unity : " the Church,'* he
■ays, " is a name not of separation but of one-
ness. Distance may separate, but the Lord
unites." Clemens Alexandrinus compares the
local separation of the churches with their real
union, to the harmony produced by the varied
chords of one musical instrument, while a skil-
ful leader strikes them, and declares again,
'* that in the midst of apparent schisms there
is substantial unity." Basil not unfrequently
insists upon all believers being one people and
one Church: rejoices that the severance of
heretics does not destrc^ the imity of the
Church, and feels his heart warming at the
thought that Christian societies, scattered
through such a variety of places, are yet one
in Christ, knit together in the^ bond of charity
b^ the communion of the Spirit, whose office
it is to found and perpetuate this holy junction.
Cyril's catechism taught the youth of Jerusa-
lem to say — " I believe in one holy Catholic
Church. *' The Latin Church was not behind its
eastern sister. Cyprian*B treatise on the unity
of the Church is well known. Manj figures
are employed by him to express this imity,
some of them, indeed, not the most accurate or
felicitous. He compares the oneness of the
various ecclesiastical communities to the nu-
merous rays of the sun forming one light — to the
branches of the tree, so united as to be one oak
— ^to the many rivulets which may be traced to
one fountain. Augustine is no less full and
precise. "In all parts of the earth," he sa^
this faith is one. because it is the Christian
faith," while he aomits that there are " points
of minor moment concerning which the
greatest and best may differ witnout infringing
on this unity." Ue had more correct opinions
than some of the fathers as to the nature of
this unity, for he places it in mutual love and
in living connection i%ith Christ the Head,
i^ireeing with the acute Jerome, that the unity
and essence of the Church are nut kept together
^ its walls, but by the truth of its doctrines,
lliese men did indeed err in their notions of
what tliis unity really consisted in, too often
confining it to the uniformity of external order,
and arguingits reality chiefly from ecclesiastical
descent. The uniia^ oripinis which Cyprian
reiterates so frequently is true in itself; but
unity which Scripture detcribes is not that
146

CHU

of originatioii from oomnnmitiei

fellbwship we have with the Fatbo'^
Son Jesus Christ We have tfaui i ^
^-itnesses testifying to the great tnth ^
Church of God is essentially one andim^
in times j>rior to that delusive unitr vk^
multifarious coiporation of Borne dm i^
imperiously daimad for itself— a mntf
it has secured by the rcprewion oC i^
liberty, and by the despotic sway «U^
organized system of ennoDage ssd tol
and pealing anathemas, nas obtained ov
trembling vassals.

When, again, we turn to the era ol
Reformation, we find schemes of union oc
ing the minds of its leaders, and diMOfi
doctrine of unity clearly laid down in
confessions. The heart of Calvin skrfasc
it, — " I wish it could be brought aboa
men of learning and dignity from thenri
churches might have a meeting, ana i
careful discussion of the several Doints d
might hand down to posterity toe doeta
the Scripture settled by their offmnwiD
ment. But among the gremtert erila
age this also is to be reckoned, tin
churches are so distracted one from ai
that human society scarcely flourishes
us, much less that holy communion bi
the members of Christ which all pro
words and few sincerely cultivate n
Thus it happens that by the dissinatini
members the body of the Church ues pr
and mangled. As to myself, could I
any service, I should not hesitate, v
necessary, to cross ten seas for such a pi
If the question were only concerning
aid to England, that would be vrith me
ciently powerful reason. Now, wfai
object is to obtain such an agreem
learned men, upon strict scriptural nm
as may accomplish an union of ciran
other respects widely asunder, I do not
it la^'ful for me to decline any labc
troubles.**

Cranmer also had a long and earnest
spondence upon the same subject wi
continental reformers. The Confessi
Augsburg, of Basle, of Helvetia^ of B(
of Scotland, of Westminster, and the i
of the Kngliflh Church, all maintain tin
tural position of unity. The idea was f
by the greatest and best men of those til
that we find Bisliop Hall preaching befi
famous Synod of Dort, ana uttering the
ing eloquent appeal: — "We are breth:
us alMo be associates. Whathave we to c
the digraceful titles of Remonstrants, (
Remonstrants, Calvinistts, Arminians'
are Christians, let us also be of one so
are one body, let us also be of one min
that tremendous name of the Almighty
by the pious and gentle bosom of our o
mother— by your own souls — ^by the mc
compassions of Jesus Christ our Siavioi

CHU

*\*'^;,'rv^'hi^n, enter into pcnee, thut, lay-
. ^"U prejoJica, party ipirit, and evil
rfiv'V^e xtMjiU oametOkhmpprKm-
^»*Jl«W» troth.- Thin^iniiintorfdif.

S'S«y°*^' *""* **"" !•"«>• tw^
■■■■* *Vint, (TCB ■■ we an eallad in rate
■i^''^"*-" WlirttlwdwooMoIold
^TOth^totliecMamtmiffanto is now
■■™™ •» the erangdical churdMB — " le-
Tt"*. .*■ nutlKr,"— lot nnt ma lor* be
*y™MJwif enta, or be on^ leen during

I'M ■ Ml III ill to ttun^. Wliile there
■I m ataj thmUHidB bowing the kuea to
f>d» tad Anti^ and imploring dalirerance
^M ttmacMith iddi vhldi their own fing«n
ftmbtuti; vhile m» mMj nmiadi an
MM ia the ipdl el the oriental impottnr,
MMri In the &blei and imporitdn of the
XMi^aBd|««jiMinKtbanMelTee for «i etei-
iltr Bit can «a«et nothiiu bat the utter
_i._^L^ ff gmj moial fccuug that yet Gnda

r, the oo^ meaiDTeoiaita irf wllicb are,

.ri e mtiHiin cnjcTuent, and

liartliiig appetate; and while i
Abahaai an eeattcrad bbimw t
' >d, and braaded,

magniHcvnt vLiioo be w^ftliji^l iq ^
great meaeun on the earth T

CHUKL (I»L ixiii. 6-7. Comp. 1 Sam.
_IT. 3, 10, 11 17 with pasM«8 m Iniah).
Thie term u of th* ume family ot words as
the old English or Scotch term, carl, % nutic
or serf ; bnt denotft on iU-natuiud or miierly
iDdividnal.

CHURN. (See Butter.)

CHUSAN-IUHHATHAIJL Themeaninff
of the name ia doubtful (Ju.lg. iii. 8-10)7^
Idng of McHipotamia, and ui onpreseor of the
Israelites. Othniel, Caleb's nephew, deUvered

.1 I his dominion. The oldest Aasyrimn

-ume centuries later than his

L fl). CIELING (1 Ki

wood, punted (Jer. ndi. 14) ; oun an of plae-
ter ; their floors were of plaster or soma sort of
tiles, and ours of wood. Home of our fine old
pid>lic buildings are cielnl with mud ; aud in
the same way those ancient cicUags were, it
ia erident, a spetdes of wainscoting. Some

^Btt^^hevtaw

rule

ihmAMihaaldaot teget the past eertaTJan
MIm, aad fixing their nia oo thia f eaif nl
■Ba of BiL and woe, and death, ts the eonfi-
dtM nMptton bom one another of solace and
adtonenL and with uplifted look to the pto-
^Md Spint, oome with united energy to the
Mp of the L(nd against the mighl?. After
■n, the diief aepnating principle in Pro-
tartMIt Chiistendoin is not so much divein^
at tmth as of feeUng. Could men r«aliie Uieu*
actaal relationahip, and liecome mnre intensely

. .i_. -j^j^ Christ, little wool'

ed in order to cement i
Not that we plead fo

lai fine, the~ proapect of unity in heaven is
not merely meant to prepare us for it Utrt,
hit to ImuI to its enjoyment in the Church
Mm. The blita of enjoying it Is not to be
drfnrad tiB we actually ehare in it above. No
anticipation is more fraught with holy ecstasy
than that of the uni^ iJod gkry of Wven—
nyriads of redeoned si4rita encircle the throne
cf duf eimmnii Father— onr elder brethren who
kave arrived before n* at the eternal borne of
theluHuebold. The social prlndpla, refined and
elnated, finds itafull development. Thefanity
in heaven enjoja pore hapinness in intercourse
•ith one another, and. e~" -'— — "^ *■" ~™-
wnnion with God U the

t atmosphere of br^ven, a
&ith and hope iball have d

e of 0

Thdi

L;lingB w

From KotUi-WcbI P-jImo, XimrowL

.„„,„ „ tho relioa

^luCIA (Acts ixi a

-r"

cnr

■onth-i^urteTD difltriet of Ana Minor, l;ins on

the uortbem cozutf on the uimtcm extremity of
the Mcditerrunreiui Be&. It bvciuue n Itunuui
imivincc B.C. 67. IM capital city wm Taimii
the birthiijnce of I'aiiL lie nvuBgoeue of
" them of^ CiliL-ia " (Act* vi. il) wa^ a pUce of
Jewuh worship in .Icnualem, siijiroprmtsd to
the n>e of Jews «ho tnij^ht tie ut JcniwUem
from the iirovinceof {■ilitin. Aitiiiiilarcu»tnm
in modern tiitiea is the littint; up of )iubhc-
hoUHM to Bccummodjite ntningcni from |>ar-
ticuUr stntea or ouuntriLii ITiIb aooictj of
"them of (.'ilidu'l^wreimiong the anta^>niBt«

perhlpi one of the defeated rippmera and cun-
trovertistH of the proto-martyr (comp. Acta vi.
10;»ii. M). (ReeTAHnTS.)

CIXNAMON (Song iv. 14)-» well-knon-n
aronuitic, producnl from the inner bark of b
tree which giowij chiefly in Cevlon; onrl which
beint! jieehid off,

cnt

Gcremnny of the Jerith nSgira, wlueh o*

lirted in cutting Hroond Um auh cl tbe !<■*■

■kin of all male*, on the oriitli day ttimOim

birth. ThiaritewHe<itaUiihedBatlMtCJM<

GihI'b cflveuAnt with Abnluun, who iBBafi-

ktely gubjectol himaelf and aU hil timily tQ ik

' wr^-uice. The rarcept of drcmndwaa*

lewed to AIoui (Eioi. liL 44; Ln^. m 1|

hn vii. 32, 23), renniring that all tbiMU lib-

t to it who would putalie of Uia pwU

orifice. And the Jevi hare ahrayibMlvn

ncru^uloan in its obaervsnoe, tlinitji it«W amt

ted m tbeir journey throti0li the wiUi

IS reasons. It appean fnm '

)iroiliictic>n referrod to in llie Rible. Ciimamim
waaoneof tht' ingredirnte of lheh»lyi>il(Kxnd.
XXI. '23), and was probalily an article i4 com-
merce in andent Babylon (Kev. iviiL 13).
CINNKRETH, CIKNEitOl'H. (See

cIkOlK '(Ilia. xl. ffi). The word me.in".
in thi:) iKissams the line within wbicli the
cartli is Biipixwed to n'volve, or fi|-imtivoIy
■IvHcribiii a poaition on jtn Inninilary from
which every port of it" surface can Be sr —

In I'K

dered

(timpaa, and ilrnotet tlie boundary
within wliich the watera are reKtrained. The
('reotur la rrrrtaentod a» marking out the
habitation of the va.it ei^ianso of waters, with
the sa]ue enae with wliicli n ilesign^r or ilraftn-
man delineates the plan of a biuiding or an

CIKCUTT (Job iiii. H)-a circular jiath
or route (1 Sam. vii. lU), In tlio juk-wajje from
Job, God is fitfuratively repnweated iis confin-
ing hie presence to the high beavens, nr rather
mch is the foolish conception formed of hi
b^ wicked men. who wish omcealment fn:
bin omniaciencti (ctimp. tx. II, la with i
la, 14). In Pa. Di. (i the circuit of the aun
represented as eitending from one end of
heaven to the other, or from east to west

CIKCUMCISION (Geo, ivii. 10.12; John
YiL 22). CircumdaioD WM a remariuble rite

ite at a very early epoch, and the Tta|)»
dytea of AfHca submitted themtelTn to «m
jwinful ceremony. Pricfaaid ipeak* rf it M
in use among llie Amakosa, who funn a imj
lorue portion of the South Africaii popobtfaai
'"he Kalfi™ practise it; and
■n common an
the Fhiliatini

iinn'rriimnirij. Alany other natioM hM« i
adopted the rite; and it i* the chM Mteaw
if initiation into the religion of MiiImiiiMM.
Lhmitih it is regarded only M a tradiHwff

Srecvpt, and is not peifonned Ull the duU ■
vu or six years old. The inatnimaBt nltd fa
thiH purpose wo* a knife, a raaro', or (tv a
sliarp stone (Exod. iv. 25; Joah. v. 3).

Many ph^cal reaaons have beoi asaoil
for the instiCution of this rite, on which ■•
cannot dwelL But it was enaoted amap tka
JewD aa a mlipuus ordinance, so ■■ to datia-
tpxiib the natural descendants of Abnhia,
anrl to separate tbem from all the rart of A*
world (Kom. iv. 9-13). The rite waa PMbUv
to the .Tews in this religious •eaaa, and «■* a
coDnecmtion of their bodies to God, aad ii
their auccossive generations to Ood in Ibdr
conception and birth. Hence they are csdbd
the circumcision, and the Gentilea the QDO^

a participation in Jewish imvilese — in thi
bleaBings of the Abrahomic eovenant. na
.lews who had been converted to ChriatiaBi^
atill attacheil so great importancs tn tfaM
pbytticnl distinction as to deem the oontmncd
observance oF it etuu>ntial to salvatiop. TUi
fatal error had made great inniad among the
Gahitions; and therefore Paul solamnly de-
clares to them. "Behold, 1 Paul lay unto
yon, that if ye be circumcised, Uhiin iball
probt you nothing;. For I teaid^ 'tP^ *"
every man thnt is circumcised t^t na li *
delitor to do the whole Uw" (GaL v. 2, S).
And to ahow the diatinctivo cbaruoter of V»
new eooDomy, he luldi'. "For inCIiriit Jmm
neither circumcision availeth any- thing. BA
creature " ((Si. vL

1,'j). The word is often ■
nensa. Mows, referrinc' to his wan
elocution, call* himself a man of '
cised Lpa." The

•:KN' (Pniv.'v. ir<). The cgiintry nml
joi'.K clittvms inibniieiisatile in JuJiml
rv gmenJly, if nut uoivirs&lly, pri-
pctty (Nnni. ixL 221. Some vera
J mmfy tscuntaB^ the ground, aiul
I nmtMle for » aprmg that DMmmllr
Ntot tbaauth; othanwcre covoml

_d others rtill

d with wood or cement, or hewn out
d[ with gnat Ubanr, uid onumenteil
h ddn. Wlun tbeae fnti wen em|>ty,

■ KMd ■■ the plaoee of the Burnt cruel
■■a poniihliiMit*. It waa into mch a
■Urtlut Joaaphwaacut. (Seealso
; Jar. xxxriiL 6.) Large ciiteniB we
id in Paliatiiie at iotervala of IB or
Tbata datemi wen the chief ile-
I of Uw people for water; hencs

' 1--.1- -IT — --:aiioiha "ciatai ,

" (Jer.

oat evetT itauij. ImmeDae
i andeatlj eiiated within the
pie, mpplied partly from lain
^ by the Mjoednct. Thtae ot
ueof a leige, wonld fsnunha
r. Bat in additi

d to have at least

ana, excavated ia the aott lim

rfaieh the dty i> built. Four balong-

■ hooae have Hiirumrinm a( foDowB >—

'l^i-jr are biiiU up imihtlv i.f miL-v,ivL- ^t..iii»s
and am ntuntt'd chiefly m vaUuyH, wben the
raina of winter oould be eaeily cunducted intu
them. These reservoirs are one of the leaet
doubtful veatigea of aatiqnity in all Faleotina,
for ammg the preaent race of inhalritanta
iiK^ woiki are utterly unknown. That jeni-
(olem waa tbna actually Bupplied of old with
water is apparent also from the numerous
remaios of ancient cist<:nu still existing in the
tract north of tbe dty, which was once enclosed
within the walls. — Itobinson's JCamrclui, L,
p. 48a

It was probably over one of these andent
reaervoin that David c*nsed the heads of the
sons of Itimnuin, Bechab, and Baanah, the
mutdaren of lahboahetb, to be exposed (2 Saia.
iv. 12).

Water beins so scarce in Palestine, thtaf.
dstams were Qghly valued, and were often the
matter of violent contest among rival tribes.
(See Water.)

CITIZEN (Acta uti. 39). (See Kokab.)

CITY (Gen. iv. 17). It is not very easy to
detennine by what the Jews distinguished
villages from towna and towns from cities.
Probably at first a number of tents and cuttatfEs
formed a villa(;e. They were brungbt tugether
l^ family relationship, by lucal nttiactionii, or
more probably for mutual defence against mure
powerful dans or tribes. When their idtuatian
became insecure, they began to protect them-
aelvea by a ditch or hedge, or perhaps a wall.
The^ advancement from Uus rude state to the
fortified towns and cititw of ancient days was
easy and rapid. Some have Buppoeeil that
mti«.w«rH aWv> wnllecl (Num. xiiT^t. but

CIT

the gates of cities was the principal conooune
of people (Nch. viiL 1). These stations were
desirable as booths or stalls for the sale of
merchandise (2 Ki. viL I), lliese square or
open places are probably intended in 2 Chr.
xxziL G; Xeh. iii 16; viiL 1, 3. Some cities
were adorned with op«n s(iiiares and large gar-
dens. One-third of the cit^ of Babylon, we
are told, was occupied with gardens; and
Cssarea^ Jerusalem, Antioch, and other of the
limrest cities were paved. (See Market.)

City, fenced (2 KL x. 2), or Defenced
OITIES (Isa. xxxvL 1)— a fortified city. To
buUd a city, and to fortify or fence it, in the
oriental iiuom, mean the same thin^. The
fencing or fortification was usually with high
walls, and watch-towers upon them, llius it
is said of the townK of Basuan at the period of
their capture, **A11 these cities were fenced
with hign walls, gates, and bars " (Deut iiL 5).
The walls of fortified cities wore formed, in
part at least, of combustible materials, — " I
will send a fire on tlie wall of Gaza, which will
devour the ])alaceri thereof ... 1 will send a
fire ui)on the wall of Tynis, which shall devour
the palaces thereof ... 1 will kindle a fire in
the wall of Kabbah, and it shall devour the
palaces thereof" (Amos L 7, 10, 14). Tlie gates
were covered with tliick plates of iron or brass.
So the i)salmist sings, in remembrance of God's
]>owerful acts, ** For he hath broken the gates
of brass, and cut the bars of iron in sunder "

JPs. cvii. 10). Isaiah, too, predicting the
lownf all of Babylon, a city so strongly fortified
as to be deemed impregnable, says, *'I will
break in pieces the gates of brass, and cut in
sunder the bars of inm" (Isa. xlv. 2). There
was also within the city a citadel or tower, to
which the inhabitants ne<l when tlie city itself
could not be defended, llius it is recorded in
Judges of lliebez— **But there was a strong
tower within the city, and thither fled all the
men and women, and all they of the city, and
shut it to them, and gat them up to the top of
the tower. And Abimelech came unto the
tower, and fought against it. and went hard
unto the door ot the t<)wer to Lurn it with tire "
(Judg. ix. 51, 52). These citadels were often
upon elevate*! ground, and were entered by a
flight of Btei»s. llie cities were also guarded
by watchmen, whoso duty it was to preserve
order within, and to give alarm of the appr«)ach
of any danger from without. In the Song of
Solomon the spouse complains of being attacked
by the nightpolice as she wandered through
the city, — " The watchmen that went about the
city foimd me, they smote me, they wounded
me; the keepers of the walls took away my
veil from me*' (Song v. 7). The early employ-
ment of this means of defence may he learned
from the fact, that the hours of the night
were distinguished as its watches at a }»erioa as
ancient asuie departure of the Hebrews from
Egypt (See Gate, Town.)

At the time when Abranam came into the
land of Canaan there wore already in existence
numerous towns, which are mentioned in the
cd Genesis— Sodom, Gomorrah, Zeboim,
ISO

err

Admah, Bela, Hebron, and Damawnu. TIbi
last is truly venerable, as it ia bcTond dooU
the oldest city in the world. Tlie apiei lAi
were sent over Jordan brought back an aoooot
of well-fortified cities. In the book of JoiAm
we read of no less than 600 towns of whidi tti
Israelites took possession. When the dty d
Ai was taken, its inhAbitants, who were ]^ti
the sword, amounted to 12,000 (Joih. Tm. IL
25); and we are t4>ld that Gibeon was an
greater city. ** That they feared graat^ h^
cause Gibeon was a great dty, aa one of tti
royal cities, and because it was greattf thn
Ai, and all the men thereof woe vd^tt^*
jJosh. X. 2). It is commonly calculated n^
in Eurojie, one- third or one-fourth of a lurtM .
is comprised in cities and towns. KiMtoiJM'
the Heorews, then, at 3,000,000, it would gm
about 1,250 for the avexiige population of tti
towns; and, for greater aafety, it in ptobaUi
that half the inhabitants aweU in towM
Now, in Gibeah (Judg. xx. 15), there were TW
men who bore arms, and of ooune not ka
than 3,000 inhabitants. By a similar cakol^
tion, we conclude that the forty-eight dtMi d
the Levites contained each about 1,000 iOik
In the time of David the population of Fkki*
tine may have been between 5,000:000 aal
6,000,000; and we may suppose that wetcnnt
and cities were proix>rtionjkbly incpsaaed. Oft
the great annual festivals Jenualem ant
have iiresented a sublime spectacle id ooimdMi
multitudes, when all the males of the natim
were required to be there assembled. At neh
times the city itself was insuflSdent to ooadirii
the host of Israel, and thousands encamped
around its outskirts. After the return firam
the Babylonish captivity the fwpulatioB of
the towns may have been inconsideraUe; hot
the subsequent increase was most rapid, so thil
in the time of Josephus the amall viUaget of
(jolilee contained 15,000 inhabitants ani^ the
larger towns 50,000. At the same period
Jerusalem was 4 miles in circuit, and may baft
luui a population of 150.000. liie same anthar
tells us that under Cestius the number of
luischal lambs was 256,500, which would gtn
an amount of almost 2,000,000 attending the
I)assover. If this be not great ezagnratiaB
on the part of the historian, then, atue time
of the fatal siege of Jerusalem, more thsft
1,000,000 ])crsons were shut in by the Rnmaiw;
so that the space included by the 4 milee mat
have been remarkably econonuzed.

City ok David (1 Chr. xi. 5)— a sectioB in
the southern part of Jerusalem, eahnaaf
mount Zion, where a fortress of tne JebonfeBi
stood. David reduced the fortress, and boilt a
new palace and city, to which he gave his owa
name. Bethlehem, the native town of David,
is also called from that drcumstance the oUy
of David (Luke it 11).

City of God (Ps. xlvL 4) was one of the
names of andent Jerusalem, and its appnr
priateness is evident from DeuL xii. Su

City, holy (Neh. xL 1). The sacredncss of
the temple extended itself in some messon
over the dty, and hence Jenmlem HmU m

I

err

e Holy City, and ii »> distiiignished
lat at the present day by the name £1
be Holy.

OF REPTGE. The orinnal institation
retreatB ia detailed in ffum. xxxv. 10-
e cttiea of refuge ao appropriately
rere thus aix of the Levitical cities
appointed by the Jewish law as
to which those were oommanded to
laiety and protection who had been
ledly acoesBoiy to the death of a fellow
The Idnsmen or other person
gilt punne to kill the manslajrer,
t molest him in one of these cities,
I offence was investigated and the
[t of the congregation passed. If he
rithin the provisions of tne law, he was
L to the avenger and slain. The custom
xerenge was deeply rooted among the
p, and continues among the Arabs to
; and the institution of cities of refuge
^y designed to check the violence of
lassion. Several sections of the Jewish
f relation to this subject. Moses found
7am in exisUAce, but, by a wise and
it institutiun, he so curbed and modi-
s to bring it within the dominion of
ao to extinsuish in their oommence-
ose family feuds which often 1^ to
id murder for many successive (^enera-
rhe desire of blood revenge is mtenite
among the Arabs and other eastern
but prevails invariably among the
American Iniiians. It is also found
nme — ^Hves were annually sacrificed to
sica ; and in the Lay of the Last Min-
i son of the Border Chief sings right

"^ If I lire to be a man,
y Tather't death revenged shall be"

nations had also their places of refuge ;

were not so wisely guxmled as those
(. The Greeks and Komans had such
acred inviolability. These, however,
m abu«»ed. Wilful murderers congre-
ithin them and bade defiance to the
ustice. Such a nuisance did Uiis at
eoume in Kome, that during the i)eriod
mperors it was modified and almost
L The custom passed over into the
1 Church at an early period. Constan-
; the privilege to churches, and Theo-
ctended it to all church enclosures,
iourts and gardens. The old Scottish
' Hulyroud, in Edinburgh, affords to
a sanctuary for debtors.
[o«aic enactment displayed, however,
Mlom, justice, and kin^lness. The law
down with peculiar minuteness, and

guarded a^inst abuse. Deliberato
ivas summarily punished, but mercy
wn to the unfortunate homicide
:xxv. 22, 23). In these various and

statutes (Dtrat. xix. 4-6), instances
laughter are very carefully distin-
by the lawgiver from examples of
idjUeTt committed with a ^"lethal

CIA

weaptm,** and with deliberato purpose, or
mahoe prepense. The humicide was enjoined
to flee so soon as he had been so unfortunate as
to shed blood ; but he imderwent a trial after-
wards (Num. XXXV. 24, 2r>). The avenger of
blood might slay the homicide if he caught
him ere he fled to the city of refuge ; and tnat
city he was never to leave till the deaUi of the
high priest ; for if he were found beyond certain
limits his life might be forfeited.

It is doubtful whether the trial already re-
ferred to of the man-slayer was ^ne into at
the city of refuge or in the vicinity of the
place where the offence occurre<i Perhaps
there were two processes — one introductory to
the other, as we nave a preliminary examination
to determine if the [mrty accuftecl shall be held
to answer for hisoffence. The first pr> >cesR mi^ht
have been at the city of refiige. The Jewi^
writers say that at every croHs-road si^s were
erected in some conspicuous ]>lace, i>«»inting
to the cities of refuge, on which was inscribed,
** Refuge, Refuge," which, with many other
similar provisions, were designed to direct and
facilitate the flight of the unhappy man who
was pursued by the avenger of blood.

The cities, which were all I^evitical cities,
sacred in character and quiet in aspect, were
so arranged as to be near every |H»int of the
country. Three were on the west side of
Jordan — Kedesh in Galilee in mount Xaphtali,
Shechem in mount Enhraim, and Hobron in
the mountain of Juclah; on the other side
Jordan — Bezcr, Ramoth in (lilearl, and Golan
in Bashan (Josh. xx. 7-l»)- I'he Jews say, t^K),
that as the death of the hi;;(h priest releaiied all
the prisoners in tho.se sanctuarieH, tlie i)ontifrs
motner sent them annually hamlsonie dona-
tions of clothe>{, that they mi^'ht not pray for
the decease of her son.

There were other sacred places, as is supposed,
particuLirlv the temple and the altar <^f burnt
offerings (£xod. xxi. 14). TIiuh we read that
Adonijah and Joab, at the ])eriod of David's
death, and when afraid of their life, fled to the
tal>eniacle and cau;?ht hold r>f the horns of the
altar. ITiis place of n-fiij^e did not ."ave Jriab.
He was slain in si>ite of his f)recaution ; so in
Grecian history we rea«l tliat Pausanias, when
menaced, fle«l to a fane of Minerva ; but the
magidtrates blockefl ni> the dcMir and destroyed
the roof to secure his death. (See Muiider.)

Cities with suburbs (Jo»h. xxi. 41, 42).
This expression is explained by reference to
Num. XXXV. 1-5. (See TREAiiUUii - cities.
Walls.)

CLAITDA. (See Crete.)

CLAUDIA (2 Tim. iv. 2l)-a qiristian
woman in Kome sending her salutations to
Timothy. Many suprK^se her to have been a
British lady, daughter of king C<»gidubnu8,
who in return for tne emperor's j)atronagc took
his name. This daughter was wife of loudens.
But they can scarcely be identified with the
Pudens and Claudia of the poet MartiaL

CLAUDIUS. (See Cfj*.\r.)

CLAUDIUS LYSIAS (Actuxxiii. 26)— the
chief captain or commander of a band of sol-

151

CLA.

'dim lUtlonnl ai k pabUa gtuid orer tin
tampld (Jobn iviii 12 ; Acta v. 26). Hia oon-
dnot on the ocxuion of the uproar in Jemaakimi
and hii interpodtiiia for tbe pratectinn of Paol,
on two ooaudoni where hii Ule wu in teopardy,
are creditable to hi* eScdency and bonuuiity
(ActaixL,xiii.,iiiiL) (See DwiLLnroa.)

CLAY (Isa. iIt. O). Tbii nibataDce wu
lued by the ancientB aa it i« by u«. It waa
mixed by treadiiu (luk xU. 25), fashioned by
the motioii ot a wheel or fiame (Jer. xviii. 3),
and baked or burnt in a kUn (Jer. iliiL 91.
Clay leemi to have been often used aa wax ia
■with na. Thui in Job xxxvin. 1* it ia aaid,
" He tDmelli it aa clay to the leaL" A piece

and aealed.
found un the B

cu

He dlTinm at "■'-"'■ Into da
muilMn axiitod before tha flood, M *■■
dinctions given to Noah (Gan. Tii, 1}, i
probably fotmded apon the pntctioa of
ucrifice. The Momio oiwitnwDt on H
wu clear and predae, and perfact^ i
to popular comprehenoon aod nae. A
with regard to qnadnipeda :— ^m anfai
hibited «a unclean were tb« aoliped*^ >
with one hoof— aa the hniM and tha a
«niTn«l« allowed to be eatm aa dean i
fianpedea, or thoae having hoofa dirU
two parts, or doven— aa oien, deer,
and ^lata. But then this diatiiictiai I
entire, not parldal ; real, not merely ^i
and bendei ita external oonatmctioD,
temal or anatoniica] conatmctiaa m
be ooirectly coTTenwndent to thia fat
Horeover, animali wti
aredivided into moret
parta, are nnclean;

Engraved Brf(k« (rom BibjloD.

were common alao in Nineveh, and Btamped

C*« of clay aeem to have formed a kind of
k note* or circulating medinm. Thepropbet
Iiaiah illnatrates man's dependence on God
In lantfuage borrowed from the oommon utm
01 clay,— "We are the clay, and thou our
potter ; and we all are the work of thy hand "
(lea. liiv. 6). And the aixntle Paul has given
newpoint to the symbol by bia interro^tinn,
— "Hath not the potter power over the clay,

of the same lump to i— "^ ' -

honour, and anottirr ui
ix. 21). (See PciTTFR.)

CLEAJT and UNCLEAN (Lev. x. 10).
Theee worda are of frequent occurrence and
nbvioua meaning in the aacred writings ; but it
ia in their peculiar aiiplication by the Jf--"-
law to persons, azumaJa, and thinga, that
are now to be oonsiilered.

In order to partake of the privileges of the
Jewish Church, and to engage acceptably in its
outward worship, the iudiviuuat must not only

' ■" icised, bat he must be ceremoniidly

.t ia, he must be hve from nnclean-

... __ >w the various kinds of uncleannees
were contracted, what time it continued, and
what was the proceas of purification, we have
iculaily described to us, Lev. ii,-zv. ;

" (Bom.

I thinga, that they

pare — t^at

^r

lix.

lat

and evidoit mMtkm d

members. (See Cci:
may consider tha
mentioned in Lev. z
>f a rale d^

divided in

whoaefee. ... „ „_^

cleft into two puia externally, yet in
by the construction of their bonea diff
the character of the permitted kinds,
swiue. Though the outward appeal
"- ' 's feet ia like that of a duva
yet internally il '

^'^''n'^

finger, a

Id i„i.

jnoLiwhi

— toesj Hu that the i

.— 't-ltones IS into lirat and aeoo

third phalangea or knuckles, no leas thi
of the buznan hand. Besides, therefi
abacnce of ruminatiou in the hog kind,
are nut accordant with those of inch b
are clean according to the Levitical
ti<.na. 13.) All n^nse feet an tbo
divided by two clefta into three toea,
ahaphan, rendered in our veision "
(SeeCoNET.) (4.) AUwhoaeteetantho
divided by three clefta into four toe^
hare; and therefore, (t/orttori, if then
ooimala whow feet are divided into fit
they are so much further removed ft
character requisite to permiaaioD.

proiier tu recollect that tha qo
' — is only one of '

rn (liivctioaB for Heparating qiLutni-
^ini; tr, their liooFn unil clitwi, an ha
it li/>hr<< u'bk'h b^ no clear and
:mbeT» adapted to lucumotiua abould
; while thoce which had iiiu abould
roridad tbej had who icalea : for, bb
d bcdbra, ai two NqnUtM^ a cloven

ndjwi; bat a list of exoeptioiu ii
1 thcM at* fortoddcD, without
ig thoas irtiieh are allowed. It
nd, boworar, on oon^deiatiun, that
k b*e on gTMD are not prohibited;
m an the doDw*ticat«d Unda, we
Mt eipnm it in other words, tliat
cr, ealanll]^ are rejected — that is,
Qoiked beau and tttoog talons-
ray pre J on Umit fbwli, on animals,
. while tboee wbicb eat vc^ietables
ed BB lawfbL So that the ume
I maint^ned, to a oertain d^ree.

_ . — t creep, gomg

■ur," or whataoerer goeth upon the
all "flying creeping things which
set," aie decland to be '

A, itAktfiur waUdng Iisa, have
gn apringing legi {ptdti mjfataru),

Mtf, tboy an declared to be dean.
feaanna hava bean awriyifrd for these
iDctkniB; and the Scripture, which
( jpode in inqoiiiea ol this nature,

I Inn' rt^latiii^ tlir'ir fiH>

hat tlie uttit-r u-n^iili^rs M
a ss disgiutinu. Tbise' who
■ ■■ likely

U'Botit- iiw[ili; fr..
uue Hhuuid eat "'

unlawful or re» „. .._

cannot eat and drink toeethet „._,

to become intimate. We see an initance irf
this in the case of the Egyptiana, who, from
time immemorial, had been accustomed to con-
sider certain animals BB improiierforfood, and
therefore to avoid all intercourse with those
wbo eat or even touch what they deemed
defiling. (See Gen. iliii 32.) Hence they
and the Hebrews conid ni>t eat together, and
of course coulil not associate or live toeether.
Accordingly, they assigned that people, when
they had come down to dwell in their countiy,
a separate district for their rosidencej for
some of the j^-nimala which the Hebrews
ate were among them unclean, because
sacred, being so expressly consecrated to a
deity that they durnt not slaughter them.
The Hebrews, by killing and eating these
animals, must have appeoreil not only odiouH
but sacrilegioUB, transgreBsing the rules ot
good behaviour and offending the gixls.
Other animals, on several of the binin of prey,
were also held sacred by the Egyiitinns, or
were venerated in the ritce of augury. The
Hebrews bdng instructed to consiiler these
OS nnclean, wonid be prevented from the in-
dulgence of the like supeistitirm. (See Gat.)

Thus this statute, above all others, establisheil
not only a political and sacred, bnt a physical
separabon from all other iKopIe. It made it
next to impossible for the one to mix with
the other, either in meals, in marriage. tiC in
any famihu' connection. Their opimsite cus-
tomi in the article of diet niit only precluded

CLE

■ervative from heathen idoUtry, by i)Tecludiiig
all familiarity with idolatroua nations. So
bitted wero the Jews in the observance of
this law, that by no reproaches, no threats, no
mifferingiL nay, hardly by a new command
from G<Ki himself, could they be brought to
lay it aMide. (See 1 Maccab. i. G3; Ezck. iv.
14; Acts X. 14.) Though some thousand
years have passtnl since this discriminating
ritual was given to them, and though they
have been scattered abroad among every nation
upon earth; though their government and
temple have been entirely destroyed, yot this
X>ruhibition of particular foods has ever been
obeyed, and has ser\'v<l, with other causes,
t«» {ciM']> tlu-m distinct and separate from all
other people.

^Vu other reason for the distinction was, that,
as the Jews were a people |)eculiarly devoted
to Go<l, they should oe reminded of that rela-
tion by a i^articulority of diet which should
serve emblematically as a sign of their obliga-
tion to 8tndy moral purity, lliis is expressly
given as the reason with reference to the for-
bidden animals (Lev. xL 43-45). As thus
•fehovah meant to im]>reKs on his ]>eople a con-
stant sense of his own infinite purity, as ** tlie
Holy One of Israel," so he meant to habituate
tlieiu t') regard and honour lum as such, by the
conspicuous |)urity both of their maimers and
worrtlii]). ^ot one of the pagan gods so much
as iiretendwl to purity of chariicter, or claimed
to iMi won<hip)>ed uuder the title of the Holy
One. Far from this, even the worship of these
gCKls was frequently performe<l by im]»ure rites
and the une of vile and filthy aiiiiiials, by
which the worshipi>ers proclaimed the foul
character of their deities. On the contrary,
the pure ceremonies of the Hebrews constantly
reminded them of the immaculate purity of
Jehovah, and this nice distinctiim of meats was
fitted to teach them the rudiments of moral
purity <»r true holiness (Isa. Ixv. 3, 4; LxvL
17). (See Preface to Harris's Dirtumary,)

Penons.—VwiXvv the ceremonial law a He-
brew miglit, in vari(»us ways, Ijocome unclean.
Diseases ami infirmities ma4.1e their victims un-
clean : the Uiuch of a dead or leprous bothr, or
an unclean animal, or of any article of furni-
ture that had c^mie in contact vk'ith a corpse, or
been defileil with lejirosy, caused uncleaiiiu^ss.
l*he ]K*rsons rendere<l micloan in these various
ways remained so for a loni^rer or a shorter
period, an<l 1)ecame clean again by batlting — a
process which, in such a country, is full of
physical benefit, as well as of ceremonial mean-
ing. It was plainly no disgrace in many things
to l)ecome defiled. Tliey who did the last
duties to the dying and the dead could not feel
their uncleanness to have in it an^yr shame ; but
it was a sin of no ordinary magnitude to omit
the necessary purifications. Such ceremonial
distinctions, such national rites, have now
))asserl awav. ** The kingdom of God is not
meat and drink, but righteousness, peace, and
joy in the Holy Ghost." Jew and Gentile are
now alike before God; and He annoimced
this great truth when it was procUimod to

CLO

Peter, "What God hath dMUed, that od
not thou common nor nndeML** Mcnl pnrilf
is now required — ^purity of hearL even tkft
" holiness without whicn no man uaU see tili
Lord." Still the ceremonial law, thoo^ %
was both typical and temporaiy, lervai ■
these minute and BcrupalooB distmctions a wj
wise and salutary purpose. (S^ liSns.)

CLEOPAS is the proper lendering in Loki
xxiv. 18. Cleophas occurs in John nx. 25 ; bik
Clopas is the right rendeiine. Cleopas aai
Clopas do not appear to be the same penoB.
Cloi)a8, however, is often identified with Al>
phieas, but on insufficient grounds. The naiMi
are not so like as some contend. In Matt z. 1^
Mark iii. 18, Luke vl 15, Acts i 13, we hiM
James the son of Alphsus, and in Mh^ hl M
wehaveLevithesonof Alphseus; but

these two Alphsuses are the same or <i

it is im])08Bible to decide. Then w
KXevxav (Clopas) in John zix. 23, and 1
(Cleopas) in Luke xxiv. i8^ the pKopsr
of the two names in the Greek text.' 1ft
original S>'To-Chaldaic fonn, as given in fti
Syriac version, is Chalphai, and ia foimdiB
the five places where ^KK^palo^ occurs, baft It
gives Cleopha for the two names Clo|ias wl
Cleopas in John and Luke. The nmmes was
thus evidently regarded as <^uite different Iqf
the author or authors of this oldest TcnMk
CUoitas, therefore, is not, as is often affinnsd,
the Aramaic form of Alphseus ; snd to assot
that Alphieus and Clopas are varying namssii
o|)i)osea to philological analogy. Tnt Syiiae
Chcth may itass into the Greek 'A with thi
»piriiu9 Icnin, as in *AX^a?ov, for the Hebrew
n is so treated by the Seventy, H^ beoonung
Kva, though often it is represented by the
Greek X or K. But would 'A have any alliance
with the consrmantal Knph in Clopas or
Klo)>as? At least, the Hebrew Kopk wtOM
never to be represented by a vowel in the
Septuagint , but by K , X, or r. (See Bboiiujl)

(;L0AK. (See Clotiies.)

CLOTHES (Matt. xxiv. 1«. Hm Mt oC
making cloth was known in early thw Tka
skins of animals siipplied the place of dfllk aft
first, as when the Lord God madeooataof dm
to our firKt parents. The Hebrew ward oAsnirt
employed to represent clothessiipifieaoris^BriJ^
cm-erinfj. A second term oi iam\ta» nmaSti^
is employed in the Jewish Scriptorea to rsn^
sent tne dress of a human being; while stflliHi*
other word denotes the clothing of Orientala in
its loose, long, flowing character. Bpmnmff
and needlework, however, were so far psffectea
as to furnish cloth, of a coarse kmd at least> sft
an early i)eriod (Exod. xzxv. 25; Judg. t. 30).
The beauty of dress consisted in the fineness
and colour of the cloth. (See CoLOuaa, Sack-
cloth.) In reference to colours, it may ba
remarked, that white wps the emblem of re-
joicing.— '*Let thy garments," says Solomon,
"bo alwa3rs white.*' Blue was a favourite
colour, and among the Jews was a sacred onfl.
for it was the predominant colour in the
hangings of tlie tabernacle and in the sacer-
dotal vestments. It prevailed, too^ in

J miteruli out of which dotliiiig
> wool, linen at cotton, atid nlk.
io ■>;, in in>ii7 plaocs, wbatbtr
£abnes are nMMit bjr Uw ncred
I nem to h»Te bora raiplcqrsd.
ntlTpradncad in Xgjpt ; cotton
1, and vai lugd; emplored.
rt i( doabtfol whether the teimi
in the KbLe dunota the '

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now known bj that Appellation. The Hebrew*
were by ths l»w eipresily inteniicbed fmm
we»iiiij[ B gahnenl o( linen and w<mllen— eome
nippaung that such a tvxture hail acannection
with heathen wonhip ; othi^m, believing the
teatimony of JoeephuB, that such drewieg were
forbidden to the peupla becAUfio they were
worn by the prieHthuoL Clotliin;? was nener-
ally prepared au
ni»ybe»eenby rs...
book of Pruveiba.

ch arv eeen in the precedtuu cut,
saine from ege to n^ ; anil hence

tfaruwn, by modtm nbftervatiun,
of t>ie clothing of the Hebrewa.

i»B their ordinary drew

thu(

Tgar-

(linen or cotton) boand onnind the luins with

a Rtring or band, and nuudiini; bi thu knuea.
It in tbe only Rurnutit of thu Aruti*. Such a
Ktrip is also the " inuirr t-annvnt " of thu dn'BS,
and it i8 90 Kli^-ht that tUoHu who have no other
are chaiactonzod an n^vd (Tua. xx. 24).
Thus it id aaid nf I'etcr, that "he fHit bin
fisherV coat unto him (fur b»
waa nakiil" (Jnhn xxi, 7).
In the improved state of thix

fhe iihrniHi "unatM
il jjarmmtn'' (Acta ix. ;RI)

ntK. The iihrmvin I>Bn.

ri.itii, ho!Ka^ hatM,
nd (tarnK'ntH, Tiienn in Kuc-
'i-nsion wi'bi nuth'T Kartnunt*
irfuUandfl<iwiu;;pBiitBl.><inB.
nuuH, mantliM, and cliithini;
e^!iivrally, ur ratber, {lerliaiia.

The innrr pnrmriil wot at
first «nKk,a8ab.nudi-»cribed;
- Btrip of cloth woa
.._ ovur the ihenliler,
onci coveroil the arm. It was
■ewc<l at tlio nidi'S and ex-
ti-ndal to the kneea. Thil

Arabia. Next ci

c ulccvea

CLO

sleeves among the Arabs are made wide and
mjen. and are therefore easily thrown off.
To "make hare the arm" is a lively and
beautiful fig^ire, representing the removal of
all encumbrances from the most powerful limb
of the body, that it may be put forth in its
utmost Rtiength (Ina. lil. 10). As a portion of
underclothin|f, and for si^ecial occasions, the
officiating pnest was to wear brtfrket or drawers
** from the loins even unto the thighs" (Exod.
xxviii. 42).

Girtlhf. —When the garments come to be
made long and flowing, they were confined
arrmnd the luinu with girdlois which not only
Borved to bind them to the bodv. but also to
hold them when tucked up. l^liis increased
the g^icefulne^(s of their appearance, and pre-
vented them from interfering with labour or
motion. } fence, to ^* gird up the loins " became
a sij^ificant figurative expression, denoting
readmess for service, activitv, and watchful-
ness; and to *' loose the girdle" was to give
way to repose and indolence (2 Kl iv. 21^; Job
xxxviii. 3; Isa. v. 27; Jer. i. 17: Luke xii.
35; John xxi. 7; Acts xii. 8; 1 Fet L 13).
This girdle was a belt or band of cord, cloth,
or leather, G inches or more in breadth, with
a buckle affixecl, to loosen or draw it closer.
Travellers say that eastern girdles of this day
are wide enough for a mat or covering, and
that, when of this width, they are plaited
in folds. Sometimes tlie girdle was maile of
linen (Kzek. xvi. 10), and was often adorned
with rich and beautiful ornaments of metal,
precious stimes, and embroidery, 'llie girdle
was used to cjirry weajxins (2 Sam. xx. 8),
money, and other things usually carried in
the i)ocket. llie Arabs carry their daggers
in it, pointing to the right side ; and through
all the Kant it is the place for the handker-
chief, smctkinK materials, and the implements
of one's profession. (See Inkhorn.) The
word translate<l purses (Matt. x. II) is in other
places rendered girdle. ITie i^nrdle not only
protected the body, but braced it with strength
and firmness. As the ^nlle is sup])osed by
some to have been a chief article or appenn-
age of the armour, so to have it continually
fastened uj)on the i>en<on is emblematical of
great fidelity and vigilance. And beohuse it
encircled the Inxly very closely, the i>erfect
adhen^nce of the people of God to his service is
fipiratively illustrated bv the cleaving of the
girdle to a man's loins (^er. xiii. 11). In the
some view, righteousness and faithfulness are
called by the prophet (Isa. xi. .">) the girdle of
the promised Messiah. (See AuMoi' r, Priest.)

Tne (niter or vjiper purment (Matt xxL 8),
or d**ok (Mutt v. 40), was prolmbly a s<iuare
or oblong strip of cloth, 2 or 3 yards l(»ng,
and i)erhai>s 2 yards wide. Such a gar-
ment is now worn by the Arabs. It was
simply ^Tapped n>und the bo<ly as a pro-
tection frr.im the weather; and when occasion
renuire<l. it might be thnwn over the shoulder
nnii under tlie ann, somewhat like an Indian
blanket, and l>e fastened Mith clasrjs or buckles,
two comers being in front whicn were called

CLO

skirts, and were often used m apmn Mm
times are among ns (2 Ki ir. 39). The ■■
capacious fold explains oar Lord** aUiuioft>*'

*' Give, and it shall be given unto yon, mI-
measure, pressed down, and ahaken togfttm^,
and running over, Bhall

men give into
bosom" (Luke vi 38). The Arafai thravtiit
robe over their left shoulder and midar lis'
right arm, and thus cover the whole boAb
leaving only the right ann exposed, tik

Eent was the poor man's bed-dotUHi:
1 xxii. 26, 27: Job xxiL 6; zzif. i{f
was probably tne doak and the oouft «
linen garment to which reference is had, MA
V. 40, and, in a more ample form, was oslkdi
robt (Luke xxiii 11), or a manUt (2Sj. &Ai<
It is supposed that the fringes, or ntiv
tassels of the national uniform at the Jfli%
with the blue riband (Num. xt. 3ffl. mi
placed on the comers or borders of tmsoi'
ment (Matt, xxiii 5). They aie seen Bulk
ancient figures.

In winter, fur dresses or skins were «A
as at the present day in eastern oounfemfc A
dress of sheep or goatskins is perhaps i
2 Ki L 8, and in Zech. xiiL 4. like
skins of this kind were worn br the pooml '
and meanest people (Heb. zL 37): bnttiiste
dresses were sometimes very oostly, and eoih
stituted a part of the royal apparel. The mA
translated rvibt (Jonah iii 6) is sup|iussd li
mean a fur garment The ske€p*§ dolUM
(Matt vii. 15) was considered emhMmatiosliI
innocence and gentleness, and wm the H^
guise of the false prophets, who were, intn4|
^erce and ravenous as wolves for the blood «
souls, llie word translated 9keet» (Jndj^ in;
12, 13) is supix)sed to denote some kmd d
garment worn next to the skin, and pfobablf
the same which is spoken of, under the nunl
name fine linen^ in Prov. xxzL 24; Isa. m,
2:^; Mark XV. Ml

The linen doth mentione<L Maik zir. O,
was probably an article of bed-clothing, aadi|b
up m haste and thrown aroond the body.
Some suppose that this yxrang man was ni-
loi^dng our Saviour^ while Us professed dis-
ciples were fleeing m all diieotioiia, and tibsl
those around him supposed him to be ons
of his adherents, and so laid hold npon bin.
If this view is rejected, the only war of
accounting for the introdnction of an moMt
so entirely unconnected, as it seems to ba
with the narrative, or at least nnesseoftiBl
to it, is to reganl it as illustrative of the
confusion and excitement which attended ths
arrest of our divine Redeemer by the law-
less rabble. The Aralis use the ssme ga^
ment for a complete dress by day which sorfcs
tiiem for a bed and covering by night (Best
XX iv. 13). Such, ah>o, has in former tiDM
been the use of the Scottish Highlandci^
plaid. (See Sheeth.)

The difference between the dress of men sad
women is not so strongly marked in the Ksft
as with us. .Yet tliere was a distinctioD ; snd
Moses expressly forbade any exdumge of sp-
parel between the sexes. Such an ezdiangs

I

CLO

Dum in pagan oonntrie^ and waa oom-
rith idolatnnu impurities. The com-
H of females was probably as cheap
lie as that of males. A loose flowing
nnent, with a belt or zone upon the
kd a v^eil, was probably the principal
lie veil or hood was considered a token
(ty in unmarried women. Thus it is
of Bebekah, that "she took a Teil,
red herself" (Gen. xxiv. 65). It was
ark of subjection or reverence in those
e married (1 Cor. xL 3-10). The upper

or robe was often made full; and
deed up, the front of it would answer
xMe oi a large ajnon; which is one

of the wora translated veiL For

.Ruth's veil held six meamu-es of

Ruth iiL 15). The Arabs put their

cloaks to a like use. (See Vail.)

prophecies of Isaiah occurs a mmute

of aeveial articles of Jewish female

" In that day the Lord will take away

ery of tiieir tinkling ornaments about

itf and their cauls, and their round

e the moon, the chains, and the

I, ttod the mufflers, the bcmnets, and

mcints of the legs, and the head-bands,

tablets, and the ear-rings, the rings,

e-jewels, the changeable suits of ap-

id the mantles, and the wimples, and

pine-pins, the glasses, and the fine

idUie hoods, and the velLt" (Isa. iii.

"Bravery^" is used in the old £n;^liuh

finery; the *' tinkling ornaments" ore

nds, anid the "cauls" are caps of net-

ind the crescents or little moons,

ornaments of that shape. According

erMiu, this* word means tassellcd tresses

>cks of luur braided and hanging to the

he ^'chains** are pendants (literaUy,

e., ear-rings) and the "bracelets** are

rm. or, according to Ewald, are collars

leck, and the "mufflers'* are veils, the

;re used denoting the f»eculiar orien-

, compoi«ed of two pieces hooked

below the eves, one of which pieces
n back over tne head, while the other
r fact.*. The other pieces of dress are the
s** (or other ornamental head-dresses),

axikle-chains, connecting the ankle-
> as tt.) regulate the length of the step,
lesy and the houses (i, t,, places or
Ifs) of breath (meaning pruoably the
•boxes or smelling-bottles worn by the

women at their girdle8|L and the
/ornaments of the leg). For j^irdles,
•iottles, and amulets, tiie English ver-
"head-bands," "tablets" (biit in the
bouses of the soul), and ear-ringM,*'
on account of the superstitious use
ras sometimes made of these (Gren.

The "rin^," strictly sipnet-rings, but
for finger-nngs or rings in general ; the
wels*' are a c«)mmon and very ancient
t in eastern countries. The pi'oi)het
'ers to the holiday-dresses, and the

the rubes, and the purses. The
these three words is very commonly

CLO

' explained to mean clothes that are taken off
and laid aside— k €., the best suit, holiday or
gala dresses — although this general expression
seems misplaced in an enumeration of minute
details. The English version, ** chanfjeable
suits of apparel,^* though ambiguous, seems
intended to express the same idea. The next
two words, according to their etymoloinr, denote
wide and flowing upper garments. The Eng-
lish version of the last word, "crisping-pins,**
supposes it to relate to the dressing of the hair ;
but the word is now usually exiHained, from
the Arabic analogy, to signify bags or purses,
probably of metaL The ornaments finally
referred to are the mirrors and the tunics
(inner garments made of linen), the "hoods"
and the * ' veils. ** The first word is explained to
mean their thin transparent dresses, by the Sep-
tuagint, Kimchi, Scnroeder, Rosenmiiller, and
Ewald (der fcinen Zeuge); but most writers
understand it to denote the small metallic
mirrors carried about by oriental women. In-
stead of turbans (" hoods ") Henderson supposes
the word to denote ribands, so often used for
binding the hair or fastening the tiara. The
same writer explains the "veil" here spoken of
to be the large veil covering all the other gar-
ments, and therein differing from the small
veil mentioned in r. 19. (See Alexander on
Itainh,)

HandkcrchU'fa (Acts xix. 12). These were
common among the Hebrews ; and travellers
inform us that the people of eastem nations at
this day carry them in their hands, and that
they are often beautifully wrought with the
needle.

Aprms (Gen. iiL 7; Acts xix. 12), we have
no reason to doubt, were in form aiid jjiirpose
substantially like those in common use at the
present day.

Sandals and Shoes (Dout. xxv. 9; Mark vi.
9). Shoes properlv so called do nut seem to
have been used. I'he sandal was at firnt a flat
piece of wood or leather, suited to the sole of
the foot, and bound u^Km it by straps or
strings. The fastening was called a latclnt
(Gen. xiv. 23). Several forms of the ancient

sandal, both simple and more ornate, are CTven
in the preceding cut ITie common sandal is
made of a piece of hide imm. the neck of a
cameL and sometimes of several thicknesses

157

CLO
Kweil t4)sether. It ia futoned \ff two rtnpi,
<iDe of which powieB betwoen the great a^
ancnod toe, and thu other around the lieel twd
over the initvp. Hkdcc it atipean that this
•boe wan *aiiilv ilippcd cS, and that it atfordod
nu protection from thu dniit and dirt. Sandali
wen never wum in the house, as itwaacon-
■idcred a viulation oE good manners. The
taking nff the shoes was a mart of reverence
•hown to exalted periMns and sacred places.
At the doors of Hiridim pasodas sandals are
collected in great numbers; and the same
CBremony is reqiiLred by the Turks, even of
Christians and Htrangers. The wooden Kandal
IB much worn in Arabia, Judea, and Egypt.
It has a raised heel and toe, and though iiKen

coarse, and very rlumsy article The neces-
sity of washin;; the feet after every walk is
obvious; and it was thu Bret token of hospi-
tality to miiply water fur this purpose (Uen.
xxiv. 32; Lukcvii. W). To unloose the straps
or latcheU was the busiuess of a menial (Mark

LTi. _.
liiL l-iai

Miln (Eiod.
iiviii. 44), i

CLO

■In the wadiiiig of Oe fe«t (Ilk

; 38), or ioMMi (&■!
a han been nait nl Ai
The hi^ pnnta ^H

{niScent head-drsM, to
if fiiM linen, n*e(tull
'olda. Upon ita fron

8 yards rf . , -— —

circular folds. Upon ita front wm • §li
plate, inscribed with thaw wurdi «l «aU
sigmficance and contecntiaii — HouMm ■■■
THE Ijord. The Arab women wear »eBd
folded doth cot unlike the modem tamSi
Bonnets are mentioned aa a part <t fnril
dress, IsB. iil 20; but it is notbown it tb
day, with any certainty, of what matsrid i
Jewish bunoets wen made, nor i^iat WH tl
shape or mode of wearinE them. EaA
feoialea yet take ipetdalpiide ja their tlHMi
turbans. Some expUin tha wotA in tba ■»
sage of Isuah refened to, ai denotiBr a Ik
circlet of gold or silver wluch fonuedaj" '
ing besd-band. AUodona to foreign or
and Soman diea are not fnqiMot

"scarlet rohe" (Matt, iivii. 2fi) may have
been the military putiidamfTilHin, woin only
by the uSceis. It was open in frunt, reached
clown to the knees, Lung rather loosely over
the shoulders, and wns fastened by a cLwp
ftcrosB the chest. The " cloak " which the
apostle Paul left at Troas & Tim. iv. 13) was
the Itomon jmcnuia, a. thick woollen robe
without sleeves, aud nith only an aperture
for tlie head to iiaas through— worn instrad
of the ordinary toga in travelling, and as a
jirotecUon ngaiDet rain and cold

VliantK ofrniiiicnt or parmcvU (2 KL v. 6,
22). It is euHtomary in the East at this day
to make tirosents of garments ; and the Asiatic

"ices keep chan^jcn of raiment ready raaile,

presents to persons of distinction whom

they wish particuui-ly tohonour. JoliTefemto
tlie nracttce oE hoardini; up immense vsjieties of
chitliing, when ho soys (ch. ni-ii. 16), "Though
he heap silver up as the dnst, and prepare
raiment aa the clay." Joseph, we are told,
gave to his brother Benjamin Rve changes of
raiment. Naomnu corned with him for the

Eilihet Elijah ten ehangea of raiment; and
:re ore many allusiuns of a dmilar nature to
this eastern practice scattered throughout the
Scripture. The limple and unifonu shape of
108

r

the garments makes Qaa ci , ,

and acoounti ahio for the chaiu[e of one Mr> '
son's dress for another's, which u mq^ticnu im
sacred history.

C/iaagtablt svitj of appanl (Im^ iii. BJ an
Buppceed to hare hccn made fd aome fla>
Eabric, ornamented with embroidery, and wan
over garments of vaiiooa oolonn.

Coat of fRORtr (oJourt (Gen. mriL ^ (8m
COLOOBS.)

Among the appendages to JewiiJi dna
were jewels of gold and ailnr, braoelsUs
necklaces, ear-rin^, kc Nose and eap^iip
are very common in the Eaat. Chardin m^
he never saw a woman or girl in AtvUa a
Persia without a rim; in the left aoabriL Hi
OiTfad, Gen. xiv. 23, is loppoaed tqr aont lo
mean the thread on which pncnooa atooM ««■
hung fur neck-chains (BaA. xvL 11^ BnB»

Sam. L 10), and by femalea upon the kg (ka
(Isa. iii. 19, 20). Women in Penia and Aidja
wear about the ankle rings fall of littk bdi
(Isa. iJL 113). Sawl ntrron, made of mollw
brsas, and finely polished, weni also a "™i™m
accompaniment of female dreai (Exod. zzxfin.

CLO

. xzzrm. 8 we «ro toM that the first

the tabeniAole was made ont of the

inrm whidi the women save np. In

M these miiron woe mAoe of poluhed

) Gredsn and Bctnan women, without
01. wore their hair long. Qnthisthey
idl their art, disposinff it ill Taiious
nd embellishing it witn many oma-
In ancient medals and stataes we
plaited tresses, interwoven with ex-
iDd fontastic decorations, so pointedly
ed by the apostle as proofs of a vain
id as inconsistent with the modesty
mm of Christian women (1 Tim. iL 9,
L iiL 1, 3, 4). jSee Phtlacteries.)
5 told (Beat. viiL 4) that the raiment
[eborews did not grow old during their
of forty yean; and some have sup-
at it was literally so, and that the
f the children were miraculously made
rith their growth. The better omnion
be, that tney were so provided with
ad other necessaries as to be comfort-
decent in their external appearance
II that tedious journey,
sb to doihe is often used metaphori-
^ to be clothed with cuving^ with
, with worms, with zeaL The import
gores cannot be mistaken.
B, BE3a>iK0. (See Rend.)
ET. (See Dwellinos.)
D, PILLAB or (Exod. xiii 21). When
le of Israel commenced their march
tiie wildemen, God caused a cloud
og a pillar to pass before the camp,
laytime it was like a doud, dark and
jid in tiie night bright and shining,
; though some have supposed there
» douds, one to shade and the other to
it to the camp. It also served as a
ir rest or motion (Num. ix. 17-23).
ave been many attempts to explain
don of Jewish history, without sup-
he phenomenon to be a miracle, but
e proved signal fulures. The inspired
) plainly itself regards, and would
renrd, the drcumstauce as super-
That cloud was the skechiiiah, or
mobol of God*s presence with his
It often rested on the mercy-seat
the tabemade. When Isaiah saw
i the glory of God in his temple,
nse was mled with smoke," or the
Mid. When the Father testified of
to the disdples, on the mount of
ration, the bright doud oversha-
lem.** And the presence of God is
to his Church in every age by the
Isaiah, in these vivid and expressive
— "And the Lord will create upon
elling-place of mount Zion, and upon
nbliea, a doUd and smoke by day,
hining of a flaming fire by night" (Isa.

a sometimes the svmbol of number or

9, as in Heb. xiL 1, where occurs the

** great doud ol witnesses." So also

» COA

in Ihl Ix. 8^ — " Who are these that fly as
a doud, and as the doves to their windows?"
"I hare blotted out, as a thick doud, thy
tranamssions, and, as a cloud, thy sins " (Isa.
xliv. 22). The word taken figuratively re|)re-
sents auo the majeetv of God.—" Behold, he
Cometh with douds" (Rev. l 7). "Jesus
saith unto him. Thou hast said : nevertheless,
I say unto you, Hereafter shall ye see the Son
of man sitting on the right hand <^ power,
and coming in the douds of heaven" (Matt.
xxvi 64). The doud icL moreover, the image
of plenty. The king's favour is comjuured to
it, for it pours out fr^h and fertilizing showers
on the eturth (Prov. xvi 15).

Our Lor^ as recorded in Luke xiL 54, sa3rs
to the people — ** When ye see a doud rise out
of the west, straightway ye say, there cometh
a shower; and so it is." Tlie phrase, **a
doud," should be the doud, for so the original
intimates, — when ye see the doud rise out of
the west Our Lord alludes to a phenomenon
with which the people were perfectly familiar ;
and so he calls it tne doud- the doud which,
rising from the west, or out of the Levant,
was the sure forerunner of a copious shower.
Rainy weather invariably followed the rising
of such a doud in the western horizon (comp.
1 Ki. xviii 44). In this passage, Elijah's ser-
vant is said to have beheld the same cloud,
small, indeed, as a man's hand ; but the seer
knew it to be an infallible prognostic; for it
rose, and spread, and grew dark, and "there
was a great rain."

CLOUTED (Josh. ix. 6) — worn out and
patched.

CNtDUS (Acta xx\'ii. 7)-a city of Asia
Minor, situated on the point of a penin.<mla,
now called Crio, and lying north of the iitlanii
of Rhodes. Paul passed it on his voyage to
Rome. It had a capacious harbour.

COAST (ISam. v. 6; Matt. \m, 33). In
many places of. Scripture the word has no
connection with the sea, but sic^fies, generally,
confines or borders, as in its old English sense.
It is derived, through the French costCf from tliu
Latin cotia, a rib.

COAT. (See Clothes.)

COAL. It is still a question whether
mineral coal was used in ancient Palestine.
There are at present mines on mount Leba-
non which are wrought to a small extent, and
supply a species of coal somewhat sulphur-
eous m quality. The prindpal means of fuel
in remote times seems to have been wood
collected into faggots. But timber was scarce,
and bushes or brushwood were commonly cm-
ployed. Such is the psalmist^s allusion, — ** Be-
fore your pots can feel the thorns " (Ps. Iviii.
9). Such, too, is the reference in Solomon's
well-known saying, — *'For as the crackling
of thorns under a jx>t, so is the laug[hter of the
fooL This also is vanity" (EccL vii. G). Tho
widow of Zarephath was " gathering sticks "
when Elijah met and saluted her. Straw and
grass were often employed. " The grass," says
our Lord, is in the field to-day, and *^ to-morrow
is cast into the oven;" and he says in another

159

coc

plAce, "he will bum up the chaff with un-
quenchable fire." Vine twijo^ were also used
for fuel. Ezekiel makes this statement, and
then bases u]ion it a fearful menace (EzeL xv.
4-0). Our Saviour, too, in his famous figurative
adoress on the vine, alludes to the same prac-
tice, one so common in the country, familiar
to all, when he affirms — ** If a man abide not
in me, he is cast forth as a branch, and is
withered; and men gather them, and cast
them into the fire, and thev are burned" (John
XV. G). Dung is often, if not generally, col-
lected and used as fuel, and is the principal
means of preparing bread in eastern ovens even
in modem times.

The tenn coal occurs often in our Tersion;
and in some cases mineral coal seems to be
intended, — ** As coals are to burning coals, and
wood to fire" (Pro v. xxvi. 21). Here two kinds
of fuel are referred to, wood and coals ; the
(Ustinction implying that, by the term coals,
some different material from wood is intended.
Twice does the prophet Isaiah use the term
found in the verse of Proverbs quoted, in de-
scribing tiie operations of a blacksmith (Isa.
xliv. 12 ; liv. 16). The Hebrew word in these
passages does not decide what material is
referred to. It denotes the black colour of the
fuel, the charcoal used in the smithy. ^ The
word oftenest rendered coal is almost similar
in soimd with the JEnglish term. Such coal was
used by the priests in their censers ; but it might
bo charred w ood. The poetrv of the 18th Psfdm
is a vivid picture. — * * At the brightness that was
before him his thick clouds passed ; hailstones
and coals of tire. The Liord aI.so tliundered in
the heavens, and the Highest gave Ids voice ;
hailstones and coals of fire** (Ps. xviiL 12, 13).
Perhaiw the image is taken from the burning
matter thrown u]) by a volcano at such a season
AS that descrilted in a preceding verse, when
**tho earth shook and trembled; the founda-
tioHH also of the hills moved and were shaken.
l>ecause ho was wrotlu** The word translated
coal, 1 Ki. xix. ($, was only a hot stone, used
then and now as an oven for drying bread
liOHtily {prepared.

Coal is of vegetable origin. It consists of
mineralized vegetable remains, principally ferns
and grasses, with a few firs. These, carried
from the place of their growth, and that growth
must have been rank and luxuriant, were de-
}>06ited in the bottom of the ocean, compressed
into strata, and overlaid by rock. Who can
comnute what ages were required for a process
so Slow? What proofs of God's foreseeing
goodness in storing up fuel for the future use
and enjoyment of man I Numerous species of
I)lants are found in the shales and sandstone
of the coal measures. Peat is a species of coal,
but not compressed by water. l^Iany ])lants
are well preserved in coal — their delicate struc-
ture is often undisturbed. (See Creation.)

COCK. (See (/0<k-crowing.)

COCKATRICE (Jer. viiL 17)-in old Eng-

lisli, CoKEDBTLL. The name itself indicates a

fabiilous origin. It is composed of cock and

adder, because the animal so named either

160

COC

sprung from an addex^s egg. hatched faja
or its appearance, as unuuly repreignted,
a compound renemblanoe to boUi these c
of animals. But the cockatrioe of Senpk
the translation of a Hebrew term denol
real animal, and evidently a veiy veno
reptile (Isa. xiv. 29). Sofme have imenvd,
Isa. lix. 5, that it was of the vip«r i
Others have suppoaed the hooded md
intended, which u known among the I
ffuese as the moet venomoiu of seq
Naturalists tell us that its bite is inen:
and proves fatal usually within an hour,
serpent is, however, unknown in Juda
the adiacant countries. Others make '
basilisk ; and such may have been the o*
of our translators. Chaucer asciibss *
basilikok the alluring powers said to "^
to the basilisk. The Hebrew tenn mm
have reference to the hissing aound ivh&<
animal emits. In Isa. zi S— "The «
child shall put his hand on the ooekE
den ;** the language is figurative, and d»
the peace andhappineas of Groepeltimfli^
by the universal diffusion of the Wok
passions and destructive energiee iboa
come harmless, being by the power
truth and the ^irit restrained and sopp
In the passage from Jeremiah ahore attf
sion is made to the unyielding cnidty
Chaldean annies \mder NebuohadnesH
were appointed ministers of divine ▼«□
on the Jewish nation for their maalfc
aggravated sina (See Addib, Asp, C

COCkCROWING ptfark xiiL 35)-^
given to the watch of the ni^ht from n»
to daybreak. Some perplexity has beef
sioned by the difference between the expa
in Matt, xxvi 34, " before the cook cny
shalt deny me thrice;** and Mark M
" before the cock crow twice, thou dua
me thrice.*' To reconcile this seemic
ance, it is stated that there were tv^
crowings — one soon after midnight^ m
other about three o*clock ; anduiat te^
which was the signal of approaching c&
siwken of as the cock-croving. To thSi
been answered, that only one hour
between the denials (Luke xxiL 5d).
true of the second aua thinl ; but the^^
to be no authority for saying it of Uie £
second. It seems most natural to Bupp*
the i>hraseology in both cases was sunsti
the same, and that the Jews underst
the phrase, " before the cock crow,** tfc
time which was denoted by the pZiraa^
fore the cock crow t^ice" — both reftfl
that cock-crowimr which espeasUy so^l
distinctly marked a watch or divnkm <
night.

Objections have been brought agaii*
portion of the evangelical narrative, h
Jewish source^ it being maintained Ic
Kabbins that it was not allowed to keep
in Jerusalem. Reland refutes this aJitfC
tion by remarking, that though it mt
aUowea to breea coolu in the dtjt 7*

coc

vtn Bot prohibited from baymg them to
vidtliit therefbro the oock mentioned in
iMfd vof^ be in the hooae of » Jew,
dngnfid to kill it for his own table; or
hmbeaik«)t in the precincts of Pilate,
! tBanan officer or soldier. The cock, it
hMobwrved. too, is not among the birds
Aitedinthelawof Moee^ Iftherewas
mtnint in the use or domestication of the

tt'tt must have been an arbitraiy practice
jtn, bat OGfuld not have been oinding
hotnen, of vhom many resided at Jeni-
■aioffioRs or traders. Strangers would
I \t Yflfioff to forego an innocent kind of
d a oongunoe with a conquered people :
Ijhft tnffieking spirit of the Jews would
"Mthem to lupplT aliens, if it did not
ptf eoDjIndict tne letter of thehr law.
■ inafficMPt to account for fowl of this
■toftboe, even admitting a customary
^ni Bat the whole intimation of a pro-
■n nua like a fiction, contrived with a
'^j^BwJidatethe account of witnesses who
■JJJJHtiffld who write without any appar-
jyy*; The prediction is not limited to anj

aiWvMtrijira/of this class of domestic
Dot tiat before anjf of them shall crow,
vnitetttion is, that the Romans were
•»J»f muten of Palestine, and that
■■*» hyander their watch and ward ;
■'"Jflw diviiiong of the night were an-
■«{y»bU»tof their military trumpet;
■Pro* .the "cock-crowing" may have
• «* J wish name for the third watch. At
U"? «p?'iage was occasionally employed.
■™JJ* wya, the last trumpet, which
Mtimir^ ja the morning, was soimded
J^JJU^ to imitate the crowing of a cock ;
JPJ^r?'^"'***' Auwaiiua, it might be
IJ™" Mm" which blew three times in
™2|w acock. And certainly this would
rr J* naitation more striking. But, after

■Sifftlftf ^*°"^ ^ P^® ^ ^^^ Lord's
2^ ^ *^ its plain and simple signi-

ttXXLE

xxxL 40). This word, as
^n- /2 "fwn^s a common Tiild plant
^ ««md in the borders of fields and

l^JJob x:

M^ in th. ^

y^ The original perhaps refers to
MmS^H*^ poisonous weed, such as the
J^^' but it is not necessary to suppose
J^"9^iQore than a reference to noisome

JJ^E (2 Ki. xxii. 14). Huldah is said
I ^^"*«t in the &tUege ;'* but the margin

in the second part,"
on the hUl Akra. The

JJJjftrtwAly, -i

K « JS^ city 01. ««. «^. x^ «. XX..
iJJJVJJJwge" originated in the Targums,
U JT*}>>iiu thought it to be a school-house
^^^oflje temple.

—thick pieces of ^enh.
fat on his flauks"

"He
(Job

nied ^^* dty or province planted or
f^.by Boman dtuena, as Philippi,
"** i» the chief dty of that part -*

of

COL

Bfacedozua, and a colony" (Acts xvL 12).
The word signified originally a number of
persons sent from Borne to settle on some
distant province which had been recently
conquered. Many reasons induct the Ro-
mans to found a great number of colonies.
But afterwards many cities were raisecl to
the dignity (}f a Roman colony by having
certain mimicipal rights conferred upon them.
After the battle ot Philimu this dty was
made a Roman colony, witn the jus Italimm,
It was chartered to enjoy a dvic constitution,
freedom from certain taxes, and a right to
cultivate the soil aro\md it. The highest
magistrates were the duumvirs.

COLOSSE (CoL L 2)— a dty of Phiygia in
Asia Minor, lying not far from the source
of the river Lycus. It is praised by Hero-
dotus and Xenophon. It is situated most
picturesquely under the immense range of
mount Cadmus, which rises to a very lofty
and perpendicular height behind the villa^,
and which is, in some parts, clothed with
pines, but in others bare of soil, with vast
chasms and caverns. Tlie approach to Khonas,
its modem name, as well as the village itself, is
beautiful, aboimding in tall trees, from which
vines of most luxuriant growth are 8us})ended.
In the immediate neighbourhood of the village
are several vestiges of an andent city, consist-
ing of arches, vaults, sriuared stones, while
the finnound is strewed with broken potttTV,
which so generally and so remarkably indi-
cates the site of ancient tou'ns in the East.
These ruins, identifit^i by Hamilton and Arun-
del, are now the only memorials of this once
noted town.

Colopse was not far from Laodic!»a and
Hierapolis ; and therefore the afjostle naturally
refers to tne Chri8tian inhabitants of all the
three cities together, — " For I l)car him record,
that he hath a great zeal for you, and them
that are in Laodicea, and them in IlirTapoliH"
(CoL iv. 13). Al.xmt a year after Paul's epintle
was written to the church at this place it was
deatnyred by an earthquake.

COLOSSIANS, ErisTT.E to the. It is
a question not easily solved, whether l^aul
founded the church at Colossu. Opinions are
much divided on this subject. It is naid, *' For
I would that ye knew what great conflict I
have for you, and for them at I^aodicea, and
for as many at* have not seen my face in the
flesh" (Col. ii. 1). Ni>w, conclusions miite
opjposite to one another have lx;en dravn iroin
this verse by critics ; some alfinning that the
apostle classes the ColosHians with such as had
not seen his face in the flet>h, while others
hold that the indi\'idualH to whom Paul wjis
])eriK)nally a stranger are marked aa a distinct
class from the (^'hristian converts of C'oloseie
and Laodicea by the change in the disputed
I clause to the third person. The hinguage of
the apostle will bear l>oth iuteri>rctationR,
as it is somewhat ambiguous in its stnicture,
and the question before us must be deter-
mined by other evidence. Dr. I^ardncr
contends that Paul had visited Colosse, and

IGl

COL

founded the church in that cit^; but others,
with ec^ual probability, TnaintJiin an opposite
condoBion.

Dr. Lardner^s ari^nmeiits are. that Paul
was twice in Phrygia, and would most likely
visit Coloese; that he says of the Laodicean
and other churches they "had not seen his
face in the JBesh,** implying by the contrast
that the Ck>lofl8ian8 had seen nim ; that the
salutations suppose him to be well acquainted
with them ; that he calls himself " a minister
of God to them," and that Philemon of Ck>losse
had been converted by him. But these argu-
ments are far from conclusive. For it is to be
borne in mind that the apostle never says
expressly that he had been at Oloese, nor is
there a dear and distinct allusion to any resi-
dence or sojourn in that city. Many occasions
for such a reference occur in this letter, but
there is no positive allusion to any former visit.
That famuiari^ with Colossian names and
affairs which Paul displays cannot of itself
argue personal knowledge, for the apostle was
deeply and continually interested m all the
ohurcnes the care of which came upon him
daily. It does appear very likely at first
sight, that as Paul travelled through Phrygia
twice, he would visit a place of such impor-
tance as Colosse. and that during his three
years^ stay at Ephesus he would extend his
missionary tour so far as to the neighbouring
cities of Cfolosse and Laodicea. But even for
such a statement we have only probability —
not certainty ; and there might be very satis-
factory reasfms why the apostle did not visit
these two cities. The references to Epaphras
and Onesimus are not conclusive, for possibly
E^phras, the servant of Christ, the fellow-
pnsoner of Paul, may have founded the
church in Colosse. It is not easy to assign
a reason why, if Paul had visited Colosse, he
should, as in the quotation referred to^ class
with its Christian citizens, and that m the
same breath, the churches which had never
been favoured with his ministrations. As it is
affirmed, on the one hand, that Paul was likely
to visit Uolosse, because he was so Irmg about
Ephesus, so it may be replied, that it is very
likely numbers of the Colossian church often
visited him, since he was so near them, and
that this ];)er8onal intercourse may account for
his intimate and tender knowl<»dge of their
interests, character, and names. Onesimus, it
is true, was a member of the Colossian church,
and Philemon had been his master, a convert,
too: but this fact is no decided proof that
Philemon, though converted by Paut had been
converted by him at Colosse. Besides, though
the apostle is combating error, he never refers
to his own personal teaching, as in the Epistle
to the Galatians. On the whole, then, the
Xirobability is that Paul did not visit Colosse
and personally found its church.
The chief design of this epistle may be

gathered from its contents. A certain class of
eretics had infected the church, and the
apostle wrote to reprobate their deluding
errors. Their tenets may be in part learned
162

COL

from his allusion to them, and Ut i

of them. They were men addicted

worship, to the keeping of mnltiplii

to occult science, and the penance

ing and self-castigation. Wno then

were has been master of diqnitatiaD

ever their origin and character, theg

have made a profession of Cbzistia

therefore they were the moire inoi

corrupting the church. Many of tin

lations appear similar to the dreamy n

of the Jewiah Essence moulded uid

by contact with the false phUofoph

under the form and name of gnorac

vailed over the East. Mere heathen

or mere Jewish theosophists, oonld

placed or endangerea the church

it IS probable that these oomp^

faith, exposed by the apostie, had <

Christianity on their peculiar theoc

Jewish mind had come into coot

the East during the Babylonish <

and probably retained some perma

presnons. We may therefore sumui

was infected with tne atmosphere of

and that as it met in that province wi

lations kindred to its own, it would

part and borrow. Thia appears then

true state of the case. Vniile the er

to have sprung up with the Jewish

and to have retuned not a little that

to the Mosaic ceremonial, they wei

same time in harmony with feel

practices widely spread over the Eai

special attraction to the province <d

One might almost thus describe tl

as being Essenic Judaism modified

duction to the church; widening it

a national into an oriental system

S3anpathy with similar views around i

fying its angels with Emanations, i

ing Christ among them ; and admitti

least preparing to admit, the mui

what is material in man. We need i

fore, with Hug, ascribe the origi

Colossian errors to the Magian p

directly ; for it was rather the Jew

influenced to some extent bjr this >

forms of theoeoph^ with wmch it

placed in juxtaposition. Nor shouU

Oniander, Kleuker, and Herder, <

false teaching wholly KabbaUstic, tJ

germ of what was afterwards foui

Kabbala may be here detected. It

one-sided view of Chemnitz, Stoir,

and Thiersch to regard the errorif

as Christian Essenes, though in tl

there was a strong and similar tende

can we, with Hammond and othei

call them Gnostics, though there is

that what was afterwards called C

appears here in its rudiments— espe*

aspect of it which may be callea (

Gnosticism. Similar errors are r

in the Epistles to Timothy, who la

a neighbouring region. Cerinthus

the creature of his age, bringing tog

ahape and system eirors which wei

d laUing into a suti mfapted to

n lhi;y pniduccd an unjile

inthtaecond chapter, nnifiinnly
ignlir nnmber in n>ntldiiE of
ag tlx tmn ceoataaiei by
• nurin out ona notad luder,
ndridiuluca for Ae Mice of

1 tint there is ■ very oloee oon-
■tand tnatua mud the
.juu. They >ra twin
ibont tlifl iVTie period,
linwiom occnr in both, ihaw-
oodilioti ol both ehurchos wm ^
. ^aphna hmd come to Rome, !
•^ortla infomutioii u to the I

ii(tbeuiiinedute danger of the
^PmI wrote the letter dov i
Sm. Hi* vpaUXe begine by a. '

■ nrn high office, and to the
Wny of the Chnstians whom I
•ddrna, Then the mentioD of .
n|gi^ t« him the exalted

■ dinity of the Redeemer, who '
^. Pnierver, and Lord Ml the '
"iRul Tmirene, wlioae death i> |
>, ud the knowledge of which
ijttay at laat revealed to the
tethen paswa on to the eiTon
Mipriiig the purity and stability

I amch, and warns tlie Coloa-
■r udnction of a proud philo-
■KMiciim, which were lelSBh

I foUow Bihortationa auited to
"f^ ud cantioD* agaiiiKt liiu

liroidered witJi uiM aii<l Kilk iif v-aiioiiH cul-
oura. A child iMug cl.>th.'d in n imrmt'Ut
of many coluura, it in bcliuved lliat neither
tunguea nor evil apirita will injure Mm^ be-
CMise the attention u takan from ibe beauty of
the peraon to that ti the gstment Childi«n
seldom wear them after they are ei^t yew* of
age; thongh it mart have been the custom
among the andenta referred to in the Bible to
wear them longer, aa we read of Tamar havingr
a 'nrmentof divencolonrBupoD her; for with
such rohea were the king's daughter) that were
virgini apparelled.'" — Kobartff Oriental lUm-
traliom, pp. 4;^, 44.

The art of colouring cloth seems to have
attained to great perfection amon^ the Jews:
ThefuUenhad a remarkable sliill m imparting
a pplendid white, and thin wafl considered the
richest di«SB lEeth. viiL 15: Mark ii. 3; Rev.
iii. 4, 6). The royal api>arel was usually of a
bine or pnrplo colour ; and hiatoriann sayit waa
a perfect combination of the gaiety of a bright
red with a sober, softening (liftiie of oHvt The
material with wliich the richest kind of this
colour was ^ven is obtained from a shell ti^,
and was, it is said, so source as to be considered
more precious than gold (Luke xvi. l!l). The
term purple was aametimes applied to any
bright red colour (comp. Matt IxviL 2tf with
Mark xt. 17); and indeed it was (irobabty the
name of a whole class of dyes. Pliny pvcs us
to understand that them were two kinds of
shell fish which produced this dye. and that
both were abundant on the Fhtenician and
Mediterranean coarte, but the excellence of the
tint varied exceedim^ly. The colouring matter
was found in a small vein, and the rest of the
fish was usoleas. The most beautiful purplo

COM

In four out of the five passages in which it
occurs it is applied to the Holy Ghost, for the
Spirit was to the ai)08tlcs a universal helper,
liiey might be sumnioned before councils— the
Hol^ Ghost was to prompt them to s^)eak, and
to give them wortls ; the Spirit of their Father
was to speak in them. They did not under-
stand the entire scheme of mercy, but the
Spirit was to guide them into all the troth,
itey might forget many of their Master's
sayings, but the Holy Ghont was to bring all
things tt> thfir remembrance, whatever Christ
had said to them. They might on sf)me f^pecial
occasion long to know the future — the Sinrit
was to show them things to come. Ho ht'ii>eii
them in all tilings and un aU occasions ; and in
their blissful experience he was indeed the
Comforter: esiHJciolly as his presence with
them was the promi.^ed solace for their Lord's
absence. And still to the church is he the
Paraclete^ the great promise of the New Testa-
ment; still, in accorrlonce with the promise
of Christ, is he given to convince of sin.
righteousness, and judgment, to enlighten and
sanctify, and to impart h<^pe and consolation
to the troo disciples of Clirist, by exciting in
their minds holy desires and aspirations, and
causing Uiem to trust continually, and without
wavering, in his grace and love.^ In the re-
' maining ijas!<age (I John ii. 1) it is translated
adrocaU', and applied to our Saviour. The
word comfortj as its composition den(»tcs.
literally means to "strengthen.'' ITie word
translated comfort in Job ix. 27 is rendered
"recover strengtli" in Ps. xxxix. 13. In old
treason law the accosi«t)ry after the fat'^t w said
to "comfort," that is, strengthen, the principal
traitor.
COMMANDMENTS. (See Law.)
COMMAXnME.NTS, TEN. (SeeTEX.)
COMMON. 1. I'he same as unclean in
Hebrew phrasedlo;^'- (^*'e Clean.) 1. The
word is also used in reference to that jxiculiar
disposition of pnifHTty which characti*rizei.l the
infant Chri;stian (.'hurch, and which is de»cril)ed
in Acts ii. 44, 45; "All that belie veil had
all things common, and stdd their rwissessions
and goods, and parted them to nil men, as
ovfry man had nee«L" This language does
not im]jly that there was a commimity of goo<ls
in the early Clmrch, or that such a state of
things exi8te<l by any insi»ircil i)recei)t or con-
stitution. The sale of a jmtrimony was (»nly
optional, and the seller miglit retain part of
the price. The sin of Ananias lay not in
keepin^^ a portion of the money got for his
possession, but in falsehixxl, in affirming that
what he handed over to the aiM)stles was the
whole proceetis of his estiite. The apostles
were intrusted -wMXi the distribution of tiie
money. ^ This abandonment of pn»perty and
conversion of it into money, wluch \i-as put
into a general fund, arose from the necessities
of the Church and the imminent dangers which
surrounded the Christian pmfession. liife
was insecure, and property might be easily
forfeited by tne exacting and merciless laws of
persecution. Still, the spirit of brotherhood,
1G4

CON

which led to this practioe, ia ever to be oon-
mended. Their love was fresh and g^owmi.
and then did the world receive a lesson of tti
nobleness, dignity, and fervonr of Chriitin
discipleship. This state of thinss did not M
long. In the sixth chapter of uie Acts then
is an account of a distnbution of ahni to till
wid(m-s, but not a word is said of a *'*«"'■«»
stock for the simport of the whcde body cl
believers. We fmd in Acts ziL 12 that Msiy
possessed a house at Jemsalem, whidi vf
cannot suppose to have been parahased at^
general cost. These facts plainly show tbl
we are not to imagine^ even in this first Chnh
tian society, a renunciation of all private pn*
I)erty. Probably a union of this kind eziitod
among the persons who attended the Saviour,
and ministereil to his necessities (Luke viS. SL

COMMUNION (1 Cor. z. 16>-intiiiisle
fellowship and communication, such as is ex-
pressed in John xv. 1-7: xviL 10, 21-26: BcBu
xiL 4,5; 2 Cor. xiiL 14; 1 John L a Aithi
ordinance of the Lord*s Sui>i)er furnishes hoik
the o]>iK)rtunity and the motive (John ziiL 34;
XV. 12) to this mutual love and oonfidenoe^ii
is called, by way of distinction, *'the
munion.**

COMPANIES TRAVELLING—"!
Hng companiei of Dcdanim^ (Isa. xxL U)l
These words refer to the common modes of
conveying merchandise in Ajabia^ The:
chants travelled in bands for mutual
tion. In Gen. xxxviL 25 we read of a
pany or caravan of Ishmaelites. Indeed, dom
to the present day the people of the £^ travel
in bands, as of old, when the mother of Jesos
sought her son, supposing him to be in the
"co!U])any.'* These caravans are frecraenlily
met ^^ith by modem travellers in Arabia aaa
Judea; nay, Euroi)ean8 are often obliged i*
the present day, for protection's sake, to fom
a ]H»rtion of them.

CONCISION (PhiL iii. 2). The EmitiaM,
Kdomites, and otliers practiised a partudcr hn-
perfect circumcision. It was a mere cwttuVi
and not to be regarded as a seal ol the oovenauti
or as, in any sense, a compliance with the law.
The aiK)stle denominates persons who do thi%
tJtc conrmon — which implies in itself, and froin
its connection, that they degraded tnemselveSi
and were to be shunned osialM and'oormpt;
or rather, if the abstract is u«ed for the oob-
crete, the apostle employs on purpose a tern
to cast c(mtemi)t on the ordinance which the
Jews ])rized so highly. Viewed as a divineif-
appointed rite belonging to the old dispenMp
tion, it is the circumcision; regardea as a
ceremony, to which, as a mere ph3naical Gpeat
tion, unbelieving Jews attached salvation, bat
to which Christians were not to be bound, it ii
the concision.

CONCUBINE (2 Sam. xvi 22)-by the
JeMish law, a lawful wife, of a secondly or
inferior rank, and consequently neither re-
garded nor treated as the matron or mistren
of the house. C-oncubines were not betrothed
or wedded with the usual solemnities and cers*
monies which attended marriage, and thsf

POX
nuBcd withoDt m laH of divorce,
share in the hmilr goTenunimt,
ran of the vife were prcfetred to
ba ooDicabme in the diitribation af
loe, tbougli ntch m child wsa not
I illegitiiiUK?. Where polyguny
1 — u it Tu among the Jewa —

0 of ooncaHnage would not wem
■r with the intenats and preserva-
et;^. The Gofpel netorei the
atwn of marriaee to its oripnal
en. ii. 21; Matt. jji. 5; 1 Cor.
oncubinage is ratkked with fomi-
lulterv. ISeeCHiia)
INATION (John iii. 19). Thia
rdinuy acceptetion, deAcribes the
^ ' ' onlr adjudged to bo

on nilD Uie nntence

,jriaonatiiere ii often

d or apartment afreiropriatcd to
a ai have received thor ■enteace,
ting ila execution ; and it ii called
iDisd ward." The Goepel rcgaidi

aa cAenden against OuI'b law.

nnrjueatjonable, and the aenteiice
and univenaUf the lame. "The
leth it shall die" (Enk. iriil SO).
i pardon or teprlevf , under homan
rqurmce of the imperfection of all
nmrntii and laws ; but everything
anation of the Hicner in perfectlv
t ; and injustice would 1:^ ilimt^ if
inni^bed exactly aoconiing to law.

itra from him. it niurt be by a

1 no finite wind could aotJci[iate
Thin proceaa the (iwipel niakra

<; and weU ia it called "g<>od
sat joy." (C'omp. John iiL 19;

T. ir.. 18 ; viii. 1). The effect
Lliriat on tbe betifver himself in

in a state uf jiutiJication before
og of tliie Iciod can jioiuribly occur
. governments, ni>r can it be iUiu-
r analogy. The believer fecbi it,
inJ triumplis in it. It is because
^ of all r-i^emblance or analo^'y
INviDe dLitiensatiou, in this case,
1W8 anil prnceediueis that we find
istify, juatfied, and jusijficatioii
be tenuii condemn, coademnud,
nation (Exod. xxiiL 7; Dent.
a. viii 31, 33: Prov. ivii. 15;
; Bom. iL 13; iiL 4; r. 17, 18;
y. (See JUsTIFV.)
r (I-ia. xiivi, 2), or aqueduct of
lOfA in the highway of tbe fuller's
ip. 2 KL XX. iH; Neb. iiL IS i

ixiL 9. U}. The fountain of
iho% which liwe at the foot of
lb, formed two pook, callod the

tion eUn mare certain, it is ailded that h«
stood in the highway ur street that led to the
fuller's field. This was doubtleaa an enclosnn
in lie vicinity of the soft vmter of the Gihon,
appropriated to the drying and bleaching a
clothes. The phrase mi|jbt refer ^so to tbe
coQVe3rance of waters froni Solomon's jiools tu
the city. (See Siloam.)

CONEY (Deut. riv. 7). Bochart suppows
this aniioal to be the Jerboa. Jerome says of
it — " These animala are a kind of animal not

' T than a hedgehog, rcAeiiibliug a mouiie

a buar" (the latu-r, I suppose, in tho

' (Isa

3). .

and tie "lower pool

htmts pools is mentioned, John ix.

duct which connected the up;>er

fountain, or with the lower pool,
ty, ia called "the conduit ol tlie

Btul, to malu Rahahnkeh's posi-

dnmsinesa of Itfi feet), "wheace in Palestine
it is called the bear mouse; and there
is great almndauce of tliix genuH iu those
countries, anil they are w»nt to dwetl in tho
■US of the nKiks and cavi-s of the earth."
roiiFj/, which is a inistnULilation, is now
),-enemUy believed to be the wnbar. luHteod
uf bolea, these aoimals seem to delight in tho
~ :fts of the nxk. They are eregnri<ius, nixl

iqueutly several dozens of them sit uiH>n thu
gnat stones at the moutlis of caves ood waim
themselves in the Hun, or come out aiul CLJoy
the freshness of tlie evening. They ilo Hot
stand ujiright uiHin tlieir feet, but seem tu
steal along as in fear, tlieir belly bei[ig chise to
the ground, a<]vancing a few ste|js at a time,
and then iiaiining. 'lliey have HomutUiig very
mild, feeble-like, and timid in their c6|Hirt-
ment, aregeutle and I'.isily tameil. It ia known
in natural hiatoryaa the Hyrnx Syrioc^s. Wil-
siju, OH he TdaUia in his Land* of (Ac liiblr,
believes himself to lie the first among modem
travellen that actual] y nr>tiee<l this little oniuiid
within the bnunila of the H.ily I.aud. It ia
very plentiful in Arabia I'etnpa. The Hebrew
name is lAuoAan, and tbe early I'lKeuidBlt
marineiB anil colonists, seeing tlie oHista nf
the Weat infcuted by ralibitn, mint'H'k them
for the animnls s<i well known in their own
country, and save to tiie land that prtxliieeil
them a significant name, derived from tlieir
number, and called it Shaphanieh, " rnWit-
laiHi,'- which fflukphanieh, in course of Ume,
and by chanj^ of iinmuuciation, bccarao
ilispanio— Spain.

C'((N(iRE«ATION (Num. xv. W). The
word means the entire thisieratic conmiumty
of the circumcised, and along with them pnib-
ably some strangers who were within their
gaU-a. It seems, in an official flense to have
consisted of represontativi'S fniin all tlie tnbea
and their princca or bereditaiy rulers, and it

CON

pOBBemed, tmdcr God, the king, legislative and
judicial powers. The parliamentary assembly
was sumnione<l by blast of trumpet : the peal
of one trum])et summoniug the higher huu^e,
or "heads of thousands, and tliat of two
trumpets sununonin^ the congrej^ation or depu-
ties. Seventy elders wore at length selected
as a permanent Ixuird, and on them the San-
hedrim was afterwards modelled. The word
occurs only once in the New Testament (Acts
xiii. 43), and there means the assembled wor-
shippers in a synogo^nie.

CONIAH. (See jKiioiACifiN).

CONSCIENCIK (Acts xxiv. 10) is that
within us which judges of the moral character
of our actions, and approves or censures, con-
demns or justifies us acconlingly (Kom. ii. lo).
This tribunal is established in the breast of
every man. It may, however, be weakened,
perverted, stux)efie<l, defiled^ and hardened in
various ways ; and its decivions are more or
less clear, just, and imi>erative, accr»rding to
the degree of improvftnient in the understtind-
ing and heart, and especially according to the
degree in wliich its purity and sensitiveness
have l)een ][trf»erve<l and cultivated (John \'iii.
9; ActsxxiiL 1; xxiv. IG; Kom. ix. 1; 1 1'im.
i. 6).

(•onscience is usetl in Scripture with the
following epithet"*, among others: —

C(»N!SC[ENCK, (Jroai) (1 Tim. i 5)— that is,
charity springs (»ut of a conscience which is
faithful to its charge, wliich has not been
i)erverte<l, but l>ears (.k)rt1ial witness t<» the
honesty and purity of our Christian resolu-
tions.

(.'oNacTENCE, Pi'RE. " Holding the mystery
of the faith in a i:)ure conscience" (1 Tim. iii.
9J — that is, with jH'rfei't consciousness of the
smcerity of their ])rofew5ions, with tlmn^ugh
feeling that they had received (Christianity
in its iK»wer as a rule of faith not to Ihj
doubteii, as a law of life not tt»be transgressed.

CoNsriKNCE, DEFILED. **l.'nto the pure
nil things are imre; but unto them that are
defiled and unlwlieving is nothing pure ; but
even their mind an«l conscience is defiled"
(Titus i. l.^>)" that is. their moral sense is so
degrade^! and ]>cr\'crted, that it pronounces
actions to be good which are wholly vicious
and corru])t.

CoNsciKNCE, WEAK (1 Cor. viii. 7). A weak
conscience is one which is ill-informe<l, whose
perceptions are neither acute nor sagacious,
and wliich in many things leaves its f)ossessor
in hesitation, and so iuHicts misers' itTK>n him.
'ITio persons referred Ui by Paul had a secret
conviction that an idol was a kind of divinity,
and yet scniple<l not to eat meat offered to it.
Their conscience had not power enough to in-
duce them to abstjiin from an act of whose
idolatrous nature they had a lurking sus-
picion.

CONSECRATE, CONSECRATION
(Exwl. xxxii. 29; Lev, \*ii. 37). Ilie tribe of
Ije\'i was consecrate<l to the priesthfKxl with
the most solemn and im]>08ing ceremonies.
Vessels (tlosh. vi 19), profits (Micah iv. 13),
106

COO

fields fLev. xxviL 28)^ catUe (2 Chr. zzix. UL
indiviaualB (Num. vl 9-13 : 1 Sam. L 11, 28),
and nations (Exod. xix. 6), were andently
oonsecrated or set ai>art to sacred purpoiei
(See PRTEHT )

CONVERSATION. In the old seue it
which this word is used in Scripture, it ngiii-
lies the whole course and tenor of a man*!
life, as seen in intercourse with his feDow-mcA
(OaL L 13; Eph. iv. 22; 1 Pet. L 15). Im
PliiL iiL 20, however, another Greek term ■
employed with quite a different meaning. Ths
apostle says, ** Our conversation is in mavcb;*
the word so rendered denoting the right of a
citizen — our citizenship i* in htaren, W« are
strangers here and inlipims ; but in heaven vi
are to l)e citizens, dwellers with every privily
and without interruption.

CONVERSION (Acta xv. 3), or tamtiv
from one state, pursuit, inclination, or dixwy
tion, to another. In the Gospel use ot the
term, and a]>art from technical theology, it
denotes that change in the diBpositu)a^
thoughts, desires, and objects of affectioii,
which takes rdace in the heart of the aimur
when the Holy Spirit convinces him of his oii-
fulness, and leads niui,bv His sacred inflaenoei,
to hate sin and to forsake every evil and fake
wav, and, at the same time, persuades him to
yield to the claims which God his SaTioor
lustly and graciously makes to his heart and
life. The same thing is signified by the torn
nrtp hirth or remncration. The Scripturea
descrilm mankind as alienated fium Ged.
as having the understanding darkened ana
blinded, and oa being dead in trespasses and
sins. Henci* the corresponding force and per-
tinency of the terms by whicn the change ia
described; such as ** created," "rencfred"
(Eph. iv. 23, 24); "restored to sight" (Eph. L
18; lU*v. iii. 18); and " raised from the oead*
(John V. 21-24 ; Eph.il 1).

Such a change as is im]tlied in converaioB ia
necesrtar>' to the enjoyment of heaven. Re-
generation is the implantation of new or divisa
life )>y the Spirit of God; conversion ii the
result of this great and blissful change, and
sanctification is the subsequent proceaa bf
which holiness so l)egun is gradually fostenoi
and matured.

CON VOCATION— a word, with the excep-
tion of Isa. i. 13, used only in the booka of
Moses. The i>hrase " holy convocation** often
occurs in reference to the national gatheriofi
' at the great religious festival, to show their
j solemn religious or ecclesiastical character.
I COOS (Acts xxi. 1). the name of a snail
I island and city of Greece, 25 miles long and 10
bn)ml. It lies near the south-west point of
Ania Minor^ and abtmt 40 miles north-west of
Rho<les. Herod highly favoured it. Hie
capital, called Scauaanum, was built on a
promontory on the north-east coast. It waa
ffirmerly noted for its fertility, for ita winei
and silkworms, and for a peculiar mana-
facture known as Coan vestments, as well aa
for being the birthplace of two eminent men.
Apcllea and Hippocrates. It is now callad

10^ **>^ it stiU funom for Ifltnoiu md

IVG (1 EL TiL 9)— the top coone or
f a walL It ii usually of not or semi-
r briclu or bewn itune, projectiiis be-
he face of the wall, and tormmg an
mt minilT in cSect to the capital of a

laple. Some peculiar compcutiunBr

bn<uie. were alao earlr knnwiL
entlj copper wa« emjSoyiid for all the
s for which we aov use iron. Anns
oil for biubandry and the mechanic
ere all of this metal for many ages,
eaka (if bon-i of copper (xx. 24); and
Lhe Fhiliitines had Samwn in thior
they bound him with fett«n of

ira Tiii. 2T are mentiunnd "two Teaaels
«r, gmcioiu aji gold." The Septuagint

ito-Kiiiii jfnXioip crrlA^DnTot; theVulgate
stali^), fuUijwinjf the Arabic, "rtua arii
J ,-■■ aiul the Sniac, rata of CvHnlhian

It i» m'lTe probable, bou'cver, that thin
aa not from Ciirinth, biit from Persia ur
rbich Aristotle iLe«cri bee in these tenna,
a «^d that there in in India a. brau bo
. Ai pure, po free from tamixh, that its
liBers nuthing from that of go\i\. It Li
lid, that amunj; the veswli of Darius
ere a<.ime reapectiog which the soiuie of
3ii|;ht determine irhvther they

.__, .-idthoiiewhosvaik

nich distinguiih it into three kind*— in
1, pold wai the preruihng metal ; in the
Blver; in the third, gold, silver, luid
vtrre eqaally blended. Tliis compofli-
( rerj faminu ; extolled for ita beauty,
it V, Its rarity ; it was even preferred to
tU. It waa capable of receiving au
'ji polifib ; and miuht be the metal uued

iriL 18 ; Isa. U. 3.

lei Uwu. 13) siK-aks of tbe merchants
tn, JubaU and Me!<ech as bringing
f cupper to tie maritfj of Tjire— jieople
1 ^lwa^ds Mount Caucaaus, where
miii« are worked at this day.

(See Meahukeh.)
AL |£zek. iiviL Iti) waa an article of
mcrchanilise, and is well known bb a
prutiuction, fmind in almoat every
of ilu|>e and size, and some increasing
an extent a« to form the basis tA
or to stretch out in dangerous reefs for
ilea. It ia capable of being worked up

into beads and other ornaments ; for which ai«
the red s^ies is the most valuable. Job
mentions it in connection with iiearia (Job
zxviiL 18).

This production i* the work of an insignificant
animal, which secretes from its own eubstonca
a rocky dwelling, which is after«-ords its tomb.
Myriads of myriads untold of these united
form reefs and isLmds. Tlie animalcule itself
is scarcely so large as a pin's head ; it is star-
shaped, is of a soft ^Intinous structure, and
mi™dsof them unite in tlieirojierations tofunn
a wnjfle branch of coraL liy eiamining a piece
of coral, its surface will be found dotted with

lembrane.

ThcH animal-
cules have the
[lower of secrct-
11^ limy matter

from the waters of the ocean ; tliey ai
santly at actii'O, and mauy of the reetH nsu
several feet in the course of a few years, 'fhey
do not commence tlieir lubuura atp*eat degiths,
but attach their Ktructures to rocks f nnu «) to
100 feet below tbu surface; and thus tbe coral
roefs {lortuki' of the sbaiw uf tlia bubmarine
ridges on which they are foundvd.

Coral abounded in the Itcd Hea. ProFcwor
Khronberg say* tlieru are many species of coral
in that locality, and himxrlf saw and CiiUecttil
one hundred and ten kiiiJii. As to the ap-
peiuiuicuof those bcdiof corals in tbe lied Sen,

" They are sometimes found in one unbroken
lain near Uie const, sometimes they run in
parallel lines into tbe sea. . . . TheHe reefs
re most numerous on the Arabian coast, half-
.'ay down the Rml Sea. . . . A1I coral

pleasing effect when s

1, at low water and ii

liding olonn, withi. __ _ „ .

'hich of these flowers to con ten i plate most,

nd of which to take a draning un.l fix in
col'iura, as the next often Keenis to be more
brilliant than its neighboAir.*'

Pliny, in Ids Natural JliMorii, says of it —
Tbe Indians value ooral as highly aa wo

slue pearls. Their i)rii-«ta and pretliotorti
attribute to it even something socnd, and
affirm that it has the virtue of protecting
from dangers those who carry it; so that two
things contribute to render it valuable— »u|wr.

. 11). This Hebrew
lliT

COR

word, left untranalAted in onr yersion, si^nifieB
a gift or thing consecrated to €rod or his ser-
vice. It seems the Jews permitted snch an
abuse to be made of this ceremony of conse-
cration, that a child was permitted to deny the
request of his parents, or withhold assistanoe
from them in their distress, merely on the
pretence that what they asked or needed was
consecrated to God. Nay, it would seem
they sometimes exempted t^eir whole sub-
stance from any contribution to the support of
their parents; and said, concerning anythinjg
and everything that could assist wem, it is
eorban, or derated to Ood, and thus put from
them natural affection and broke the fifth
commandment.
CORDS. (See Ropes.)
CORIANDER SEED (Exod. xvi 31). The

coriander plant is
a native ot China
and the south of
Europe, but nat-
uralizea in Eng-
land, principal^
in Essex. The
seeds are globular,
and when dry are
pleasant to the
taste and smell,
and are often sola
by confectioners
encrusted with su-
gar. We are told
that the particles of manna were shaped like
coriander seed

CORINTH (Acts xviii. 1) — a renowned
and voluptuoiiH city of ancient Greece, in
which Paul resided a year and a half, and
where he founded a famous church to which
he afterwards addressed two of his longest
epistles. I'he "city of the two seas" lay
about 45 miles west from Athens^ on an
isthmus, with a seaport on each side— Le-
chseum, about a mile distant, on its western,
and Cenchrea, about 8 niilcH distant, on its
eastern shore. It was a thriving entrepot for
the commerce between northern and southern
Greece, and it had been in other dajrs a
strong military poet, the key of the Pelopon-
nesus. The famous isthmus was about 3.^
miles in breadth at its narrowest point;
and boats being sometimes conveyed across it
from the Ionian to the ^Egean sea, it re-
sembled in this respect those necks of land
in Scotland calle<l Tarl)et — from two words
meaning, "to draw the boat." Thus, in 1203.
tlie Norwegians sailed up Ijoch Long, draggea
their boats over the isthmus of Tarbet, under
*2 miles in breadth, and laimching tliem upon
Loch Lomond, slew and plundered the natives.
M'ho ha<l taken refuge on its islands, and had
never dreamed of such a stratagem. But the
importance of Corinth as a imlitary station
had almcwt ceased when it passed under the
l^oman yoke. Its citadel, Acrocorinthus, 2,000
feet high, rising as abruptly as the rock of
Dumbarton, and not unliKe it, still remains a
prominent feature in the landscape. |

1G8

COB

Corinth was at the time of the apoiik
the residence of the Roman raoconsiil, ai
lio, the brother of Seneca, hudtiie office,
best days it had been d^raved in the ei
Its obsceneimporitieshaapHBed into a p
and from its veiy name a word was co
denote wanton indnlgenoe. The Is
games in its vidnil^ Drou^t crowds
solute strangers to it, and a tlioiisaiid
esses or oourtesana had been attadied
temple of Venus. The b—aat paaricn
consecrated in this oity^ which has si
aix^hitectnre its mort fkand order; ana '
in which DiogeneB kernielad in the p
promenade, was a anrlj proteat agan
rounding pomp and Inznry. Many <
had panea over it, bat its immorardi
was unaltered: it still deli^^ted in sh
pleasure. The consul Mummios had
it, but Julius Cieaar rebuilt ii^ and psc
as a Roman colony. Tlie spoils of the
the werk of the potter and mlversmitl
prized at Rome aa fiur anrpaasing ai
that Italy ooold prodaoe. If Athe
wholly given to idolatry, Corinth was
given to lust and revel, and one of the
of its abandoned women had a splendi
in the outskirts. Nor had it been in
less idolatrous than Athens. Nepta
the iiresiding deity of the maritime <
had its sacred foimtain, where BeUi
had captured the winged steed Pegasui

?les and gods were abundant; chai
^hsthon and the Sun, with statues of
and Venus. The splendour of its arts
architecture was aunoet incredible. ]
historians sx>eak of it as the light and or
of all Greece. It was not less rami
however, for its corruption and tin
neHs. Vice reigned witnout molestati
luxury had corrupted all claases
population. Female modesty was
banished. Indeed, so proverbially pr
did the city become, that the vcf^
of Corinthian, applied to a female^ '
famous.

This was its corrupt state when P
rived there, not far nvm a. d. 52. as i
tian missionary. In this city ne b
with pfreat success, and with many to]
the divine blessing.

A traveller who visited Corinth in IS
it had hanily any occupants except si
and that though a few ruins remam tc
the ancient magnificence of the dtj
are rapidly disapi>earing. The fragm
capitals and columns are employed in
the houses of the Turks ; and the wron^
of the richest specimens of architecti
found turned inwards!

During the revolutionary war of
Corinth was frequently taken and bo
that not a column of the Corinthiai
exists in the place from which it deri
name. Seven columns of the old tem
still standing, fluted and of the Doric
though wanting in height the usual pro
to the diameter; buut probably befo

nliUxy colmi

u of vecterdi
ruptcd into G

Bffler bad attuned its perfectinn, And loi^
tcfon th« Corinthian order wan invciitoJ;
tlHragh when it waa built, by wbom. or to
wtatirod it was conaeoated^ antiquarieA cad-
■ddins. Contruted with tbene
M of an unknoim antiquity
terday. The old name ha^
to Gortlin.
The atory that ('Drintliiun brsw ori^oated
here, fmm the accidental fusion of different
mctaU, when the city was firet taken and
danroyed by Ere, is fabulous. Tha com-
IHBitidti ao odled was known long before that
Bvent. {See Brabti, Cdffeb.)

CORINTHIAN.S, I, Epistle to. During
hi^ 6r»t iniiisionary tour in Europe the ojHistle
abiide a year and six months in Curinth,
labouring in the preaching of the Gospel and
io the oinvennun of nDnera. His eiertiona
vere anccesaful diiefly among thi poorer claEueti,
■nd not amting the wise men, the mighty and
tlie noble. At Corinth hs found AquiLi and
I^«ilLi. who were without doubt very luef ul
atfiotanu in the work of eiai^elization. Tu-
mults were occasioned in the city by Paul's
■piri:ual in<luatry; the vengeful anil malignant
fpiriC of bin own countrymen was rouned
a^ainit him, and he waa dragged without
wartaDt to the tribunal of the Koman Pro-
eoniiul. (See GjtLLio.) Paul aeemii to have
been succeeded in Corinth by ApuUos, whotra
elo<iaence and scriptural power must have
aided the infant cause. IE Pau! planted,
ApoUna watered. But the chorch, so highly
favoured, did not long retain its purity, its
Qoity, its dnoere attachment to evangelical
docUiae- Tidings of this woful change had
heen bron^t to Che apoHtle by them of the
lioDBe of Cblot," perhaps by ApoUoa himself,

al-i by FiirtunatuH, Stcphnnn-i, anil Achai-
CUB. U'l;? lu'art of Chri:it'H li'jnuured servant
wai dee|ily (j-ricved by Biicb ^?ports ; but
he did not iilly buwiul thcin. he at oiicu
resolved tit correct the ern,rs and reform
the inciinsiBteiit pranticBH of the C'liriutiiiaii

The aiwxtle had heard that tlic cliurch at
Corinth y-ns bmki "'

parties. "Now this I say, that every one of
von s.-iith, I atii of Paul, and I of Apollos, an.l
I of Cephas, and I of Christ" (1 C " ' ■"-

i> improve.

Such disoHtrous schism was fatal t. , _

mcnt and i>Tus]>crity, and could not biitm...
with Paul's severe cvnsiuv and repriilution.
The preuiae character uud opinioux of theso
jcaluua factions are not ea-ily miderrtiwd.
Some suppose that tl]o|>arty who naiucil them-
selves after Tniil were nut onh attached to his
nenwn, or to his style of (hnnj^t and utterance,
especially to his peculiar views and ln<Hlea

of ill

igdiv

IB truSi in all its noble free-

dom and universal aiUptationd, whilv tlioxe who
took Peter for their wotchwont iniifht Lv nu-ro
inclined to receive Christdauity in conncetioii
with a Jcwiiih eliiucnt, anil might Iwlilly
' " ' "' ■ itron the a|uKtle of thn

TOi>Ublc" But

weak, and hi* speech

I the

inamioii

seemly WTans^liuKs.
.uthonty and prcJi-
iections, theyHield bvHini as tlirir one Mofltcr,
the only King and Head, or did they merely

COR

as a faction take his hallowed name to distin-
guish and sanctify some of their little and
unworthy iicculiaritii^ ? The latter o|)inion is
the more proliable. from the way in whicl^ tliey
are nientionv<L They seem to have been as
bigotc<i and unjustifiable as any of their I'et-
rine or Pauline antagonists. The Christ-party
are not saved from reprehension b^ the name
they assumed. Among various o])inions as to
tlie peculiar tenets of this s^iH;, we may
hazam a h>7X>thesis that they professed t«)
clii^f to the reputed ])er8onal teaching of the
Sun of God, in ountradistinction frum the
religious lesuons imi>arted by the apostles. This
opinion correHi>onas to some extent witli the
notion of Ncander, who Mtys tliere was at
Corinth such a ]jarty deriirous of attaching
themselves to Christ alone, independently of
the ap<>stleH^ who constructed in their own way
a Christianity different from that announced
by the apoHtles, We may imagine different ways
in whicn they procecde<^. They might for this
object maJce \ii*e of a collection of tlic sayings
of Clirist which had fallen into their hands,
and set what they found there in opposition to
the apostolic character; or thtpr might pretend
to derive their C^hristianity m>m an inward
source of knowledjjre, either a su])ematural in-
vffvrd light or the light of natural reason,
either a more mystical or a more rational
direction.

But not only had these venal parties filled
the Corinthian church with strife and confu-
sion— several of its members had also gruHHly
violated ^o law of Christ. Sins against the
law of chastity had become fre(iuent scandals,
and in one case a son had become connected
with his father's wife. A spiiit of litigation
had at the same time crept in aiiiou'r them,
and they carried their sidts before the heathen
magistrates. The Lord's Supj>er ha<l been pro-
faned, and the love feast, which was generally
observed before it, or at least in union witli it,
liail been stained by this prevalent degeneracy.
Both were scenes of shameless excess and stHfish
indulgence. All these sins are fearlessly ex-
posed by the ap<.>stle, and shown to be contrary
to the spirit and ]>ractice of the Gos])el, and
wholly inconsistent with the (^hriistian diame-
ter and profession. Mingled up with these arc
other topics on which the aiNistle delivers his
mind, and on which his oi)inion liad been asked,
since he names them. " the things whereof ye
wrote unto me." These things were delicate
pi>ints on which the church desired information,
and the aiK)stlo lays doyra rules, as ciiutious as
they arc salutary, as wise as they are benign,
resjiecting celibacy', matrimony, and divorce.
Further, some of the Gentile converts, pre-
suming on their freedom tinder the GoHi>el, not
only ate ii^ithout scruple the meat that was
sold in the market, after it hud been dedicated
to idols, but went so far as to partake of the
feasts held in heathen temples where such
flesh was set before the guests. This gave
offence to the Jen^ish Christians, whose weak
consciences naturally revolted at the conduct
in question. But the apostle says one might
170

COR

partake of meats offered to idols if he wen
established in knowledge and faith, being fdDf
convinced that idols are nothing, ^ut heiiiBili
the exercise of Christian freedcnn. Care matt
l)e taken that a weaker brother shall not be
offended ; for an action perfectly harmless in
itself ceases to be a matter of indifferena
when the doing of it offers violence to the
feelings or prejudices of a tender oonsdenot
On the other hand, he says, no one should par
take of a feast held in a heathen temple, ht-
cause every Christian who is present at ths
idol feasts makes himself virtually a parUJur
of the idolatrous worship, and is so far a
heathen. " Ye cannot drink tibe cup of tiie
Lord and the cup of devils : ye cannot be pa^
takers of the Lord's table, and of the table d
denls. ^ Still every Christian might be presenti
without scniple, at a nrivate entertainment
given by a heatnen, ana eat whatever shonid
be set before him, without asking any questioDi
about the origin of the food provided. But if
any scrupulous guest should say, when a parti-
cular disn was brought forward — ''This meat
has been offered in sacrifice to an idoL** the
Christian is exhorted in that case to absfeaai
from the food, not on account of his own ooD-
science, but out of regard to the conscience of
the other.

It appears that the Corinthian church had
largely enjoyed spiritual ^ifts— gifts liable to
be abused by human pnde and per\'endtf.
On tins subject the directions contained in this
epistle arc copious and well-timed. Kay mora,
raul enjoins the utmost decorum biotk on
men and women in the Christian assemblieib
Christianity did not abrogate the ordinaiy
national customs : women, tnough elevated ana
freed by the Gospel, were still to wear thnr
veils in the Christian assemblies. And. lastly,
tliere were some at Corinth who denied us
iloctrine of a general resurrection, peih^M
taking the term in a figurative sense^ and
referrmg it to that change of heart whidi is
a resurrection from spiritual death. These
heretics an; pointedly addressed, and the
nullity and falsehood of their views fdlr
pointed out by a process of clear and conne^M
reasoning, based upon the admitted fact that
Jesus r«)so from the dead according to the
Scriptures.

Thus this treatise is full of *' doctrine** and
* ' reproof. " I ts language is equal to its theme.
It is fraught ivitli instruction and appeal It
enlightens while it convinces, sooUies as it
terrifies, descending to plain suggestions and
rising to the sublimcr heights and aspects of
divine truth. Surely the contending parties,
on reading it, must have felt ashamed of tiiieir
unliallowe<l rivalry. The licentious must have
blushed for their \ices, the arrogant for their
I>ride, while the impugners of the resurrection
must have felt that their philosophy was false
and their scepticism alike unsound in its foim*
dation and dark and foreboding in its pros-
pects. This epistle was probably written
f n)Tn Ephesus between the years 56 and 50.

CORINTHIANS, IL Epistlb tol Tba

OOR

V of Pmslto the CorintLiui dtorcli
bocn witbtnit &«it 'ntoi had given

dcAicd mfonulioii ■• to iti naolta
riL 14). SaTcnd sviU had been re-
tnd B better ipirit snoiu:
p. "For thou^ I mads „ .
^tt«r, I do not repent, though I did
For I perceive that the lame eputli
le you aoiry, tbuiuh it were but for ■
(2 Cor. vii 8). Still there lingered it
>ta of manT > deep bottility aninst
de. But d them he wu not ^aid,
d nothing to omceal and nothing to
twBT. Cnuciani of hia integri^, be
st the TcpToachnof hie foe*; —'-'--

ifnl that Chrirt'i eaaae tko

Tho intelligence oammmiieated by
I tci the oominatirm and tnuunianon
econd epistle. Ita general contenia
f«rence to bis foff^iniis, and par-

hia lat« perils in Asia (2 Cor. i. 16) ;
19 repeated purpose of coming to them

Macedonia, which purpose remajn-
n unaltered, although he had been
} delay ibi tiecutioa out of tcDdemesB

anil partly, iUm^ that he might not
Tuwinjt. but with joy. Ha lorgiveB
idoal who had moat griered him, and
im to be again received in love (2
2). He then opens up the •tate of hw
Tnuw. and npeaka of the consolations
him by God, (2 Cor. iii.) He sUmd in
ill lett^ of recnmm?ndatinn to them ;
verviun and hi.') minuitry, towhicb lioJ
rtl him, are bis recommendation ; not

miuutry, but 'ine which wss spiritual :
1 account he preaches with pLunneiiH,
e find hi.' ductHne obscure but thn»e
it their ej'EH aaainat the light (3 Cor.
«e i* indtMMl a man, as he cTe^ply feels
troubles which encompaas him, which,
, he can endure, bein;; inpiiorted by
3 of a future life (3 fur. V. 11). His
ce acrjuits him; be bad conducted
tuwanUcbem in love; and. na Christ
atb had reconciled the world to (iod,
alwav* kept in mind that be was an
ilor i'^ the puri>ose of reconciliation,
ill ihinjfs he lu-l approved himself a
of OtMi a Cor. vL 14). Here he inserts
iir a^'ainiit iilotatry. He then makes a
n ti> Titus, and %be consolation which
thought bim. He now lamenbi that
caused tbem sorrow; atill, the nssiilt
I a jovful one (3 Cor. vii. 16), The
lians had outstripped them in the

benevolence; be hope* they will not
whind-hand ; whtrefure he sends Titus

with two very estimable companions,
itd not their readinepia to relieve the
ei of their poorer brethren, (2 Cor.

ipter T. he recnrs to his own justifica-
I defends bimxelf against the charges
leraiee— viz., that Paul, when present,
iljfent, and had courage to be severe
^ be was at a distance ; that, though
lo stated recompense, be yet ndlected

COR

ImmieT in the ohurcbes. He then draws a
parallel tietween himself, in his apMtoIic office,
and these fahie teaohera, which be pnnnee
with much spirit as far as ch. xiL lU. He
even fears, be continues {It., frum this
quarter), scandalous conriuct. whicli, hotvever
unwiilingly, he mu»t treat witli severity. He
concludes with the customary aalutatione.
(See Hug's Inlnidwiwn la (hf Xtw TmatKmt)

<r the

Ciirinth by

first, being probably carried t
Titua.

The style of this letter is exceedingly
eloquent It is repk-te with feel ins -feelmg
of earnest sympathy, priif-iund ntlacbment,
and keen reprehcuBiun. It oinbinOB the ten-
der and the terrible— the vehemence of invective
and the mild and Kuaiiive expreiwiuns of uSec-
tionate regard. Paul bad imleed promised to
visit tbem. but the promise liad not been
fultjlled. H»n' solemnly he ivbuts the cbarse
:iinsistencT wbich liis enemies hail on tins
mt brought aifninst him I Tliey Liushed
at his reproofs, wbicli, in thi-ir opinion, he had
given by letter, but durst nut have uttered in
person. How powerfully, and with what
withering energy, di>os he rejiel the vnsinua-
Hjb apustieship had lieen impugned;
n what glowins term-t does be niajjnify
his office, enumerate h\* ttutrifices, recount hui
disinterested toils, and detail biii rtuocenses '.
'I am become a fool in glurjiiig: ye have
iomiielled me.'' Yet with all his exi:it.'inent,
t-e cannot but lulmire bli diiniity and pru-
dence. He is mumianimuus m bis severity
id compasKionnt'- in his rvbuke^t.
CURMOKAXT (Lev. s
oclean cUbs oE bir<is

The reference is probably to some sea liird ;
and thoGreek name given it bvthe.Mexanrlnan
translatora may have an alhifcion to its swift
and impetuous fligEit It seems to bo a mem-
ber of one of Uie pelican trilHsi.

CORN {Mark iv. 2S). This word, m the
Scriptures, is the general name Uir all sorts of
gnun, including even aome species oE pulse.

con

A "com of wheat'' is a 8oe<l or kernel of wheat.
The fij^rative use uf the wonl com, usually in
connection with wine and oil, is very frequent,
SLA y^n and wine and oHvor were the lea<ling
productions of the country^ in its fields, vine-
yanls, an<i orchards. Various terms are eui-
ployetl in Hebrew to represent gnvin, or com
in its cleansed state, and in its uim.' as a stai)le
article of human f<HKl (Deut. xi. 14; xviii. 4:
xxviii. 51; 2 Chr. xxxiL 28; Hos. ii. 22; Joel
ii. 11)). It is probiihie that grain was used in
its cnide state in the earl^ ages of the world.
This was sometimes d(me in later times (Matt,
xii 1) ; and even now it is no unconmum thing,
in passing a fiehl of wheat, to pluck an ear,
anil after rubbing the husk or l»eard off, by
rolling it between the hands, to cat the gnun,
which even in that Htate is very palatable.
ITie Jewish law i^rmitted standing com to be
plucked by onv one jjassing through it (Dent,
xxiil. 25); and this custom, or right, is still
resiiected in wnne pai-ts of the Kast. (See

BUEAI), MlLLK.)

CORNELIUS (Acts x. 1-3) -a Boman
officer residing at Ca'sarca. He was a Gentile
by birth, but had come to the knowledge of
Israers (Jiod. His pn^fession led him to Pales-
tine, and there he may have learned the tmths
of religion. The i)oor compiered Jew taught
him the way of salvation, and the Itoinan
soldier <lid not disiiain the lesson. Living on
a subdued ti-rritory, and in a ^pirrison where
all the immoral licenses of military life must
have prtviiilod, he be<.\'ime "a dcv(»ut man.'*
His influencv extended over his family, for
•* he feared G<k1 with all his house." Hiii piety
was no mere profession- *' he gave much alms
to the i>et)ple;*' and hisreligious life maint^iined
its consistency and fervour by a close and con-
stant devoti<»n—'* he prayed to God always."
In spite of all the disadvantages of early e<iu-
cation and of ]>rofession. Cornelius, the Roman
captjiin, iK'came a child of Gotl, renounced
idolatiy, reliuipiished )N>lytheism, and attached
himself to a pure and spiritual faith. His
sincerity and devoutucss were rewarded by a
supernatural message, informing him how to
proceed in onler to learn the tniths (»f Chris-
tianity. He was bidden send ft»r Peter, wlw)
should instnict him and his domestics; still,
though the liighest character is given of him
as a religious man, he was n>gardeil by the
Jews as an unclean person (A<;t8 x. 28, 29; xi
3). Peter had to tx* warned and ])repan.'d
by a divine visicm, ere he would oiK'y the sum-
mons and come to Ciesarea (Acts x. ll-K)).
Tho command to Peter was, in con8e<{ueiice of
this vision, obeye<l; and G(xl was pleased by
his agency to make known to Cornelius the
plan of salvation through a crucified and risen
liedeemer. Thus the door of faith was oi)ene<l
to the Cxentiles ; Cornelius and his family be-
came ccmverts to the Christian religion, and
were baptized in the name of the Ijord Jesus.
While the ajM>stle addressed them, the miracu-
lous gifts oi the Holy Ghost fell upon them
even previous to their being baptized. (See
Cehtvbiov,)

172

COR

CORNER (2 Chr. xxviiL 24). TheooriMr
of the house-top (Prov. xxi 9) b a nurov
place exix>sed to sun and rain, contrasted wift
the wide room or house below. The "ooniai
of Moal)," or anjr other ooontry^ ^nm. xzit.
17 ; Jer. xlviii. 4o), mean its capitaL dtiei, Acl,
or the strength and substance of ine oofOiAxf,
** Comer of a bed ** (Amos iii 12), or the oat'
ner of a room, was on the elevated part, and
by night for a bed or oonch, and ocntained ^
most honourable seat. (See Bed.) In tki
XMhssage last cited it figuratively denotes tin
most ^roud and luxurious of the Israelites a
Samaria. The comers of the fields were not
to be fully reaped. In Zech. x. 4 the mad
'* comer" is used to denote either the oonui^
stone or the most conspicuous part of a boQit
ing, and evidently refers to Christ (Matt zxL
42), where he is mentioned as *'the head (or
chief) of the comer," though the Jews, it
erecting the temple of their faith, ejected mm
as unfit for so im}x>rtant a plac^ If God k
true, the^ must find their error sooner or
later; *'n)r other foundation can nomanlij
than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ** (I On:
iiL 11: see also Isa. xxviiL 16). The wad
** comers" is figurativelv employed todenoll
the whole length and oreadth of a ooont^
(£zek. vii. 2), or the world (Isa. xL 12; Ber.
vii. 1). (SeeDii'ELLTNGS.)

C*oKNER-8Ti)KE (Job xxxviiL 6). In tht
118th Psalm there occurs a special lefewwe
to Christ under this api>ellation, — *'11ie stone
which the builders refused is become the heal
stone of the comer. This is the Lord's doing;
it is marvellous in our eyes.'* These veisei
may have reference to a real transaction; and
whatever may be its emblematical import, the
event which it describes may have had a litenl
occurrence.

Tlie ode seems to have been sung in a
solemn procession to the temple, and uj the
Levitical band in responsive cnonia. Hie
stone styled the ** head of the comer** was nol
placeil on the top of the wall, but in some im-
]>ortaut and conspicuous position. Now, when
the tem^>le was built, a stone intended bj
the original designers for this purpose seams
to have been rejectetl by the bimdors. and osst
away as useless among the rubbish ; uoX as no
other stone could be found to supply its phm^
either fn)m necessity or from oivine waming
tho dc8i)ised stone was sought for and bnUt
into that honourable station to which bj tiie
heavenly architect it had been destined. And
when the gates of the temple were opened, and
the procession was arranged in its courts, its
massive buildings and golden orxiaments sis
left out of view- though the most prominent
l>eauties of the wonderful fabric — and by the
Spirit of God this truly wonderful event ii
commemorated as being the most notaUe in
the history of the erection of the sanctnaxy, ss
proving the minute and surprising care winch
God exercised over his house, and as beinff
ty])ical of future erections no less strange ana
worthy of celebration. This opinion ii in
general supported by BfichaeUs, and seems to

jlr.ck H'hiuli tb'.-y fiBil j Jivioh iiuilia! uinl iwis.'i'iilioii

tliniu^hout the nacn-J writinj.-a.
I l»y in Zinn fur a fniiuiiatioD a
ied MooB. a precioiu corDer-rilone, a
latioD " (Isa. xiviiL 16). Tnao we
of this Tcne by Peter in hii Tinst
. Si, ite referanoe u to Jwu& luiah
i^fer t» the event depicted hy the

Now, wbnt ii tha ground of this
L irby are bo numj prapetties ascribed
le? GrantiiiK tnat all Bucii qualitjea
to Meioiali, yet why select this figure !
OTvs IuhI Uieir ori^ in uatute and
jid tfae stone laid in Zion wu tried,
inder-n'eDt a very severe Hsiitiny, was
ami afterward tuinanniiL
leniDataiice, which might appear bo
int, God apprDpriates to hioiself, aa
■diotiTe of tun upecial and peciUinr
mdvnce. He laid tha tritd corntr-
if no other could dum nicb favour;
I not lliis strange phiaseoto^ sgreu

paaliDi't's conclusion, — *' Thu ia the
Aip; it ia roamllmu in our eyea " ?
—'''And he iihaU be for a wuictuary:
, atone of rtnTrWng, and for a rock ut
to both the faoDses of Israel" (I*a. ~"

.ytheapi_..

a ttumbling-
ii. 33)— worfs

^ J) thoHH of the

aeon, — "BehoUI, thiachildisMtforthe
riling agsin irf many in Israel" Paul
ta ntber than dtes this passage from
■od refen it to tlie same trent as that
to by the psalmLit, by declaring that it

.-:.! f...in.lii,ti'.j

i,f til"

projecting
acainat,M)

._ ...ih Mi.

Christ u thus c:ill«l a fonier-ji'-iiu —I. In
r»fereiice to his being the finindati'in of the
Christian faith (Eph. u. SO) ; 2. In nf Li^nn. t^
the importance and conapicuounneiu

(1 Pet. li. G); and, 3. Asa
■iHT-ilone is likely to be Btumblol
in iiot surpriiring thatdie d<>ctriiie

inSulievei

Matt. I

datitone of Btumblingtd ....
r baa heen. (Corop. Isa. »— . -..,
.32,33; ICor. L 23[

ii. a)

CORNET (1 Chr. XV. 28)— an in-tniment of
music made of nun's ham, shapeil like the
flute, Qsed by thi- j>rieeti), and i^vin.i; a louil
sound, for signatA fur wht nnd fur proclamation
of tha y™r of jubilee. Thu Hebrew wonl is

CORRUPTIOIf

or. (See OlivEB,

COTES [2 Chr. iiiii. 28}— "cotea for flocks."
The 'K^itd means any small place for nieu or
aniirinis living in — etill preserved in dove.cote.
It is the root of our common term n, cot, cottngr.

COTTAGE (Isa. xiiv. 20)— the same with
tent.

COt'CH. (See Beh, Se.Hk.)

COUNCIL (Matt. x. 17) denotes a j
tribunal, and geuerally tha Hniihedrim. ....
Bupposed by niime to be the same trilninnl
wliich wa» inetituteil under Moxefl (Num. xi. Itl I
(See CoNUREOATIO!'.) Tliin in the opinion of
the Jews. But it would appear thiit the
Mosaic infltituto was only temporary, for thcra
is no alluiiion to it in the subsequent hintiiry of
the Old Teatmncnt. llie Sanhedrim seems to

udicial
It is

cou

difmute. It seems to have lost the power of
inflicting capital punishment prior to the time
of our YjOtq. ** it is not lawful for us," said
the Jews, " to put any man to death,** when
they pn)mptcd tiie lioman governor to try and
condemn Je^us. The inferior tribimols were
very numerous and variously constituted, but
they all had a T>eculiar dei)endcnce on the great
Sazmedrim in Jerusalem. They consisted each
of twentv-three i>erRons, anil were found in
almost all cities of any size, having in them
120 inhabitants. To tne nature and gradual
authority and power of such courts our Lord is
8ap]>osed to allude. "Ye have heard that it
was said by them of old time. Thou shalt not
loll; and who&oever shall kill shall be in dan-
ger of the judgment : but I say imto you, that
whosoever is angry with his brother without a
cause, shall l)e in danger of the judgment : and
whosoever shall say to his brother, liaca, shall
be in danger of uie council: but whosoever
shall sav, 'lliou frK)l, shall be in danger of hell
fire" (lilatt. v. 21, 22). ITiat is, whosoever
shall indulge causeless and unprovoked resent-
ment against his Chribtian brother shall be
punished with a severity similar to that which
IS inflicted by the court of judgment ; he who
shall suffer his passions to transijort him to
great extravagances, so as to make his brother
uie object of derixion and contempt, shall be
exposed to a still more severe punishment,
corresiK)nding to that which the council im-
poses; but he who shall load his fellow-Christian
with (Klious appellations and abusive language
shall incur the severest degree of all punish-
ment, eijnal to that of Wing burnt alive in the
valley of Ilinnom. Another Ixnly called ])y
this name hud, as as.sess<irs, sonic s)>ecial con-
nection Dvith the 1 Ionian poveniwr. ITius
Festus c«mf erred with them (Acts xxv. 12),

COUNSKJJ.OK (Lukexxiii. 50)— a member
of the Sanhedrim. It is plain that there was
a minority in the Jewish senate favourable to
the claims of Jesus, and adverse to that fraud
and violence whicli a time-servinjj and insolent
majority put into operation against him and
his foUoworn.

(^OUNTENAXCE, ortheface-ofU'n used
in its ordinary and natund sense, as in 1 Sam.
vii. Mental emotions pniduce many changes
<»f countenance. Thf» onrntenance o( Cain fell
((Jen. iv. 5) from sulbfU disappointment ; and
the wise man sa\'S, ** A merry neart muketh a
cheerful crmntrnance " ( Prov. xv. 13). T>aban*s
counbvnanceeliangeil towards J aojb (Gen. xxxL
5) when his feelings were altere<l; and the t*:rror

light of his countenance is a precious blessing
(Ps. iv. 0); and men iierish at the rebuke of his
countenance (Ps. Ixxx. I*)).
COUT^SK. (See Abta.)
COITKT. (See DwELLiNoa, Temple,)
COVENANT. The word occurs first in
Glen. ix. 12; and the bow of many colours is
the plefige which God hath given that a general
deluTO to de8tn)y all living humanity bdaU no
174

GOV

more coyer the earth. It ii the yinble Mil
of the covenant with Noah and all who an
sprung from this second father of men. TV
word usually means an agreement or mnioil
obligation, contracted deliberatelsr and with
solemnity. The scriptural sense is pecaliA
God's covenant with men ngniiies his solenni
promise or engagement. Thus God himidf
employs it when speaking of any one neglect-
ing the rite of circumcision—" He hath hrokn
m3r covenant" (Cren. xvii 13, 14). Circom-
cision was thepublic seal of the covenant with
Abraham. Tne word is employed also in
reference to the transactions at Sinai, where a
covenant was ratified with blood, (£xod. xzir.
4, &C.) The book was sprinkled, as if God
took a pledge to be faithful to all uie pronuBCi
contained in it, and the people were sprinkled,
and so came under a stipulation to obey all the
statutes which God shoiud enjoin (Exod. xxxir.
10; Deut iv. 13; Isa. lix. 21). It alsodenotM
the established order and constitution of natnrs
(Jer. xxxiiL 20); and again a precept (Jer.
xxxiv. i:|).

The Hebrew word for makitiff a eovenmd
signifies cutting off, because oovenanta wers
often made by slaving sacrifices, cutting the
victims in two, anil passing between the ineoei
(Gen. XV. 9-19; Jer. xxxiv. 18). (See CaLT.)

The term "the covenants'* (Rom. ix. 4) le-
f ers to the various promises made to Abraham.
(See Abraham.)

The chief and most imx>ortaut use of the
word, however, is in relation to the two great
dispensations under which men have live<Csiul
which are distinguished as the old and new
dispensation or ci>venant (Helx viiL 8). Tlie
former was made with the children of Israel,
and resteil much in the outward ceremonies
and ol)ser\'ances which the law by Moses en-
joined (meats and drinks, and divers wadungi
and carnal ordinances) ; by strict obedience to
which, with full faitli in the promises and
declarations of Jehovah, they became inter-
ested in the blessings of that new and better
covenant which was thereafter to be revealed
(GaL iii.), and which, by way of distinction,
is calle<l the new or second covenant (HeK
viii. 7-13: comp. Extxl. xx.-xxiv. with Hehi

Vlll.)

liic word ordinarily rendered covenant ii
translated testament in HeK ix. 16-18— "For
where a testament is, there must alM of
necessity ))e the death of the testator. For a
testament is of force after men are dead ; other*
wise it is of no strength at Ml whUe the
testator liveth. Whereu^>on neither tlie fixst
testament ^-as dedicated without blood." There
is some difficulty as to the ]>recise reference oi
tliis langiuige ; but it seems to refer to the
mode of ratifying ancient c^tvenants. "For
where a covenant is, thcTe must also of neces-
sity be the death of the appointed victim ; for
a covenant is of force after the 'victims are
deiid, but of no force at all wldle the victim
lives." The arguments of Macknight against
the rendering "testament" are exceedmglT
good. **Ths word dm^Kii, here trsnslatea

GOV

tmwsn to tha Hebraw word htrithy
'Am tranalaton of the Jewish Scrip-
3 undentood to ognify a eovenani,
significatioii our tranalAton have
the word dub^*i| am often as it
the writiiin of the evanffelists and
xoept in the histoxy of the institu-

9 Supper^ and in 2 Cor. iiL 6, and
22, and m the passage^ nnder con-
—in which places, copying the Vnl-
m, they have rendeced diaJ^Kti by
TMamemt, Beza, following the Syriac
analates it everywhere by the words
'vm. except in the 16th, 17th, and
« ox this chapter, where, likewise
the Syriac version, he hath Uitct-
Now if * the new testament,* in the
ibove mentioned, means the Grospel

as all interpreters acknowle(^e,
testament' (2 Cor. iiL 14), and 'tiie
oent' (Ueb. ix. 15). most certainly be
tic covenant/ or 'law of Moses,* as

also from Mebu ix. 20. On this
n it may be asked— 1. In what
Sinaitic covenant or law of Moses,
luired perfect obedience to all its
under the penalty of death, and

10 mercy to any sinner, however
can be called 'a testament,' which is
inferring something valuable on a
ho may accept or refuse it as he

Besides, the transactions at Sinai,
jrod promises to continue the Isitiel-
uiaan, on condition they refrained
wicked practices of the Canaanitcs
red hia statutes (Lev. xviii.), can in
be called *a testament.* 2. If the
OSes is a testament, and if to render
ment valid, the death of the testator
ry, 2A the English translators have

r. 10, I ask. Who was it that made
lent of the law ? Was it God or Moftes ?
ither of them die to render it valid?
ve that even the Gospel covenant is
Y called *a testament,* because, not-
mg all its blessings were procunjd by

of Chriift, and are most freely be-

loet any validity which as a testa-
is thought to have received by the
thrift, when he revived again on the
4. The things affirmed in the
tran.-ilation of r. 15 concerning 'the
ment* — viz., that it hath a mediator;
mediator is the testator himself ; that
"e transgre:<inuns of a former testa-
the redemption of which the mediator
iw testament died; and, r. 19, that
ixtament was made by sprinkling the
rhotfe favour it was made with bl(M)d —
uia quite foreign to a testament. For
r icno^'n in the practice of any nation,
lament ntede^l a mediator? Or that
IT was the mediatr)r of his own testa-
r that it was nec^sary the testator

testament should die to redeem the
ions of a former testament? Or that
ment was ever made by sprinkling
eswith blood? These things, how-

GOV

ever, were usual in covenants. They had
mediators, who assisted at the making of them,
and were sureties for the performance of them.
They were commonly ratitied by sacrifices, the
blood of which was sprinkled on Uie parties.
Withal, if any former covenant was infringed
by the parties, satisfaction was given at the
making of a second covenant. 5. By calling
Christ *the Mediator of the new testament,*
our thoughts are turned away entirely from
the view which the fcknriptures give us of his
death as a sacrifice for sin. Whereas, if he is
called *the Mediator of the new covenant,*
that appellation directly suggests to us that
the new covenant was procured and ratified
by his death as a sacrifice for sin. Acoord^gly
Jesus, on account of his bein<|[ made a priestby
the oath of God, is said to be *the Priest or
Mediator of a better covenant* than that of
which the Levitical priests were the mediators.
I acknowledge that m classical Greek. dto^t^Ki}
commonly signifies a 'testament.* Yet since
the LXX. have uniformly translated the He-
brew word htrith^ which properly signifies * a
covenant,* by the word oiad'riKi}, in writing
Greek the Jews naturally used dio^Ki} for
ovj^i)kt}, as our translators have acknowledged
by their version of Heb. x. 16. To conclude,
seeinff in the verses under consideration oia^ifiKfi
may be translated 'a covenant,' and seeing,
when so tran-slated, the43e verses make better
sense, and agree better with the scope of the
apostle's reasoning than if it were translated
* a testament,* we can be at no loss to know
which translatiou of ciaSn'iKi] in these verses
ought to be i)referred."— Mackniglit's Trans-
latvm of the JKnisths, iiL, pp. 41)5, 496,

The 8i(/n of the covenant was its seal or
memorial. TIiuh the rainl)ow, as we have
said, was a sign or memorial of (iod's cove-
nant with Noah resr>ecting a second deluge.
So of the Sabbath (Ex(mI. xxxL 16, 17), and
circumcision (Gen. xvii. 11).

The new covenant, of which Christ is the
Mediator, was confirmed or sealed by his ovm
blood, and secures to every true believer the
blessings of salvation and eternal life.

Divines have often siKikm (»f the covenant
of works— that is, the fe<UTal arrangoment
with Adam, in virtue of which life was to b«
the reward of obedience — of the covenant <»f
grace, by which men are redeemed from sin
by the merits and sutferinp* (*f Chri.st. Some-
times this covenant is con:^iderfd under two
asi)ect8 : the Cf)venant of redein]>tiim, or agree-
ment between Father and Son, in which Christ
became the Redeemer of his peoi»lH, and on
condition of his sufferiniJf a penalty the Father
promised him a " seed ; " and the covenant
of ^race, which is made between Clrxl and
behcvers, in which CUtd proniiftcs and gives to
them all the blessings of salvation through
Clirist, and they voluntarily consecrate them-
selves to God by a solemn aedicatu>n.

Covenant of salt (Num. xvii. 19; 2 Chr.
xiii 5). This term is HUpptwed to denote
a covenant, in the sealing or ratification of
which salt, the emblem of incorruntion or

COY

indissolubility, was used (Lev. iL 13). (See
Salt.)

Of the deep xneaning attached to salt as a
universal symDol in the £ast, D^Herbelot gives
the followim; curious instance : —

" Jacoubbcn Laith, the founder of a dynasty
of Persian princes aJled the Saffrides, is said
to have broxen into the palace of the prince,
and collected a veiy lar^^e booty, which he
was on the point of carrj-ing away, but as
his foot kicked something which made him
stumble, he imagined it might be property
of value, and putting it to nis mouth, the
better to distintpiish what it was, his tongue
soon informed hun that it was a lump of salt.
Upon this, acconling to the morality, or rather
BU[)eTBtition of the coimtry, where the T)cople
considered salt as a syml)ol and pledge of
hospitality, he was so touched that he left all
his booty, retiring without taking anything
away with hiin."--I)'HerbcIot i?i6t Orient, p.
400.

COVET (Exod. XX. 17), COVETOUSNESS
(Exod. xviiL 21 ; Luke xiL 15). To covet is
to desire stn»nf:ly (1 Cor. xiL 31). When such
a desire is felt for that which we cannot law-
fully possess, it is sinful, and becomes covet-
oTisness, which is "idolatry " (CoL iiL 2), for it is
pbtcing the heart and aiTccti(»ns on the creature
rather than on the C/reator. CovejxjuKucss has
relation commonly to riches, and in the scri])-
tural sense includes the desire of accumulating,
whatever may be the means (I'rov. xxviii UJ ;
EccL V. 10; Luke xii. 15-34; 1 Tim. vL 9, 10).

COW. ** It shall come to pass in that day,
that a man shall nourish a young cow and two
sheep" (Tua. vii. 21). In tfiis remarkable pm-

n' ;cy the event foret<»l»l is, that the face of the
<1 of Ju<lah should be so comj^leti'ly changed,
and the inhabitants so greatly rcduccHl in
number, tiiat, with only a single young cow
and two sheep, a family should \ye supplied
with an abumlance of milk and butter; and
vinoyarrls, which befure commanded a high
rent, ^ould be overgrown with briers and
thorns.

By the Levitical law (TjOv. xxii. 28), a cow
and her oilf were not to be killed on the same
day. A similar precept is found in J>eut. xxii.
6, 7. Wliether tney were designed to prevent
inhumanity, or referred to some heathen custom,
is uncertain. Tlic c<.)W is esteemed holy by the
Hindoos. (See Kid.)

CRACKNELS (1 Ki. xiv. 3)-a kind of
thin, hard bread, not unlike the crackers or
sea-biscuit of motlemdays, spread, as some say,
with aromatic seed.

CRANE (Jer. viii. 7)— a large binl of pas-
sage, measuring 3 or 4 feet in height, and
living on worms and fishes, or (if these cannot
be hard) on grain. Its cry is hoarse and melan-
choly ; hence the allusion in Isa. xxxviii. 14.
But in Isa. xxxviii. 14 and Jer. viii. 7, two
birds are mentioned, the sus and the agur.
The first in our version is translated " crane."
and the second "swallow ;" but Bocliart exact! v
reverses them, and the reasons which he ad-
duces are incontrovertible. I
176

ORE

The refpalBT return of such tnrds from their
annual migrations disoovered s regud to their
instinctive knowledge whdcli, in the puaaee
of Jeremiah, is used to reprove the ignoranoe
and waywardness of €rod*8 people in not
r^^arding the judgments of nis nand (Jer.
viii. 7).

Ancient authors have made aliusionB alao to
these regular migrations. Aristophanes ob*
serves that "it is time to sow when the craiie
migrates clamouring into Africa; she also bidi
the mariner suspend his rudder, and take hii
rest, and the mountaineer provide himself with
raiment." And Uesiod says — "When thou
hearest the voice of the cnnej damouring
annually from the clouds on High, reoolleet
that this is the signal for ploughing, and indi-
cates the approach of showery winter.**

CREATE (Pa. IL 10], CREATOR (EceL
xii 1). CREATION (Mark x. 6). The woni
creation sometimes denotes all living things
(Rom. viii. 22), and at others the great era
or event of the creation (2 Pet. iiL 4). To
"create" is to cause anything to exist that
never existed in any form or manner before
(Gen. L 1 ; CoL L 16L It is to " make," with-
out matenals to make of. Thus, "God said.
Let there be light, and there was light** (Gen.
L 3).

Some Hebrew philologists, such as Prof. Pnsey
of Oxford, S. Lee of Cambridge, and Badtn
Powell, and others, deny that Mmi, the tenn
employed by Moses, signifies to create, in the
onlinary acceptation of the l&i^lish word, or
in the sense we have ascribed to it. We think,
however, that bara is often used in this sense
in Scripture, and tliat even when used fignra-
tivel}'. as it often is, it signifies the brindng
sometning into existence which had not been
in existence before. To give it more intensitj,
the epithet "new" is sometimes added to jL
Another verb, denoting to make, is used by
Moses, and tney are so used in one verse as
to bring out their distinctive meaning, — "And
God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it;
because that in it he had rested from all his
work which God created and made*' (G«l iL
3). The literal rendering of this last (Mause is,
"which Crr>d created to make ^'— that is to say,
brought into existence for the purpose ot
aftcnvards making it into various forms and
ada])tations. Matter was created in order to
be shaped. The i)salmist, too, speaks of a
period before the mountains were brouc^t
forth, or ever God had formed the earth
and the world, llie author of the book of
Proverbs represents divine Wisdom speak-
ing thus. — " Before the mountains were
settled; oefore the hills was I bron^t
forth: while as yet he had not made the
earth, nor the fields, nor the highest part
of the dust of the worid'* (Prov. -niL 25, 26).
The bringing of matter into existence hy an
act of mere positive creation is not^ as the
\iTiters referred to assert, a non-bdbbcal idea*
Creation is ascribed to (lod; and though we
cannot comprehend the act or process, we never
can doubt it For, if there has been no crea*

CBS

JI ia efemal, and all n God or an
F God. On inch » hypotheoa there
Kw, no freedom, no personality, and
iatinctiona; for what we term sin
I realljT thought or done hv Grod as
mn irirtae, sinoe he would he the
r and agent in the nnivene. But
»nnot understand creation as either
of something out of nothing, or the
rasolt from latent almighty power,
e of what is real in the archetypal
in know it in some of its properties,
tore a portion of space unfurnished,
nctnre it as peopled with worlds,
avail as an argument against the
ktion that it implies dumge in an
lie God; for the purpose to create
md onmipotence is not changed in
en it pats forth an effort The
the finite to the infinite is of all
ed the most perplexing. That the
it the other exists our consciousness
in evei^ act of coffnition. To deny
and sink into atheism, or to deny
od dream ourselves into pantheism,
. ai^ainst reason, a Tain attempt to
» limits which are necessarily im-
I human thought We enter not on
3D as to man*B knowledge of the
as to the form and foundation of
itional beliefs. Onlv it is evident
isness that ideas of eternity and
jTound all our thoughts; for to
point of time or of space we reach
icy, we are forced to believe in time
itiU stretching beyond. It ia true
a neither grasp infinitude nor span
rut we do have a notion of either
comprehension of them — such a
lufBces for faith and worship. So
sson out of its sphere, and so true,
the declaration of the apostle —
faith we understand that the worlds
led by the word of God; so that
ch are seen were not made of things
ppear** (Ueb. xL 3). The meaning
le plainly is, that creation is nnder-
lith, by crediting Grod's testimony as
ig we never saw. The testimony of
lis Word ; eo that by believing some
portion of that Word, we arrive at
tf creation. Now to what part of
can the apostle refer, if not to the
of Genesis? Beside the apostle^s
I of creation is the meaning we have

0 hara. — ''things which are seen
made of things which do appear" —
) visible universe was not formed out
bent materials ; it was created. The
of Genesis is pregnant with infor-
' In the beginmng God created the

1 the earth." "In the beginmng,"
the universe is not eternal — is not
Inence from the bright essence of
God made it, the one Elohim — no
rer, no snbonlinato agency — "God
beavens and the earth,"— the one
all ; there are no rival deities pre-

CRE

siding over separate portions of space. God
created all at a period named the "beginning.**
Time dates from the creation, and that crea-
tion implies, on the part of the Creator,
unbounded power, wisdom, and goodness. It
is a proof of the existence and attributes of
God. It reveals much that is cognizable of
God by the human mind (Rom. i. 19, 20).

The researches of modem geolo^ h&ve raised
many questions as to the correct mterpretation
of the first chapter of Genesis. Now, it is a
first principle that science and revelation ^An
never impugn each other. The Bible, more-
over, was not meant to teach science. It
speaks of physical phenomena in popular
langua^. By the use of no other phnueology
could it have been understood. But many
enemies of revelation have employed geology
as they understood it to point their attacks
upon the Word of God. Yet this science,
so far as ascertained, is in harmony with the
enlightened interpretation of the first sec-
tions of the fint book of Scripture. To
enumerate the many hypotheses which have
been held on this subject would be entirely out
of nlace.

One principal point in doubt is the antiquity
of the earth ; or the question may be thus stated
— Does the Mosaic narrative aSaim that the
earth only sprang into existence at the period
of Adams creation? N<)w, geology presents
indubitable ])ro<)fB that the ^loi)e is of great age.
The numerous rocks of which it is composed :
the vast numbers of petrified animals embedded
in them, betoken a great and uncounted anti-
quitv. The fact that plants, fishes, and beasts
are found in rocks of very early structure— that
is, lying far below other strata— and also in
those of the later formation, proves that such
rocks must at one period have formed the floor
of the ocean and surface of the earth. Those
fishes once swam in the seas, those animals once
roamed the forest, and yet they are embedded
miles beneath the present soil. Stratum after
stratum has been formed since the fint of them
died and were entombed. Now, with the ex-
ception of three species of rock, formed of
fusion by fire, and of which the types are
granite, trap, and lava, all the other strata
have been formed under water, are composed
of matter washed from the land, and deposited
in the bottom of the primeval seas. Theso
strata differ very much in structure and
character, indicating the varied conditions of
the earth during the process of their formation,
while the igneous rocks have been thrown
through them in all variety of quantity, and
have therefore often deranged their natural
and first position, for they generally dip, that
is. lie in a slanting form. The following table
ot the order and depth of the rocks m this
coimtry is taken fn>m one of tho notes to
Dr. Pye Smith's Lectures on Scripture and
Geology. We have not taken all the
columns of tho table, but only those ^ we
deemed necessary for our i)urpose; it is a
mere outline : —

177

ORE CBB

Stnoftical Table of Stratifixd Fobmations.

Cuun

^

^

o
o

00

Group OS Stbtkil

Plistocen&

Pliocene.

Miocene.

Eocene.

Cretaceous.

MnrixALOQiCAL Chaxactes.

SorfaoeBoiL

Beds of riven and lakes.

Sea-bottoms, coral rocks.

Peat, marles, travertins.

Drift, erratic, blocks, gravel,
mud-deposits, bone-caves.

Sands and clays, limes.

300 feet

Sands ; the crag.

60 feet

Sands and days.

40 feet

Sands, cla3r8; fresh water.

60 feet

Same, but marine.

100 feet

Sands. g3rp8um, and marles;
f rean water.

200 feet

Dark clay (London), pjrrites,
gypsum.

600 feet

Fine sands and clays.

400 feet

Chalk, with flints.

without flinta

»

600 feet

178

SoMi FiDromu. OaoAnc RswAnni

Buried remains of existing species.

Existing spades, merely preserved.

Corals, shells, fish-bones, recent

Existing spedes; some extinct;
incnuUUunu,

Existing spedes ; few extinct Ele-
phants' teeth and bones. Car-
nivorous animaUi-

Shells of existing species; few ex-
tinct

Sea shells and corals, most extinct

Many extinct

Shells; land and fresh water; most
extinct

Sea shells, most extinct

Extinct quadrupeds, birds, reptiles.

Extinct quadrupeds, reptiles, plants,
fruits, and marine remains.

Some sea and fresh-water sheDs;
extinct quadrupeds.

Abundant in marine productions,
plants, sponges, corals, families
of crinoidea, asterida, et^inida;
shells, bivalve, univalve, ctkm-
bared, in great variety, cnistaoea,
fish, some reptiles.

OBE

IE

c

1

Qsoor OB SnxnL

otmt.

Oolitic.

C

o

Pcecilitic.

Carbomfer-

01U.

HnmilXMIGAL OBAXAOTXa.

Green nnd, upper.
G«cilt^ bluiah day.
Green Hmd, lower.

500 feet

Weald clay,
HastrnffB saiuL
Pnibedc Btone.

900 feet

Oolite, npper.
Portland stone.
Kimmeridge day.

O. middle.

Coralline sandstone.
Oxford day.
Forest marble.
Bradford day.

O. great

fHiller's earth, &o.

O. lower.

2,000 feet

Lias.

700 feet

New red sandstone.
Rock salt
Variegated marie.
Magnesian limestone and
oon^Uimerate.

1,000 feet

Coal, shale, and sandstone, in
alternating layers, foiming
vast concave patches, like a
series of irr^olarly shaped

3,000 feet

Millstone grit

700 feet

Monntain limestone, with some
beds of shale, sandstones, and
inferior ooaL

1,000 feet

179

ORE

Soiu Prdtcipai. Oboavic BzMAnra

Similar families to the chalk, but
generally of different species:
ammoniUa, nautUUes, &c, small
bdemnites.

Some land plants and fresh-water
shells; endogenUes; fish; monstraui
lizardUike reptiUt,

Treei ffymfwmerMf allied to zamia ;
numerous snells of various orders ;
fii^

Ooralloids, echinida; shells, bivalve,
and some univ. Crustacea; fish,
lizard-formed; didelphya.

Similar to the other Oolites: but
more of cr3rptogamou8 land plants;
apiocrinites, trigonia, terdn-atuUe,

Very rich in gymnosp. wood, bi-
valves, ammonites, fish, lizard-
like reptUeSf bdtmnitea.

Coniferous wood, and several spe-
cies of the fern and equisetum
tribes ; fish ; saurians.

The coal is entirely compressed
land vegetation, chiefly from
trees of great size, whose stems,
branches, leaves, ac, are abun-
dant in or on the intcrjwsed
shales and sands. The trees have
been euphorbiaceous, coniferous,
monocotyledonous, equisetaceous,
ferns, l^copodiaceous, &c. Some
river bivalve shells. Fish.

Land plants, as of the coaL Thin
beds of limestone occur, having
sea shells.

Land plants, as the coaL Sea
remains in great variety and
abimdance, as crinoidea, coral-
loids, bivalves (spirifer, leptaena),
univalves, ammonites, and other
chambered shells, trilobiUs^ fish.

CKE

Clam.

1

^

o

O

GsouporStsteil

Old Red
Sandstone.

Silurian.

Cambrian.

Cumbrian.

Mica schist.

Gneiss.

MooouLooicAL Chabaotxs.

Bed and brown sandstones, tile-
stones and marles, with equi-
valent limestones in Devon-
shire; whence the system is
now called Devonian. 10,000
feet, and in Scotland moie.

Ludlow, upper rocks.

Sandstone and limestoneu

lower.

Wenlock and Dudley.
Sandstone and Imies.

Horderley and May HilL

Flagstones, sandstones, and
limes.

Builth, Caradoc, and Uandeila
Flags, sandstone, and limes.

Loiu[inynd & Gwastaden rocks.
Siliceous, very hard and
quartzy; slates.
10,000 ft & probably much more.

Slate rocks of Plyi^ymmon.

Snowdonia, &c., \rith dark

limestones and sandstones,

both fine and conglomerate.

7,000 feet and more.

Vast rocks of slates, purple,
green, &c,, with very hard
and fine sandstones, some-
times conglomerate ; the low-
est group of slates soft.

More than 10,000 feet

Hard rock, consisting of mica
and quartz interlanunated.

Many thousand feet

Gneiss consists of the component
parts of granite (quartz, fel-
spar, and mica) ; fiine-grained
and laminated^ so as to present
the idea of bemg the product
of granite, abraded, worn, and
then dcixMited from the wa-
ter, ana acted upon by the
heat below.

Many thousand feet

ORE

SoMB Pkoicval Oaauno

Fish, In the Devonian beds the
organic remains ci the upper part
resemble thoee of the moimtafai
limestone; and the lower, tiioee
of the Silurian syBbeoL liioee in
Scotland and Russia are ridi in
fishes, of extraordinary f onus, and
often of considerable magnifcode.

Fish fin-bonee, gigaiUie serpmla.
coralloids, erincideii. bivalve, ana
univalve shells of forms incross
ingly interesting, indnding many
hradUopoda, trUobUet in great
number of the various speeifls,
^anUfered tkdU, straight and in
variety of curvature, grapkUkt,

Two or three species of oonUoids
(cyathophylla) ; a few speous of
bradiiopodonM oondiifen, "fit
ddeH monuments yet disoovered
of the creation of uving tlunga"
In Comwall, Endoti^pkomlm
fuUut.

None.

None.

Nonsb

The CkrytUMine Bockt, Granite, Syenite, Porphyry, Greenstone, Trap, &c.

180

CBE

Wlttt an aiimiing langth of tiiiw the gndml
■mation of tlMw rocky miMinii mnrt have ro-
ired. Tlie f o«il remains within them, and
HT Toy compontion, prove their fonnation
have lleen gradual ana alow. Manjr of the
Mitane rocks, too, are the shells of insects,
iny thousands of whom are gined together to
m an indi scinare of stone. And these
satnres once lived and were happy. Lonjg
le must tiie coal strata have taken ere their
asnrea were amawspH, for coal is only min-
iliied vegetables. Now^ are these facts and
^laments inoonristent with revelation? We
nk wsL In former times varioos modes of
wnniliTig Scripfcore with geology were i»ro-
nd. Some ascribed all such dumges to the
mI, aiftd others cut the knot by roundly
inning that the rocks containing fossils were
afted as they are. The grand objection to
s opinion is, that it is opposed to all the
Qiwn analogies of nature. We will illustrate
s aigomtmt in several modes. A large i»ro-
rtioQ of the f ossilif erous rocks are composed
sand and roimded and smoothed gravel.
Dented together by iron or carbonate of lime.
rw, let some of these pebbles be knocked out
thev bed, and some of this sand crumbled
wn. Go now to the banks of a river, and
lect some pebbles and sand from its beach,
ich yon know have been worn dovni and
wdtcd by the action of the stream. Place
ae bv tne side of the sand and pebbles
aunea fmm the f oesilif erous roclu, and you
1 see that they very exactly resemble each
ler. Can you now believe that the one
>op resulted from the sole agency of running
K«r, while the other was never acted upon

wat4*r? You must believe this, if the
pothesis under consideration be true.
Phose organic remains that occur in the solid
k^ are nifually converted into stone ; but as

ascend to the unconsolidated etratEL they
isist for the most part only of the narder
rts of the animal or plant that have resisted
ximpositfon. Take now some of the unde-
red relics, as, for example, a marine shell,
the akeleton of a hyena, a bear, or an ele-
ant, and i»lace them bv the side of shells
it are warded upon the beach by the waves,
1 of the skeletonM of the same animals, or of
ied species, recently killed. Are you pre-
red to believe that the fossil group were
ated just as you find them, while the other
(up, hardly auiun},^iishable in external or
;mical character, were certainly once alive ?
>ald not such a comparison convince every
•ocate of this hyjiothesis that he assumed
< untenable ground? But we may carry
K iUui<tration still further. For mammoths.
St obriouiily of antediluvian origin, ana
refore properly called fossil^ have b^n found
h their softer parts, their skin and flesh
1 undecayed. And tnese, too, if the fossil-
ous rocks were created jast as we now find
m, oould never have been real animals, but
y abortive resemblances. To what absurdi-

will such a principle, if fairly followed out,
I UM ? A man in digging into the earth un-

CRE

oovers what seems to be a human skeleton, in
a spot where he has no evidence that man was
ever buried. His neighbour denies that thi^
skeleton was ever dotned with flesh and ani-
mated with life. Could not GJod, he says, have
created it just as we find iL as easily as to give
matter any other form? Now, this power of
God must be admitted; and if no record of a
burial of a man in that spot exists, how can it
be proved to this man inat his supposition is
not true ? It is just as difficult to prove this
as it is for the geologist to show that organic
remains were not created Just as we now find
them with the rocks in which they are imbed-
ded. (See Hitchcock*8 Bitap,)

Others^ again, have imagined that the " day **
in Genesis was a long indefinite period, during
which space is given for any gMlugical process.
One of the supporters of tius opinion thus
argues: — "As the motions of our earth have
been from the first dependent uix>n the sun,
its influence upon the earth was at first ex-
tremely weak. Hence the diurnal rotation of
the earth and progress in its orbit were then
inconceivablv slow ; but the velocity of both
motions gradually increased till the end of the
fourth day. when the sun was perfected. The
quantity oi time, therefore, or duration of any
one preceding minute, or hour, was great^
than any that succeeded ; ho that the first
minute of the first day may have been equal,
in duration or length of time, to a month or a
year, compared with the la&t minute of the
fourth day,"* &c. lliis hypothetiis ap}>ear8 to
us entirely unsustained by facts. It is based
upon the 8upi>o8ition that at first the earth
was a hollow Hphere of vast ma^itude, which
afterwards fell in— a mere gratiutuous assump-
tion. There is no evidence that the velocity of
the earth's rotation has ever changed ; and the
fact that its present velocity would produce
just that degree of oblateuess which it pos-
sesses, if it were fluid, renders it probable that
it was not different in the beginmnK. Besides,
the language of the narrative contnulicts this
hypothesis. We are bound to take the lan-
guage of a simple document in its ordinary
meaning; and the term **day," to any reader
of Scripture, and in such a connection as sur-
rounds it in Genesis, carries on the front of
it its ordinary acceptatiiiii. The days are
numbered firHt, second, third, and 80 on till
they amount to a week. Each day is bounded
by its onlinary termini, " evening and morn-
ing." The oriipnal Sabbath was a day of
ordinary duration, and so must have been the
days which preceded it. ** P*X" ^ *^w cbai>-
ter is therefore to be taken in its ordinary and
XK)pular signification.

Some, as we have said, have ascribed all
such geological phenomena — as those we have
adverted to— to the fltKxl. But this theory is
wholly contrary to all experience. The flood
was of too short duration to pr<Hluce such re-
sults. No studious observer of the works of
God around us — of the action and oi)eration of
physical power in the midst of us — can suppose
that sUata Uiousands of feet in thickness, ^ith

1^1

CRE

their organic remains arranged in r^folar
groups, and for the most part concerted into
stone, and their most delicate parts often un-
worn ; ^at even several distinct and separate
races of plants and animals were fossilized by
such a deluge ; that numerous changes should
have taken place, sometimes slowly and some-
times suddenly, in the materials which its
waters held in solution or suspension^ so that
sandstone, conglomerate, slate, and limestone
should be deposited, — that, in short, processes
should have been finished in one year wliich,
from all we know of the o].)erations of nature
according to her present laws, must have de-
manded ages upon ages.

The only consistent interpretation, and that
which is now generally adopted^s the follow-
ing plain and simple process : — The first verse
of tne first chapter of Genesis contains an in-
dependent proposition — an affirmation that
Grod is the Creator of the universe. But it says
nothing of the i)eriod at which this took place :
it only characterizes it as **the beginning."
But when that ** beginning" was, whether six,
or ten, or one hundred thousand years ago, it
does not inform us. It leaves Nature to teach
us ; and Nature from her vast museum is able
to afford us sure instruction. Though her con-
clusions have not the evidence of demon-
stration, and are opposed to many of our early
prejudices, yet they stand before us in the
grandeur of truth, and have commanded the
assent of the most pious and sober-minded of
our philosophers. They have lent, in fact, a
new evidence to revealed religion ; thev have
broken the arms of the sceptic ; and when we
ponder over the great events which they pro-
claim, the mighty revolutions which they in-
dicate, the wrecks of successive creations which
they display, and the innumerable cycles of
theur chronology, the era of man shrinks into
contracted dimensions, his proudest and most
ancient dynasties wear the aspect of upstart
and ephemeral grouj^s; the fabrics of himian
power, the gorgeous temple, tlie monumental
bronze, the regal pyramid, sink into insignifi-
cance beside the miirhty sarcophagi of the
brutes that perish. They form, indeed, the
key to the hien^lyphics of the ancient world ;
they enable us to reckon up its almost count-
less periods ; to replace its upheaved and dis-
located strata ; to replant its forests : to recon-
struct the products of its chamel-nouse ; to
re-people its jungles with their gigantic deni-
zens ; to restore the condors to its atmosphere,
and give back to its oceans its mi^^hty levi-
athans. And such is the force with which
these revivals are presented to our judgment,
that we almost see the mammoth, the mega-
theria, and the mastodon stalkinp^ over the
plains or pressing through the thickets; the
giant ostrich leaving its foot-writings on the
sands ; the voracious ichthyosaurean swallow-
ing the very meal which its fossil ribs enclose ;
the monstrous plesiosaurus paddling through
the ocean, and guiding its lizard trunk and
rearing its swan neck as if in derision of human
wiadoin; and the pterodactyle, that mysteri-
182

ORE

ous compound of bird, brute, and bat, taserting
its triple claim to the occaiMUicy of earth,
ocean, and the atmosphere.

Now the length of time that may have
elapsed between the events recorded in uie first
verse, and the condition of the globe as de-
scribed in the second verse, is absolutely
indefinite. How long it was we know not,
and ample space is therefore given to all the
requisitions of geology. The second vene
describes the condition of our globe when God
began to fit it up for the abode €»f man. The
first day*s work does not b^g^ till the third
verse — "And Grod said. Let there be light;
and there was light" Each day's work begins
invariably with these three words — "And God
said ;" and we infer that the first day*B work
commences with the same formula. It is no
objection to this view that the partide **and"
connects the first and second verses together,
as if they were dosely associated in time ; for
this conjunction in Hebrew is used with great
latitude, and often connects events many yean
distant from each other (Exod. u. 12). And
this is no new theoxy. It was held hv Justin
Martyr, Basil, Origen, Theodoret, ana Aus[at-
tine, men who came to such a ooncluBion with-
out any bias, and who certainly were not driven
to it by any geological difficultie&

"Does Moses ever say that when God
created the heavens and tne earthy" adcs Dr.
Chalmers, "he did more at the tmie alluded
to than transform them out d previously
existing materials? Or does he ever saythi^
there was not an interval of man^ am be-
twixt the first act of creation, described in tibe
first verse of the book of Genesis, and said to
have been performed at the banning, and
those more detailed operations, the accoimt of
which commences at the second yerse, and
which are described to us under the allegory
of days? Or does he ever bring forward aav
literal interpretation of this history wfa]<a
brings him into the slightest contact with the
doctrines of geology? Or, finally, does he
ever make us to understand that the genealo-
gies of man went any further back than to fix
the antiquity of the species, and of consequence
tliat they left the antiquity of the globe a free
subject for the si^eculations of philosophen?"

"Moses," says Dr. Buckland^ "does not
deny the existence of another order of things
prior to the preparation of this elobe for the
reception of the human race, to which he con-
fines the details of his history^ — ^there is
nothing in the proposition inconsistont with
the Mosaic declaration of the creation."

" llie geologist,'* says Sedgwick, " teDs ni^
by the clearest interpretation of the pheno-
mena which his labours have brought to li^htb
that our globe has been subject to vast physicfei
revolutions. He counts his time not by celes-
tial cycles, but by an index he has founa in the
solid framework of the globe itself. He sees a
long succession of movements, each of which
may have required a thousand affes for its
elaooration. Periods such as these bdkmg not
to the moral histoiy of oar laoe; and ooins

ORE

neither witliin the letter nor the ipirit of revelA-
tion. Between the first creation of the eiurth
and that day when it pleased God to place
man nnon it^ who shall dare to define the
interval 7 ()n this question Scripture is silent, "
kc " The only way to escape from all diffi-
culties pTesanfs on the questions of cosmogony
has been already pointed out. We must con-
oder the old strata of the earth as monuments
of a date long anterior to the existence of man.
and to the times contemplated in the moral
records of his creation. In this view there
w no collision between phyrical and moral
truth.'*

''It is only,*^ says MacCulloch, "for an
antiquity prior to the creation of man that
geology asks. From that moment it is recon-
dkble to the sacred chronology. All that
geology requires for the utmost scope of its
great mve«tigations is comprised in the time
which is included in the first and second verses
of the hirtory. This is the undefined ^riod
with which it is alone concerned ; and if the
time be truly here indefinite, the difficulty is
Buived. The historian has left the interval
between the creation of the universe and that
of light indefinite — as he is silent on what may
have occurred ; and here science is free to pur-
ra« the investigation bv its own niles."

But the luiguage of the fomlh command-
ment is thought to be decisive against the
opinion that a long period preceded the demi-
ur>nc days. This expressly declares that " in
»ix day« the Lord made heaven and earth, the
*ei an<l aU that in them is/* &c. Now, on what
j4inciple of interpretation shall we introduce a
period thousands of ages long before tlie six
days commenced, when Moses expressly em-
bfaoes all the creative processes in those days?
To this objection Professor Hitchcock replies
M follows: — ** We confess that such is not the
natural meaning of the words of this postage —
that U, it dites seem to teach the creation of
the whole universe in six literal days : and it is
certainly an objection to the proposed mode of
inti:rr<reting the Mosaic account of the creation
which desierves a very serious consideration.
For it must demand quite dtKdsive proof be-
fore we can admit that the natural and obvious
meaning of a writer is not the true meaning.
Thfrre is. however^ a principle of interpretation
applicable in this case which may perhaps
natLsfy every mind, that the supposed exist-
*rhOb of a long period anterior to the Mosaic
days is perfectly consistent with the fourth
(I'mmanoment. We refer to the principle,
that when a writer describes the same event in
more than one place, the briefer statement is
to be interi>reted in accordance with the more
extended one. We can refer to an illustrative
example in Cjenesis relating to the subject of
criAtion. In chap. ii. verse 4 it is said —
* These are the generations of the heavens and
of the earth, when they were created, in the
day that the Lord God made the earth and the
heavenj!.' Now, if this were the only acoount
in the Bible of the work of creation, who would
have suspected that more than a single day

CRE

was occupied by it? But the statement in the
first chapter of Grenesis compels us to attach a
meaning to the words just (juotcd different
from the natural and obvious one. Nor does
any one acquainted with the laws of exegesis
imagine that there is any real (Uscre])iincy
between the two statements. On the same
principle, is it not reasonable to cx])Iain the
lourth commandment by comparing it with
the more extended account of the creation in the
first chapter of Genesis? It is not, indeed, as
cleskr from the statement in Genesis tliat a long
period intervened between the creation and
the Mosaic days as that six days wero em-
ployed in the demiurgic processes. But still
we con hardly conceive how any candid man
can deny that the first four verses do naturally
atimit such a period. We cannot, therefore,
allow that the fourth commandment is insuper-
ably oi)iK>8od to the interpretation under con-
sideration."

Another objection is, that the apostle seems
to teach that there was no death in tlie world
till num sinned, when he affimiH — "Where-
fore, as by one man sin entered into the world,
and death by sin ; and so death passed upon
all men, for that all have sinne<l" (Horn. v.
12). Geol(^ shows us that death has reigned
over the animal creation ever since it hod a
being. None of them were d«.'8tiued ff)r im-
mortality. Not only do individuals die, but
whole species a^'aiii and a>,'ain have boc«>ine
extinct, and entirely new bpecios have been
created in their r(K>ni. Nay, fossil animals are
often dug up with half-digested ioinl in their
stomachs, and that food consiijting of some
lesser animal on wlncli they hod j^reyed. But
the apostle in the veise cited fpeakH only of
the death of man, a rational and resnonHiblu
agent — of man who was creatcnl holy, but who
by his fall incurred the penalty t»f death. The
apo»tlc speaks not at all of death in reforence
to inferior animals. Tlien, asks llarrin--
" 'Then might not animal life have Ix^en siia-
tained on vegetable food alone?' Not only
would such an arransrement - -as wc have seen
— inconceivably diminish the amount of animal
life and enjoyment which exists under the
present arrangement, it would still leave death
in the animal w^orld, from the ten tlxjusand
si^iurccs of what are called accident. The foot
of the ox would crush the insects in the grass,
the breeze waft them by mjTiads into the
stream, and the evai>oration and exhaustion
of the lake leave the fish dead on the shore.
Nothing less than peq^etual miracle couhl
have saved them from deatniction. And thus
it is, in the all-relatiid system of creation, that
a single essential alteration would throw the
whole into disonler, or be a virtual repeal of
the entire scheme; and that every objection
made against it involves an incalculal>le reiluc-
tion of animal life and cnjojnnent, and is
therefore incomi>atil)lo with the Divine bene-
volence."—T/zc Prc-AdamiU Earth, p. *.r20.

And geology accords witli Scrii>ture in affirm-
ing that the present system, with man himself,
is of recent origin. No human petrife^tiona

1^

ORE

are found— no remains of man are discovered
— ^no trace of any of his woriu, even in
the tertiary and alluvial depoeita. Adam^s
aahee lie in the upper soil; and the world at
each sta^ was fitted to the creatures that
clfldmed it as their home, while its various
changes had all respect to its present occupant
and lord. The work of preparing the globe
for man lasted six days, and each dav had its
appropriate task. The progress of Grod is
described optically— that is, just as it would
have appeared to a human eye, had any* been
there to vdtness it. The language is plam and
emphatic. Light was created, an atmosphere
was formed, and the law of evaporation ratified
— land and water were severed, and the latter
poured into its vast receptacles— while the
earth was clothed with herbage and fruits — ^the
bodies which revolve in the heavens became
visible, became light-bearers or luminaries — the
ocean received its tribes of swarming popula-
tion— ^the earth was furnished with its various
tenants, and man at length was made in the
image of God. It has sometimes been objected,
that the Bible speaks of the sun as not made
till the fourth day, whereas it describes light as
created in the first day. This objection takes
for granted that the sun is the source of light ;
but modem science has fully proved that light
exists independently of the sun, and must have
been itself an original creation. Nay more,
the fourth verse does not speak of the creation
of the heavenly bodies, but only of their being
constituted luminaries. The relation of sun,
moon, and star, as light-bearers to the earth,
was established on the fourth day. It appean,
in fine, to be an unwarranted use of the first
chaiiter of Genesis to press it into accordance
with any sdentific system. It was a simple
lesson to the old world of Grod's creative
power, and gave them a popular outline, not
a systematic analysis. No so-called scientific
interpretation, or any of the elaborated hy-
potheses which have from time to time been
published, is self-consistent in all its parts,
^ee BIan, for some remarks on the theory of
Dan^dn.)

How simple and beautiful is the Mosaic de-
scription of the creation! How unlike the
numerous cosmogonies that prevailed in the
ancient world ! Some of these indeed are the
remnants of patriarchal tradition, and bear
some resemblance to the narration of Moses.
The reveries of the Grecian and Roman
philosophers may l>e passed over, for they
sought to apply the pniiciples of their know-
ledge to a theme which they were not com-
petent to ^rasp. Linus, Zeno, and Anaxagoras
believed, mdced, in a chaos, and Thales held
that water was the ori^ of the universe.
The Chaldeans imagined two rival eternal
principles — one good, named Oromasdes; one
evil, named Ahnmanes — an evident attempt to
account by a clumsy device for the ori^n of
eviL The systems of Lucretius, Leucippus,
and Democritus, were atheistic, for they sup-
posed that the world was made from a for-
tuitouB coDcoime of atoms.
1S4

ORE

How does the description in tlie fint book of
Moses tower in beauty and simplicity over aU
imitations of it! Vmly, He who made the
world revealed the process. The fint diapter
of Grenesis proves itself to be an insfnred
document, by its unadorned brevity and com-
prehensive truth (Ps. zix. 1. 2). "O Lord,
now manifold are thy worka ! in wiadom hast
thou made them all : the earth is fall of thy
riches" (Ps. civ. 24).

CREATURE, New. " Thei«for« if any
man be in Christ, he is a new creature* $
Cor. V. 17). This phraseologv desoibe^ by
a powerful word, the total ana saving '^'^^^l^
that passes over every disciple of Ohnst. His
spiritual nature is renewed. He loves God
and practices holiness, and lives, so to speak,
like a new inhabitant of a new world. (See
Conversion.)

CREATURE, CREATION— as ooconing
in Rom. viii 19, 22, '*For the earnest expecta-
tion of the creature waiteth for the manifesta-
tion of the sons of God. . . . Fer we
know that the whole creation groaneth and
travaileth in pain." The word ncTio-tt^ rendered
creation, sometimes signifies in Scnptnrs the
act or work of creation, sometimes created
things, sometimes mankind as a part of that '
creation, and sometimes the rsdeemed^ who
form the new creation. What it means m the
verses quoted has been much disputed. It
has been conjectured to mean the angds— the
souls of the planets^ur first parents — God^
fair and first creation, the souls of believeiB—
the bodies of the saints — Christians in general
—the unconverted world — the material area*
tion — ^the human race.

The opinion usually received is, that the
expression is general in its nature, meaning
either the world of men— the whole human
familv — or, according to others, the irratumal
or inferior creation.

In order to show the greatness of the future
glory of saints, Paul, by the use of a strong
but common figure^ represents the whole crea-
tion as longing for it. There is nothing in this
unnatural, unusual, or unscripturaL On the
contrary, it is in the highest degree beauttfol
and effective; and at the same time in strict
accordance with the manner of the sacaned
writers. How common is it to represent the
whole creation as a sentient being, rejoicing in
God's favour, trembling at his anger, spesking
abroad his praise, &c! How often, too, is it
represented as sympathizing in the joy of the
people of God! llie mountains sind hills
shall break forth before you into singing, and
all the trees of the field shall clap their hands"
(Isa. Iv. 12). It may be objected that sdbh
p^^ssages are poetical; but so is this. It is
not written in metre, but it is poetical in the
highest degree — an outburst of intense ^mAtw".
There is therefore nothing in the strong figu-
rative language of Rom. viiL 19 either inap^*
propriate to the apostle's object or inconsistent
witu the maimer of the sacred writenk It
may, with the strictest propriety, be said, that
the irrational creation was subjected to vanity

ORE

not williiigly, but by the Authority of God.
Itahared in tiie penalty of tho fall— " Gazwd
istheewthfor thysake** (Gen.iiil7). And
it is said still to 'suffer for the tins of its
inhahitante — "Therefore hath the corse de-
Toored the earth** (Isa. xxiv. 6). " How long
iball the land moom, and the herbs of every
field wither, for the wickedness of them that
dwell therein?** (Jer. ziL 4.) This is a com-
mon mode of representation in the Scriptures.

The |>rincipar point in the description of the
i^nstle is, that this subjection of the creature
to the bondage of ooimption is not final or
bopelesa, but the whole creation is to share in
the Morions liberty of the children of Grod.
This alao is in perfect accordance with the
scriptural mode of representation on this sub-
ject Nothing is more familiar to the readers
<if the Old Testament than the idea that the
whole face of the world is to be clothed in new
besnty when the Messiah appears. "The
wiMemeas and the solitary place shall be glad
for them ; and the desert shall rejoice and bloe-
flom as the rose,** &a Ac (Isa. zxxv. 1 ; xxix.
17 ; ^^r^i 1^ 16). " The wolf also shaU dweU
with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down
widi the kicL and the calf, and the young lion,
and the failing together; and a little child
•hall lead them** (Isa. xi 6). Such passages
are too numerous to be cited. The apostle
Peter, speaking of the second advent, says, the
Tvesent state uf things shall be changed, the
Leavens shall be dis.M>lved, and the elements
ihaU melt with fervent heat—" Nevertheless
v«, according to his prDUiise. look for new
heavens and a new earth, wnerein dwelleth
n?hteou«nes« " (2 Pet. iii. 7-13). " And I saw
a new heaven and a new earth ; for the first
htravens and the firet earth were passed away"
(Bex. xxi 1 : see Heb. xii. 26, 27).

This interpretation is suited to the ai)06tle^8
<4)JKrt, which was not to confirm the truth of a
future state, but to produce a strong impression
of it^ f;lArious character. What could be bet-
ter adapted to this object than the (prand and
beautiful figure of the whule creation in an
agcny of earnest expectation for its approach.

CRETE (Acta xx^-ii, 7), (CRETIANS, Tit.
L 12), now called Candia, is an udand of the
Mediterranean, 140 miles long, and on an
average 30 broad ; population about equal
numbers of Greeks and Turks. It was formerly
a rich and powerful kin^om. Homer sang of
it* hundred cities ; and it is still remarkable
for its delightful climate and fertile soil. Oil,
o>rD- fruit trees, and vines are among its prin-
cipal productions. The city of Candia, which
ii also the fort and capital of the island, lies on
the northern coast. Crete was settled, as it is
generally supposed, by Philistines from l^gypt,
pifft of whom afterwarrls passed over to I'ales-
tine, and are called Caphtorim (Gen. x. 14),
Cherethims (Ezek. xxv. 16), and according to
B-nne, Cherethites (1 Sam. xxx. 14 ; Zeph. ii. 5).
Others suppose that Crete itself is the Caphtor
'■f the Scriptures (Jer. xlviL 4).

Sahnono (Acts xxvii 7) was a cape on the
ejitftem extremity of the island; the Fair

CRO

Havens (Acts xxviL 8) was the name of a bar-
bou^ roads, or anchorage near La»ea. on the
southern shore. The apostle, sailing from the
last-named place to Phenice (Acta xxviL 12),
on the western coast, was driven under an
island called Clauda (Acts xxvii. 16), now Gozzc).
Probably Paul visited this island after his
first imprisonment at Rome, and established a
Christian church there, which he left unrler
the oversight of Titus (Tit. i. 5).

ITie Cretans were once noted for viciciua
habits, lliis character w&s given them by
many profane historians ; and among them was
one of their own nation, who was also a prr)-
phet or poet (which terms were B^Tionymous
among the Romans), and who says they were
liars, evil beasts— that is, brutal and ferocious
as wild beasta— and slow iK^Uics, or addicted to
voluptuousness and gluttony, as in Phil. iii. 19.
Such a character, it is said, belongs to them
stilL Crete has suffered many changes in the
course of centuries, from the fury of war and
the ambition of contending nations, and is at
this moment (1867) in arms against its Turkisli
tyrants.

CRIMSON (Jer. iv. 30). The word comes
from kermeSj the Arabian name of the insect
that prcniuces the dye. It is expressed by two
Hebrew wor<l8, one of which signifies the
worm or grub gathered to make the colour.
The (Jther term means either to shine, or to he
double-dyed. The former opinion iH by far the
most probable : piuiile only was double-flyed
at IV^' Crimson was a beautiful variety or
deep shade of red. Stuffs for the draiHiry
of Solomon's temple were embroidered in
this colour (2 Chr. ii. 14; iii. 14). Crimson
is a dee])er dye than scarlet; and hence the
force of the figure in Iho. i. IK, where the
most free and ijorfect forgiveness is offei-ed to
guilt of the deepest stain.

CRISPING-PINS. (See CLOTirES.)

CRISPUS (Acts xviii. 8) was an oflicer of
the Jew.sh synago^nic at Corinth. He and hU
family were converted under I*auV» ])reachinj:,
and he received the onlinance of baptism at
the a]>ostle'8 hanils (1 Cor. i. 1-1).

CROSS, CRUCIFIXIOX (Matt xxiii. :M;
xxvii. 32). Cnicifixitm i« a nxde of execution
of great antiquity, and still prevails among the
Hindoos and Chmese. It was regjirded by the
Romans as the basest and mobt ii^'nominious
death, deserved only by trait^»rs (Luke xxiii. 2).
It was an accursed death (lieut. xxi. "Si; (Jal.
iii. 13). Hence the foree of the expressions, I
Cor. L 23; Phil. ii. 8; Hob. xii. 2. As soon iw
the sentence was pronounced, "Thou slialt be
crucified," the person was strii)pe<l entirely
naked (or leaving at most a narrow btrip around
the loins), fastened t(> a {>o8t about as high ns the
waist, and then terribly st^our^'ed with ixkLs or
whips, made of leather strips (Isa. Iii. 5), armed
with small bits of lead or bono, and (jften so
severely as to «)Cca8ion detith. After the
scourging, the person wjis compelled to be^r
his own cross, or a iwrtion of it, U) the place of
execution. This was usually an elevat^Mi
place without tho city and iu>v\r Ui^ Viv^Vi-

CRO
w>7. The commoQ or Latio fotm of the croes
resembled the %iire in the middle of the
fallowing cut, another form wh ahaped like
the c^tal letter T wi^out the upper projec-
tioD, and n third form. ueual1;r named St
Anurew's croaa, was nomewhat like our letter
X. The croaa vas fixed into the earth, uid
wu eo hifh {Bay 10 to IS feet) that the feet of
the Bufferer were uiuolly about 4 feet from the
eround. The tranaverse piece was usually 7 or
6 t«et in length. In tr near the middle of the

with strong iron spiki . ..
There is conclusive evidence, from profai
histoij, that the hnnds and feet nere pierced
in t^ii wny, and that it was peculiar to th(
punishment of crucifixion ; but whether th<
feet were nailed scpaiatvly, or whether a single
nail transfixed them both, is doubtful. In
order to lessen the pain, it was cut^touiary to
give the sufferer wine medjcattd with myrrh,
Ac. Our Redeemer rejeeted tliia draught
(Mark xv. 23). chooeins, probably, to suffer U>
the full extent the pains of that awful death.
Vine^^ar, too, wa'^ a refreshing and sustaining
drink of the Italian soldiery; and this beinR
offered to him, be partook of it. The fever
induced by the nail-wounds caused intolerable
thirst (Matt. xiviL 4B). llie criminal wa
fastened to the cross by four soldiers ajiiHiinto
for that purpose, w ho were allowetl the apjiart
of the sufferer as the perquisite of their offio
(Hatt ixvii. 35). Hence the passaj,-e, ¥f
xxiL 18, was prOTihetic of the modf of destli t
be endured by ChriHt, The soldif~ -"-----■-

of acuta and agonlmng pun: Ute expomre of
the wounded and lacerated flcah to the action
of the sun and air hour after hour; the loas of
blood, and the aense of indignity and contempt,
which, ia our Saviour's case, was the most
'-^"er, malicious, and unspianng that can be
craved, — all oonajiired to make, to the yery
degree, a death of pain. Often the strength
of tlie malefactor lingered for three days, and
even longer. Henoe the enipriBe of Pilate
(Mark IV. 44).

Among the Romans the prisoner remained
upon the cnsa often till his body fell to the
earth by it* own weight ; but in the province
of Judea the Jews were permitted, in obedi-
ence to the precept of their Uw (Deut IxL 22,
23), to terminate the sufferings of the male-
factor before sunset This was effected in
various ways ; sometimes by setting £re to the
foot of the cross ; and at other times by break-
ing the hmbe with a hammer, or piercing the
body with a lance (John lii. 31-37)- It ia to
be observed that the agonies of this death
were so extreme that it was r^arded as the
utmost torment. Cicero Imnseu says, "The
executioner, the covering of the heai the very
name of the cross, shoold be removed afar, not
only from the body, but from the thought^ the
eves, the ears of Roman citizens; for (4 all
these things, not only the actual OGcnmnce
and endurance, but the very contingent and
expectation, nay, the mention itadf, ii un.
worthy of a Roman citizen and a free man."
Even the judges denominated it " the ntmort

The cross is now the object of the Chrise«n's
hope and glory— the great theme of eTaogelical
preaching. It is but an empty sunsrstition,
though a form very early jiractiseii, to mark
either persons or things with the ngn of the
cross. No tittle folly has been exhibited to
the world in pretensions of the Romish church
as to its possesdoD of the wood of the true
cross. Call-in has sud, in his Incaitory o/
Pi'liiih lUlifi, that though one individual could
carry the cross originally, there are now as
many portions and fragments of it as wonld fill
and load a goodly ship.

The cross ia often used fipiratively for the
atoning work of our Lord—his obedience unto
death ; and also for those n-proache^ self-
doniaJs, and sacrifices which the true followers
of Chnst must be expected to enduni, if they
faithfully maintain their professiun (MUL xn.

Ue S

;s for his

resture. Over the cross was commonly placed
■i writing or luptrieripliim, indicating the
" ' -hieh the individual ' '

Tvw usxum, juuaenuj,

>r a riband or Gllet, made of
rounding^ the head, andprob-

wore crowns. (Comp. Son
xvi. 12.) It was usually a
princely distinction. Itwi
sold, and was worn Irv Idn
Matt. xiTiL 29),

if bothsexta
ilL 11 with Ewk.
adge of Toyal^oT

Aorifnl Crcnnu.

bt, cnnm. Af terwardg the dupe aoA nze
re chkDged, uid costly onumeaU appended
t (2 Sam. xiL 30). It waa worn by qneena
tb> iL IT). A kme might wea

Ugdeni OrienuJ Crowiu,

vaa as he had kicffdonu (Rev. lix. 12).
■ word is figuratively tued t^ the Bacred
ten to deoole bonmir (Prov. liL 4), pnia-
itj {Idiu. V. 16), etanud life, and blessed-

CTTC
wme splendid sction or service. In the New

Testament iii/ln/ia is the luyal crovrn, bnt
<rr/^awii is the garLmd or cnnvn which was
the reward ef tho snccesBful warrior or com-
petitor at the public gamea (2 llm. iv. 7, 8).
In Rev. xviL 5 allusion leems to be made to
the down of the Jeniab high priest, whose
raiment ia described as haiTiig the coloura and
onuuDenta oE tho Bacred vestmenta.

Cbown or TH0RS8. (See Thoons.)

CRTTCIFY. (See Cross.)

CRUSE (1 Ki. xril 12)— a bduU vessel for
li([Qid>, used by the Jews. It is the rendering
of three Hebrew wordx, cue of which may have
been a jug, another some common duh fur
holding liquids, anil the third a vaae of coane
materialH.

CRYSTAL (Ezek. i. 22). The Scriptures

probably ui

tthial

what is

:k crystal, one
ful of precious stimcs, perfectly tiansparent,
and resembbng the purest glass. It is the
finest species of quartz. It is ranked with
gold in value (Job iiviiL 17), and its transpar-
ency is aUuded to in Rev. iv. 6; xxi. 11; xxii.
L In the passage in Ezukicl, first above cited,
reference mav be had to the peculiar dazzling
effect of light reflected from the surface of
cryntal. The same word which i* tr^inilated
crystal in Bume pasmgea ia transhited fro»t,
Gen. xiiL 40; Job iixriL 10; Jtr. xxxvl 3U,
andice, Jobri. IG; xxxviii. 21); P-.. cilvii. 1^
Tlie term crystal itielf La the Creek word
denoting ice, ami geoma to have bei-n npjilied
to bright and hanl minerals, fruin the popular
belief that they were only unusual coiigelatinns
under the iafiuence of m-culiar cold.

CUBIT. (.See Mr.\3UIif.i.)

CUCKOO (Lev. li. Hi). There is sorao
■ nty whether the bird knowi ■

thiSDI

H the u

n biril n:

ined in

It may have
he sea-mew, gull, or sturmy petrel.
CUCUMBER (Xum. xi.5|-agiirden vege-
ikhln well known in this country. Cucumbers,
iunt arc nuw among the k'.i.lii^
Egyiit; aud the tirat is found

which a

hi^-hly valued fi>r
mcirmeuicinnl proi-erties; and
othera are much larger and
more palatal Je, retrcsbins,
and wbiilesomu than the eome

s pla

oil, to proted

i (1 Pet. V. *). The inscription on the
im of the hiifh priest (Exod. mix. 30) was
lificant of his sacred office and functions.
rh inscriptions have sometimee been placed
the crowns of princes and heroes, to indicate

JCf"..

beasts, a mound is erected in
a eontml i>lacc, overlooking
the plauUtion, with a mnall
hut for shelter of the gnanL
For two or three months this
poor VL-atchman fulfils his
punfal troBt, through str.rroa and tcmiwate:
and we find in Isa. i. 8 a Btrikin" allusion
to this custom. The prophet likens the
dty of Jerusalem, figuratively called tho
dsoghter of Zion (see Zlon|, sUndiog b1>iq&,

Lt BooDj like them, was to t
gmoved. This prophecy wi
ea of Jemuleu

CUD
ia the nidit of duoUtioii, and kmhi to yield
to iti enemiea, to » oottage or tempomy
■IimI, in vbich the panon wai ihelterod who
goiided t, Tineymrd when the gT»pa> were
ripeniii^ ; or the eune kmd of stmctim put up
loT a Bunilar porpooe in a field of cucumbera.
Ai aoon at tbe fruit* were- suthered these
booths or " lodges " were abuidoDed. In like
nuumer, the great capital stood foi
taiy puipoee, ' ' "' "

dertroyed ui4

fulfilled in th(

eapedally when the Jewi were taken captive
to Billon {2 Ctar. xixri. 19). A umihu'
illoBtnaon ia employed in Job uviL 18.

CUI> (Lev. li. 3). Thi< void, which aome-
tdmea ap]>eani in the vulgar form goid, lean
abbreviation of the term chewed. To chew the
cud ie to chew what had been already chewed
when the food wa* fint swallowed. Such rumi.
nant animals were clean bji theUosuc law. The
natore and cause of ninunation in such beasts
aa the cow are thus explained: — Of the four
atomachs with which rununant animala are
tarnished, the first or paunch receives the food
after it has been slightly chewed; the second,
the honey-comb, is property nothing more than
aoontinuation of the former: these two, which
are very capacious, tbe animal fills as fast as it
can, and then hes down to ruminate; which
may properly be considered as
a kind of vomiting without
effort or pain. The two atomachs
above mentioned, being filled
with as much as they can
contain, the grass su slightly
chewed, beginning to swell with
the inner heat, dilates the
stomachs, and the«e again ctin-
tiBCt u;ion their contents which
are forced up. I'he aliment
^us squeezed into the mouth
to be chewed a second time is
rendered more soft and moist,
and becomes at last liquitl
enough to pass into the third
■tiHnach, called the momfold,
from the number of its leaves,
all which tend to promote
digestion ; but it requires the
operation of the fourth stomach
for this pmpoee, where it under.
ffoes a complete maceration, and
is separated to be turned into

CUMMIN (Matt ixiii. 23)—
an umbelliferous herb abound-
ing in Syria, which produces
aromatic seeds.' In Isa. iiviii.
25, 27 reference is made to the manner of
sowing and threshing it. The same method is
obaerved in Malta at this day. It was one
of the things of less consequence which the
Pharifiees strictly tithed. (See Mint.)

CUP (1 KL vii. 26). The homs of ammahi
were anciently used by some nations as drinking
ve«els; but Uie Jews had cupi and goblets at
» vei7 early period (Gen. iliv. 2), thoogh Ui«7

CUR
naed homa for anointing oil (1 Sam. rvi 13).
Some of thcdl cups were hi^y ornamented (l
Ki. vii 26). Cupa of this kind, made of gold,
sUver, copper, sc, according to tbe owner's
wealth, an in use in Persia at this day. The
figurative use of this word in tbe Scriptures is
frequent. Generally, however, it represents
the blessings or the judgments of heaven, or
the allotments of God's providence. It is a
symbol of God's blessings in such pajsa^es as
these — "My cup runneth over" (Pa. xxiii. H).
" I will take the cup of solvation, and coll
upontbenameof theXDrd"(Fs. civi.13). It
denotes judgment in such quuUttions as. For
in tbe band of the Lord there is a cup. and the
wine is red" (Ps. liiv. 8). "The same shall
drink of the wine of the wrath of God, which
ia poured out without miiture into tbe cup of
bismdignation"(Rev. liv. 10). I'he sufferings
of our Saviour are also represented by a similar
figure (Matt u, 22; mvi. 39). The punish-
ment of death is often spoken of as a eup,
because, as some suppose, the inflictiun wss
usually preoeded by a cup of drugged materials
given to the criminal in order to stupefy him.
CUP OF JOSEPH. (SeeDiviMATLON.)

bearer occupies a position
deut royal courts, as in E„
them elevated Joa^ih. Kal»l

sn Cip^Bran

implies, filled a similar ofEce under tbe Assyrian
Sennacherib, and so did Nebemiah under Ar-
taiertes at Uie court of Persia. (See Butleb.)
CUP OF BLESSING. (See Blesnino.)
CURSE (Gen. xxviL 12), In the scriptuml
nee it is the oppoaila of bltu. To cutk is U>
mprecate Bvil upon any one JGen

CUB

vrhisib. are recorded in the Bible as being pro-
nounced hv Noah, Moses, Joshna, and othen,
are not to be r^nurded as the effects of passion
or revenge. They were either prononnoed
under the immediate influence of God's Spirit
or are to be viewed as only predictions of evil
uttered in the form of imjirecation.

The 109th Psalm has been sometimes termed
the cursing psalm. It is full of fearful im-
precations. Yet we apraehend that they are
often misunderstood. Thev are not David's
wishes affainst his enemies, out David's recita-
tion of his enemies' wishes against himself.
The psalm begins with David's complaint of
his enemies' language : " Hold not thy peace,
O Grod of my praise; for the mouth of tiie
wicked and the mouth of the deceitful are
opened against me: they have spoken against
me with a lyinfi[ tongue." In these verses the
psalmist complains of the "mouth of the
wicked," of their "lynig tongue," of their
"words of hatred." These phrases refer to
the imprecations which follow, which sprung
from hatredj and were malicious in their nature.
The curse is repeated^ as if directed against
one man. Had David wished to curse his
adversaries, of whose lying and malignant
speedi he sfibitterly complams, he would have
included them aU. But the imprecations run
against one individual, thus: '* Set thou a
wicked man over him, and let Satan stand at
his right hand. When he shall be judged, let
him be condemned: and let his prayer be-
come sin," &c. David in these and the follow-
ing verses only gives a si)ecimen of anathemas
which his enemies heaped upon him. After
living repeated their curses, mtense and hor-
rid, he adds, '*Tbis shall oe the reward of
mine adversaries from the Lord.'* What they
wished upon me shall fall upon themselves;
and then referring again to the anathemas he
had been recountiiig, he subjoins — '* Let them
corse, but bless thou: when they arise, let
them be ashamed ; but let thy servant rejoice."

The words curse and cura^i are the opposite
of bleu and bfestecL and are often so contrasted,
(Dent, xxviii.) (See Bless.) The curse of the
ground and of the serpent (Gren. iii. 14, 17) is
to be regarded as the doom or judgment of
God upon them.

The "curse of the law" is the sentence of
condemnation which it pronoimced on the
transgressor (GaL ilL 10), and from which
Christ redeems us by being made a curse for
us (GaL iii 13 : comp. Bom. viii 1 and (jraL
iii 13 with Bom. v. 16 and 2 Cor. iiL 7-9).

To curse, in an evil or blasphemous sense, is
toafl&rm or deny anything \rith thoughtless
or rash imprecations of divine vengeance (Matt.
xxvi74J.

CURTAIN. (SeeDWELLINOS,TABKBNACLE.)

CUSH (Gen. x. 6-8). 1. A nenon. The
eldest son of Ham, and father of Nimrod.

2. A place. It is believed there are two
countries mentioned in the Bible under this
name: one of them in Asia (Gren. ii 13),
the rest of the allusions being to an African
territory; and Gush is the marginal reading

CYP

forEthioina m Gen. iL 13: Hab. iii 7, and
elsewhere. Egypt and Cusn are often tpoken
of together by tne prophets. (Camp. Exod. IL
16, &; Num. ziL !.[ Cfuth or Ovtha (2 Ki
zviL 24, 30) was evidently, from the oonneo-
tion^ province of ABsynsk. (See Ethiofla.)
CtJSUAN. (See Ethiopia.)
CUSTOMS. The word means repeated
acts which acquire the newer of law, and is
specially given to Jewisn ceremonial observ-
ances so tenaciously observed (Acts zzL ^.
It also si^inifies tax or revenue (Ezra iv. 20;
Matt zvii. 26 ; Bom. xiii. 7).
CUTOFF. (See Cast OUT.)
CUTTING HAIB. jSee Shavb.)
CUTTINGS ON FLESH. (See Mabxs.)
CYMBALS a Chr. xvi 5)~«n instrument
of music stin common in the East, which con-
sists of metallic plates about the axe of a
crown piece or large button, two of which are
held in each hand, one upcm the thumb, and
the other upon the middle finger, and being
struck together skilfully, make an agreeable
sound. Another kind, the ''high-sounding
cabals," are two broad convex pli&es of brass,
the concusskm d which produced a shrill
piercing sound, like dattming, rather than
th>klmg(l Cor. xiii 1).

CYPRESS. The name seems to come from
the original Hebrew term gopher, the word
used in Grenesis in reference to Noah's ark.
Another Hebrew name is employed where
there is supposed reference to this tree (Isa.
xliv. 14). Tne c^rem is a tall evergreexL the
wood of which is heavy, aromatic, ana re-
markably durable. Its foliage is dark and
gloomy, and its form dose and pyramidaL
CoflSns were made of it in the East; and the
mummy cases of Egypt are found at this day
of the cypress wood. The timber has been
known to suffer no decay by the lapse of 1,100
^rears. It was used and cultivated for idol
timber, though some have thought^ that a
species of oak or very hard wood was intended
in Isa. xliv. 14. Peculiar attention is i>aid to
this tree in many forms of eastern superstitions.
It stands to them as did the oak in our country
to the andent Druids.

CYPRUS (Acts iv. 36)— a large fertile and
salubrious island of the Mediterranean. It is
of a triangular form, 140 miles long, and its
breadth varies from about 50 almost to 5. It
is one of the earliest places out of Palestine
into which the Gospel was carried. Some
suppose it to be the same vidth Chittim (Num.
xnv. 24; Dan. xL 30). (See Chittim.) The
chief productions of (Cyprus are, as formerly,
wines, oil, honey, and wooL It is a famous
place in mythological history, and was dis-
tinguished for the licentiousness of its in-
haratants.

Salamis (Acts xiii 5) was the prindpal dty.
and was situated on the eastern coast, ana
Paphos (Acts xiiL 6) was another large town
on the opposite extremity of the island which
is now called Paphos, or Baffa. Several in-
teresting inddents of apostolic history occur-
red on tbis island. It was visited by Paul and

189

OYR

Barnabas. At a later period the island was
visited by Barnabas and Mark. (See Bab-
JBSUS, Eltmas.)

At the earliest visit the evanfi^elists landed
at the nearest port, that of Salainis, on the
east of the island, and commenced operations.
There were may Jews in Cyprus — it was close
upon their own country, and was a garden of
rare fertility and beaufy ; and when Augustus
leased its copper-mines to Herod, crowds from
Palestine had settled in it. The name copper
is derived from the name of this island. Sala-
mis had a number of synagogues, while other
towns usually had but one. There Barnabas
and Saul preached the toord — ^the revelation of
Jesus Christ, the doctrine of salvation b^ the
cross of Chxist. Barnabas and Saul visited
many places, and went through the whole
isle as far as Paphos on its western shore,
and above 100 miles from Salamis. The
Koman proconsul was at Paphos. a place
infamous for its temple and oiBsolute wor-
ship. It has been remarked that Luke em-
ploys the proper term for this officer — one,
indeed, that would not have been applicable
many years previously, when the islEuid was

S>vemed by an imperial le^te or propraetor,
ut Cyprus, originally an imperial province,
had before tnis period b«en handed over to the
senate. At Paphos the Gospel came again
into contact with the magic of the East.

CYRENE (Acts xi. 20)— a province and
city of Libya. There was ancientljr a Phoeni-
cian colony called Cyrenaica, or ** Libya about
Cyrene " (Acts ii 10). It was in the north of
Africa, west of Egypt, and comprised five
cities; one of whicn was Cyrene. (See
Libya.) The ancient city of Cyrene lay in
the dominion of Tripoli.

Great numbers of Jews resided here (Matt,
xxvii 32; Mark xv. 21; Luke xxiii. 26).
Some of the Cyrenians were among the earli-
est Christians (Acts xi. 20) ; and one of them,
it is supposed, was a preacher at Antioch (Acts
xiii. 1). We find also that among the most
violent opposers of Christianity were the
Cyrenians who had a place of worship at Jeru-
salem (Acts vi. 9),

CYRENIANS. (See Ctbenb).

CYRENIUS (Luke ii 2)-in its Latin form
Quirinus — ^became the governor or proconsul of
Syria, eight or ten years after the birth of our
Saviour. The taxing or enrolment, which led
Joseph and Mary to go up to Bethlehem is
said to have been '* first made when Cyrenius
was governor of Syria." Various construc-
tions of this passage have been proposed, to
remove the alleged chronological oifficulty.
We have no doubt of the historical truth of
the statement, whatever perplexity may at-
tend it. If there is nothing in profane history
to corroborate it, neither is there anything to
'contradict it. Various hypothesis have been
resorted to. Some allege that Cyrenius was
associated in the government of Syria during
the progress of vie enrolment, and had, in
some sense, the superintendence of it. Or the
enrolment may have been made at one period,
190

CYR

and the levy of taxes (of which that enrolment
was the basis) was not made till a subsequent
period. We know that such a tax was im-
posed, and occasioned great popular discon-
tents (Acts V. 37). Moreover, the phraseology
employed by the sacred writer is re^rded by
others as susceptible of a construction which
would remove every difficulty, though critics
are not agreed in such a construction. At any
rate, the occurrence of such passages is strong
presumptive evidence of the truth of the nar-
rative ; for it would have been an easy matter
to avoid all ai)pearance of difficulty if the
object of the writers had been simply to make
a book that should be believed. And when
there are more ways than one of solving a
difficully, it cannot be regarded as insur-
mountable.

Now it is said that Luke by the expression,
Cyrenius being governor of Syria, shows him-
self to have confounded the census which he
affirms to have occurred imder Herod with
that which was taken by Quirinus, in the year
759 U.O., or nine years later. We may safely
assume at the outset that this is at least im-
probable. Luke everywhere shows himself a
competent writer of history. His professed
object is to write vidth accuracy. 9 it credible
that he did not know that the well-known
census of (Quirinus was contemporaneous with
the reduction of Judea into a Koman province,
and consequently could not have occurred in
the dosing part of the reign of Herod, in
which he places the birth of Christ? The sup-
position is contradicted by his own mention of
the census of Quirinus LA.cts v. 37), and of
particulars connected witn it, perfectly agree-
mg with those given by Josephus. On the
other hand, he gives a faithful and accurate
description, as we have seen^ of the census
taken at the time of Christ^s birth ; so that we
are almost forced to expect that he will dis-
tinguish in respect to time between the census
imder Herod and that of Quirinus. There
have been various solutions.

Some proiX)se to omit the article, and then
to take irpuyni in a comparative sense (nearly
synonymous with irporepa) and make the geni-
tive, rtyi/xovivoin-ov Kvftrjylov, dependent ujjon
it, and the reading will then be — the taxing
occurred as the first and before Quirinus was
governor of Syria, especially if Trpwrri be placed
immediately before the genitive it governs, as
is done in several manuscripts.

Several other solutions have been proposed ;
but it is now made very probable, by Professor
Zumpt of Berlin, that Quirinus was twice
governor of Syria — first, four years before
Christ^s birth and during it, and a second time
several vears later. (See Taxing.)
^ CYRUS (Isa. xlv. 1) (from a Persian word,
signifying the sun), was a prince, statesman,
and conqueror of great renown, and an instru-
ment or agent employed by Jehovah in the
execution of his designs of mercy towards the
Jews, (Isa. xiii., xiv., xxi., xliv. 28; xlv.-xlviL ;
Jer. XXV. 12; iL 54; Dan. vii.^ viii.) The
early life of Cyrus is involved m obscurity.

otE

AfaC^MaQr vnadthat Im «h tiie (on of
CtaMVMl|ImiK of Panitt. Hii oliief bio-
SBfbMS (XoimtioD *i]d Herodotoi) pKMnt
Bi Mihay and axploiti in very diflerant
i^Mta. ±Gb dODqiMata axtandsd over >11
WMtccB AMk; but Uu nioat brillunt of Uiem
vaa ttMt c< Bal^km, which took place

.. H connected vith

It li not «ar (Mk to give a det*iled hkoi
UrBtb and redgn, noi to humomEe the varV'
in dwuiiutluiiu of hb »otJi)iM and tini— which
an tMma in the bdognphical ronumoe ol

DAG
divhw Btbv "Jehonh God of he»«Hi''t and
how did ha know that God bad ocmtnandad
hJTii to rebuild the temple in JenmlonT aad
why, deapimng his own dntiaa, did he nMiftw
bu moGsn and greatDSBa to the LordT Ue
muBt have enjojed soma peculiar meeoa el
informatiDn and apiitiul enli^tenment ; and
on thia intenating point ws an on the
wfaola dilpoeed to place aome oedit in the
of Joeephna. He aay^ "Orna, br
« the book which lulJi lett behind

his readiap tl

ropiiBt Btid that God had

■po^en thna to him in a secret viaion : ' Hf
will ia, that Cyraa, vdiom 1
have appointed to be king

pie.' T
Iniah 1
temple.

ia WW tonbali ^
0 yean bafora tiw
te demalished. Ac-

Cteaiaa. Suffice it to say, that Cvnu was a
prinoe of great magnificeDca and aagadty,
famona in coandln and valiant and ■ucceunil
in arma. Hia glory ihineB through all eaatem
history and tradition. And a new Initre is
iMt Qpon hie character Emm the BiUa After
he bad mbdaed Babylon, he ordered a retom
et the Jews, who had been seventy yeais in
captivity, to their own land, and furnished
them very liberally with the meaiu of »-
building their temple (Exra L 1-4). Whence
did Cyrus lenm such theology as to call the

power, an e^men ot^ue ana
amHtkak sailed upon Um to
fulfil what was so written; so
he caQad lor the most onlneBt
Jews that Wrae in Babfiau,

I them leave to go bai^
__,__ _ tdr own country, and to

rebnild their dty Jennalem,
and the temple of God, for
that he wonld be their aaaja-
tant, and that he wonld write
to the mlera and governors that were in the
neighbonrbood of tbeii oouutry of Jndea,
that they should otmtribute to them gold aad
ailver for the bmldiiU! of the temple, and
beaide« that, beaata be their aadinoes.'"—
Josephna, WorlO, ii,pp. 80, 90.

This accomit is at least aa probable aa any
other, thou^ we ahonld not be disposed to
deny that motive! of pdit^ and monotheistio
sympathies might aaftgeat auch a conne of
pnxsdure to the raSectiug stateaman aitd
ambitious oonqnerar, who yet, aa he did God'a

DABERATH {Joeh. lii. 12; 1 Chr. vi 72]

— a town on the borders of Issachar and
Zebulon. The description of the sacred his-
torian leaves it oncertain to which tribe it'
belonged; and perhaps there was a town of this
name in each tribe. It was nitoated in the
plain of Jezreel, at the foot of moont Tabor,
and probably where modem travellers have
foond the village of Odarieh. Tradition
points out at this place "the well of the nine
apoatlea ; " snppoaliig that they waited at this
■pot whan Jems was tranMgnred on Oe
monnt; but thia traditiim is wrongs (Sas
Tabob.)

DAGGER (Jnde. iiL 16, 21, sg-a short
■word, usually made with a double edge, and
suspended from the girdle. (See Aura!)

DAGiON (1 3am. v. 2). This was the name
of a celebrated idol of the Fhilistines, wor-
shipped at Gaia (Judg. xvi. 23), at Ashdod
(1 3am. V. 1-3), at Beth-dagon rthe honse or
temple of Dagon") in the bounds of judah

gosh. IV. 41) in a town of Asher (Jonfa. lix.
), and elsewhere. There are various opinions
as to the qipeanuioe of this idol; bnt it ia
II 'd with the head, hands, and

DAL

nifyiDff a large fifh. One of the incarnatioiui
of theHindu god Viabna was of the same form.
Others, as Btmsen, derive it from the Hebrew
daoan. Bignifying com, as if Dagon were the
god ci agriculture, and cleared the fields of
mice and otiier vermin destructive to the crops
(1 Sam. vi 4). This derivation is by no means
probable. The traditionary representations of
the form of this divinity, and the maritime
residence and occupations of the Philistines,
favour the ordinary idea, that Daffon signifies
Fish-god. The fall and destruction ci this
idol, when the aik was brought into the same
apartment with it, is one of the moet remark-
aole passages of Jewish history.

DALMANTJTHA, the parts of (Mark
viiL 10), or THE COASTS OF MAGDALA
(Matt. XV. 39), as Matthew describes it in his
account of the same transaction, were probably
small towns on tiie coast of Tiberias ; and the
vicinil^ of either of them would embrace the
same district of country. (See Maodala.)

DALMATIA (2 O&l iv. 10)-ori^^inaUy
part of lUpricunif but at present a provmoe of
Austria, lying on the norto-east of tne Adriatic
shore, or Gulf of Venice. It is supposed, from
the passage above cited, that the Gospel was
planted here by Titus. (See Illtbicum.)

DAMARIS (Acts xviL 34)— a woman of
Athens, converted to the faith of the Gkmel
under the preaching of Paul. Some of the
Greek fathers suppose her, without any good
reason, to be the wife of Dionysius the
Areopagite.

DAMASCUS (Gen. xv. 2)— the capital of
ancient Sjrria, for three centuries the residence
of the Syrian kings, and the oldest dty which
now exists. Its modem name is Et-schdm*
It is situated on the river Baradi, about 200
miles south of Antioch and 120 north-east of
Jerusalem. The country^ around it, within a
circuit of 20 or 30 miles, is well watered, and is
exceedingly fertile. (See Abana, Pharpab.)
The city itself is about 2 miles in length, ana
surroimded by a waU. The streets are narrow,
but well paved ; and one of them, which runs
through the breadth of the city and suburbs
from 2 to 3 mil^ is still called ** Straight"
(Acts ix. 11). Tne adioinin^ oountrjr is so
beautiful in scenery and so nch in soil that
the Orientals r^;arded it as a paradise on
earth; and such is its commanding situation
that one of the Roman emperors called it the
El^ of the East It is said that when Moham-
med viewed the city from a distant elevation
he was so much enchanted with the prospect
that he would not enter it, sajring, that tnere
was but one heaven for man, and he was
determined not to have his upon earth. The
following is a portion of Porter*s description : —

" No city in Syria, none perhapw in Western
Asia, possesses such advantages in respect to
situation as Damascus. ^ At the eastern base
of Antilibanus lies a plain having an elevation
of about 2.200 feet above the sea. The lowest
ridge of tne mountain chain, a barren line of
chuky hills, runs from the foot of Hermon in
a direction north-east by eastL forming the
192

DAlAt

north-western boundary of the plain. On its
south side are two low ridges of hills called
Jebel el-Aswad and Jebel Manii, and in a
narrow vale between them flows the river
'Awaj, the ancient Pharpar, Far away to the
east may be seen a little group of conical hilht,
called the TellM. If a Ime be drawn through
these, north and south, till it meet the other
sides, forming with them a triangle, the plain
of Damascus will be circumscribed. That
portion of it, however, which alone is inhabited
and in part cultivatea, is bound^ on the east
by the three lakes into which the "rivers of
Damascus ^ empty themselves. In form it is
a rectangular triangle, its base on ^e south
side being about 28 xniles long, its perpendicular
on the fMBt 17, and its hypotenuse, along the
foot of Antilibanus, 33. Its area is thus about
236 square geographical miles. The fine
stream of the Barada, the ancient Abana,
descending from the heights of Antilibanus,
breaks through the lowest chain of these
mountains by a wild ravine, and, entering the
plain, flows due east across it, at the distance
of 8 miles north of its southern boundary. On
the banks of the river, one mile from the
mouth of the ravine, commence the buildings
of Damascus. The great body of the city is
on the southern bank, but there is also a laree
sabnrb on the northern. Without the Barada
the dty could not exist, and the plmn would
be a paurched desert; but now aqueducts inter-
sect every quarter, and fountains sparkle in
almost everv dwelling, while innumerable
canals extend their ramifications over the vast
^ain, clothing it with verdure and beauty.
Five of these canals are led gS from the river,
at different elevations, before it enters the
plain. Ther are carried along the predpitous
Danks of the ravine, being in some places
tunnelled in the solia rock. The two on the
northern side water Salahlyeh. a large village
lying along the foot of the hills, about a mUe
m>m the dty, and then irrigate the higher

rkions of the plain to the distance of nearly
miles. The building of Damascus are
almost all of snowy whiteness, and this con-
trasts well with the surrounding foliage. The
gardens and orchards, which have been so long
and so justly celebrated, encompass the city,
and extend on both sides of the Barada some
miles eastward. They cover an area at least
25 miles in circuit, and make the environs an
earthly paradise. The varied tints of the
foliage, and of the blossoms and fruit in their
season, greatly enhance the beauty of the

Sicture. The sombre hue of the olive and the
eep ^[reen of the walnut are finely relieved by
the bghter shade of the apricot, the silvery
sheen of the poplar, and the purple tint of the
I>omegranate ; while lofty cone-like cypresses
appear at intervals, and a few palm trees here
and there raise up their gracerul heads. The
variously coloured foliage thus surrounding the
bright citv, and the smooth plidn beyond, now
bounded W naked hills and now mingling
with the sky on the far-distant horizon, and
I the wavy atmosphere that makes forest, plain.

•erial beaaij to the whole loeiie that captiTatei
Om mind d: the heholder. Tb« momsnt the
tnvellat UatW the environa tad enten the
ate of Dunuciu the iUuBJon ii gone. To
UOK aociistomed to the oapitala of Europe,
with their broad Btreets, epwnouB sqaareB. and
■plendid bmldingi, thii city must APP«ai filthy,
irr^nlar, and even half-roimiug. The gtreet*
are narrow and tortuous ; the huu9«a on each
ride like pOes of mud, stone, and timber,
heaped toeether without onler. A plun (lortal.

• gaudy fountain, or a inoek rich
mingte details of Saracenic architecture, is the
only thing that gives any variety. On ap-
tnvaching the centre of the city, however, the
■tranger's eye is eoou attracted by the gay
bazaan, and by the pictureaque groups that,
in their gorgEuua costumee, crowd them, or
loQiigB in the open (nfts. Every eastern
Elation and tribe has there iti representative ;
and the whole resembles a bal toKunU more
than a scene of every-day life." — Five Ytari tn
Otncucta. L, pp. 26-30.

The fii«t notice we have of Damascus in the
Old Tettament history, except that it was the
rasidenoa of Elieier, AhrahW's steward, is,

2^600 men ; that the Svrian nation became
tributary to furael; and David "put garrisons
in Ryria of Damascus," or In Syria, of which
Damwcns was the capital After this we find
toany of the most interesting paaa^es of history
and prophecy oounected with ^ria and ita
■plandidcapital (1 Ki li. 24: iv. 18; 2 Ki.
nv. Zfi.28; xvi. 9; Isa. ii. 11). Since A.r>.
1617 it bai been under the Turkish dominion,
and ii tin capital of one of their paahalics —
henoe called TbaPashalic of Damascos."

The cabinetwork of fine wood, adorned with
ivory and mother-of-pearl, haa excited the
admiration of Europeans. This city is enhv-
eued by the bustle of commerce and the
passage of the caravans to Mecca. The great
street "Straight," which is 2 miles long
from east to west, presents two rows of shope,

.^uD, auuiiiu 111 external appearance, ttauiiu«
in UiB interior all the splendour and elegance
of refined luxui?. The floon are of marble ;
alabaster and gilding are displayed on every
side. In every great house there are several
fountains playing in magnificent baaina The
smallest house has three water pipes; one for
the kitchen, another for the garden, and a
third for washing. The same magnificence is
displayed in the mosques, churches, and coffee-
house*. The environs of the city, watered by
the Banady and other streams, preaent, at all
of the year, a pleasing verdure, and
an eitenaive aeries ti gardens and

The art of inlaying iron or ateel with other
metals, eapedally gold and silver, to make
them elastic and yet very hard, was formerly
so extensively carried on in this city as to
the substance. Uencs
x/iuiiiuicuH nuuiB, Hwords, kc. Silks, leather,
dried fruits, and swectmeata, are among the chief
ixports. The fabric which is called Damask ii
iupposed to have been once manufactni«d
chiefly in this city, and hence to have derived
its name. The guides of travellers show th«
house and the very room in which, they say,
red during the three days of bis blinii-
1 where, they tell ns, he had hi«

DAM

wonderful visum (2 Cor. ziL 2). Here, too,
they point out the grave of Ananim, the spot
on the Jemsalem road where Paul was con-
verted, and the wall by which he escaped; the
boose of Naaman the Syrian, now an no^ital
for lepers^and the tomb of Grehazi, Elisha^s
servant. The traditions are not, however, to
be credited.

DAMNATION (Mark iii 29). This term,
in its common scriptural use, denotes the final
and endless perdition of the nngodly—a doc-
trine as clearly taught as the resurrection of
the dead (Dan. zii 2; Matt xxiiL 36; xxv.
41-46; Mark xvi 16; John v. 28, 29; 2 Pet ii
3). In some passages this word is used where
condemnation or judgment would more pro-
perly express the sense. The same word which
is rendered damnation in 1 Cor. xi 29, is
rendered judgment in 1 Pet iv. 17 ; and in the
former may refer to such temporal judgments
as God might inflict on those who profaned
the ordinance of the Lord*s Supper— iudg-
ments seemingly referred to in verse 30 : "For
tiiis cause many are weak and sickly among
you, and many deep.** In Bom. xiiL 2 the
woni again occurs, — Whosoever therefore re-
sisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of
God; and tiiey that resist shall receive to
theniselves damnation.** In this verse it is
plain that damnation signifies sentence passed
and punishment inflicted by dvil rulers who
do not bear the sword in vain. So in Bom.
xiv. 23 the word damned virtually means se^-
condemned—he that eats what he believes to be
undean (whether his conviction on this point be

9* ifht or wrong)) i> nevertheless self-condemned,
e violates!^ consdence. (See Condem-
nation, Eternal.)

DAN— a judge. L A person (Gen. xxx. 6).
Hie fifth son of Jacob. The prddiction ut-
tered by Jacob respecting Dan is contained in
Gen. xlix. 16, 17,— **^an shall judge his
people as one of the tribes of IsraeL Dan
shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the
path, that biteth the horse heels, so that his
rider shall fiUl backward.'* It is probable that
the elevation of his tribe to an equal rank with
the others, notwithstanding he was bom of a
ooncubine. is foretold in verse 16; and the
residue ot the prediction may allude to the
subtle and crafty disposition of his descendants.
Indeed, we know that Samson (who was
unong the most noted of them) was remark-
ablv successful in stratai^m (Judc. xiv., xv.);
and perhaps the same trait was characteristic
of their tribe (Judg. xviii 26, 27). (See
Adder.)

2. Tribe of (Exod. xxxi 6), had its portion
between the possessions of Judah and Ephraiin
on one side, and between Benjamin and the
sea-shore on the other. They were never in
quiet possession of their province (comp. Josh.
xix. 43; Judg. i 34, 35; xviii. 1 ; 1 Sam. v. 10;
2 Kings i. 2), and were much annoyed by the
native inhabitants. Their tract was pleasant
and fertile, though alwunding with winding
vales and bluff hills ; but it was by far the
smallest portion (Josh. xix. 47; Judg. xviii 1) ;
194

DAN

and hence they sought some place for the
planting of a colony. To this end they sent
five of tneir most enterprising men to explore
the country; and they found a place on the
northern frontier, called Laish (Judg. xviii 7),
or Leshem (Josh. xix. 47), which seemed easy
of acquisition and in every respect suited to
their purpose (Judg. xviii. 10). They, like
modem fiUibusters, accordingly took measures
at once to obtain it; and a very succinct and
interesting historr of the proceeding is given
us by the sacred historian. The place was
captured and destroyed hy fire ; but the Dan-
ites rebuilt it, and called it Dan. (See Beer-

8HBBA.)

3. Town of, was built up as mentioned in
the preceding paragraph. It lay at the north-
em extremity of the bmd of Israel, in the tribe
of Naphtali, at the foot of mount Lebanon,
near one of the sources of the Jordan, and (as
some suppose) gave the name to that river {Jor,
the nring of Dan), This derivation is baseless.
Joroan has no connection with the word Dan.
lliis name was given to the river long before
the tribe of Dan settled a colonv near its
sources. * 'Jordan ** comes from a Hebrew term,
signifying to flow down, to descend; and
means the /(ut-/owina stream* TheBhine has
a similar origin in German, and also means
the »wi,ft-Tunning torrent. The town of Dan
was captured by the king of A8S3nia (1 Ki xv.
20). It was here that Jeroboajn established
the worship of one of the golden calves (1 Ki.
xii 29; Amos viii 14), tnough idolatry pre-
vailed there before Jeroboam introducea it
(Judg. xviii 17-19, 24-31). It seems to have
been a ])lace of some «)inmeroial importance,
and, being a border town, is frequently the
subject of prophecy (Jer. iv. 15 ; viiL 16). (See
Jordan.)

Some identify Dan with Paneas; but more
probably it is to be identified with Tell el-Kadi
The fountains at Tell el- Kadi directly c«)rre-
spond to the source, which Josephus speaks of
as **the other source of the Jordan, called
also Dan ; where stood the dty Dan, anciently
Laish, belonging originally to the territory of
Sidon. but captured by the Daiiites, and
namea after the founder of their tribe." The
same city Dan is placed by Eusebius and
Jerome at 4 Boman miles from Paneas,
towards Tyre, corresponding well to the pre-
sent distance of the sources, ^e river iBsuing
from this source, Josephus says, was called
"the lesser Jf»rdan,** obviously in distinction
from the somewhat lonj^er stream from Paneas,
into which it flows. Probably the word Dan
(Gen. xiv. 14) was inserted for Laish hy Ezra,
or some other collector of the Jewish Scnptures,
as Hebron is for Kirjath-arba ; for it is certain
that neither Dan nor Hebron wero known to
Mose5t by those names.

4. Another place of the same name is found
in Ezek. xxvii 19, and is mentioneil as a
region or town trading with Tyre.

L)ANCE (Ps. cxlix. 3j. In eastern countries
emotions are strong ana overi)owering, and no
attempt is made to moderate or confine them.

DAN
BniMrfoa fcM mnd fnll ii girai to thMnfaxit
T^ Tmiiaty <rf bodily nwtntM. QtiBij at
htSag, whetbar wmlar or rali^oQi, mtorilly
paomptad to th« dttam. And tb* dittee waa
no meanirad itep, tuned down hj irldfidkl
Ikthion: it wai Tigoroiu, hearty. Mid iinre-
■to^nod. CbildroD began «>i1t to practiM
it Obtt. zL IT; Job zxL IL} It via >
faTouite paatime of the jonng Bgbt-heartad
uaidaiw (Jndgea zzL 21 ; xi 34). Tht Jewiah
duoaa wan gtnenDj arpraaripni of rdigiow
]oj and gntitode^ Sometime* Hity wen
piMtlaed m honour of m eaaqpiaar (L Bam.
zviiL & 7). u in the eaae of ^^ after he bttd
aUin the PhHiatina giant, "the wooian cuie
out irf an the dtiee of bnel «ingin([ and
dancdnj." It ma alao practiaed on oocaaion of
draaeabo jc^. At the ratom of the piodigsl
eon there w*a "mn^ and dancing:" and
aimllar featiTitiaa wen enjoyed irtign the vin-
tase wa* ntbeted (Jec. IX&.4.13: Lnkeiv.
wf. In the Toligiona aarvioe the timbrel waa
•Bployed to direct tiie daooe, and It wm led
br acaua indiridnal whom the rest fallowed
wiA nuaaored atep and devotiowJ tMig*(I^
«L4). And after the Hebrswa bad onaaad the
Bad Sea, and beheld the wavee retom and roll
T the head* of tbair imtid pnman, th^

in In the following 6

"Miiiam the ^phet«n, the eiatar of AAran,
took a timbrel in her band) and all the women
went out after har with timbreie and with
dances" (Exod. xv. 20, 21). IndividuiOa often
cxpreeaed fee\mgi of joy in the uune
(Lake Ti. 23; Acts ill S).

DAK

Ilk That men who par*erted dandBtr tttaa a

aaored oae to purpoaea ot amnianMnt wen

deemed infamouL

6. That no initancei nf danong are fmmd

~ '*. *k. 'D.'vi. :. «ki^v 41.- «■»

irorBhip oi

Laathr, That tharean no inrtanoea upau reoord
in the table <rf aocial '<»"""b for mere amuaa-
ment, exoapt that c< the " nun [dlowi " Toid (rf
dxMM, allnded to bj Wdial ; et the idigwa*
*»™<''t described 1^ Job, which prodnoed in-
enaecd iB^ety and ended in destrooticai: and '
of Ueradl**, wldoh terminated in the nuh TOW
of Herod and tb* morderof JidmtbeBqtiaL
Danehig wa* donbtle** known frmn a vwy
eaify period ** a mere woridly amnaament
(Job uL U-IC; Uaik n. 32). It k woitiiy of
remaA, bowerer, that the mtngllny of niale*
and femalea, wbioh ia eo eommon m modem
dances, wa* nnknown to tb* Jew*; tmleea a
precedent may l>e foimd in the KMne of idola-
txriM oonfani» and nadncM when tba children
of larael bowed tbamadvea before the image of
a calf (Exod. izxiL 6, U).

Hie dancn atall practiaed in the East are not
ilUrimilT to the H«bi«w acciM* wbioh we
have been attempting to illiiatiate. Imi3j
Maiv Mcoti«n aan.^'Their manner ii oer-
tainly the aame tnat Diana ii aaid to have
danced on the banlu of Euiotaa. The great
lady Btill leadi the dance, and ia followed oy a
troop of jonng girla, who imital* her et^a,
and if ebe ainge moke up the chorus. Ine
tunei are extrBmaly gay and liiely, yet with
Boiaetliing in them wonderfully soft. Their
atepe are varied according to the
,, pleasure of her that leads the

dance, but always in exact time,
and infinitely mors sKreeabla
than any of our dancee.

Every species of recreation is
liable to abuse, and none baa
been mors so than the £sst«ni
dance. The danciDg girls in
the Hindoo temples are tlie
accomplished instnunents of
vice, and their postures are an

Suchdi

-eryabo.

EgypUui Sacred Dane

o dancing, it may be

From a oollection of all the
Scripture in reference
inferred—

L That dancing was a religiona act, both in
tna and &]iin in idol worship.

» practised exclusively

3. That it was performed on such great
oocaaioiu only by one of the sexee.

4. That it was performed usually in the day-

n highways, fieldi, tad

rhe word rendered " dance "

Ps. cxlix. 3; cL 4, ugnifies

nut a "pipe." as the margm has

it, but probably a metallic ring

wHb small bells attacbed to it.

DANIEL. In the Hebrei* tongue the
word means, " GuJ'a judge" — that is, one who
delivers decisions in God's name. It is used
in Scripture as the proper name of three

1. The second son of David (1 Chr. iii.
1), called alao Uhlleab (2 8am. iii 3). His
mother's nsme was Abigail

2. The m-xt in the onler nf Scripture histOTy
who bore the name Daniel was much distin-

DAN

tion to the first offices of state in the empires
of Bibylon and Persia; and was also privi-
leged to enjoy many peculiar marks of divine
favour, en>ecially the gift of inspiration, as a
prophet of tiie Ix>rd.

We have no Scripture historr of Daniel,
and hence almost aU our knowledge of him
must be gleaned from the book of prophecies
whidi bears his name. There (Dan. i. 6) we
learn that he was of the tribe of Judah, and
was probably connected with the royal family,
or, at leasL with some of the princes of Israel
(See Joseph. AtUiq, B. z. cluip. x. L) This
gives countenance to the supposition that Jeru-
salem was his birthplace. It is impossible to
determine the precise year of his entrance into
public life. His birth certainly occurred a
little before the death of Joeiah ; and he had
thus a favourable opportunity of enjoying many
of the advantages, civil and sacred, which
the piety of his first monarch had conferred
upon the kingdom. To this happy circum-
stance he doubtless owed to some extent the
various facilities by which he made the high
attainments in learning, wisdom, and religion
for which he was remarkable. Daniel's earthly
lot, however, had fallen in troublous times.
While he was yet very 3^oung^ Josiah was
dain in an engagement with Necho, king of
Egypt; and Jehoahaz, his son, reigned in his
steao. The Egyptian king soon after took
Jehoahaz captive, and transferred the king-
dom to Jehoiakim, another son of Josiah.
At the end of Jehoiakim's third year, when
Daniel was about the age of fourteen, "came
Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon to Jeru-
salem, and besieged it.** The Babylonians
were victorious, and Jehoiakim and his sub-
jects became the servants and tributaries of
Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel and his three com-
panions, Hammiah, Mishael, and Azariah,*
and other children of the nobility^ seem to
have been sent to Babylon at this time as
hostages, to ensure the submission of the Is-
raelites; and hence their good treatment at
the king's hand. Three years afterwards the
king of Judah threw off the Babylonish yoke ;
and on this account Daniel and his fellows
were not only detained at Babylon, but be-
came the forerunners of the captivity of the
entire nation.

The boy Daniel appears to have possessed
much of the handsomeness and beauty of the
eastern figure and complexion. His early
education was of a very superior kind. Il!e
was *' skilful in all wisdom," ** cunning in
knowledge," understood science as it was then
known, and was therefore able to occupy a
position of importance in the royal household.
Among others, he was selected oy Ashpenaz,
the master of Nebuchadnezzar*s eunucns, to
undergo a course of three years' training in
the language of the Chaldeans, the sacred
caste, in the various departments of learning
which were peculiarly cultivated in that age.
This was a mark of^ peculiar favour on the
part of the Babylonian monarch, and may be

* Shadrach, Mfshaoh, and Abednega
ld6

DAN

regarded as the naturalization of the Hebrew
youth. According to Eastern custom, as
kings were wont to change the names of those
who held offices under them, particularly
when first taken into their services, and
aft^wards raised to some new station, and
crowned with some new honours, so the name
of Daniel was changed to Beltesnazzar* — ^that
is, "prince of Bel," or **he whom Bel favours."
In addition to all other privileges, the young
men received a daily supply of provision from
the Idng's own table. Much of this, however,
would be composed of meats forbidden by the
law of Moses, so that it would form a power-
ful seduction to join in the revelries of heathen
banouets. Daniel, young as he was, 'and
besiues a captive in a strange land, had
prepared his mind to meetvthe emergency.
Together with his companions, Shsulrach,
Meshach, and Abednego, he resolved not to
defile himself with the meats and drinks which
Uie king had appointed. Under the divine
blessinff lie had already obtained favour in the
eyes of the prince of the eimuchs ; and by
a prudent representation of his religious
scruples, with a statement of his conviction
that a simpler diet would better promote
the vigour of his constitution and the health -
fulness of his aspect, and by his actual sub-
mission to a trial of a simpler regimen for
a period of ten days, he acquired for him-
self and his asaociates a release from the
evil and dangers to which they had been
unwittingly exposed. This act of fidelity
did not lose its reward. Under the &p-
probation of God they were supplied with
vigorous health, and enabled to devote them-
selves faiUifully and j^erseveringly to the
studies and other duties imposed upon them.
And their labours were most succ^sfuL To
their former attainments the four young men
soon added much "knowledge ana skill" in
the leamin^^ and wisdom of the Chaldeanx;
and they also acquired all that propriety of
deportment which a well-cultivated mind in-
variably produces. Among all his comjieers
Daniel was pre-eminent ; and besides ordmary
attainments, he was divinely instructed in the
understanding of visions and dreams. In
addition to the full statements in Dan. i.
the inspired Ezekiel has Ixjme high testimony
to the integrity and wisdom of this i)rophet;
and done it in a style which indicates that the
fame of his acquirements had spread far and
wide among his countrymen. (See Ezek.
xiv. 14, 20; xxviii. 3.) At the appointed
period Daniel and his three associates were
presented to Nebuchadnezzar, who examined
them in all the departments in which they had
been instructed, and found thorn far superior
to aU the magicians and astrologers in the
kingdom. They were all promoted to offices
of considerable imxx>rtance in the court of
Babylon.

Daniel soon came to enjoy repeated in-
stances of the favour which true piety secures

• See Oen. xril. 5; xxxll. 28; xU. 45; 2 Ki. xxiU. U.
zxiv. 17; Esth. ii. 7; Ezra v. 14.

DAN

from on high; as well as the advantages of
sound wisdom and discretion of an eartl'
kind. In the second year of Nebachadnezsar s
sole goyemment (for the events recorded in
Dan. L took place while he was legient mider
his ftrfher Nabopolaseark the spirit of the
king was sreatly trouUed by a vision he
had seen Suzmff night; bat the details of
which he had forgotten, and could not by
any means recollect The wise men of Baby-
lon^ who coold easily have given a specimen of
their wonted interpretations, failed to make
known tiie dream itself, and were utterly con-
fomided. All of them were doomed to death.
Mid aheady the executioner had «me forth to
the slaaghter. Daniel and his friends were
among the proscribed, although their skill had
not been t^ted; but as soon as he learned his
impending fate, he begged the chief c^>tain to
stay his hand, employed the tmited prayers of
himself and his companions with Him who
knows all things, and "the secret was re-
vealed to him in a night vision.*' Daniel s^ave
thanks to Grod, was introduced to the king,
informed him of the existence and designs of
that being who had sent and made known the
dream, Mid then related the details, with
their interpretation (ch. ii 19-46). Nebuohad-
neszar was astonished and delighted, maffni-
fied and enriched Daniel, made him chief

Sovemor in the kingdom, and set him at the
ead of the Magi of ^bylon. At the request
of the new ruler his three friends were ele-
vated to offices in the government.

For a period of at least thirty years we
have no mention of him in saGred history.
During this time the king of Babylon con-
tinued to prosecute his great wars. It is very
difficult to determine whether Daniel con-
tinued to sit in the king's ^te during the
whole of this period. Nothing seems more
improb^le than that the affairs of Babylon
should have been under the government of
a Jew who was so devoted to nis fatherland
and his religion, while so much was done
against his own countrymen. His absence,
or innocence, or silence, during the erection
of the golden image on tne plains of Dura, and
the subseouent punishment of Shadrach, Me-
Aachf ana Abeanego, are all of them inconsis-
tent with his resioence at Babylon as prime
minister. And especially the conduct and
language of Nebuchadnezzar on occasion of
his second dream (see cb. iv. 7, 8, Ac)
appear to indicate most pilainly that Daniel
was not daily present guiding the councils
and reffulatin^ the chief business of the king.

Be this as it may, the next mention of him
is as the interpreter of Nebuchadnezzar's
second dream. This vision was seen about
the thirty-fifth year of his rd^, and pro-
duced a most exciting impression upon his
mind. The magicians and astrologers were
again confounded and even Daniel's thoughts
were troubled within him for "one hour"
after the kinff had told him the virion and
was waiting for its interpretation. Much of
the anxiety d the Hebrew prophet doubtless

DAN

arose from the solemn tidinoi he had to an*
nounce to the proud monarch; but at length
he inroceeded and made known the feamd
iud^ent which was about to drive him firam
his kingdom. This he did with all the fidelity
of a messenger of heaven, but at the same
time vrith expressions of loyalty which must
have had a soothing effect upon the king's
mind. In these drcumstances the prophet
ventured to point out the cause and design of
his being humbled to a level with the beasts
of the field, and recommended the doomed
man to seek repentance and reformation as
the only means of averting the impending
calamity. We have no mention of aiqr now
honours conferred upon Daniel upon this oc-
casion. He appears Eke a messenger from
the unseen world, to unfold a mystery which
no man could penetrate, and then retires from
view.

Again there is a gap of about fifteen years in
the history of the prophet During this period
mighty changes occurred at Babylon. At the
end Of the first year NeboehadneBar was
driven from his paiaoe, and made to associate
with the beasts of the field; and in this state
he remained for seven yeanu according to the
"times" of the vision. After two or tfarse
changes in the monarchy, Belshaazar ascended
the tiurone, probably about seven years after
his grandfather Nebuchadnezzar's death. In
the first and third years of his reign Daniel
was &voured with a revelation of many future
events in the history of the Jewish people, the
world,^ and the church, by that species of in-
spiration in which the Holy Spirit descends
" in visions of the night, when deep sleep faUeth
upon men." In the first vision (Dan. vii),
under the emblem of four beasts rising from
the sea amid the raging of a tempest, were
represented the rise and fall of the Chaldean,
Persian, Grecian, and Boman empires, the
great features by which each of the dynasties
should be characterized, their mode of acquir-
ing power, and the extent of their dominion.
The propnet's next vision was beheld two
years after this. The scene is laid in Shushan,
and more particularly on the banks of the
river Ulai, which flowed past and watered the
dty. This vision intimated the rise, and pro-
gress, and overthrow of the Medo-Persian
empire; the Greek conquests under Alexan-
der; the division of his dominions to his four
generals after his death, and especially the
sacrilegious cruelties of Antiochus Epiphanes,
who would subject the Jews and their reli^ous
rites to the utmost indignities. Daniel f amted
at the distressing spectacle, and was confined
some time to a bed of sickness ere he could re-
sume his official duties.

Near the end of Belshazzar's reign another
opportunity was afforded the distinguished
seer of displa3rin^ his skill at the court of
Babylon. The king had made a great feast
to his princes, his wives, and his concubines;
but in the midst of their revels there came
forth the fingers of a man's hand, and wrote
something upon the wall opposite to Belaha:^

iSfv

DAN

, in * charaeter which no man among the
Chaldeans could nndentond and explain. The
gaiety and pleasure of the entertainment were
saddenly checked, and changed into sadness
and distoess. The king was deeply afflicted.
At the sngg;estion of the queen, or rather

aueen-mother, Daniel was sent for to read
tie writing and make known its signification.
The writing, as given in the text of Scripture,
is pure Ghaldee; and on the supposition that
the words are given there as they appeared
upon the wall, the ignorance of the wise men
Of Babylon and Daniel's skill will be suffi-
ciently accounted for by the hypothesis, that
they were written in the ancient Hebrew
duuacter, which only those could read who
had knowledge of what were then the antiqui-
ties of Jewish learning. The message was
from heaven, and spoke of sudden destruction,
yet the interpreter stated the whole truth, ana
pointedly traced the coming evil to the righ-
teous juagment of Grod upon the wickedness of
Belshazzar. (See Nebuchadnezzab.)

The Persian troops, under Cyrus and Darius
the Mode, had already beseiged Bab}rlon for
some time without success. But this feast
gave them a favourable opportunity of com-
pleting their designs. The judgments which
nad been inscribe in mystic characters were
soon revealed in fearful reality. On the very
night which followed DaniePs installation into
office " was Belshazzar king of the Chaldeans
slain,** the kingdom wrested from the Babylon-
ians, and placed under the united power? of
Media ana Persia. Darius the Meae entered
at once upon the sovereignty, llie chief
government was vested in three presidents,
among whom Daniel was assignea the first
place. In this new position the experienced
statesman grew in favour with his sovereign,
and " the king thought to set him over the
whole realm." His heathen compeers were
filled with envy at his prosperity, and deter-
mined to effect his destructiun ; but the charac-
ter of Daniel was unimpeachable. At length
they sought to entrap him by bringing his
fidelity to God into collision with his loyalty
to Darius. By imposing on their weak mon-
arch they obtained a decree against the offer-
ing of supplication, which the good man could
not obey without disobedience to Jehovah;
but even in these circumstances he knew how
to act. In religion he acknowledged no human
authority, and therefore openly and regularly
he entered his chamber and prayed and gave
thanks to God as he had previoiisly done.
This exposed him to the penalty annexed to
the unalterable mandate. He was cast into a
den of lions ; but was saved from the slightest
injury by the mighty power of Him whom he
worshipped, and in whom was all his confi-
dence. A deliverance so signal only enhanced,
as it was well fitted to do, the fame of Daniel,
and contributed to the maintenance of his
prosperity during the reigns of Darius and
Cyrus.

Before the close of the first year of Darius,
Daniel learned from the book of Jeremiah
198

DAN

that the time of Judah*8 doHveranoe was fast
approaching, when their harps should be re-
moved from the drooping osiers on the banks
of the Euphrates, and again strung to the
praises of Jehovan on the plains m IsraeL
The exiled prophet set himself to prepare for
the return of the expatriated tnoes. And
first of all he humbly and penitently opened
up the meditations of his heart to God,
acknowledged the great iniquities of the
kinffs, the princes, the fathers, and the people
of Israel, and unfolded his ardent desires for
their restoration to their "beloved land."
The answer of God was most prompt and
satisfactory. While he was "speaking in
prayer," the angel Gabriel stood by his side
and annoxmced the return of his captive
kinsmen^ and from this took occasion to set
before his mind a rapid glimpse of the advent,
the work, the death, and the achievements of
the^ Messiah; together with the desolations
which should subsequently overspread the land
of Palestine, (Dan. ix.J

In the same year ot Darius' reign, or in the
third year of Cfyrus (Dan. x. 1), the prophet
was favoured with another vision on the banks
of the river Hiddekel or Tigris. The person
who constituted the great subject of the sight
was most glorious in appearance, and from the
accordance of the description with that given
by John in the Apocalypse (ch. i. 13), there
can be little doubt that it was Christ himself
who then stood in the presence of his servant.
The man of God was overwhelmed with fear,
and sunk to the earth in a state of insensi-
bility. An angel M'as sent to support him,
and interpret the words, which, falling in
tones of thunder, only stunned his ear, and
stupefied his mind. The revelations of the
august speaker are given in chapters x., xi..
and xiL, and are more minute, detailed, and
comprehensive than those recorded in ch.
viii. The inouisitive mind of the seer would
gladly have Known more particularly what
and when should be the end of those things;
but the words were closed up and sealed till
the time of their fulfilment.

Concerning how long the " man greatly be-
loved '* lived after this solemn vision we have
no authentic information. The stori^ of
Susannah, and Bel, and the Draijon, which
are ^ven in the Apocryphal additions to the
inspired book, are too ridiculoiis to be received ;
ana also the fables which tell that his death
actually occurred in Palestine, in Babylon, or
in Shushan, are entirely groundless. Daniel
was now above eighty years of age. He ha^l
lived to see the first year of CyruH the Persian,
had heard the flecree which permitted all the
people of the Jews to go up and rebuild the
house of the Lord at Jerusalem, and had Ri»en
thousands of his countrymen forsake the land
of the stranger and the enemy to repair to the
comitry of their fathers; and now that his
I)rayers had been heard and visibly anawere<l,
we may readily suppose that he was willing to
prefer the heavenly to the earthly Canaan,
and obey the command of his Lord even on the

DAN

btfiks of the Tigris, if such were Mr pupoee :
"Go thoa thT way till the end be: fortluni
ahAlt rest, ana stand in thy lot at tne end of
thedaye.^

Tlie character of Daniel presents to nsmany
interesting features. His piety was confirmed
in his youth. The weariness «id o^ppression of
an exile did not overdond his spirits and cast
the shadow of death over his hearts Though
he mu^t long^ for his fatherland, he resolved
to do ms du^ in the country where Providence
had placed him. Neither would he compro-
nuse nis religious convictions, or so shape and
fsshion them as not to ofFend the haughty
foreigners with whom he mingled. Hii mind

decided, and no motive could alter his
resolution. The favour of a king was nothing
in his estimation to the favour of God ; nay,
death itself had no terrors if endured for con-
science' sake. And Daniel's elevation and
prosperi^ had no sinistrous influence over his
piel>v. He was neither ashamed of lus country
nor his GocL of his race nor his creed. Power,
honour, and wealth did not corrupt his pure
and sterling heart Though he was the kmff's
minister, he i>aid no homage to the long's idols,
or showed any semblance of outward respect
for the royal superstitions. A ruler of the
nation, he bent not before the national
divinities. Grod conferred upon him high dis-
tinction ; mainr gorgeous visions delighted him,
and fed his faith and hope. He loved the
Scriptures ; and as he studied and prayed over
the prophecies of Jeremiah, the Lord gave him
aororance of the speedy end of the Babylonish
captivity, and of the certain coming of the
long-promised Messiah. The history of future
a^es-was clearlv unfolded to the man of Grod—
the reward of his earnest faith and unskaken
fidelity to Jehovah — of his purity in the midst
of pagan degeneracy, and ms ardent love to
the land of nis people, which he had never
forgot in its silence and devastation : — *' Them
that honour me. I will honour; and thev that
despise me shall be li|(htly esteemed. " * Scest
thou a man diligent m his business? he shall
stand before kings; he shall not stand before
mean men " (Prov. xxii 29).

3. A descendant of Itbamar, the fourth son
of Aaron. He was one of the chiefs (Ezra viii
2) who accompanied Ezra &om Babylon to
Judea, in the reign of Artaxerxes ; and about
twelve years after (ao. 445) took a prominent
part with Ezra in reforming the errors of the
people.

Daniel, book of, is the twenty-seventh in
the order of the books of the Old Testament
It is a mixture of history and prophecy, and
contains (especially the last six chapters) the
most extraordinary and comprehensive predic-
tions that are to be found in the prophetical
writings. So explicit are they respecting the
advent of the Messiah, that the Jews were
formerly unwillinff to aomit their genuineness,
oontenomg that their prophets lived at home
and in persecution, while Daniel lived and
prospered at a forei^ court (Matt xxiv. 15).
Joeephus, the Jewish historian, however, re-

DAN

gards him as the ddef of the prophets CUh, z..
chap, zi, section 7). Abarbanel and Maimoii-
idee fullv reooflmise the canonical authority of
the book of DanieL But the very prednon
and deamess of his prophedee have stirred
up other antsffonists than Jews to deny thefar
genuineness. PorphjrTy, in the thnd century,
affinnetL with oharacteristio egrontery, that
the book was composed as recently as the
time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and that there-
fore it narrates past, and does not predict fotore
events. Infidels aikd critics of a later day have
anxiously followed in Porphyry's steps, so
amazed are they at the exact fulfifansB^ of
Daniel's orades and the support given Inniudi
fulfilment to the books of Scripture, lliese
opponents of revelation are so mortified as to
1^ to the silly resort of denying the bode of
Daniel to be a prophecy at alL The arguments
by which such an allegation im supported are
vain and worthless— based upon woras supposed
to have come from a Ghreek source, on j^irases
which Bound like degenerate Hebrew, and on
what they are pleased to call historical eRom
and contradictions. Against sudi dijeotkms
we place with oonfidence Danid's own testi-
mony, with that of Christ and his siMstleB.
How could any book such as this have found
aplace in the canon after the age of Ezra?
The words which have been supposed to be
Greek have been unduly multiplied : some of
tbem are of Zendic and Jrehlvic origin; and if
the names of three musical instruments are
from a Greek origin, such a fact is no stumbling-
block, and may be accounted for in various
ways:— 1. From the andent intercourse be-
tween the Greeks and Babylonians, mentioned
by Strabo, Quintus Curtius, and Berosus ; or
2. On the supposition that the Semitic and
Greek languages bore a common relation to an
older tongue ; or 3. On the suppodtion that the
names of musical instruments were in the first
instance onomatopoetic, and therefore mi^^t be
analo^us in languages totally distinct There
occur in the book, also, so many references to
contemporaneous persons and events, so many
aUufflons to Oriental customs and manners,
tJiat an air of ingenuous truthfulness surrounds
the entire compodtion.

There is no need of supposing that the book
took its present shape from the hand of the
prophet himself. We do not know what re-
vidon or recasting it may have received from
the hands of Ezra and the great synagogue.
The whole book is the production of one
author, for the same manner and style are
constantly observable, and the latter parts con-
tain references to the former. Now, if some
other i)er8on than Danid was the author,
who composed the book in the time of Anti-
ochus Epiphanes, after the year 163 B.a, he
must have written in Palestine. ^ In that
case he could not have been familiar with
the names of Chaldean oflBces, nor with the
views peculiar to the Magiaiis, and much
less would he have ventured to make free
use of tiiem; he would not have applied to
tlie last kixig of the Chaldeans the name

DAN

Belshazzar, which is unknown to hifltoriami:
he would not have covered the walls of
the royal supper -hall with ])la8ter, but
ratiier with costly wainscot; neither would
he have been acquainted with the history
of Alexander, of E^ypt, and of Syria (Dan.
zi 2, 3 ; vii 6 ; viu. 5) ; he would not have
mentioned the third expedition of Antiochus
Epiphanes a second time (Dan. xL 40) out
of its natural order; neither would he have
written occasionally so enigmatically, nor
have used two dialects: but he would care-
fully have avoided whatever would have
thrown difficulties in the way of his reader;
he 'would not have specified the year and day
of his visions, which could afford him no
advantage in the transformation of history
into prophecies. (See Jahn's Introduction to
the Old Testamtrd, pp. 413, 414.)

There are also one or two remarkable in-
cidental proofs of the genuineness of this book,
which ought not to be passed over, llie first
twelve chapters of the book, and indeed aU the
narrative part, were originally written in He-
brew ; but when the prophet relates the con-
versation, or uses the language of others (as
from dL iL 4 to the end of ch. vii) ne
emplo3rs the very words of those who spoke,
whatever tongue theyused. This shows his
unusual accuracy. The title, "dissolver of
doubts" (Dan v. 12) (or "untier of knots," as
the marffiufd reading is), by which the queen
described Daniel, is still used in the East as a
title of honour.

One of the most thorough defences of Daniel,
with a severe and merited castigation of its
opponents, is that of Hengstenberg, in his
Authenticity of Daniel a condensed abstract
of which will be found in the fourth volume
of Home's Introduction,

The first portion of the book is hifitorical,
and speaks of Daniel and the other Hebrew
youths whom CJod preserved by a miracle
from a cruel death. Daniel revealed both a
dream and the interjiretation of it to Nebu-
chadnezzar, for which he was richly rewarded.
After Babylon was taken^ Daniel still held
a high position tmder Danus the Mede. The
conspiracy against the prophet, on the part
of his rivals, signally fails — the lions* mouths
were shut. The second part of the book is
full of visions and prophecies ; but a full ex-
planation of these belong to the province of
commentary, llie visions are exceedingly
gra])hic and lucid in their general outline.
For example, in one of those panoramic scenes
the prophet describes, — The winds from the
four quarters of the earth raging upon the sea,
out of which arise four prodigious monsters.
The first, in the form of a lion with eagles'
wings, raises itself on its hind feet, and re-
ceives the understanding of a man. This is
the ChfJdean kingdom, very soon about to
assume a milder cnaracter. The second, like
a bear, stands on one side, having three ribs
in his mouth. This is the Medo-Persian
empire^ which had swallowed three kingdoms,
— tne Lydian, the Chaldean, and the EgyptuuL
200

DAR

The third monster is like a leopard, with four
wings on its back, and having four heads.
This is the kingdom of Alexander, who with
great rapidity overturned the whole Persian
empire, and whose monarchy was at last di-
vided into four. The fourth monster had no
resemblance to the others, but was exceedingly
strong and terrible to look at. It had great
iron teeth, and what escaped being crushed by
them it trampled under foot. It had ten
horns, among which there erew up a small
horn which tore out three of the others, then
became great, was full of eyes, and had a
human mouth with which it blasphemed God.
With the intention of changing the law or
religion, it made war upon and conquered
the saints, who were in subjection for a time,
times, and half of a time. Hereupon the
Eternal sits in judgment, commands tne mon-
ster to be put to death, and the others to be
deprived oi their dominion, but allows them
to live until a definite time. Then came in
the clouds a human form, and received the
dominion, the saints were emancipated, and
possessed the kingdom.

In one of the other oracles a distinct in-
timation is given of the coming of God's
anointed One — the Messiah. Tne time of
his advent was made known to the prophet.
He vras to come after a period of terenty-aevens
(weeks is an incorrect rendering), that is,
seventy-sevens of years— or 490 years from
the return of the captives and the rebuilding
of the second temple. The prophecy of the
eleventh chapter has given rise to a great
variety of opinions as to who the principal
personage referred to in it is. A very great
number of critics refer it to Antiochus Epi-
phanes, with whose history and expeditions it
minuti'ly coincides. The Prophecy of Daniel
and the Kevelation of John are illustrative
of each other. (See the recent dissertations
on this book by Pusey, Boyle, Walton, and
FullerJ

DAKDA (1 Ki. iv. 31)-one of four wse
men, famed for their sa^^ity ; yet all of them
inferior to Solomon. He is called the son of
Mohol, or rather "son of the choir," all the
four being named sons of Zerah (1 Chr. iL 6).

DAlilUS (Ezra iv. 5), on the monuments
Darajrawush. There are several princes of
this name in ancient history. 1. ITie one who
is distinguished as the Mti<nnn (Dan. v. 31), or
Mede (Dan. xi. 1), calle<l the son of Ahasuerus
(Dan ix. 1), was probably Astyaeea, the last
king of the Medes, Darius being his personal
name, and Astyages being a public title, Ash-
dahal, **the bitting snake," the symlwl of the
Median power (Dan. v. 30, 31). 2. A second
prince of this name was the son of Hystaspes,
who ascended the throne after overthrowing
the Magian imix>stor Smerdis. It was under
his reign that tne Jews returned to Jerusalem,
and renewed the work of rebuilding the tem-
ple. The city of Babylon, dissatisfie*! with
some of the edicts of Cyrus, revolted; and
Darius, after a siege of nearly two years, in
which the prophecy of Isa. xlviL 7-9 was

DAR

Ihenlly falfilled, obtained ponenkm of the
city. Herodotus telk us that Darius ordered
the hundred gates of brass to be taken away
(Jer. IL 68). This king was defeated by the
Greeks in the famous battle of Marathon. (See
Ahasuibus, Persia. ) 3. Another was the last
of the Persian kings, whoadonted this name on
his accession to the throne, either Darius IL or
IIL Alexander the Great conquered him,
and ended the Persian monarchy: thus ful-
filling the prophecies of Daniel [Dan. ii 39,
40: vii & 6; viii 5, 6, 20, 22).

DARKNESS (Oen. L 2]. It is said of the
darimees which constitntea one of tiie plagues
of Egypt that "it miffht befeh " (Exod x. 21).
It was a palpable darkness. This might have
been occasioned by a thick, heavy vapour, or
other sensible change in the atmosphere, wmoh
caused an entire interception of the sun^s rays.
It was evidently miraculous; and tibe dread
which it inspned is vividly described, Exod.
X. 22, 2a The darkness that shrouded the
earth when our Saviour was put to death
(Luke xxiiL 44, 45) was numifestlv also
miraenlons. No natoral eclipse of tne sun
could take place at that period of the moon.
Our Lord was crucified at the passover, which
was the middle of the month. The month
began with the new moon : consequently, the
moon beinff full, and on tne opposite siae of
the earth nom the sun at the period of the
crucifixion, there could not be anv eclipse.
Nature shrunk from beholding tne awful

tragedy,
llietc

he term darkness is often used fig^uratively
for ignorance, for distress, for punislunent, and
sometimes signifies the state of death, the
region of evil spirits. Instances of such appli-
ca4dons of the term are abundant in Scriptoe.

DART. (See Armour. )

DATHAN. (See Korah.)

DAUGHTER. Besides ita common accep-
tation, it sometimes, in Hebrew usage, signifies
moare distant female relatives, such as nieces or
granddaughters, and descendants of greatly
more remote connection — as in the case m
Esther, who was Mordecai's niece ; Rebekah,
who was granddaughter of Nahor; and we
read, too, dP the daughters of Moab, of Heth.
Elizabeth (Luke i. 5) is called one of tiie
daughters of Aaron. The females of a clan
are named 'Hhe daughters of the land" (Gen.
xxxiv. 1) ; and the nation of Palestine personi-
fied is ca&Ued in the propheto daughter of
Zion or of Jerusalem. Smaller villages sur-
rounding a large town are called in Hebrew
ita daughters (Num. xxi. 25; Judg. xi. 26).
" Daughters of men.** in G«n. vi 2, are opposed
to ''sons of Grod;** and the expression may
have reference to the marriage of religious men
with ineUgious women. (See Child.)

DAVID. In Hebrew this term denotes
"beloved," or '* favourite,** The history of
the illusmous person who bore this name
commences in 1 Slun. ch. xvi, is continued
through the whole of 2 Samuel, and doses in
the second chapter of 1 Kings. A condensed
account is also given in the first book of

DAV

Chronicles, from chapter eleventh to the end.
In these chapters we have set before us, with
the usual brevity of sacred narrative. David's
Unewe, his entrance on public life, his exile,
his elevation to the thnme, his rei^ and his
death.

L XtiMo^— David is suddenly introduced in
1 Sam. xvL as the eighth and youngest son of
Jesse, a descendant <n the tribe of Judah. ^Hie
family residence was at Bethlehem, in the rcttion
of Epiiratah,ashort distance south of Jerusalem.
Here David was bom ; and hence the epithet,
" City of David,'* which characterises the least
of the cities " among the thousands of Judah."
The early years of the future monarch were
spent amidst the pursuito and pleasures of a
pastoral life, among iriiose sheepfolds and
flocks his youthful s^orit seems to have found a
congenial occupation. The first mention of
him on the saored page is indeed as a keeper
of sheep; but it is al a time when the prophet
Samuel anointed the rustic youth with noly
oil, in preference to his seven elder brothers,
and Qod by this unction indicated his inten-
tion to bring him forth at no distant period,
"from following the ewes" of Jesse on his
native fields, to shepherd "Jacob his people,
and Israel his inhentance." The whole inci-
dent (see 1 Sam. xvi 1-13) strikingly dimlays
the independence and specialty of the divine
choice; and provision is made to prepare the
consecrated youth for coming duty — "the
Spirit of the Lord came upon David mmi that
day forward.**

z. Entrance on Public Lift, — At the time of
David's designation to the regal oflBce, Saul,
the first kine of Israel, was yet alive; but soon
after we find that the Spirit of the Lord had
departed from him, vexed, no doubt, with the
perversity of his depraved disposition! and that
an evil spirit from Jehovah terrified his mind.
Itwasdeemed advisable bytheking's "servants'*
to try the influence of music for the purjxMe
of diverting his distracted spirit and relieving
ito moody agonies. The skilful harping of
the son of Jesse was mentioned in the presence
of Saul, and at once he was sent for, Drought
to the palace, and emploved successfully in
allaying the troubles of toe wicked monarch
by the soothing tones of his stringed instru-
ment. This formed the turning-point of
David*s public history, and may be regarded
as the first step towards that high position
which he afterwards attained. During his
stay at court the Philistines made war against
Israel, and pitched their camp between
ShodiAch and Azekah, a region about 20 miles
south-west of Jerusalem, and little more than
15 miles from Bethlehem. Their position was
a rising ground on one side of a valley named
ElaL and Saul and the men of Israel drew up
on tne opposite eminence. The activities of
his present circumstances had in all prob-
abili^ driven the morbid excitements from
the king's mind^ and hence the services of the
youthfm musician were no longer required.
^* David returned from Saul to feed his father's
sheep at Bethlehem." The two armies retained

2(^V

DAV

their respectiTe encimpmenti; and for forty
dtkyt, morning and evening, GSoliath of G«th,
the champion <rf the Phihstined, Mpeared in
the intervening plain, and challenged the men
of Israel to enjgfage with him in single combat.
The army of Israel was overawed, and no man
dnrst venture to encounter their huge defier.
David was inddentally made aware of these
untoward circumstances. His three eldest
brothers had followed Saul to the field; and
having been sent by his father to convey pro-
visions and inquire of their welfare, he heard
the boasting of the giant, and saw the un-
wivthy pamc of his countrjrmen. With all the
Interest of one who felt hiinself destined to play
a i>rominent part in the history of these terror-
stricken people, he inquired what reward
awaited toe man who should remove this
" reproach from Israel ; ** and having heard its
value, he offered to go forth in his country's
cause, and meet the hero of Phih'stia. His
brotherreproved lus presumption, Saul scrupled
because of his youth, but the strength on which
David relied was the Almighty. He gained
the confidence of Saul by referring to the recent
slaughter of a lion and a bear, and to his
assurance tiiat the same God who had delivered
him from these would help him against the
Philistine of Gath. Unaccustomed to metallic
armour, and wishing to make his dependence
upon divine aid the more conspicuous, he took
his staff, selected five pebbles from the brook,
and with his sling in his hand went forth to
meet his gigantic foe. The giant disdained,
ridicule<l. curscil, and threatened to destroy
the rudily stripling. David replied that the
purposed violence should descend on his o\i'n
head, from God as its author, that all the world
might learn of the power wiiich he exerts on
benaJf of his p<H>ple Iftrael. It happened ac-
cording to these wonls. Goliath fell beneath
the stone from David's sling; the Philistines
were rout(Ml and pursued to tue gates of Ekron,
one of their chief cities : and the desjused youth
returned triumphant, Dcaring as a trophy the
hesA and armour of the warrior.

There are two points in this section of the
sacred narrative which seem to jar with its
consistency. The first is found by com^)aring
1 Sam. xvi. 21 with xvii. 15. Why is the
armour-bearer of Saul permitted to return to
Bethlehem when his master has gone out to
war ? This difficulty disa])]jear8 in the originaL
The word rendered ** aniiour** is a very ^neral
term, and means— 1. any vessel or utensil, &c. ;
and 2. an implement of husbandry, war, &c.
Tlie phnwe renderetl " armour-bearer," there-
fore, will equally well mean "cup-bearer,"
and may be so read where the sense demands
it. Israel was now at peace, Saul di8({uieted
in his palace. David a yotmg and beloved
attendant, anu hence, no office seems to be so
consistent with these things as that of cup-
bearer, or some such domestic emjdoyment.
If this were his office, his dismissal in time of
war is not astonishing.

The second point of difficulty is in 1 Sam.
zvil 54. '* And David took the head of the
202

DAV

Philistine and brought it to Jerusalem.'* How
could this be? Jerusalem was yet in the
hands of the Jebusitea. (See 2 Sam. v. 6;
1 Chr. xi 4.) The following supposition ap-
pears to meet the case. David took away the
giant's head from the field, preserved it and
brought it to Jerusalem, not that day, but
after he had taken Zion &om the Jebusites
and made the city his own. There are several
other difficulties in the narrative, some of
which will be referred to under Samuel,

BOOK OP.

David after his victory over Goliath was not
known at first sight to Saul and his general,
Abner; but as soon as the king learned who
he was, he took him under his own care, and
permitted him to return home no more. The
noble vet generous disposition and conduct of
the gallant shepherd gained him the affection
of all whom he met, from Jonathan the prince,
who "loved him as his own soul," to Saul's
humblest servant, "in whose eyes he was
accepted.*' His fame spread among the
people ; and as the army returned frombattle,
choruses of females met them with music and
dancing, in honour of the victory, and e8i)e-
ciall^ in honour of David. The leaders of the
music sang, "Saul has slain his thousands;"
the chorus replied, "And David his tens of
thousands ! " His veiy honours sowed the seeds
of future troubles. Saul was diHpleased ; and
from that moment the young man became the
obiect of his jealousy and natred. The in-
dulgence of these feelings produced a recur-
rence of his former frenzies; and the harp
of the son of Jesse was again required to
soothe his sjiirit. While engaged in these
beneficent services Saul twice attempted,
unsuccessfully, to take away his life. The
Lonl was ^ith David for his protection. The
son of Kish felt this; the objei-t of his envy
liecame to him an object of dread ; and in
order to remove him from his siglit, and place
him at the same time in a ])osition of danger,
he made him captain over a thousand soldiers.
This was done with tlie hofie that David might
fall at the head of his troops in some earl^
skirmish; but, like many human devices, it
became the means of advancing anottier
result. " The counsel of the Lord sliall
stand."

David now bepran his career as a man of
war. Under divine guidance all the move-
ments of his new THisition bore the approbation
of the people. jTie fears of Said increased.
He unjed the yotmg lad to deeds of valour,
and proiK)KtHl, as his reward, to give him his
daughter ]VIeral> to wife. To tliis David was
alrearly entitled for the slaughter of Goliath.
Notwitlistanding this promise the kin;; treach-
erously gave her to another; but having
heard that a second daughtor had become
fond of the vouug hero, he was plea<<ed, and
hope<l thereby to effect his overthrow. He
employed his servants to urge her upon
David\ acceptance; an<l having found tnat
his independent srnrit would not allow him
to enter the royal family as a matter of favour,

DAV

fhe khtf pwpoeed that be shofnld 6Mn ber by
* dangnter of tbe Pbilistines. DaTid took the
field, letnmed viotoriooa, and became the
bmbaiid of IfichaL This instanoe of proTi-
dential soooeee inoreaeed the zevereooe and
lore ci the people ; but only served to enlaige
tlia tenor and enmity of Sanl. He com-
manded bis son Jonathan and some of his
attendants to despatch the object of his
hatred. The prince refused, intcorceded with
bli faUier for J)avid, and prevailed. " Saul
■waie, as the Lord liveth, he shall not be

Socm after this the Philistines wap;ed war
with Israel, in retun for their recent mjuriee ;
but were vanquished with great slauffhter by
David's troops, and made to flee baore the
oonqneror. Ko sooner had he returned, and
begun his wonted services to calm the raging
of his sovereign's mind, than his life was
again endangered. He escaped the king's
JaveHn; bat was pursued to nis own house
Dy royal messengers commissioned to murder
huiL Michal, the wife of David, effected his
escMie ; and he fled and sought the protection
of oamueL who was now predduig over a
aohool of tne prophets at Naioth in Hamah.
about 6 miles north of Jerusalenu Saul
levned that he had come hither, and sent
messengers to take him. Through a singular
interference of divine agencnr, these, and a
second party, and even Saul himself, failed
in the attempt. (See 1 Sam. xix. 20-24.)
David soon after returned, and sought an
interview with his 'beloved Jonathan. He
knew not why he was thus persecuted; he
trembled for his life, and would have his fnend
inquire if his father's enmity was altogether
irreconcilable. To David Jonathan was in-
deed "lovely and pleasant" in his life, and
he readily undertook to ascertain his father's
resolution. The result was unfavourable ; and
after renewed expressions of abiding amity,
David took his leave.

3. David^a Exile, — David now became an
exile from the seat of royaltjr. For a time he
wandered about in the dominionB of SauL He
visited Nob^ a small city in the vicinity of
Jerusaleni, where the priests resided, was
treated kmdly by Ahimelech, and received
from him the sword of Goliath which had
been preserved there. Thence he passed into
Pbilistia, to Achish, king of Gath. On per-
ceiving that he was known he became dis-
trustful, and resorted to duplicity to obtain a
dismissal (1 Sam. xxL 10-15). He returned to
AduUam, and found shelter in a cave. There
he was visited by his parents and friends.
Others also of the distressed and disaffected
resorted to hinL till his followers had reached
the number of four hundred. He then en-
trusted his parents to the care of Mizpeh,
king of Muab— probably induced to do this
from the fact that his en^grandmother Ruth
was a Moabitess. Warned by the prophet
Grad, the exile left his bidinff-piace. and came
into the forest of Hareth, in the lana of Judah.
when Saul, now residing at Gibeah, heard ol

DAV

hii place of refuge^ but being tmable to telae
him, disphmd ms hatred by slaying tlie
priests of Nob, for the kindness shown to bis
enemy. Abiathar, son of Ahimelech, akoe
escaped, joined David, and became the priest
of his army.

The dty of Eeilah, belonffing to the tribe of
Judah, was now attacked bv the PhilistineB.
David felt anxious to repel the invaders ; and
having asked the direction of Gkxl, went against
them, and routed them with great slaughter.
Saul, ever on the alert for vengeance, instead
of showing gratitude to his vaiuant aef ender,
sought on^ to recompense evil for ^[ood. He
was preparing to besiege a dty of friends who
had driven on aQ his enemies. David inquired
of the LdnL and found he was not sale among
the men of Keilah. and must depart Thence
he retired across tne hiU oonntnr of Judah to
the wilderness of Ziph. The Zipnites informed
Saul of his arrival, and promised to give him
up into his hand. The kinff set out, deter-
mmed to seize him; but tue fugitive took
refuge in the wilderness of Maon. Thither he
was pursued, and would in all probability have
been captured, had not the kin^ been soddenly
called away to ward off an mvasion of the
Philistines. David then found refuge in the
strongholds of Engedi, in the neighbourhood of
the Dead Sea.

As soon as Saul had returned from his con-
quest he was informed of David's retreat and
went forth with 3,000 chosen men to seek the
outlaws in their rugged hiding-places. While
engaged in the search he entered the very cave
in which David and his men were concealed,
without perceiving them, when David cut off
the skirt of his robe, and allowed him to depart
unhurt. He immediately followed, however,
showed the king the fragment of his garment;
appealed to the act as a proof of anythiujgf
rather than hostility on his part; reproved his
conduct with cutting satire, and declared his con-
fidence in the jud^ent and protection of the
Almighty. The haughty monarch was melted
into tears, acknowledged his criminality, and
begged the friendship of the future king for
himself and his house for ever. The request
was granted, and confirmed by an oath : after
whicm David returned to his s^ngholdL

On leaving Engedi the wanderers seem to
have spent a considerable time about south
Carmel, in the wilderness of Maon, and more
particularlv in Paran. on the south-eastern
irontier of Jude& There David ingratiated
himself with the shepherds who fed their flocks
on these commons, by affording them his protec-
tion. He had exacted a tribute from NaluJ, a
rich shepherd in that region, who indignantly
refused ; and such non-compliance would have
led to the sudden destruction of Xabal and his
possessions, but for the timely intervention of
Abij^ail his wife. By these means the lady
was introduced to David ; and soon after, her
husband bein^ dead, she became his spouse.
Previous to this, however David had married
Ahinoam, of the town of Jezreel in the tribe
of Issachar, in the room of MichaL whom Saul

203

DAV

had given away to Phalti^ son of Laish, a
native of Grallim in the teintory of Benj^nin.
The Ziphites, into whose neighbourhood iDavid
had again come, sent information a second
time to Saul, that his enemy was lodging in the
MQ of Hachilah, which is before Jesnimon.
The zealous persecutor made another attempt,
came with his 3.000 select warriors, and en-
camped on the hm where the fugitives sheltered.
Once more was Saul brou^^t to feel the p;ener-
oflity of the exile's heart and bear testunonv
to his innocence. David, in company with
Abishai, son of his sister Zeruiah, visited the
king's camp by night while aU slept, removed
the spear and cruse of water which had been
placed at Saul's head, and returned in safety.
This renewed act of singular forbearance
deeply affected the king's nund. He felt and
confessed his folly, and urgently invited his
persecuted benefactor to return to the palace.
David sent back the spear, appealed to the
Judge of aU the earth, and committed his life
into Jehovah's hand, but declined the royal
inotection. Saul left him with a patexioal
oenediction : "Blessed be thou, my son David ;
thou shalt both do great things, and also shalt
still prevail," (1 Sam. xxvL)

It soon appeared that Saul's gratitude was
like the '* morning cloud and the early dew,"
and that his promises were made only to be
broken. In these circumstances, notwith-
standing all his deliverances, the faith of
David »iled ; and looking, it may be, to some
new scheme that had been laid for his life,
which he saw not how to frustrate, he gave
vent to his anxious feelings in the pathetic
words, "I shall now perish one day by the
hands of Said." This led to the unhappy
resolution of leaving the land of his nativity
and becoming an exile among the Philistines.
Ue fled to Gath, a city in the south of Philistia,
and, alon^ with his 400 followers, took refuge
with Achish, its king. On hearing of this self-
imposed exile, Saul gave up the contest. For a
time David and his attendants dwelt in Gath:
but finding this to be inconvenient, he askea
and obtained from Achish the town of Ziklag
as his proper residence and possession. This
city was situated in the territories of Simeon,
not far from the southern extremity of Judah,
and had been captured by the king of Gath ;
but from this time it remained with the kings
of Judah. From Ziklag David and his men
made a sally against the GeshutiteSf l^e
Crezerites. and the Amalekites, ancient inha-
bitants of Caanan who had not yet been de-
stroyed, in spite of the command of Crod.
David, on his return from their extermination,
concealed the whole truth from Achish^ with
reference to his expedition, and in this im-
proper manner gained his entire confidence,
by leading him to suppose that he had attacked
and plundered his own countrymen. Soon
after, the Philistines proposed to invade
Israel; and the king of Gath urged David
to prepare his forces and join the expe-
dition a^^ainst his fatherland Fortunately
for David's patriotinn on the one haad^

DAV

and for his friendship with Achish on
the other, the princes of the Philistines ob-
jected to the presence of the Hebrew leader
and his army, and they returned to Ziklag.
On coming hither, they found that the
Amalekites had made an invasion into the
country, burnt Ziklag, and carried off their
wives and possessions. With the ephod of
Abiathar David inquired of the Lord, "Shall
I pursue and overtake this troop?'* and was
encouraged to pursue, for he shoiild recover all
that he nad lost Returning successfully, he
restored to every man what had been tiucen
from him, together with his share of the spoiL
The leader cuvided his own booty among the
cities in the south of Judah. Only two days
after the return of David and his troops to
Ziklag. tiie mournful tidings were brought that
Israel had been vanquished by the Philistines
in mount Gilboa, and that Saul and his three
sons and most of their armv had fallen in the
field. The Amalekite who brought the tidings
brought aJso the crown and bracket of Saul as
a present to David, and thought to ingratiate
himself by^ stating still further that be had
slain the king with his own hands. David had
not so learned to despise what God had conse-
crated, and caused one of his young men to
sla]r the confessed murderer of the Lord's
anointed. Bright as were the prospects now
opened up to the exiled hero, his soul was
melted within him at the remembrance of Saul
and his misfortunes, and especially at the re-
collection of Jonathan and his untimely death.
David and his warriors rent their clothes,
" mourned and wept and fasted till even for
Saul, and for Jonatoan his son, and for the
people of the Lord, and for the house of Israel,
because they had fallen by the sword."

4. DavidPt Elevation to the Throne, — ^David
had not forgotten the anointing of Samuel in
his father's house at Bethlehem; and having
sought and found direction from on high, he
left Philistia, after a residence of one year and
four months (1 Sam. xxvii 7), and, accompanied
by his wives and followers, came and dwelt in
Hebron. The tribe of Judah fortiiwith chose
him to be their king, llie new monarch was
now thirty years of age. He had been an exile
under Saul since his twenty-third ^ear; and
now it may be 8Upi)08ed that his varied experi-
ences, sanctified by the Holy Spirit, who had
been with him since the period of his consecra-
tion to tiie kingly ofiice, had well fitted him to
enter upon the onerous and responsible duties
to which he was called. Hebron then became
the royal residence and the seat of the new
government. For this the town was well
adapted, situated as it was, about 22 miles
south of Jerusalem, near the centre of the por-
tion of Judah, and hallowed, besides, by its
associations with the history of Abraham.
David's influence in the more remote parts of
the kingdom was now, according to eastern
fashion, increased by his marriage to Maachah,
daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, a region
on the north-eastern confinoi of i^alestine.
HiB harem grew with his royal state; and in

DAV

Hehnm, too, he became the ftttfaer of rix loni
by nz duferent mothen.

At the time David obtained the aoTereigntj
Oft Judah, Abner. ion of Ner, appomted JUi-
boaheth, aon of tae late king, to rofln orer the
ovher tribea. The eaae mh wnich theee
ehamrai were effected phunly indicatea that
the rtufiatines had retired from the field. To
what extent they improved their late de-
daivevictoryitia difficult to conjecture. The
wara of theee early timea were often mere
phmdering incoraiona; and therefore it la
moat probable that, glutted with extenaive
apoQa, they had retired to enjoy their booty,
and gave themaelvea little concern to whom
the longdom ahould now belong. David'a
former renown and recent friendahip with
Achiah ' would alao tend much to reatrain
farther interference. The rival kiiM^a of Palea-
tine, aa might have been expected, cud not long
live in peace with each other. Hie enmi^
waa keeneat between the tribea of Jodah and
Benjamin, becanae to theee David and lah-
boaheth reapectively belonged. Joab and
Abner, the oppoain^ generala, went ont to
meet each other at Gibeon. abont 6 milea north
ci Jemaalan, apparently for martial exeraae,
or tar tk boaatfol trial of atrength and akflL
Their mntnal ill-will led to a aevere contnt, in
which Abner waa defeated. Thia became the
commencement of a long dvil war, dming
which, as the inspired writer expresaea it,
" David waxed stronger and stronger, and the
honae of Saul waxed weaker and weaker.*'
Abner would doubtless perceive the unavoid-
able iasue of these affairs ; and, taking offence
at Ishbodieth for admmistering a merited
rebuke (1 Sam. iiL 7-9), he detennined to
embrace the interest of David, and set up his
authority over Israel and Judah from Dan to
Beeraheoa. As a test of Abner^s sincerity, and
also of his influence, the kmg of Judah caused
him to restore his first wife, Michal, the daugh-
ter of Saul, from Phalti, son of L(usb, before he
would come to any terms of agreement. Abner
brought Michal to her former husband, and
forthwith proceeded to influence the elders and
people of Israel in favour of the son of Jesse.
When the minds of all seemed favourably dis-
poeed, Abner informed David, and proposed to
gather the eleven tribea before him to acknow-
ledge their allegiance, and formally place
themselves under his sovereignty, llie juiu^
assented to the ^posaL Meantime Joab
retumecL laden with spoil, from pursuing a
troop belonging to some of their hoatile neigh-
bours, and heaffd of Abner's commission. His
Jealousy was excited, and, unknown to the
king, but in all likelihood in the rojral name, he
sent after Abner to the well of Sinh, about 2)
mOes from Hebron, and brought him back to
the dty, fearing, no doubt, that if his present
schemes were successful, he would gain a posi-
tion in the kingdom superior to his own. The
diief cuytaln met his rival in the gate, todk
him aside, and murdered him on the apot, pre-
tending toat he had aimply taken vengeance
for the death of Anhel, hia brother (2 Sam. ii

DAV

8). Thia deed waa perb^w David's fint taata
of the miaeriee of rbgiml power. He daved not
proceed actively againat hia rathleaa nephew,
but he vented hia abhorrence in a ademn cone
on him and hia poaterity, and followed Aboar
to the srave with weeping. Anxioaa to purge
himadf of the guilt, he ordered a public wear^
ing of aadcdoth, and refuaed to touch food all
the day. His aincere jret oetentatioiia nief
won the heart of all larad. The feeble lah-
boaheth, left alone, waa unequal to the govern-
ment, and shortly after auffered the aame fate
of nnnamrinaticm. David, following the uni-
veraal policsy of aovereigna, and hia own pro-
found aense of the aacredneas of royal^. took
vengeance on the murdmers, and biuiea Iih-
boaheth in Abner^a tomb at Hebron.

& DatwffiSem.— The death of lahbodieth
opened the way tor David to the entire king-
dom. Eldera from all the tribea of larad, wiUi
a large body of aimed men, aaaembled in
Hebron, and invited him to aaaume the reina
of government. David agreed to their pro-
poeala, and waa anointed king over all the
land. Thia occurredlittle mora than two yeara
after hia devation to the throne of Judah (2
Sam. iL 10}. During five years longer the kmg
remained m Hebron, actively employed in the
numeioua and oneroua dutiea connected with
the founding of hia extendve kingdom. After
redding about aeven years in all at Hebron,
David resolved to transfer the seat of govern-
ment to a more convenienl^ or at least to a
better fortified portion of his dominions. On
the confines of Judah and Benjamin stood the
andent dty of Jebus, ' * beautiful for dtuation."
and guarded by moxmtains on every nde. Up
till tiiis time the future "dty of the great
king ** had remained in the hands ol the
Jebudtes, its original Canaanitish poaseaaora.
But in spite of the great strength of the fort of
Zion, it was cu)tured, and the Jebudtea were
entirely expelled or subdued; after which
David adopted the dty^ as his new capital,
greatly enlarged the foxtifioations, and gave or
restored the name of Jerusalem. Scarody had
he finished the expuldon of the Jebudtea, and
aet himself to attend more particularly to his
own affairs, public and domestic, when his dd
enemies, the JPhilistinee, invaded his territories.
Twice, on advancing to the valley of Rephaim.
in the vidnity of the capital, they were repulsed
with fpceskt slaughter, and were ultimately
driven mto their own country by the triumphant
Israelites. This was among David's first batties
after his coronation. His fame spread on every
dde; " and the Lord brought the fear of him
upon all nations."

Jerusalem was destined to be yet more
highly distinguished by being made the scene
of all the peculiar obeervancea of the Jewish
religion; and thus it became the centre of
attraction, not only of the patriotism, but the
devotions of the entire nation. The priests
and Levites were devated from tiie deRradation
to which they had been subjected by Saul,
and employed more extensively in their pecu-
liar aervioeai The aik of the covenant had

205

DAV

lain for seyenJ ywn at Kiijath-jearim, and
Hb value and uses had been neglected. But
the kinff now invited all his sul^ectB, and
eapedi^ the priests and Levites, to assemble
ami brinff it up to the rojral dty. Its arrival
was o^ebrated wi^ every demonstration of
joy. The sweet singer of Israel *' danced
and played upon his harp before the ark in the
presence of iSl the people.** Michal thought
ner husband's conauct beneath the royal
dignity, and tried to turn it into ridicule;
but was only met with a smart reproof.
Meantime the ark had been safely placed in
the tent which David had provided for it
(2 Sam. vi 17) ; and forthwith the king pro-
ceed^ to arrange the different orders of
priests and singers, and other officers, ac-
cording to the varied services of the sanctuary
— a work which he ultimately brought to great
perfection, (1 Chr. xxiv., xrv.. xxvi)

David now finding himself at peace with
his neighbours, and in the enjoyment of
domestic and national prosperity, began to
think of his duties to Him from whom all
suocess had come. Contrasting the splendours
of his cedar palace with the frail old curtains
which enriirouded the ark of Jehovah, he
conceived the noble design of building an ele-
gant and durable edifice for its reception,
rfathan the prophet at first approved of the
proposal; but tnat veiy night he was in-
structed of Grod to tell David that the medi-
tations of his heart had been accepted; yet,
because of the blood with which his hands
were stained, his personal services in the con-
struction of the sacred building could not be
employed. The message of the man of God
went on to announce the richest promises to
David and his house — ^promises which were
well fitted not only to gain his entire acquies-
cence in the divine arrang^oaent, but to draw
fortii the sentiments of praise which the royal
psidmist forthwith expressed. (See 2 Sam.
vii ; 1 Chr. xvii) Most gladly then did David
give himself in the meantime to prepare
monev and materials for the magnificent un-
dertaKing which awaited his son.

Soon after this the Israelitish monarch
took the field and fought successively with
the Philistines, the Moabites, the Zobahites,
and the fidomites. The victory over the
Philistines was decisive. Several towns were
taken and made tributary to IsraeL The
Moabites were next attacked and totally over-
thrown. Two-thirds of them (2 Sam. viii 2)
were put to death, and the remainder became
subject to David. Israel's victorious armv
was then directed against the Zobahites, in aU
likelihood a tribe ot the northern Syrians re-
siding near the Euphrates. Hadadezer, their
king, was endeavouring to recover his Dorder
at this river when David assailed him. The
Syrians of Damascus came to assist their
neighbours; but Israel triumphed over both
armies, took many captives, garrisoned Da-
mascus, and taxed its inhabitants, and brought
away much spoil in brass, in silver and gold,
which was dedicated to Uod, and afterwards
206

DAV

employed by Solomon in the erection of the
temple (1 Chr. xviii 8). We have merely the
results of the conflict with Edom stated with
the usual oondsenees of Scripture narrative.
Garrisons were placed throughout the country,
*'and all they of Edom became David's ser-
vants.** Immediately before this last contest
the 60th psalm seems to have been written, and
its closing words were f nil v realized. Through
Grod the men of Israel did valiantly; for he it
was that trode down their enemies. Durincr
a short time which followed, David devoted
himself assiduously to the duties of his office.
This could not but be needed after so many
campaigns and such long absence. David's
capacity for ruling, and the actual skill dis-
played on this occasion, are sufficiently marked
by the sacred penman. * * He executed justice
and judgment among all the people.** It was
during tnis brief intwval that the king found
leisure to remember bis beloved Jonathan, and
show kindness to Mephibosheth, his only re-
maining son, for his father's sake. The mon-
arch fell on his face before the grandson of
Saul, did him reverence, restored to him idl
his grandfather's possessions, and supplied
him with food at the royal table continuidly.
About this time the king of Ammon died, and
Hantm his son succeeded him in the kingdom.
Wishing to retain with Hanun the friendship
he had enjoyed with his father, David sent
ambassadors with expressions of sympathy
andgood-wilL Instigated by his nobles, the
young kin^ sent back the men of Israel shame-
fully handled. This affront so provoked David
that Joab and aU the choice of his army were
sent to avenge the insult. The Ammonites
engaged the assistance of the Syrians of Beth-
rehoD. Zoba, Maachah, and Ish-tob, whose
united forces amounted to several thousands.*
When Joab saw the enormous force that was
marshalled aspunst them, he selected^his choice
men to march with himself against the allies,
and sent his brother with the remaining forc^
to meet the Ammonites. Hie Syrians fled
before the Hebrew general, and the Ammon-
ites, disconrac^ by their conduct, also hasten^
from the field. Having fled from destruction,

• The precise number given in thi« case is 33,000,
and there seems to be no reason to doabt iu accnracy.
But in general it may be remarked, that little reu-
ance can be placed upou the siimM given in these
hiftories. This can be satisfactorily nccounted for,
without at all invalidatinK the authenticity and tmUi
of anv of the verbal narrative. It arisen from the
peculiar notation of the IJcbrewn. Thry used the
common letters of their alphabet for this purpose,
beginning from unity with Aleph, and, by regular
combinaaon^ of the other characters, reaching 900.
Here, however, a great source of error pre>ented
itself. To express l.OOO. they returned to Aleph,
their first letter, and meiely wrote a point or accent
above it. and so on with the other lettern, for nnita
and tens of thousands. Now. wh^n it is r»*membered
that all the Schptures w re copied b> the h>nd for
age^ and that the Poolcs of Kings /ind Chronicles
were not esteemed the most nrccious of the sacred
writings, it is easy to perceive how, by the negligenco
of copyistA, an accent of numb^T might have been
omitted or inserted, and thus the leal number have
been diminished or inoreaaad a thousand fold.

DAV

the SynaoB lived to conspire again, and oome
forth with vast remforcemenU from beyond
the Euphratesj with Shobah^ Hadade«er*a
general as their leader. David pat himself
at the head of his foroes, met the enemy at
KfV*"! beyond Jordan, and overthrew tnem
with immense slaughter. This put a stop to
Sjnian hostility, and ended the campaign for
tiMi season.

At the dose of winter David sent Joab with
his anny a^^ainst the Ammonites. The He-
bfew captam destroyed many of them, and
bea^^fed Babbah, their chief dty. The long
remamed at Jerusalem ; and while his waniors
were engaged in the siege, he was tempted to
sedooe Bathsheba, and murder her husband,
UriA the Hittlte. At first all seemed to go
well— the wav of wickedness prospered. Every
p(nnt in the base matter haa been suooesifully
eained. But David reaped the bitter fruits in
ma life, and Joab obtamed the mastery over
him. Beprobation also was at hand. "TheLord
sent Nathan to David ^" and with a message
whoee pointed simpliaty bears upon it the
stamp of inspiration, tne prophet led the
gniltv king, at first unwittingly, and then in
awful sincerity, to condemn himself and repent
in "durt and ashes.** The 51st Psalm, written
on the occasion, portrays most vividly the
workings of his penitent mind, and the mode
in whidi he foxmd pardon, purity, and peace
for his errinfif, polluted, and distressed soul.
Meanwhile Joab still prosecuted the siege of
Rabbah ; and having nearly taken the dty,
invited tne king to come wiUi a reinforcement
to complete the victory. David went, took
Rabbah, spoiled it, and reduced the people to
slavery (2 Sam. xiL 29-31). (See Captive.)
This decisive victoir, and its consequences
upon the vanquishea Ammonites, appears to
have restrained the neighbouring nations in
their attacks upon IsraeL During twelve or
fourteen years the chosen people were free
from foreign aggression.

But the peace of David and his people was
soon interrupted. The first outbr^tk was in
the palace itself. This is not to be accounted
wonderful, when we look at the group which
assembled around the roval table of at least
seventeen sons, besides "daughters " (2 Sam.
iii 2-6; V. 3-16; 1 Chr. iiL 1-9), all of whom
were Intimate children of David himself;
though there is good reason to believe that
nearly all the males, except the four sons of
Bathsheba, were the offspring of different
mothers. In such circumstances, jealousies
and dispute were unavoidable. The results
in tile present case were painful and disastrous.
Amnon, the king's eldest son, by Ahinoam,
deceived and violated Tamar, full sister of
Absalom son of Maachah. This provoked
the anger of Tamar's brother ; and after wait-
ing his upportunity for two vears^ Absalom at
length took vengeance fur his sister's wrong
by daying the ravisher. Immediately the
fratricide fled to his grandfather, Tolmai, king
of Geshur, for protection. Such were some
of the unhappy truits uf the king's polygamy.

DAV

Wa daughter was desolate, his ddett son con-

signed to a dishonourable graveu and his
favourite Absalom a murderer ana an exile :
David monmed and wept

But these were only the beginninas of sor-
rowB. Present grief mdeed subndea. After
three yearL by an artifice of Joab (see 2 Sam.
xiv.), Absalom was brought back to Jemsalem,
and two years afterwards was admitted to
the presence of David, and restored to hia
affectionate embrace. But other objects soon
bepfan to fire the young prince with ambition.
His father has now roAched his sixtieth year,
and doubtless all the elder portion of the
king's sons would be anxious to succeed him '
in the kingdom. Absalom used every meaof
in his power, for the space of four* years, to
^^ain the favours of the people, and acquire
influence in the country. When all seemed
ready, he obtained leave of his father to go to
Hebron, under pretence of pajring a vow to
the Lord. Two hundred men departed with
the prince from Jerusalem, without being fullv
aware of the object whicn he contemplated!.
At Hebron the standard of revolt was raised.
Ahithophel, one of David's counsellors, was
sent for from Giloh, his native dty, to direct
the movement. David's ^vemment had be-
come unpopular even in his own tribe. Hie
conspiracy gathered strength dailv; and the
startling intelligence soon reached the king's
ears — ' jThe hearts of the men of Israel are
after Absalom." The aged monarch was terri-
fied, and fled from his capital^ accompanied
by the Cherethites and Pelethitcs. his body-
ffuanL together with six hundred Crittites who
had followed him from Gath. The Levites
would have gone also with the ark, but the
king forbade them, with becoming expressions
of resignation to the will of God (2 Sam.
XV. 25, 26). Hushu. the Aichite, a tried and
faithful niend of David, was sent back to
Jerusalem, where he would have the assistance
of Zadok and Abiathar the priests, to do his
utmost to subserve the king's interests, and,
if possible, frustrate the desi^s of the con-
spirators. David and his friends pursued
tneir flight across the brook Kedron, over the
ascent of mount Olivet, '* weeping as they
went," and passed on to Bahurim, a tovni
of Benjamin, 3 or 4 miles north of Jeru-
salem. Here Shimei, a kinsman of Saul,
presumed to curse his dejected sovereign ; but
the king's mind was too much occupi^ with
the unnatural conduct of his son, ana with an
anxious desire to know the results of the
whole disturbance, to think of punishing the
treason of one insolent Benjamite. The psalms
(iii. to viL ; xli to xliv. and Iv.) which were
composed during this distressing period afford
a graphic representation of Davias deep sense

• The text in 2 Sam. xv. 7 says " forty yearn" This
is plainly a mlatake of some early scribe. Josephoii
wntns, '' four yeara." Such was al-o the reading of
ihe old Septoagint text, from wnich the Armenian
translation was made in the befldnoing of the fifth
cencory. And the number ^ four accords beat with

the order of eTents in the history.

207

DAV

of the miieriMi he endured, and the wrongs
whidi were inflicted: bat at the same time
they present a wommmB specimen of pious
resignation, of earnest persevering praver, and
of humble yet firm oonfidenoe in the love and
faithfulness of Jehovah.

Meantime the rebels had removed from
Hebron and taken possession of Jerusalem.
Hushai also joined the ranks of Absalom,
ready, as he said, to serve the sovereign whom
the liord and all the men of Israel should
choose. He became the rival of Ahithophel
in counselling the usurper. The latter would
have pursued the king at once, and such a
course would in all probability have been
BuccessfuL But Husluu. by an appearance of
cautiousness, recommended a gathering of all
Israel under Absalom as leader, lest the known
valour of David and his veterans should be too
much for new and inexperienced forces. The
counsel of Hushai prevailed. This was all
that was needed. Time was afforded the exiled
king to pursue his flight, seek protection^ and
prepare tor the worst. He hastened to Maha-
naim on the east side of Jordan, where his
followers were plenteously supplied with pro-
viEtions by Shobi, a prince of the Ammonites,
and by Iwzillai and Machir, ** wealthy chiefs
of pastoral Gilead. " Absalom likewise crossed
the Jordan and came towards Mahanaim, with
all his forces under Amasa, nephew of David,
as their captain, and pitchea in the land of
Gilead. Surrounded as David now was with
thousands of his troops, and with his experi-
enced commanders, he aid not hesitate to meet
the rebels in the field. He apportioned his
axTDY to the three generals, Joab, Abishai, and
Ittai, the Gittite. At the people'^ request he
liimselif remained in the citjr. The only part
of the king's instructions to his captains, which
has been preserved, is peculiarly touching, and
displays the tender f eelincfs of uie aged Father
towards an unworthy child, "Deal gently
for my sake with the young mail, even with
Absalom.** The two armies met in a wood;
a decisive victory was gained by the royaUsts ;
and notwithstondinc^ his father's order, Ab-
salom was slain by the hand of Joab.
The aged parent was overwhelmed with grief
at his son's death, and bewailed his loss in
strains of tenderness which have never been
surpassed. This conduct greatly discouraged
the people, on which account Joab ventured to
administer a sharp reproof to his sovereign.
Upon this he suppressed his grief, and invited b]^
the people, the exiled monarch returned to his
throne. The men of Judah met him at Gilgal,
to conduct him over Jordan and accompany
him to his city with expressions of joy. Along
with these was Shimei, who had formerly
curf^ him, with one thousand Benjamites ready
to welcome and do him honour. He begged
and obtained the royal clemency. To those
who had befriended him in his distress. David
showed himself peculiarlv grateful When the
other tribes perceived they had been antici-
pated by the men of Judah, in manifestations
of loyalty, they were offended, and preferred
208

DAV

a complaint against their brethren. After
some trifling altercation, as is usual in such
cases (2 Sam. xix. 41-43)^ the worthless Sheba,
son of Bichri, a Benjamite, presumed to invite
the men of Israel to a new revolt. Irritated
bv the petty circumstance just mentioned,
"every man of Israel went up from after
David and followed Sheba.** Amasa, who
had been appointed chief captain in room of
Joab, was commissioned to assemble the men
of Judah, and be present at their head in
three days. Not arriving at the appointed
time, Abishai was sent with the lana's guard
to pursue the son of Bichri. At Gioeon the
envious Joab found an opportunity of slaying
Amasa, his unsuspecting cousin ; and then,
with his usual energy, pursued Sheba, and
blockaded him in Betnmaachah before he
could collect his partisans. The inhabitants
of Abel, dreading the devastation of a siege, and
advised by a prudent woman, beh^uied Sheba,
and threw his head over the wall (2 Sam. xx.
14-18). So ended the new rebellion. (See Abel.)
Soon after this the land was visited with a
famine of three years* continuance. David
having inquired of the Lord concerning the
causes of the afiliction, and entreated its re-
moval, found that the punishment of Saul and
his house for their iniquities was not yet com-
pleted. Seven of the late king's descendantH
were given up to the Gibeonites, whom Saul
had nearly extirpated, contrary to Joshua's
agreement with them, and were hungin Gibeah
by the remnant of that people. David also
gathered together the bones of Saul and
Jonathan, and those who had now perishe<l,
and sent them to the burial-place of Kish, in
Zelah, near the southern borders of Benjamin.
After these things God was entreated for the
land, and the famine was removed. But
trouole did not end here. Four sons of the
ffiant of Gath had grown up to seek vengeance
for their father's death ; and judging the present
distressed state of Israel favourable for their
designs, they invaded the Jewish territories.
Four successive battles are recorded (2 Sam.
xxi. 15-22), in the first of which the aged David
was ni^h to being slain. His faithrul officera
kept him away from all future risks, and
Philistia was once more and finally subdued.
David, thus delivered entirely out of the hands
of all his enemies, poured forth the grateful
feelings of his bursting heart in the ^dowin^
language of the 18th Psalm. But times of
peace and prosperity are often times of danger
and calamity. In the vanity of his heart the
warlike monarch would know the number of
his fighting men. God permitted, and Satan
urged him to the deed. The census was taken ;
but David soon found out the folly of his con-
duct. Jehovah was displeased ; and by the
infliction of a plague which cut off 70,000 per-
sons, showed the vain king that the number of
his soldiers must never be his confidence.
David repented, sought forgiveness by prayer
and sacrifice ; and the hand of the destroying

Tl was stayed. (See Number.)
David's Death,— Damd had now nearly

DAV

readied the ace of threeeoore and tep, and
beg^nninff to feel, by the expresave indkations
of deoayinff nature, that trna number wosld
■am up " tie days of his yean.** This was a
&voiii«ble opportunity for any aipurant to put
in a olaim for the kmgdom. Adonijah, the
fourth, bat eldest sarvivinff son of IHvid,
▼entared to thrust himself forward, and waa
■opported by Joab, the chief ci^ytain, and
ADiathar, the priest. The other mighty men
of l>tmd stood aloof. Nathan directed Bath-
aheba to inform the king, and remind him of
his promise in favour of ner son. David lost
no time, but took the decisive step of having
Solomon at once anointed his successor, ana
prodaimed kinff to all Israel This celerity
had the desirea effect The peoj^le acknow-
ledged their new sovereign. Adonijah's party
was disbanded, and the heart of the aged king
filled with joY. But time was now predous,
for David's departure was at hand. He at
once set about the transference of all his public
and official cares to the hands of Solomon; and
first and chief of all, he devolved upon him the
building of Jehovah*s temple. This had been
the great object of his anxieties for years'^ for
it he had made most extensive preparations;
and now he hailed over to his son a divinely-
pteacribed model of the magnificent stmoture
(1 Chr. xxviiL 11), together with immense
quantities of gold and silver, besides a larp^
amount of brass and other materials for its
erection. The rulers and the people were next
assembled; Solomon was declared and recog-
nized as their future monarch; both king and
subjects were chaiged to constancy and faith-
fulness to their great Lawiver, with the
assurance of one who spoke m>m experience,
that they should not lose their reward; esped-
aU^ were the princes and tribes enjoined to
assist the young king in the great work he was
about to undertake ; and to test the sincerity
of their promises, and give David sensible
evidence of their readiness and ability to be^
and complete the sacred edifice, an opportumty
was afforded to every one to consecrate what-
ever he chose to the magnificent enterprise.
A truly liberal response was made to the rojral
appeal (1 Chr. xxix. 6-9). The hearts of people
MQ of princes were filled with exuberant glad-
ness when thev saw the vastness of their muni-
ficent free-wiU offering; "and David the king
also rejoiced with great joy." The piety m
"the sweet psalmist of Israel" regulated the
overflowing ecstasy of his heart, and drew
forth a burst of thanksgiving whose fervid
eloquence is not excelled in the records of
inspired devotion. The whole conrnffation
joined in the ascription of praise to Uoa, and
offered burnt offermgs and sacrifices in abund-
ance for all IsraeL

From this sacred and exalted scene David
may be said to have gone down to die. Beyond
a few counsels to Solomon, of less ^[enerai in-
terest (1 Ki ii 1-9), we have nothing in the
sacred narrative. The public acts of David
had now dosed. A jftranser and sojourner on
earth, as were all his lauien^ David was not
P

DAV

pennitted to "continue by reason of death.**
After a reign of forty years, and at the i^ of
seventy, he died, " fuU of nches and honour.**

In person king David was oomdy — of a
"ruddy** complexion and beantifal counte-
nance, and possessed also of c^reat personal
aedlity and strragth (Ps. xviil 33, 34). His
relation to his brothers seems 'never to have
been confidential : but he dung to his nephews,
who were probably of his own age. His two
sisters, the mothers of these nephews, must in
that case have been greatly older than himsdl
Abigail, the younger of tne two^ is called iihe
dau^ter of r^ahash, and may have been a
sister only by the mother's side, 'Nahaih being ^
supposed to be her husband prior to her umoi**^
witn Jesse.

David besides organizing the priesthood into
twenty-four courses, formed a regular army, (1
Chr. xxviL) Twenty-four thoumnd men were
called out to constant exerdse, bdn^ relieved
each month; so that twdve times this number
were kept in military service. Twelve stewards
over the roval property, and a cabinet of six,
also formea portion of his court and house-
hold (1 Chr. xxviL 25M). (See Abxhb.)

The term David is sometimes applied to the
Mesdah QBadL xxxiv. 23, 24; Hos. ill 6).

When David is spdcen of as "the man after
God*s own heart'* (1 Sam. xiii 14; Acts xiii. 22)
reference is obviously intended to his general
character and conduct, and not to every parti-
cular instance of it, as well as to his selection
by Grod to ascend the throne of IsraeL As a
sovereign, he had an intense and constant de-
sire to carry out the purposes of Jehovah.
He bowed to the prindples of the Theocracy,
was true to his coronation oatii, and did not
use his devation to gratify private ambition or
promote selfish enterprise. His undaunted
valour was stimulated by the purest patriotinn ;
the weal of his people lay near his heart, and
his ann was ever ready to smite the oppressor
and re^l the invader. He never scrupled,
when ms country's interests demanded it, to
exchange his crown for a hdmet, and his
sceptro for a sword, and lead on in person the
armies of the commonwealth to Dattie and
victory. He felt that he was only Grod's
deputy, and that he was securo against failuro
so long as he served his Divine sovereign.
But yet as a man many stains lie upon hia life.
Numerous temptations surrounded him, and
he oocadonally f dl before them. The Bible
does not conceal his faUs, nor attempt to
palliate his transgressions. As he was human,
be was imperfect; and when he sinned, God
punished mm, and that with g^reat severity.
The diBCords of his family^ the want of affection
manifested by so many of them to one another
and to himself, must nave deei^^ grieved him
and embittered his old age. His worst foes
were those of his own household. The charges
which he gave on his deatii-bed to Sdomon, in
reference to the killing of Shimd and Joiib,
fta, wero not the dictates of private revenge,
but injunctions against traitors, who mimt
have disturbed the peace of the naticm imder

209

DAV

ft yoting and inexperienoed king. His peni-
tence was as deep as Mb suib were aggravated.
The moanings of hia heart broken by his
offences are beard in many of his psalms.
With what lonely prostration of spirit does he
mr '*out of the aepths** in the Slst Psalm!
He lay low in the diiBt before the Grod against
whom he had sinned, and perhaps the humblest
man in the nation was he who sat upon its
throne and occupied its palace. These ele-
ments of religious experience gave him ardour
in the service of God, and alwajTS preserved
him from the slightest approach to idol wor-
ship. He was honoured to verify the covenant
made vnih. the Father of the faithful, for he
established the government of Israel, and
extended its dominions to Uie full extent of the
promise to Abraham, and left a great but un-
consolidated empire, stretching from Egypt to
Lebanon, and from the Euphrates to the
Mediterranean.

The mental abilities of David were certainly
of a very high order. His acquirements in
literature, music, and poetry were of no
conmion rank. As a man of war he was
pre-eminenUv courageous and suocessfuL His
|;eneral condnct was marked by generosity,
mtegrity, fortitude, activity, and persever-
ance; and his religious character, though
not stainless, was certainly adorned in his
later years by sincere, fervent, exalted pie^.

His religious feelings were ardent. Wnen
he was exiled by an unnatural and rebellious
■on, and compelled to flee into the solitudes
for escape, his complaint was that of the saint,
not of toe dethroned monarch : he sighs not to
be restored to the crown and the sceptre, but
he pines for the enjoyment of religious privi-
lege (Ps. xlii. 1, 2). When the building of his
own nouse had been finished, it was dedicated
by religious service and song, as may be seen
in the 30th Psalm. His victories over the
enemies of God and his people furnish
the occasion of a devout psan to Him who
is Lord of armies: — '*It is God that girdeth
me with strength, and maketh my way perfect.
He maketh my feet like hinds* feet, and
aetteth me up on my high places. He teacheth
my hands to war, so that a bow of steel is
broken bv mine arms. Thou hast also given
me the snield of thy salvation ; and thy right
hand hath holden me up, and thy gentleness
hath made me great" (Ps. xviil 32-35). The
eariy occupations of his boyhood suggest many

E leasing allusions to the roval bacrd: — "The
lOrd is my shepherd; I shall not want. He
maketh me to lie down in green pastures ; he
leadeth me beside the still waters." His
psidms place him among the most eminent of
prophets and holy men. In sublimity and
tenaemess of expression, in loftiness and puritv
of religious sentiment, they are without paralleL
They embody the univerBal language of religious
emotion for all time. The songs which cheered
the solitudes of EngedL or animated the
Hebrews as they wound along the glens or hill-
sides of Judea, have been repeated for ages in
almost every part of the habitable world —
210

DAY

in the remotest islands of the ocean, among
the forests of America and the desois ot
Africa. How many hearts have they softened,

Surified, consoled, and exalted, by the deep
evotional fervour they have kindled, and the
views of tbe divine wisdom, holiness, and love
to which Uiey have led !

David, key op. (See Key.)

DAY (Gen. i 5) — a period consisting of
twenty-four hours, or one revolution of the
earth around upon its axis. Three hundred
and sixty-five of such revolutions make a year,
or one revolution of the earth around the sun.
The artificial day is the time during which the
sun is above the horizon. Both these uses
of the term occur. Gen. i 6. The civil day is
reckoned differently by different nations :
some from sunrise to sunrise; others from
sunset to sunset; others still from noon to
noon, or from midnight to midnight. The
Jewish day was reckoned from evening to
evening. Their Sabbath, or seventh, b^an
on what we call Friday, at sunset, and ended
on what we coll Saturday, at sunset (Exod. xii.
18; Lev. xxiii 32). This mode of reckoning
dajTB was not uncommon in other eastern
nations. Some have conjectured that this
coxnputation was established after the childr^i
of Israel left E^ypt, in order to distinguish
them in this, as m all other respects, from the
surrounding nations, whose day commenced in
honour of their chief g^xl, the sun, at the
tune of his rising. This can scarcely have
been the origin of the practice ; for it was not
confined to the Jews, but extended to tlie
Phoenicians, Numidians, and others. If we
turn to the first chapter of Genesis, we find
that darkness was prior to light. Such
priority naturally accounts for the species
of computation which we are now noticing.
This method was not confined to eastern
tribes. It was in use among the ancient Gauls.
"All the Gauls," says Csesar. "conceive them-
selves to be sprung from fatner Dis, and they
affirm it to be handed down to them by the
Druids. For this reason they measure time
not by the number of days, but of nights.
Accordingly, they observe their birthdays and
the bcginmngs of months and years in such a
manner as to cause the day to foUow the
night." In our o^^n lan^age, too, we say
se*ennight and fortnight, instead of seven or
fourteen days.

The day was originally divided into morning,
noon, and night. The word dai/ in John xi.
9 is used in contradistinction from night or
darkness. The term fwur is first introduced
into the sacred writings, Dan. iii. C ; but it is
very doubtful whether any definite term is
denoted bv it. In our Sa\'iour's time the
division of the day into twelve hours was
known (John xi. 9). In Europe and America,
and most civilized countries, tne day begins at
midnight. (See Watch). The word day is
often used by the sacred writers to denote an
indefinite time (Gen. ii. 4 ; Isa. xxii. 5 ; Acts
xviL 31). So aJw) it may be remarked, that
the term "three days and three nights"

DAT

(Matt zii. 40) denotes the same tpaoe of time
«B '* three days," or a portion of them (Katt.
xxviL 63. 64). (See Creation.)

Day often denotes a certain period. In the
Old Testament ''the day,** «r **that day,**
signifies the advent of Messiah; bat in the
New Testament the same phrase refers to the
coming of Christ to judgment. Day in John
iz. 4 IS man's life in contrast with the night
of death.

Datsman (Job ix. 33)— an arbitrator, or
person to judge between contending parties.

Datspbino (Job xxxviii 12; Luke i 78) —
the first dawning of light (compw Isa. Ix. 1, 2,
and Bev. xxii 16).

Dat-btas, or MORMnro-STAR (2 Pet i 19),
in the figuntive langua^ of the apofftle, is
sappMed to mean the light which shines on
the soul of the believer, and cheers him with
the expectation of a perfect day of holiness
and itnr. Christ himself, in Bev. xxii 16, is
called " the bright and morning star."

Dat, Lord's. (See Sabbath.)

DEACON (1 Tixn. iii 10). The term in
general signifies servant In John ii 6, 9, it
means those who waited on the guests at table.
In Bom. xiii 4 it is applied to the mae^istrate ;
and in Bom. xv. 8 it is given to Christ, who
was a mim$Ur of the drcumcision. The name
is given as a general apjpellation to office-
bevers in the Christian Church (1 Cor. iii 6 ;
CoL iv. 7). But more particularly this name,
as a title of office, was first given to " seven
men of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost
and wisdom," who were appointed over the
business of serving tables, in order that the
apostles might be at liberty to give themselves
continually to inrayer and the ministry of the
Word. On account of that common fund which
was peculiar to the early Church, there may
have been deacons prior to this arrangement;
but as the Hellenists complained of partialily
in the distribution of money to their widows,
oat of the Hellenist converts were the seven
deacons chosen. They were set apart by-
prayer and the laypg on of the apostles' hands
(Acts vi 1-4). The qualifications and duties
of deacons are particularly set forth in Acts vi
1-6, and 1 TioL iii 8-12. The female minis-
ters, or deaconesses, were probably employed
in attending upon those of their own sex, in
some of the same offices and duties which the
deacons performed for their bretiiren.

In the Church, after the period of the
apostles, deaconesses were for a long tune an
established order of office-bearers. In Bom.
xvi 1 we read^ " I commend unto you Phebe
our sister, which is a servant of the church
which is at Cenchrea." What the peculiar
office of deaconess in the apostolic Church was
we are not informed. Probably, as we have
already hinted, the female deacons attended to
their own sex ; and this was the more necessary
from that want of intercourse and friendship
between the sexes which prevailed in the East
Females living, and being obliged to live, in vir-
tual seclusion, could with propriety be visited
only by those of their own sex. (SeeJBiTHTNiA.)

DEB

^ DEAD, DEATH (Gen. xxr. 11; Exod.
iv. 19). Death is the destruction or extinction
of life. It is not defined in Scripture, but
maBjfSguxeB are employed to describe it It
is retorning to the dust— being g^ered to
one's fathers — a departure— a putting off ap-
parel—a sleep^a giving up the ghost B7
the transgression of Grod's commandment our
first parents became liable to death. Tha
threatening was, " In the da^ tiiat thou eatest
thereof thou shalt surely die'' ((}en. iL 17;
Bom. V. 12-14; 1 Cor. xv. 21, 22; Heb. ix.
27). This expression does not define the time
of actual dissolution, but rather denotes an
inevitable liability or exposure to death, which,
in that day and. by uiat act, they^ shoold
surely incur. But there is one sense in which
the threatening was literally infficted. The
very moment Adam and Eve sinned, they
severed themselves from God and became
spiritually dead. Though no thresAening had
been pronounced, yet spiritual death must
have been the inevitable consequence of trans-
gression. Temporal death may not have been
a neccssazy consequence— may have been only
added as a positive penalty and & symbol of
the more awral inffiction.

The sacred writers scKpak of a death whioh
affects the body only (Gen. xxv. 11) ; of aa^
other which describes the condition of the
soul under the power of sin (Eph. ii 1) ; and a
third which denotes the everlasting perdition
of the wicked ( Jas. v. 20). In each of these
senses our Divine Bedeemer may be regarded
as having virtually destroyed death, and
** delivered them wno through fear of death
were all their lifetime subject to bondage"
(Heb. ii. 14. 15). In regard to temix>ral death,
Jesus has need us from its sting, though not
from its stroke, and he gives us full victory
over it and all its ravages on the morning of
the resurrection. Believers are quickened out
of spiritual death when they are regenerated
by tne life-pving Spirit; and the entire work
of Christ IS to deliver his people from the

Eof eternal death, in bestowing on them
n, holiness, and preparation for heaven,
rail ourselves, however, of the benefits
of his perfect triumph, we must believe, trust,
love, and obey him. (See Bubial, Chbist,
Besubbeotion.)

DEAD SEA. (See Salt Sea.)

DEARTH. (See Famine^

DEBIB, or KIBJATH-SEPHEB (Judg.
i 11), or KIBJATH-SANNAH (Josh. xv.
49). Probably a seat of Canaanitish learning,
if we are to judge from its names: for Debir
signifies oracle^ and Kirjath-sepher means cUy
of books, while Kirjath-sannah denotes cUy of
doctrine. It was a stronghold of the sons of
Anak, which was conauered by Joshua (Josh.
X. 38, 39), and assigned to the tribe of Judah.
It was afterwards recaptured by the Canaan-
ites. and strain subdued by the Israelites
under Othmel (Josh. xv. 15-17). ^ It subse-
quenUy became a dty of the Levites (Josh,
xxi. 15). There was another town ox this
name among the possessions of Gad, east of

211

DEB

the Jordan (J<mIl xiii. 26), and a third on the
border of Judah and Benjamin. (Comp. Josh,
zm. 26 and zv. 7.)

DEBORAH— (ee. L (Jndfr !▼. 4) Atldtaoan
of eminent wisdom and holiness (called a pro-

Shetess), and a judge of the people of Israel
he was the wife of Lapidoth [thongh some
think the passMie shotdd read, a woman of
Lapidoth**), andhad her judgment-seat under
a pidm tree, which is hence called by her name
(Judg. iv. 5). Israel was suffering at that time
a most oppressive bondage unaer Jabin, a
Canaanitish king, to whidi they were doomed
in consequence of their sin. Deborah, by
divine direction, allied upon Barak, who had
probi^ly sigoalized himsen in some way, and
oommandeof him, as from €rod^ to station him-
self upon mount Tabor, with a prescribed
number of men, and she would see to it that
BiseriL the commander of the tyrant's army,
should be thece, and should fall into Barak's
handa Barak engaged to undertake the enter-
prise, if Deborah would accompany him. To
this she consented, intimating, however, that
if she went, the honour of the victory would be
hers, and not his, and that Sisera would be
regarded as having fallen by the hands of a
woman (Judg. ix. 54). The two armies met ;
the hosts of Sisera were vastly superior in
number and formidable equipment, for they
had 900 chariots of iron, but the event was as
Deborah predicted. Sisera fled ibnt his army
was out on, and every man slain. ThetriumphaJ
0ong composed or dictated by Deborah on that
occasion is an early specimen of oriental poetry.
(See Barak, Jakl.)

2. (Gren. zxxv. 8) The name of Kcbekah's
nurse, who died ana was buried near Bethel

DEfBT, DEBTOR. The Mosaic laifv-s were
comi>aratively mild, and were truly equitable.
Among the jRomans the law of debtor and
creditOT was exceedingly severe upon the for-
mer, for he could be put to death ; and on very
many occasions the harsh exactions of creditors
led to serious disturbances in the state. The
Hebrew law, indeed, authorized the taking of
a debtor into slavery; but such bondage was
mercifully guarded. "If thy brother that
dwelleth by thee be waxen poor, and be sold
unto theeu thou shalt not compel him to serve
as a bond-servant: but as an hired servant,
and as a sojourner, he shall be with thee, ana
shall serve thee unto the year of jubilee : and
then shall he depart from thee, both he and his
ohildren with him, and shall return unto his
own family, and unto the possession of his
fathers shiul he return (Lev. zxv. 39-41). This
species of servitude was only the debtor^s giv-
ing his labour for a limited period, in order to
cancel his debts. And the law was even so
severe, because no Hebrew could fall into debt
unless by very reckless dissipation and extra-
vagance. The person of the debtor could not
be thus seized for pasrment of his obligations,
unless his property were unable to liquidate
the claims maae upon him. His land passed
into the creditor's hands until the year of
jubileei. The creditor never owned sudi land
212

DED

— ^he only leased it till the sums owing him
were paid ; and knowing that the land, at a
longer or uiorter interval, would revert to its
original propristor, it was his own fault if he
lent more tnaa the period intervening before
the jubilee coidd easily repay. Imprisonment
was not recognized by Moses as a punishment
for debt; but such a penalty was long the
disgrace of EngliuidL When the Jews came
back from Babylon, many of them fell into
debt, and thejy seem to liave been oppressed
by their creditors (Neh. v. 3-5). Nenemiah
remonstrated with these creditors, and caused
them to remit such debts, owing to the peculiar
condition and critical circumstances of the
countnr. Had the Mosaic law been fairly and
equitably carried out, neither the slavery of a
debtor nor the oppression of a creditor would
have been heard of. The whole people had a
competency in landed property— a provision
that secured against poverty, while it prevented
the accumulation of wealth. (See Begging.)

DECAPOLIS (Matt iv. 25)— usually de-
scribed as a province or canton of Judea, within
the half tribe of Manasseh, east of the Jordan.
Geographers generally a^ree that Scjrthopolis
was the chief of these cities, and was the only
one of them west of the Jordan ; that Hippo
{Hippos), Gadara, Dion (or Dios), Pelea (or
Pellaj, Gerasa (or Gergesa), Philadelphia^ and
Raphana (or Kaphans)*, were seven of the
remaining nine ; and the other two were either
Kanaiha and Capitolias, or Damascus and
Otopos. It is not only difScult to say what
the ten cities precisely were, but it would seem
that more thim ten cities were sometimes in-
cluded under the general appellation of Deca-
polis. These cities were inhabited chiefly by
foreigners (Greeks) in the days of our Saviour,
and not by Jews. Hence the keeping of swine
by the (rergesenes (Matt. viiL 30-^), which
was forbi<1den by the Jewish law.

DEDAN. 1. (Jer. xxv. 23; xlix. 8; Eaek.
XXV. 13) A district of Arabia Petrsca, south of
Idiimesk, or Edom, settled by the descendants
of Dedan, son of Jokshan, son of Abraham and
Keturah ((Jen. xxv. 3).

2. A country of Arabia, on the Persian Gulf,
which traded with Tyre in ivory, and ebonjr,
and drapery for chariots (Kzek. xxv. 13 ; xxviL
15-20; xxxviii. 13). It whh inhabited by the
posterity of Dedan. son of Raamah (Gen. x. 7),
son of Cush ; and long after the ruin of Tyre
there was a city Dedan in this region, which
carried on an extensive trade, part m which
was in those articles mentioned by EzekieL
The location of these places in uncertain. The
Dedanim (Isa. xxL 13), or Dodonim (G^il z. 4),
were probably the people of De<JaiL.

DEDICATE, DKDK^ATION (Num. vii.
84 ; 2 Sam. viii. 11) — a religious ceremony, by
winch any person, such as a Nazarite — any
place, such as the temple — any thing, such as
the utensils and furniture of the tabernacle —
was set apart for the service of God, or to some
sacred use, (Exod. xL ; Num. vii. ; 1 Ki viiL ;
Ezra vi. ; Neh. xii) Cities, walls, gates, and
private houses were thus dedicated. The

unoDg tbe JewB, mnd wm raited to tibapeoDKar
" 1 under whiA tliev Uvea. Km
'-' tented «

M pAttplu, examplea,

the trne templa^attar, piiett aad nocifiot
(Joha it 19-22; Heb. iz. 10), faai wma, tbU
wUch wufisnntiTe and typioal ii dirna awqr;
th» pMasoe of tlie Diviw Bedtemvr in all
tba MwrnbliM of hii pm^>1^ ena vWe onl;
two or Ibrag H« met in liu nams, may b*
TCB*ided M oooMonldng ereiyplMeirtOT*!!
u tojoyn] (Matt. iriiL S>; Aota viL 48; H«b.
in. 6).

DlDiOAitoir, run or TEK (SaaFzur.)

DEEP. (SaeASTiia.)

DEFILE (Lot. xl 44). TTnder (h« Jswirii
lav many bluuiiliM of panon and oondnot

a n^vded aa deGlementi or pollotioDS,

'— ■- - -» D iriioiQ Quj WW* tonno

■"--: than for the ■-■--

randering thciM n
~ ' in, ud lu'

r^^

d raligiow diMUIitiB

luedbjrthBWCTcd'.

(Sae<A.K4Mj

DBGBEB (Fl. cut., (itb). Thia irard ii
oaad to aignify rank or atatum (P*. liiL 01.

The pbisae, " acme or paalm of degreea '—which
frama the tatla to Paalnu en. to cuxit. in-
cloiiTe — hia been yariously interpreted. Some
BDtipaae it haa refereDce to the elevated voice in
which theae paalma were Bong ; others, to the
time Then Uk^ were sung — vi^, at the annual
feabTalfl,whenthaJews wentnptoJennalem —
and that in this aenaa they wera called odea of
•acenaion. Otheia mppoae them to have beui
chanted at variaaa ^ttona by t^ tribaa aa
they retacned from Babylon '- ' '

OeMutnabwi ^nhOtdMt the Mt

— '■'i tkaaciig(rfDebamlk,Mid is

iSiSreadthna. —

lAMj^vanea 5, 8 read tl

•^•lotRelfrhaAoa
- tlaliuUKXo-

ietei]^ilei and
otiien, again, are of opinion that thetitle hie
refereacs to the pacofiarlj elinuwtio atyle of
theaepaalma— VIE., that the thought "-— ~—
aton M one verse la renimed aod c
ward in the next aucoeeding vene.

DBHATTTES (En it. 9i—mi„

be the Dahi of Httodotoa and a Paimit tribe^
and, aa acne think, th* aama who an attm-
tioned «a bom A^3 KL sviL M).

DELILAH (Ju^ itL 4)— m lieanttoM
w)nnan,of the valley of Scnk, in the tribe «(
Jndah, and near the burden cf the riiillalii>M.
whom Samaon loved. Bad who waa tba iMtm-
ment of beb^ing him to hla eihaiiifl^ (%ft

DELUGE. (BaeKoui.)

DBUAS (Od iv. 141— a BMlwa dbcipb
and trllow-lab<niKr d PmI (liiile. Stk A«
•ftennuda aaoatatiaed from ttie faith, <c at
Inat deaotea evangelkal wu^ thros^ in-
ordiiwte love of the worid (3 Vm. iv. 10; 1
Johnii IB),

DEMStBIDB. L (Aalaxix.24)AaaTw
■mith who naidad at Eiiiiaaoa, wd ibh»>
factored alver ihrineLor mlniatnta tamjte
andimMea(ifDian& (BeeDtwa.) .lUtWM
a very lucntjve bndiMei in that oity, wben
her wonhip waa diicdy inaintidiied: and
heooe, when the Goqwl began to mak* am
impnaeion, and tba people to fonake tbair
vain idols for the aofvlee of iha living Qod,
Bemetriue taw that be ahoald loaa hja binlii—
unleaa he coold stOl keep the pei^ in dn.
So he called a meeting of thoee who wocked at
that trade, and made a
iag the qwatle Pr ' —

the goda which tL^^ _._.,

with penuadins the people not to pnimaae

niod for-

ITDtlRHL

1. JMoH* la Ibj laner.

Mxna*. Uij duJe, )■ at Utr rlgblbanlL
*■ nsnmihall Dot imlie thee bydar.

made a apeeoh to them, ehatg-
Panl with having tanght that
they made wen no godi, and

. , Iff the people not to pnrilMae

unagea by the manufacture <d whidi they
obtained their living ; and, beddea thia (or
rather aa a cover to aelfiin and avaiiciont
motivee), he ahowed them that the wonbip of
Diana, which they had maintained ao Icag
■nd with K> innch magnificence, and probably

^- 1.V i. ■. advantage of the d'

11 qnarteia thronged to

inflamed the pauioni of hii feilow-craftamen,
and they eiciiad the multitude, until the whole
city of Ephesue waa thrown into an uproar,
which waa finally quelled by the p '"*
aeaaonable advice of the t

the poht
niHjIerk.

DiAKA, EpmBOS, Town-Cube.)

2. (3 John 12) A diadple of high i
tdon, and, as a^ie suppoae (though without

nt), the Dranetnui of Ephesoa, oon-
1 to the faith of the Gontel.
DEMONIACAL POSSESSION.

DEN. (See Civ*)

DEPUTY. Thia word n,

f srent Greek words in the New Testament. In
Acts "" 7 it signifies the Boman proconsul

DEBBS (Acta xiv, fl)-a town of Lycwmia,

DES

east of looniam. whither Paul and Barnabas
flod when expelled from L^tra, and where
they preached the Grospel with svooeaa (Acts
ziv. 20). Derbe was the natiw place olCMdus
(Acts XX. 4) ; but the predse site has not been
recognized.

DESERT (Exod. v. 3). This word is nearly
synonymous with wilderness. It signifies
generally a waste or uncultivated territory, as
pastures uid forests. The modem acceptation
of the word alwajrs implies barrenness ; not so
the ancient (Ps. Ixv. 12). The various deserts
mentioned in Scripture are — ^Arabian or great
desert, those of Bethaven, Beersheba, Damas-
cus, Edom, Engedi, Gibeon. Judea. Jeruel,
Kedemoth, Kadesh, Maon. Paran, Snur, Sin,
Sinai, Ziph, Zin, of the Red Sea, and that near
Gaza. Maundrell thus describee the wilderness
cf Jericho, — "From this place you proceed in
an intricate way amongst hills and valleys,
interchangeably : all of a very barren an>ect
at present, but discovering evident signs of the
labour of the husbandman in ancient times.
After some hours* travel in this sort of road 3rou
arrive at the mountainous desert into whidi
our blessed Saviour was led by the Spirit, to
be tempted by the deviL A most miserable,
^iry, barren place it is, consisting of high
rocKy mountams, so torn and disordered as
if the earth had here suffered some great
convulsion, in which its very bowels had
been turned outward. On tne left hand,
looking down in a deep valley, as we passed
along, we saw some ruins of small cells
and cottages, which, they told us, were for-
merly the nabitations of hermits retiring
hither for penance and mortification. And
certainly there could not be found in the
whole earth a more comfortless and aban-
doned place for that purpose. As soon as we
ent^^ea the plain we turned up on the left
hand, and^ going about one hour that wav,
came to tne foot of the Quarantania; which,
they say, is the mountun into wmch the
devil took our blessed Saviour when he tempted
him with that visionary scene of all the king-
doms and glories of the world. It is, as St.
Matthew styles it, an exceeding high moun-
tain, and in its ascent not only difficult but
dangerous." (See Arabah, and the various
geographical names.)

DESOLATION, abomikation of. (See

DEUTERONOMY, or the second law
(so called from its repeating the law), is the
fifth book of the Bible, ana (except Uie last
chapter) was written oy Moses (Deut. i 5,
comp. with Deut. xxxiv. 1 : 2 Cnr. xxv. 4 ;
Dan. ix. 13; Mark xiL 19; Acts iii. 22).
Deuteronomy is the name given by the Greek
translators. The Hebrew term is only the
first words of the treatuse, elleh hadebarim.
This book embraces a period of about five or
six weeks of the fortieth year of the joumey-
ings of the children of Israel ; and for tne
benefit of those who were bom after the giving
of the law from Sinai, it recites that law, with
acme unessential vanationfl of language, and
214

DEU

enforces its observance by many powerful
motives and pathetic exhortations. Moeei
directed that it should be read every seven
years, and appointed the time and manner of
doing it (Deut. xxxi 9-13). It is the last €ft
the five books of Moses, and was written a
little before his death.

These features of the book mav be amply
verified by any studious reader, it is a kind
of legacy to the tribes whom Moses had so
long instructed and guarded. He had about a
year before been informed that he was not to
enter Canaan, and that the war of settlement
was to be committed to Joshua, his successor.
Probably, on receiving this announcement from
Grod, he employed himself^ under the guidance
of the Spirit, in composing this valedictory
address to his nation. What work of higher
value or tenderer interest could engage hia
attention? The. nation was dear to him.
Much had he done for them, much had he
suffered for them. He had struggled for tlieir
emancipation, his rod had divided the waters
of the Ked Sea. From his hands they had
received the tables of the law and the politic
cal enactments which were to govern the
theocracy. He knew their failings, he had
witnessed their peculiar obstinacy, and had
beheld the devastating judgments which Grod
sent upon them. The eye of the venerable
legislator could not behold them for the last
time without emotion, nor could he anticipate
their future history without an earnest desire
to warn and encourage them. Now they were
on the borders of Canaan ; the forty yearn of
their doom, with the exception of a few weeks,
were numbered; therefore it was necessary
both to modify some older statutes and to c^ve
them several new injunctions, to review their
past experience, and impress them with the
solemn lessons which it presented. Nor was
it less opportune to put them in possession of
such rules of life as were fitted to them both
as individuals and a commonwealth, by obe-
dience to which they should secure sohd and
lasting prosperity in the land which they were
so soon to inherit. The preface to Deuter-
onomy corroborates the truth of these remarks
(Deut. i. 1, 3). In the succeeding four chap-
ters their annalu are detailed from an early
period, and detailed in such a form as to bring
before their minds many suitable and solemn
reflections. Onward to the 12th chapter the
same course is followed— a course which indi-
cates the affection, and zeal, and patriotism
of the writer. He rehearses to them the
Decalogue, with copious and repeated ex-
hortations to obey it, and as ob^ence was
essential to their future welfare. Grod himself
is described as exclaiming, '*0n that there
were such an heart in them, that they would
fear me, and keep all my commandments
alwa3rB, that it might be well with them, and
with their children for ever ! " (Deut v. 29.)

Moses warns the people not to imagine tnat
any successes they mignt obtain were the fruit
of their own valour (Deut ix. 3), or tiiat God
gave them these successes in consequence of

DEX;

ftny desert of theirs (Deut. ix. 4-0) ; and now,
having prepared the way for greater plainness
of speech toan would have been suitable at an
earher period of his addresses to them (oomp.
IXeut. 1. 26-46), he proceeds to rebuke any
tendency to an arr(M[ant spirit, by recalling
the painful and humbling memory of some <n
the worst instances of their intractableness and
ingratitude (Deut ix. 8-12, 22, 23), and dedar-
TDg that these were but speomens of a spirit
which had alwajrs seemed ready to break
forth, on any insufficient occasion, from the
very time of the great mercy manifested in
their behalf, in their deliverance from Ennp-
tian bonda^re (Deut. ix. 7, 24). Yet, notwitih-
standing all tnese provocations, he says, he
had never ceased, with a disinterested earnest-
ness, to intercede for them ; and their Divine
benefiictor, though greatly incensed, had never
ceased to pardon (Deut. ix. 13-20, 25; x. 5).
Still, Qod was waiting to be gradouo. All he
required of them was obedience; but it must
be an obedieiioe, not of outward service, but
of the heart (Deut. x. 12, IS, 16» 20, 21). He
Mpealed to them to render that obedienoe, by
toe memory of his past kindnesses; for, wnen
all nations were alike his, he had selected
thdrs to be the object of nis peculiar care,
and had already nused them from small be-
ginnings to be a numerous people (Deut. x.
14, 15, 22). He appealed to them by a sense
of his impartial justice, which weighed in the
same balance the lowly and the great (Deut.
X. 17, 18). He appealed to them b^ past
manifestations of his great power^ as this nad
been manifested alternately m their protection
and their punishment (Deut. xi 1-9). And
finally, he appealed to them, by his purposes
of heavy retribution (Deut xl 16, 17) or
unlimited bounty (Deut xL 10-15, 18-25), for
the future, according as they should prove
docile or incorrigible.

The next portion of Deuteronomy is occu-
pied with a rehearsal of various laws. Some
old laws were now to be modified to suit the
new order of things — an argument in favour
of the common opinion of the Mosaic author-
ship. For example, some weighty reasons, at
least, for the strictness of the demand, that all
^fi^malg designed for food should be brought to
ihe tabernacle to be slaughtered, being now
superseded by the change of circumstances,
and others having become less urgent, through
the influence of the habits of forty years,
permission is given to the proprietor to
slaughter them henceforward at nis own home,
if the place where the tabernacle was pitched
was so remote ftrom him that a journey to it
for the purpose would be attended with incon-
venience (Deut xii. 15, 20-22).

Many of the precepts already given, espe-
cially such as denoimced idolatry and aU its
attendant superstitions, and the modes of
collecting and paying tiie refigious revenues,
are described anew, and enjoined by forcible
considerations. In short, we have in order a
second enactment of the moral, ceremonial,
and judicial codes. Many dutiea arising from

DEU

the various relations of the state an dwelt
upon, such as the law of slaveiy and the law
01 war. Moses anticipated the period when
the nalinn might establish a monarchy, and
made a cautious and anxious provision tor it
The lawnver also gives seine instructions as
to the rights of inheritance and of the natural-
ization en f oreignersi The law of usury is also
strictly laid down. Money was never to be
lent on interest; the nation was to engage in
agriculture, not in oommeroe. Many other
enactments, all of them breaiJiing a spirit of
justice and benevolence^ are p^ven; and there
IS included among them an mtimation of the
coming of a teacher or prophet who can be no
other than the incarnate Son of GkxL All these
legislative changes are proofs that the book
was written at the period which itself describes.
The Israelites are enjoined to set up great
stones, and plaster them, and write upon mena
some portion of the laws; or, perni^w, the
peculiar anathemas and corresponding blesB-
ings contained in the 27th and ^iSth chapten.
Commentators have largely debated the ques*
tion, what could be the use of this vkuier for
a monumental inscription designea, as they
assume, to be lasting. One will have it that
the letters were raised in black stone in rtl4^,
and that the plaster between was intended to
make them more conspicuous; another, that it
was used to cover over the inscription, to the
end that, when the lime decayed, the inscrip-
tion should be revealed to a future age. This
perplexitv grows out of a misconception of the
spirit of tne arrangement Had Moses directed
or permitted an expensive altar to be bmlt,
ana carved with an inscription suited to last,
a great idea of sanctity at least would have
attached to it There would have been danger
that he would be considered as fixing the place
of worship for the nation. This he mr no
means intended to do (oomp. Deut xii 5, U,
21. &c) : it was a point uix>n which he always
held himself in reserve. BesideiB, at such a
critical period he would by no means have
been willing that the people should pause in
their career of conquest to finish an elaborate
work of art Accordingly, with reference to
an occasion which was to arise for an altar
and an inscription, he directs, as before on a
similar period (comp. Deut xxvii. 5, 6 ; Exod.
XX. 24, 25 ; xxiv. 4, 5), that the former shall
be constructed in the rudest manner, and the
latter cut in a substance which would easily
receive an inscriptioiL and which would fall to
pieces as soon as it nad served its use. For
mount Ebal, the Samaritan Pentateuch here
reads mount Qermm, Which is the true
lection has been a question mudi discussed.
Kennioott preferred the Samaritan, urginpr,
for instance, that Gerizim was the mountam
from which blessings were pronounced; that
the fact of the Samaritans having built their
temple afterwards on GeriziixL when thcrjr
might have built on Ebal as well, proves their
conviction that the former was the site of
Moses* fdtar ; and that Jotham (Judff. ix.), who
uttered his remonstrances to the Snechemitea

215

DBU

from Geriiim, is to be presumed to have
choeen the plam where the altar was stondiiig,
or had stood. (See Isaac ) All which has
been retcwted as follows : that the proper place
for the altar was that whence miprecations
were to be uttered ; that the Samaritans would
have been more likely to choose Gerizim for
their temple, as being a blested spot, than Ebal,
as beixijif tne site of an altar erected for a solemn
form of cur8inc[, as well as that the picturesque
beauty of Genzim might decide their choice.
Seme commentators also remark, that the
tribes selected to bless are all descendants of
Ltth and Rachel, the free wives of Jacob;
while the other i>arty is composed of the
posterity of his bond- women, alon^ with that
of Reuben, who had fallen into disgrace with
his father, and that of Zebulun, the voungest
■on of "Leah. (See Palfrey's Lectures!)

This portion of Deuteronomy is followed
up by a fearful menace of judgments on the
nation should they apostatize. Lastly, we
have the song of Mioses— stirring, solemn, and
didactic— wiui the peculiar blessings he pro-
&oun<^ on the tribes. These benedictions bear
some resemblance to those spoken by Jacob
over his sons, the twelve patriarchs. The
account of the death of Moses and his funeral
obsequies, with a brief sketch of lus character,
must have been furnished bv a later hand:
in all likelihood it was appenaed by Joshua.

The book of Deuteronomy is precisely in
style and character what we should exi)ect
from Moses, the man of Grod, in his old age.
and about to leave the world. It is full of
copious details, tender solicitude, afiFectionate
repetition, the last and pathetic charge of a
father to his children. It has been often cited
by succeeding inspired writers ; and our Lord,
during his temptation, honoured it by three
times quoting from it in answer to the impious
suggestions of Satan. It is a book which we
never tire of reading, for it mingles counsel
with le^^islation, reflections with history, and
piety with warfare ; presents vivid pictures of
the productions of Canaan and Egypt, incul-
cates law on the nation with more than a
patriot's ardour, and longs for prosperity to the
Church with more than a martyr's aspirations.

The reader of the previous sentences will
perceive that there is a very considerable
diversity of matter and style between Deuter-
onomy and the preceding four books. But
the difference is not so great as to warrant
the hypothesis of a different authorship and of
a comparative recency of publication. The
book has not the order and regularity of a
formal digest or oompend indicating a recent
edition, but resembles the nation, which was
at the time in a state of transition from
a camp life to that of a settled country.
Many things are said, as about Ebal and Geri-
zim, WUdi could not have been so said at
a later period. There are no anachronisms
— there is nothing to jar in manners, cus-
toms, and incidental allusions. The changes
in the law are quite in harmony with the
period of the national history at tne close of
216

DEV

the lawgiver's life — such as the provision of a
permanent place for divine worahip, the for-
bidding of tne impure and superstitious usages
which characterized the tribes among whom
they were soon to be settled, with re^^ulations
as to war and the treatment of captives— for
a series of campaigns was about to commence.
According as tne names Elohim and Jehovah
occur in tne sections of the Pentateuch, modem
critics distinguish them by the ei^ithets Elolustic
and Jehovistia But these critics differ widely
in their views of this book — some mainfAiw
that the author of Deuteronomy is the Je-
hovist of the previous books, and others that
he is ouite a distinct writer. This diversity of
view Decomes an argument in favour of the
old opinion of the Mosaic authorship — which
is again and again vouched for in the New
Testament.

DEVIL. The word devil is derived from
the Greek noun, diabolot, which means a
calumniator or accuser. It corresimnds with
the Hebrew word Solan, which literally signi-
fies an adversary, and from the notion of an
opponent in a court of justice comes also to
mean accuser. In this aspect the terms agree ;
and when used as proper names of the same
person, as they most freouently are in Scaip-
ture, tney may be regarded as S3mon;^ou8.
The same bemg is also designated m the
Word of Truth by various other names — e. g,^
Abaddon, in Hebrew, and ApoUyon, in Greek,
both of which mean destroyer, and angel of
the bottomless pit (Rev. ix. 11), Beelzebub,
(Matt xii. 24), Belial (2 Cor. vi. 15), prince of
the world (John xii. 31), prince of devils (Matt,
ix. 34), prince of the power of the air, and
spirit that worketh in the hearts of. the dis-
obedient (Eph. iL 2), the god of this world
(2 Cor. iv. 4), a murderer, a uar (John viil 44),
the accuser of the brethren (Rev. xii 10),
an adversary and a roaring lion (1 Pet. v.
8), and in the symbols of the Apocalypse,
tne great dragon and the old serpent (Rev.
xii. 9).

Such are some of the names and epithets,
real and figurative, which the Word of God
emploj^s with reference to this personage — all
of which are expressive of some feature of his
dark character.

Satan possesses a real existence, and his per-
sonality is not only possible, but proba!ole.
There is nothing in man to indicate that he is
the highest creature in the scale of being. But,
on the contrary, from the fact that there are
poany degrees of existence between us and noth-
ing, it is reasonable to suppose that there are at
least some beings, and tnese highly exalted in
their nature, between man and the infinite GkxL
They may not be discernible by means of the
senses, but this does not disprove their reality ;
for even of material objects the magnitude of
some exceeds the grasp of the bodily organs,
the distance of some outreaches them, and
the minuteness of a third class eludes them,
even when aided by instruments. Thus far
does reason testify, and revelation completer
the evidence. The existence and personality of

DEV

Sfttan Are reoognized by all the lacred writen.
Tbey speak senerally of the clan, angeU or
amntBy to wnich he^belongB (1 Oor. tL 3).
Ther reveal his nature, hie character, his
oonaition, his woika, his affencies, his plans,
his sacoesBf and his future destiny. We have
therefore just the same evidence of the real
personality of Satan as of the Holv Spirit,
and of angelic spiritual beinffs; so that sup-
posing the sacred writers to nave designed to
teach us the proper personality of Saian, it
is not eaanr to conceive what other language
they could have adopted.

In nature Satan is spirituaL Heisanangel,
and possesses all the essential proj^erties hv
which this order of beings is distinguishea.
Whatever feature is pecuBar to their nature
will be found in his; and in general he is
endowed with all the attributes of spiritual
thinking beings, such as intellect, emoracing
peroeptum, memozy, and judgment; and also
affections, desires, passions, volition, and
ceaseles activity. (See Eph. vi 12.) The
present character of Satan is one essentially
wicked. He is the leader of a host of rebels
against Grod. He is filled with a rooted
aamitv to all righteousness; and his active,
skilful, and powerful mind is pervaded with
eveiy species of unholy feeling; He lives and
acts under the influence of the haughtiest
pride, the most inveterate deceitfulness, and
the most malignant cruelty. Bis condition,
at the same tune, corresponds to lus charac-
ter. As the enemy of God, he is banished
from lus presence, and in company with
his guilty associates is consigned to the
place of torment, where every unholy prin-
ciple and passion which exists withm mm,
and all the unrighteous actions which he per-
forms, meet their due recompense of vengeance
(2 Pet. ii 4; Jude 6). He is degraded,
wretched, and outcast.

The general employment of "the wicked
one" in the infernal world might be ima-
gined, and its leading features conjee-
turally pointed out But his banishment
to the world of darkness does not prevent
his virtual abode on our earth as the
"god of this world" — the enemy of man
and his Maker. Plans and operations for
the subversion of Jehovah's designs and
procedure no doubt constantly ensage his
attention: and throughout, lus conduct and
that of "his angels*^ are characterized by
daring impiety. His work among men from
the beginning has been one unbroken course
of seduction, accusation, tyranny^ and cruelty.
Personally, or by means of his legiomL he
ever tempts men to sin, restrains t^m rrom
holiness; accuses them of sin, weakness, and
inooiuastency to themselves, to others, and
to God; keeps them oonstantlY beneath lus
thraldom; and renders them the subjects of
present and prospective miiary. (See Matt.
IV. 3: 1 Theas. iii. 6; Sev. zii. 10; John viii
44 ; Acts xxvi 18).

llie agency which the tempter empl03r8
are first and chiefly those legions cf fallen

DEW

qpirits who were allied with hjm in his first
revolt, and now continue subject to him in
all his attempts to thwart the will of God
and the welfare of men. These "spiritual
wickednesses** are ever on the alert for 1^^9¥»
Besides these, Satan seems to have aoauireo,
by Divine pemussion, mysterious influenoe
over the elements of the material world, whidi
he often employs to accomplish his malignant
designs: and more particularly he obtains
a knowledge of the varied dispositions, tem-
pers, attainments^ and inclinations of all men,
and either uses these directly, or takes advan-
tage of them in presenting other allurementi,
to seduce his victims to sin and consequent
misery. And men themselves, when thcnoughly
imbued with the spirit of Satan, become in
their turn the agents of their master to tempt
and destroy others (Eph. vi 11, 12; Matt iv.
1-11 ; 1 Cor. vii 6; 2 Oor. ii U: Rev. iii 5).

The plans or modes of procedure whidi the
Prince of Devils may adopt in the work of
tempting are chiefly oi two idnds— vi&, decep-
tion and seduction. To prosecute the work of
deceiving, he assumes every imaginable form,
from that of'" an angel of ught** to the shape
of the insidious serpent; and at the
time he employs every conceivable i
in aooordanoe with the character he
which his consummate skill is capable to sug-
gest And in the work of seducing, his "wiles"
are most powerful He knows the nature and
tendencies of the human mind, and therefore
he alwavB presents his allurements in the way
that wiU be most captivating (Gen. iii 13; 2
Cor. xi 14). He also sets himself to prevent
men from attaining and accomplishing what
is good, by removing the means of improve-
ment (Mark iv. 15), and by resisting their
operations (Zech. iii 1, 2). In this pernicious
employment the " old serpent** has been most
successfui From the unhappy hour in which
he triumphed over our first parents in Eden,
till this moment, he has prostrated the entire
race under his despotic sway. He " deceiveth
the whole world** (Eph. ii 1-3 : Rev. zii 9).

Of the future destiny of "the destroyer**
the Scriptures leave no room for doubt He
is at present "reserved in everlasting chains
under darkness, until the judgment of the
great day;** uid being among impenitent
transp^ressors, when that day arrives he will
certainly be visited with indignation and
wrath, tribulation and anguish,**^ which will
be prolonged to all eternity (Matt xzv. 41).
(See Beelzebub, Scape-ooat.)
DEVILS, POSSESSED OF. (See Possessed.)
DEW (2 Sam. i 21)— a dense vapour
which falls on the earth during the night,
and which in Judea was so copious as in a
great measure to supply the absence of
uiowers. It thus became a beautiful emblem
of spiritual blessings (Dent zxzii 2; Hos.
xiv. 5-7); and so the prophet Hosea, with
unsurpassed beauty and freshness in describ-
ing the nature and result of divine blessing,
says, "I will be as the dew unto Israel** It
is also the symbol of prosperity^ as when Job

_jiB of the ur in Poleatine *n luch, tiut, if it
were not for the dewi, the euth would be
Mrched and &U iCa fnut withered; >nd the
dswa are often so ample aa to loak the earth
like a heaiy ^ower. The nme fact may be
inferred from Judg. vi 37-M; 2 Sam. iviL
13 i Jab iiii. 19 ; Soog v. 2. The Pwtlmuit
(Pb. cuiiiL 3) mentioDB particularly the dew
of Herman as emblematical of the rich and
abundant bletwingi of iTiiritual oommtmion.
And Mavmdrell teila us that their tenta, when
pitched on Tabor and Hennon, " were ae wet
with dew as if it had rained on them all
nuht ; ^ and others speak of their cioaka, in
Mich they wr^t themselies while they sle|tt,
aa being completely wet, as if they had been
immersed in the sea.

Dr. Shaw, in hia travels, speaking of Arabia
Petnea, says—" Tbe dews of the m^ht, as we
had the beaveui only for our covenng, would

frequently — ' ~" '" """ '""" """'

WM the sot

heated, than the mista wcro i^muu;! uutxiram,
and the copious mointure which the dews hod
communicated to the aands was entirely eva-
porated." This rapid disappearance, under the
powerful beams of the earl; sun. is employed
by Ood to represent the abort-lived renval of
hu people— 0 Ephraim, what shall I do unto
tiiee r O Judab, what shall I do unto thee t fur
your goodnen is as a morning cloud, and as the
early dew it goetb away'* (Hoa. vi, 4).

diadem: (See Chows.)

DIAL (2 Ki. II. 11 ; Isa. iiiviii. 1-9)— an
instrument employed b^ the Hebrews to mea-
sure time, or to determine the ajiparent pro-
greai of tbe mm by tbe shadow which he caste
on the dial It is a matter of much Bpecnlati<m,
but little importance, what was tbe form, &c.
Ol the dial mentioned in these passagea. It
was probably either a foreign piece of mechan.
ism, or at iMst an imitation of it, which Ahaz
had imported in tbe form of an altar. A dial
bom Babylon may ^ho have been among hia

that of Ahaz. It was probably not in the
ahape of our common dial — a marked plate with
a gnomon — but rather a fabric built with stair
or itep to indicate the advance of tbe shadow ;
for the Hebrew name aiffnifiea degrees or st^pe.
The Egyptians seem to have used their obelisks
in aame nay for the notation of time.

Huekjab, lung of Judah, was sick and near
to death. He prayed with great eameatness
tiut hia life nught be prolonged. laaiah was
■ant to inform bim that God would relieve his
iliiiiiiiiii. and that in three dayi be should be
able to go op to the temple. The astonished
king askod a aign from the Lord that a thing
so mcredible ahould be done to him. The
prophet gave him his choice of tworigns— viz.,
that tbe shadow of the aun, on the dial of Ahaz.
should go forward or backward tan degrees.
The kin^. snppcisiag that it would be a more
wonder^ token of the divine interposition
(a Ki n. 10), pnfaned t"^* "-- -'—'—- -•--'

DIA
go back: and, in answer to the prophet
prayer, the ion, or the shadow of it npon tl

dial, was btougbt back oi^etnmed ten degree
Probably thhi miracle waa wmoght npon tl
raya of tbe aun, by which they were defleete
in an extraordinary manner, ao as to produc.
tjiia retrograde motion of the shadow, while

theai

itself ae

*ay. It ii

leas likely that tbe motion of tbe eartli and the
poaition of the aim were so changed aa to pro-
duce this reenlt, aa held by ari^bUbop Usher
and the great body of the Jewe. It waa this
miracle to which reference is made in 2 Chr.

DIAMOND (Eiod. uviii. 18)— the hardest
and most valuable of gems, and found chieflv
in tbe East Indies and BniziL The diamond
consist of pure carbon, and when heated by a
certain process, is completely combustible.
When perfect and transparent a diamond is
said to be of the first water. Some snppoee
that tbe word rendered ' ' diamond " means
emerald. The diamonds in poeseasion of the
emperor of Russia, the king of Portugal ; the
Ktt diamond, weighing about an ounce; and
tbe Koh-i-noor, aupposed to be worth half-a-
million sterling, are tbe largest and most

It is mentioned among the Jewell of the king
of Tyre (Eiek. uviii. 13) ; and tbe expreanco
in Jer. iviL 1 dsnotee the de^ and indelible
record which was made of tiie oin of Jndah.
(See AHAMAirr.)

DIA«A (Acta lix. 23)-a heathen goddess
of great celebrity (p, 27). Tbe Diana of Aaia
to have differed very easentiaUy

Asiaticdivinit]
worship tbe
found establi .. ..
Ionia when they aet-
tled there ; and that,
for some resemblance
they discovered, they
applied- ' ■'

M ber tte >

of Artemis. Aa soon

. . itity of the Asiatic goddess with the

Greek Artemis waa reoogniied, other features,
also originally peculiar to tbe Greek Artemis,
-ere transferred to her; and thus she is called
daughter of Leto, who gave birth to her in
^e neighbourhood of Epheaiis. Her original
character is auffidently claai from the fact that
her priests were eunucha, and that her image
in the magnificent temple of Epheaus repre-
sented her with many breaata (ToXu/inuTDt),
The whi>l« figure of we goddeai reaembled a

DIB
OunDtiif; ksT head vat mrmoimted with _
monJ crown (eorona muroMf ), and ttte lower
part of bcT bod;r, wMch endad in a ptrint, lika
ft pynmid upside down, «M oovered with
figniea of inyitical «■"'"■ »!« " (Stnb. xiT,, p. 6il '
Fana. iv. 31, hc 6 ; vii 6, see. S).

The tronhip of thu goddeaa WM attendee
witii peculiar iplmdour uid magnificence al
" ' " ■ ' in that dty wan eti wart

in it by as many kings,
portrait of

curionalT carved, and the rest ^lished.
occiqnej 220 yeara in boi' "
tribated to ita erection,
columns were bestowed c
ita altar wai fnnuslied

teles, and Apelles cont _ ^ _

Alexander tlie Great. Little rilver roodela of
the tample, with the image of the Roddesa
ennhrined in them, were made for sale^ and
■old in such quantity as to afiord pnifitahle
woi^ for many hands. (See Behrbihs.)

The preaedmg cat represents, in miniatoTa,
a front view of tbii famous temple, and is prob-
ably a fac suoile of one of the ''shrines." He
inecriptioDbetoiTsignifies— " Of the E^eiiaiu. "

Panl made himself offensive to the idolatams
Ei^Mnans by preaching the vary pl^ and
sensible doctnne, " that they be no sods iriikh
are roade withholds." Hence ths sUvenmiths,
vho depended on the mannfactore of imama
for their living, were greatly eidled by the
fear that their craft was in danger; and so
they moved the people to sapposa that the
temple itself, with all its magnifloenoe, wonld
be destroyed, and the dXy cease to be the
resort of worshippers. Their cisft was in
danger. The pencxl of their spiiitoal mle waa
over. The image that "fell ftom Jupiter''
soon ceased to delude and bewitch. (See
Jdpitkb.) This image which feU from Jnpiter
may have been an arolite, of which many have
fallen at various times and in many countries.
The meteoric stone might have tatDcd a por-
tion at least of Diuft's statue. In loeh
nuperstitaDui time* the falling of a stone {nmi
the air wonM be bito-pretM in
with idolatrous oirinktia. (Ssa
Jurma, Tuju)

DIBON (Josh. liiL 17)-a <il9 of Moah, »
few milea mirth ct the Amon, turn c^led
Diban. It was built up by the tribe of Viid
(Num. KudL 33, 34), and hence called Dibon-
gad (Num. nriiL lA). The asms place i*
called Dimon (Isa. it. 91 At a Uter day It
retauned again to Sloab (Isa. it. 3; Jer. xlvSL
18, 22). A place caUed Dbiban is mentioned
by modem bavellers as situated about 3 milea
iwrth of tile Amon, or Wady Modjsb, la
Neb. iL 2S a Dibon in Judah U mentionwl,
«4iich may be the same with Debir (Josh. Tiii
28). (See DiBiB.)

DIDYUXra— Aein. (SeeTHOKAB.)

DIKLAH-a sco of Joktan (Q«n. x. ST).
Tba name signifies mla tree, and may have
been in that put ct AraUa when the pdm
abounds; hut n has not yet besn identiflad.

DIMONAS— a place m the aooth of Jndah
^odk zv. iS!), and m» be the mmm as the
Dibon of Ndi. li 2B. ^ Duos.

Iter of

DIIJAH (Gen. i __,

Jacob and Leah. When her fathi

return from Fadan-aram to Canaan he bdted
at Shalem, a dty o* T' ' "

mingled with the yonng w

booAood, and tell a violj

arts of Bheohem, SM) of HamM, who wm
prinoe of the country. He afterwards soujM
to many her, but her brotben refused thor
consent to tJie alliance, onleas the men of
Sbecbem would submit to be circumcised.
To this condition they agreed ; and when, by
the effect of the operation, they were all dis-
abled from defending themselves or their city,
Simeon and Levi attacked them, slew Sbechem
and his father, completely pilh^ed the place,
and made prisoners of the women and children.
Jacob severely reprimanded them for ihe act ;
but they were so mdignaot at the abuse their
deter hiid suffered aa to joBtdfy their mode of
revenge (Gen. zxxiv. 31). Dinah is mentioned
with the rest of the family who Went into
Egynt (Gen. ilvl 8, IG).

DINAITES (Ezra iv. 9)— a portion of the
oolonista settled m Samaria after the couqneet.
Nothingfnrther is known of theirL

DINHABAH (Gen. xxxvi. 32)7-the royal
dty of Bela, king of Edom. One site has besn
aadgned to it— a village called Dannea, 8 milas
from At of Afoab — tint it has not been £s-
tinctly identlGed.

DINJirER. (SeeMlALS.)

DIONYSnJS (Acts iva 3i)~-tk convert to
the Gospel under the preachiug of Paul at
Athens. Why he is called the Areopagite we
cannot tell, unless he was cma of the judaes of
"" ' ~' Arei^agns. Ecclesbistical hia-

of the Gospd, and iliffeied marQirdom at
a.i>. US, The writings that pass nndec

le are fabrications of the tilth oentnry.

DIOTREPHE3 (3 John 0)— prob^tb^r a

- Gaim of this diuich (Rom. ivi 23; 1 Oar.
, 14) ; and in the course oif it a severe rebuke is
liven to Diotrepbea, who seems to have qjMk-

DIS

tioned the waihanty of the apostle, and to have
exercbed a most otKcIoiu and unwarrantable
poiAr in the church to which he belonged.
(See John, ■pistlis of.)

DISCERNING OF SPnUTS (1 Cor. ril
10) was one of the miraculous gifts of the Holy-
Ghost, by virtue of which the spirits of men
were med whether they were of God (1 John
iy. 1). It was a most desirable gift in the
f onner aees of the Church, when false prophets
and wicked spirits abounded on every side,
and men of tine character of Simon magus
longed to possess supematuralpower. By the
faculty oi discerning spirits Peter may nave
detected Ananias, and Paul exposed Elymas
the sorcerer

DISCIPLE (Matt x. 34)— one who receives,
or professes to receive, instruction frcmi another
(Matt, xi 2; Luke xiv. 26, 27, 33; John ix.
28). In the New Testament it denotes the
foUowers of any teacher, as of the Baptist
(Matt ix. 14), as also the professed followers
of our Saviour; but not always his true fol-
lowers (Matt xxvi 20, 21 ; John vi 66). The
name is also often appdied to the apostles and
to the body of believers (Acts ix. 1). To all
his disciples the language of the Master is,
** Learn of me."

DISEASE (Deut xxviiL 60). Diseases
come upon us oy reason of sin; so that the
multiplied forms in which sickness and suf-
fering appear among men, to wear out their
frail Domes and hurry them to the grave, are
so many signs of the evil of sin, even in its
present effects. Reference is made to the in-
terposition of God in sending and removing
diseases. The pious Hebrew mind looked
beyond mere secondary causes, and felt that
Crod was the sovereign disposer of all events,
the giver of health, and the inflicter of malady
(PAxxxix.9-11; xc. 3-12).

The plagues, pestilences, and other instru-
mentalities by wnich, in former ages, a multi-
tude of liv«i were destroyed at once were often
miraculous— that is, the natural causes and
progress of disease were either not employed
or were not visible (Exod. xii 23, 29 ; 2 KL
xix. 35; 1 Chr. xxi 12-15; Acts xiL 23). The
plagues of Efinrpt were also of this character.
From an early period we find the agency of
evil spirits employed to afflict and trouble
men ; as in the case of Saul and Job. In the
time of our Saviour they seem to have been
permitted often to take entire possession of
the human frame; in which case the bodily,
and often the mental powers were to a greater
or less extent suspended, and the wretched
sufferer exposed to a train of the most dreadful
dangers and calamities (Matt. xvii. 15; Mark
V. 11-15; Luke ix. 38-40). (See Possessed.)

The diet and habits of the early Jews were
so simple and uniform that diseases were un-
common ; but at a later period we have reason
to believe tibey became frequent and sevcKre,
as the manners and customs of the nation
grew more corrupt and luxurious ; so that we
may suppose amon^ the multitudes which
resorted to our Saviour to be healed of all
220

DIS

manner of diseases there would be found a
fearful list of painful and incurable com-
plaints.

The diseases mentioned in Scripture are —
Bcnie, abscess, atrophy, blindness, boils and
blains, consumption, aemoniacal possession,
deafness, debility, dropsy, dumbn^», dysen-
tery, emerods, fever^ impediment in speech,
itch; inflammation, issue of blood, lameness,
leprosy, loss of appetite, lunacy, melancholy,
palsy, plague, scab, sunstroke, ulcers, worms.
These diseases are particularly noticea in their
appropriate places.

DISH. The word represents three Hebrew
terms and one Greek substantive. It is ap-
plied to vessels used for various purposes.
The phrase, ** he that dippeth his hand with
me in the dish," shows that Judas was re-
clining near Jesus, and pointed him out as the
traitor. (See Eat, Table.)

DISPENSATION (1 Cor. ix. 17). This
word, in its scriptural use, generally denotes
a plan or scheme, or a system of precepts and
principles prescribed ana revealed by God, for
nis own glory and for the advantage and
happiness of his creatures. In Eph. L 10 the
apostle speaks of **the dispensation of the
fulness of times" when Grod is to gather together
in one, or sum up under one head, all thinCT in
Christ, "both which are in heaven and which
are on earth ;" in Eph. iii 2 he describes as *'a
dispensation of the grace of God/' the calling
of the Gentiles— a mystery made known to him
by revelation. Again, in CoL i. 25, he sajrs
ol himself, ** Whereof I am made a minister,
according to the dispensation of God which is

fiven to me for you, to fulfil the word of Grod."
n the passage first above cited it is supposed
to mean authority or commission to preacn the
GospeL The dispensation of the law by Moses
and of the Gospel by Jesus Christ are examples
of the use of the word in its common meaning.
The word is thus nearly equivalent to economy
or arrangement — a plan or process divinely
sanctionea and revealed to in an.

DISPERSED, DISPERSIONS (Isa. xi.
12 ; Jer. xxv. 34 • John viL 35). These terms
are usually- apphed to the Jews, who,^ after
their captivity, and still more emphatically,
after the final destruction of their holy city,
were scattered abroad through the earth, both
in the East and West, as may be learned from
the scene at Pentecost, (Acts ii.) The disper-
sion of the Greeks, or the Western dispersion,
is referred to in John vii. 35 ( Jas. i 1 ; 1 Pet.
il).

DISTAFF (Prov. xxxi. 19)— the staff on
which the woollen or flaxen thread was rolled
in spinning. The Hebrew word conveys the
idea of roundness (2 Sam. iii. 29). In Neh. iiL
12-14 it is rendered "part;" but it denotes a
circuit roimd Jerusalem. The Hebrews no
doubt learned the art of spinning in Egypt.
In that country flax and cotton were spun
and woven by rude and simple processes,
principally bv female servants or domestic
slaves, but bleached and dried, pressed and
folded by men. The warp usually contained

DIT
dotibis the Qtntidt of tha weft Sonu t^MH

wooL Tha fipMieaa of imJi tlira»iUi»Mli

ing qwdmen of the ahganoe ud dexterity of
himimI labour mthoat the Ifipliiooee of
modem ■""*'■— t In Olugow oDttoD ia
■pun aa fine and worm M eloaalj, thM, ^
• oommoii oIms of ounbriei^ mMinhetored
tor ordintf; ule, tliere am Sw threadi in (be
aqiuin inclL In the n»th ot Ittlaad linen ii
prodnced Tuyin^ from 200 to MO tbifKilii
per inch ; bat ■ piece of cambric »h made for
the neat IxiTtdon exhibition of 1851, having
in the HUne n«oe no less than 600 thraade ;
and which, after all, ia not roach finer than
the Egrptitui web alraady referred to.

BITCH. Variou. words are bo rendered.
One of them is traualated pit, Jer. lii. 3. and
another tngiiifiH a pool. lea. xxii. IL Ditches,
inch aa those with lu, are not found in Palestine.

DIVINATION {beat xriiL 10| is the prac
tice of divining or of foretelliog f ature events.
In the passage dted it is put in coimeotion
with witchcraft, oecronuuic^, and other abomi.
nadons of the heathen, which the Jews were
to avoid. Divination was a prevailing nn

is said of Joseph's cup (Gen. xliv, SI that
he divined by it. It is not to be inferied.

■od alwajB for God's Klory. It may be .
Joseph's officer mistook the gifts of his lord,
mnd professed, or really did believe, or was
instrocted to say, that he had the power of
divination. Such a custom yet sorvivea among
the Araha, and liolds a high plaoe among the
delusions nractiaed by the jpuariro, or female
fotoiM-tellsrB, of Sootland.

Arrows w«i« also shot, with names engraven
OD them, in order to discover the future of an
iufividoal or the dsstmjof aaentsrpriH (Eiek.
zxLIl). TbeprophstHoseasaya— "M^peopla
ask oomuel at thdr stocks, and their steff

deelaieth mito them" (Hob. iv. 12). Not Ions'
ago, in onr own ooontiy, a dMMing "stafi"

oovery of wells or metals nndemeadi*i„.
([nniud. In the passage quoted from Eseldsl
inspection of the viscera of »"""»'■ is Mforred
to also as a mode of divination. It was one
that prevailed extensively in Qnsoe and
Boma. Great stress was laid on dreams, aa
omens ot the fntnre, on the flight of birds and
on the motions and positions <4 the staia.
The Jews bad also a pecDliar mpentitinn
which they term Bathk<d, daogfatcr of t
voioe, whir"- '-""" '- '-' '-'- - '- -

into an intimation of tha wOlfffbsATen. Sonte-
times, too, impcatcn ^pnrfessed to inviA» Oe
dead, and at other tmies tbe^ dMdved Uie

many of than pccftnt^ t

scienoe. Thcj wme oo& • pieoe of Jng^eiy
done by • mpoior koowledge ef the laws «E
aoonstics and eptios, )». (See Bfhkdb,
WrroH.)

The piaetiee <f dirination In aQ its forms k
reprobated with marked ssveri^ by the law
of^Ueees and by the saored writasJLev. zz.
27; Deut xviiL 914; Jer. liv. 14i Eiek. liii
8, 9). It is a brand) of pagan idolatry and
Bupergtition ; and in whatever form it is prao-
ttaed or renrded, it lb reproadhfnl to Chris-
tianity, and orguee great folly, ignorance, and
sin (2 Pet i. 19).

DIVIDED, DIVISION OP NATIONE
(See Nations.)

DIVORCE (Jer. iii. 8)— the dissolntini of
the marrisge relatian. This was permitted by
the law of Mosea, for nBHnts «( local expe-
diency, aikd under oircninstanoea peouliar to
their situation M K people. It was a mere
dvil regulation, and ssams to have been so
much abnsed I^ the lioentioas that it becsme
common for a nun to pnt away liis wife for
the most trivial canse; uid many ot the Jewish
doctors conteiKled that this was the spirit of
the taw. The school d Hillel and Sohanvmai
had quarrelled keenly on this point about tiis
time of Christ, the fonner intertHvting the law
with the ntmost laxity, the latter more in ac-
Dordaoce with the spirit of the Mosaio enact-
ment. To tempt our Saviour b) say something
offensive, they put the question to him whether
a lawful to do this ; and in the coutee of
Mnversation which ensued he reprovei
their conduct in this particular with great
iveiity, and restraine the practice to one
ass ol cases (Matt lix. S-9). (See Uab-

The husband was required to pre his wife
_ writing or bill of divorcement, m which was
set forth the date, pUce^ and cause of her

hation, and a penaiasion was given by it

. ury whom she pleased. She could not

be remarried to her first husband it she bad
meanwhile married soy other man.

The foUowiiw is aocfiyof one of thoM "bdlli

DOD

of divorce f* — " On the fbniih day of the week,
on tiie eleventh day of the month ChialeiL in
th^jrear five thousand four hundred and fiity-
fovr from the creation of the world, according
to the computation which we^ follow here in
the oty of Amsterdam, which is called Aftutd-
redam, situated by the side of the sea called
Taya, and by the river Amstel, I, Abraham,
tiie son of Benjamin, sumamed Wolff, the
priest, and at this time dwelling in the city
or Amsterdam, which is called Amttdredatn,
which is situated by the seaside called Tava,
and by the river Amstel ; or if I have any other
name, or surname, or my parents, or my place,
or tiie place of n^ parents ; by my own free-
will, without any compulsion, do put awav,
dismiss, and divorce thee, my wife Kebekah,
the daughter of Jonah the Levite ; who at this
time resides in the city of Amsterdam, called
AnuUlredam, situated by the seaside^ called
Taya, and by the river Amstel; or if thou
hast any other name, or surname, or thy
parents, or thy place, or the place of thy
parents : Who wast heretofore my wife ; but
now I put thee awajr, dismiss, and divorce
thee ; so that from this time thou art in thine
own power, and art at thine own disposal, and
mayest be married to any other man whom
thou pleasest; and let no man hinder thee in
my name, from this day forward and for ever ;
and. lo, tnou art free to any man. Let this be
to tnee, from me, a bill of divorce, an instru-
ment of dismission, and a letter of sei>aration,
according to the law of Moees and Israel.

" Sealtiel, the son of PaltieL witness.

'* Calonymus, the son of Gaoriel, witness.**

The woman also seems to have had power,
at least in a later period of the Jewish state,
to put away her husband (Mark z. 12). As
may be seen from the Mishna, in the coapter
called Gittin, the laws and regulations of the
Jews on this point are very cunous and minute.

DOCTOR (Luke ii. 46). Doctors or teachers
of the law were those who made it their busi-
ness or profession to teach the law of Moses ;
and they were in great repute among the
Jews. Some have distinguished the scribes
from the doctors, by supposing that the former
wrote their opinions, wnile the latter taught
extemporaneously. The doctors were generally
of the sect of the Pharisees; perhaps always
(Luke V. 17). Their teaching was trifling and
ludicrous in the extreme. They made void the
law by their traditions. The Talmud is an
unwieldy specimen and collection of their
strange quiobUngs and proud and casuistical
conceits. (Sec Prophets.)

DODANIM. (See Dedan. )

DOEG. (See Ahimelecu.)

DOG (Exod. xi. 7). The dog was not only
an unclean animal by the Jewish law, but was
regarded with pecuUar contempt (Exod. xxil
31 ; Deut. xxiii 18; 1 Sam. xvii. 43: xxiv. 14;
2 Sam. ix. 8 ; 2 Ki. viil 13; PhiL iiL 2; Rev.
xxii. 15) : and he is so regarded at the present
day by tne Turks, who can find no more abu-
sive and contemptuous language to apply to a
Christian than to call him a dofl^Giaour.

222

DOG

Solomon puts a living dog in contrast with
a dead lion, to show tnat the meanest thing
alive is of more importance than the noblest
that is dead (EccL ix. 4). Abner*s exclama-
tion, "Am I a dog's head?" (2 Sam. iiL 8.)
has a signification of the same kind. Isaivi
expresses the necessity of repentance and sin-
cerity to make a sacrifice acceptable to Grod,
by aedarinfi: that without them *'he that
sacrifices a lamb does nothing better than if
he had cut off a dog*s neck^ fisa. Ixvi. 3).
The only useful purpose to whicn dogs appear
to have been put was to guard the flocks ^ob
XXX. 1); and even in this passage Uiey are

rken of with contempt. Isaiah may l>e iin-
Btood to allude to this manner of employing
them in his description of the spiritual watch-
men of Israel (Isa. Ivi. 10, 11).
^ Although dogs were numerous in the Jewish
cities, they were not kept in their houses, but
wandered through the streetsi piddng up
whatever was thrown^fmt of tne remains of
the table, after the family had eaten. So
David speaks of his wicked enemies — ** They
return at evening: they make a noise like a
dog, and go round about tiie dty. . . . And
at evening let them return ; and let them make
a noise like a dog, and go round about the city.
Let them wander up and down for meat^ and
grudge if they be not satisfied " (Ps. lix. 6, 14,
15). The Mosaic law directed the people to
throw to the dogs the flesh that was torn by
beasts — **Ye shall be holy men unto me:
neither shall ye eat any flesh that is torn of
beasts in the field; ye shall cast it to the
dogs** (Exod. xxii 3i). This manner of Uv-
in^ accounts for the savageness of these
animals among that people. They preyed
upon human flesh, and licked the blciod of the
shun. The dogs ate Jezebel Sometimes
they were wild enough to attack men, as blood-
hounds do (1 Ki xiv. 11 ; xvi. 4 ; xxi 19, 23 ;
xxii. 38; 2 Ki ix. 10, 36; Ps. xxii 16, 20;
Ixviii 23 ; Jer. xv. 3). Their habits made
them dangerous to touch. " He that passeth
by, and meddleth iBvith strife belonging not to
him, is like one that taketh a dog by the ears **
(Prov. xxvi. 17).

In ancient Greece, as may be gleaned from
Homer, the dogs occupied a higher status—
perhaiw higher than they hold in modem
Europe.

The eastern people were in the practice of
appl3ring the names of animals to men who
resemble them in their disposition ; as we call
a cunning man a fox, a brave man a lion, kc
So our Saviour told his disciples — ** Give not
that which is holy unto the dogs, lest they
turn upon you, and tear you," after they have
eaten it (Matt, vii 6); meaning that they
should not offer the sacred things of ^e G<wpel
to those insolent and abominable men who
would only heap abuse on them for it : having
reference also to the practice of the priests at
the altar, who would not throw to the dogs
any of the meat used in sacrifice. He told also
the S3rro-pb(£nician woman that it was not
proper to give the chilcbren's meat to dofft

DOO
aSmO. XT, 30)— that is, the Goqwl mi Hot
ftnt to the Jem, who u« called the childrsn,
and WW) not yet to be given to oiM of the
GentdlH, u ake woe, whom the Jewi called
dogi ; that tha diildicD miut be first (ad More
the meat wai thiDwh into the itceeL Thoae
who are ihut out of the kingdom of beaven
are don Hoteren, to. (Bay. xxiL IS), where
the WMdia applied to allldiidiof vile pnnoni,
aa it ii to a partictiiar claae in Dent xxiiL 18.
The l^ottie says (PhiL iii, 2), " Beware <d
doga" — that ia, impudent and rapacioiu Jnda-
JKTi. Id 1 Sun. xxv. 3 we md nf Nabal,
Qiat h( vrae "chuiliHh and evil in hia ddngs,
and he wbb ot the hotue of Caleb." Tb« Urt
clauH litenlif {•, " he vaa o( Caleb" — Lt.,
a CaleMte, vmch boidb of the veisongreiidar,

KDarling. This vereion ia, however, :
donbtinl The Hebrew don not itaelf read
(as Wation in his Dietionary afflima}, ha was
Ae son of a dog; Th^ompaiiioti of Solomm
illnstnting the letmn of a fool to hii folly,
tited in 2 Fat. iL 22, ia taken from a Datmij
foot Feneonton are called dcga, Ps. xiii.

DOV
who wen d giMt d^dtj aad pown^ aa thar
also fon^t agunat oUier deitm Ttie weed
dooikeeper, lhsrefca«, does not oonTsy the idea
of hnmiUty, but of hononr. He mai^al
leading, howeve^ 'to ait at the thnduld,' at
once lUkea an Eastern mind as a ntnatun of
deep hnmilit?. See the poor heathen dnotee,
he goes and ots near the thiediold of bis temple.
Look at the beggar, ha dts, or proatnrtee
hinuelf at the thrcohold of the door oi gate,
tdU he shall bare gained his suit. I tCinfc,
thenfoie, the paalmiat refei* to tba ttttitode
uf a beggo^ > snppticant at the thieahold of
the hoDise of the Lord, a* being prefeiable to '
the splendid dwellings of the widied." —
BobertB' OriaUal lUuttratioiu of atriptvn,
p. 34&

DOH IJodR. i 27). This is now a smaU
town on the Ueditarranean coaot, abont 9 mile*
north of Cnnrea, and dose upon tha beaoh.
Ita present name u Tantui^ It was formeiiy
a royal city, ra' cuital of a district of Canaan
(Jortt. xii SS), and was aadgnad to the half-

UtiHd FeriT-boat

DOOB, (See DwELLWoa.)

DOORKEEPER (Pi. lnav. 10). The
original word in this verae warrants die trans-
lation of the margin — " I would choose rather
to sit at the threebold." But BttinR at the
threahold da«B not necessarily imply the office

n any bnilding where the fear and

wotship of God were absent. He would rather
sit on the hard cold stones of the threshold c^
tha saactuary than recline on the soft and
sumptnooB couches of the great and noble
who did not honour Jehovah. Mr. Roberts,
in his Orimial lUuttration*, give! the phn»
a somewhat diSerent aspect, though not
indeed very iTi«»iTnil»r : —

" I believe tha word doorkeeper does not
convey the proper meaning of the words, ' to
sit at the threshold;' because the preference
of the pealmiat was evidently given to a
very humble eitnation, whereas that of a
doorkeeper, in Eastern ertimation, is truly

reepevtable and confldentiaL The "'

always represented aa having

Uc Biih, speaks of having aaeii It.
DORCAS, ^ee Tabttea.)
DOTHAN {bio. mrii. IT) waa dtnated
near Jeireel, abont 12 miles north of Sa-
maria at a naiTow pass in the monntdns
of Ouboa. It is memorable
as the plane where Joseph's
brethren siild him, and also
where the Syrian troops at-
tempted to seize Elisha (2 KL
TL 13-23).

" The reputedpit of Joseph
is in a court by the side of tJle
Kbln, and is described by
Burdchardt M 3 feet in dia-
meter, and at least 30 feet
deep. The bottom is sud to
be hewn in the rock, and the
water never to fail ; the sides are built up with
masonry. The Christian tniditiuii, which makes
this the place of Joseph's abduction, fixes here
also, as a matter of course, Dothaim ; and the
whole l^^d was probably at first connected
with the hypothesis that Uie adlacent fortress
of Safed was the Bethglia of JuditL Bethulia
and Dothaim were indeed not far distant from
each other, but the book of Judith obviously

riks of them aa on the south of the plain
Esdraelon; while Eusebius and Jerome
deStiitely place Dothaim at IZ Roman miles
north of Sebaste. (Robinson, iiL', p. 316-)

DOTING (1 Tim. vi 4)-3gaifies being ei-
cesdvely foud of, or foolishly and vunly Dent
upon, questions and strifes about mere words.

DOUGH. (See Brud.)

DOVE (Gen. viiL 9] -a bird clean by the
Mosaic law, and often mentioned by the sacred
writers. In their wild state tbey dwell prin-
cipally in holes in the rocks (Song iL 14 ; Jer.
iTviiL 28). They are innocent in their disposi-
tions, and make no resistance to their enemies )
and therefore our Lord said to bis follower^
"Be ye therefore wise as serpents, and harm-
less as doves" (MatL z. 16). They are very

much attached to their ftates ; and when one
is absent or dievthe other, or surviTor, hunents
its kfnelineaa. The mourning note of the doye
is (nUn alluded to by the prophets (Isa. xxxviii
14; liz. 11; Ezek. vii 16; Nah. iL 7). There
are Abo various allusions to the mildness,
peaoefulnesB, and affection of doves (Ps. Ixxiv.
19: Song i 15; ii 14; iv. 1; v. 2; vi 9).
"Wnere "doves' eyes" are spoken of in these
passages, allusion is made to the meekness of
their expression. It is thought by eminent
critics that Song v. 12 is wrongly translated:
that allusion is made to a deep blue coloured
pigeon common in the EasL and that it is
meant to compare the white ot the eye to milk,
and .the iris to a blue pigeon: and that the
comparison is, ** His eyes are like a dark-blue
pigeon, standing in the middle of a pool of
muk.'* It was as a dove that the Holv Spirit
descended upon our Saviour at his Saptism
(Matt iii. 16; Mark L 10; Luke iiL 22; John
i 32). Rosea compares timid Ephraim to " a
silly dove without neart" (Hoe. vii Uh and
says that when the Jews shall be called to
their own land they shall '* tremble," or fly
"as a dove out of the land of Assyria" (Hos.
XL 11). David in his distress wished that he
could fly from his troubles as the doves do to
warmer climates on the approach of winter
(Ps. Iv. 6-8). The appearance of the dove is
spoken of as an emblem of spring (Son^ ii. 12).

The dove is mentioned in an interesting part
cf the early history of the world as being sent
out by Noah from the ark, that he might dis-
cover whether the dry land had appeared.
The raven sent out by him did not return ; the
dove came back to the ark, and at last brought
in her bill an "olive leaf plucked off" (Gen.
viii 6-12).

The dove was used in sacrifices. It was,
among other animals, prepared by Abram
when Grod manifested his mtention to bless
him, as narrated in Gen. xv. 9. When a child
was bom the mother was reouired, within a
certain time, to bring a lamb and a young
pigeon, or turtle, for offerings ; but if she was
too poor to afford a lamb, she might bring two
turtles or two young pigeons (Lev. xii 6-8).
Thus we may judge of the poverty of Mary,
the mother of Jesus, when, upon his birth, she
brought to the temple at Jenisalem the two
birds instead of a lamb (Luke iL 24). It was
to supply mothers with animals for sacrifice
that tnose persons sat in the temple with doves
to sell, whom our Lord forced to leave it,
because "the house of prayer" was not a fit

5 lace for buying and selling (Mark xi 15;
ohn iL 14-16).

There is some obscurity in Ps. IxviiL 13 —
"Though ye have lien among the pots, yet
shall ye be as the wings of a dove covered with
silver, and her feathers with yellow gold;"
but the natural import of it is most probably
the correct one. The design of the psalmist
is to present in contrast the condition of the
Israehtra (who are addressed) at two periods of
their history. In the day of their afliiction
And calamity they were covered as it were
224

DRA

with shame and confusion ; but in the day of
their prosperity they should resemble the
cleanest and most beautiful of birds.

The allusion in Isa. Ix. 8 may be to the
immense compact masses of these birds that
eastern travellers describe as they are seen
flying to their houses or places of general resort.
Tney sometimes resemble a distant heavy (dond,
and are so dense as to obscure the rays of the
sun. (See Tdrtle Dove.)

Dove's dung (2 KL vL 25). There are but
two modes of interpreting this passage, either
of which is satisfactory. The first is, that this
I>articular substance was remarkably valuable
as a mxtnure for those vegetables wmch might
be soonest raised to supply the famishing
Samaritans. The dung of pigeons is still the
dearest manure which the Persians use. The
revenue of a pigeon-house, according to Morier,
is about 100 tomauns per annum ; and the great
value of this duni^, nf^ch rears fruit Hmt is
indispensable to the ^tfstence of the natives
during the great heat ^summer, will probably
throw some light on the startling assertion
that, in the famine of Samaria, the fourth
part of a cab of dove's dung was sold for five
pieces of silver. And the other opinion is, that
a vegetable resembling the chick-pea, or lentil,
is intended, which resembles dove's dung in
appearance, and is stiU a common article of
food at Cairo, Damascus, &c., especially for
eastern pilgrims, and of which the cab would
be a suitable measure. Others suppose it to be
an esculent root common in the East — a ver-
nacular name for the well-known Suir of Beth-
lehem. The passage evidently expresses tiie
extreme seven^ of the famine. (See Ass.)

DOWRY (Gen. xxx. 20), in the eastern
acceptation of the word, means that which the
husband pays or gives as a present for his wife,
instead of that which the wife receives from
her father and brings to her husband (Gren.
xxix. 18; xxxiv. 12; 1 Sam. xviiL 25). So,
according to Exod. xxiL 16, 17, a man was
reouired to pay a certain sum as dowry for a
seduced maid; and this was to be according
to the rank she sustained, and such as the
fathers of virgins of the same rank were accus-
tomed to receive for their daughters (Hos. iiL
2). (See Betroth, Mabbiaoe.)

DRAGON (Job xxx. 29). It is quite un-
certain what animal, if any, is intendeid by this
name. It is not improbable that it is a generic
term, denoting some class of animals distin-
guished by some common characteristic : and
yet, from Lam. iv. 3 and Mic. L 8, we uiould
infer that the word is applied to a particular
animal that cries and gives suck. The word
translated drctgon (Isa. xxviL 1) is translated
whalt (Gen. L 21; Job. vii. 12), serpent (Exod.
viL 9), and dragon fDeuL xxxiL 33 ; Ps. xcL 13).
In Isa. xxxiv. 13 the word translated dmaom
means some creature of the wilderness, wnose
presence denotes desolation. So in Job xxx.
29; Ps. xUv. 19; Jer. ix. 11— in all which
passages solitude and desolation are intoided
to be illustrated (Mia i 8).

The figurative use of this term by the MCted

writen^ as in Pb. Ixziv. 13: Ezek. xxix. 3 ;
Bey. xii 3, and xz. 2, is sufficiently olmons.
In the first two of these passages it seems to
refer to ^e crocodile, an emblem of Egypt, as
is apparent from the second passage. In the.
Apocaljrpse it seems to be a symbol of the
du'k, maligpant, and cunning spirit of Evil,
either in lumself or in those numan agencies
whidi he inspires and employs.

DRAMS. (See Mkasubbs.)

DRAUGHT (Matt. zv. 17). 1. A vault or
drain for tho reception of filth. In this sense
it is probably used, 2 Ei x. 27. 2L When
apidied to fishes, it means those which are
caught by one sweep or drawing of the net
(Luke V. 9).

DRAWmO OF WATER. (See Wells.)

DREAM (Dan. viL 1). From a very early
period dreams have been observed with super-
stitiouB regard. God was pleased to make use
of them to reveal his flBrposes or requirements
to individual, and h^yMo gave power to inter-

CT; xzvii'

pret them (Gen. xx. SV: xxviii. 12-14 ; 1 Sam.
xxviii 6; Dan, iL ; Joel ii. 28). And if any
person drsamed a dream which was peculiarly
strildng and significant, he was permitted to
go to ue high priest, in a particular way, and
see if it had any special import. But the
observance of ordinary dreams, and the con-
sultation of those who pretend to skill in their
interpretation, are rep«Bitedly forbidden (Dent,
xiii 1-5; xviii 9-14).

God emi)loyed dreams in -former times for
the revelation of his will (Job xxxiii 14-16).
Saul complained that Grod answered him not
" by dreams." This was imitated hj the false
prophets, and Jeremiah inveighs against them
( Jer. xxiii 25, 27, 28).

The words dream and vision are sometimes
used indiscriminately^ (Gfen. xlvi. 2 ; Num. xii
6; Job XX. 8; xxxiii. 14, 15; Dan. ii. 28; vii
I), thoup;fa elsewhere they would seem to be
distipgmahed (Joel ii 28).^ When used in con-
nection with tne communication of the Divine
will, the difference may be, that in the one
the Imowledge was given to . the person in
sleep, and in the other during his wakmg hours.
In respect to Paul*s vision (2 Cor. xii L 2, 4),
it is tnought by some to be doubtful whether
his soul were not separated from the body,
and permitted to mingle for a moment with
celestial beings ; for we must remember that
all our notions of space and distance between
this world and the world of spirits are very
feeble and limited. Sometimes miraculous
revelations of God*s will are called visions
(Luke i 22; 1 Sam. iii 15). (See Thorn,
Tbawcb, ViSIOH.)

Our space does not permit us to enter into
the psychology of dreaming. Dreams are
alluded to in Scripture often as ordinary phe-
nomena. Job says (ch. vii 14), *'Then thou
flcarest me with dreams, ana terrifiest me
through visions.** Solomon explains the source
of many of them, when he says (EccL v. 3),
" For a dream oometh through the multitude
of business;** and he describes the character
of the majority of them, when he adds,

jpBI

** For in the multiXde of dreams and buudv
words there are also diven vanitaes** (EocL

Y.J).

The power of interpreting draaaii will of
course a supernatural gift, so far as th0 dreams
had reference to future events; for thlfco are
necessarily unknown, except to tiM Supreme
Disposer of them. In this wav J osepn was
divmelyinstructed (Gren. xL 5. 8; xU. 16), and
so was i>anieL Since the fuller revelation of
Gk>d*s will has been made to us in the Gfoepel,
all confidence in dreams, as indicative of
future events, is presumptuous and ddusive;
and all pretension to the power of interpret-
ing them must be regarded as in the hi^est
degree impious and absurd. (See Tbavob,

ViSIOF.)

DRESS. (See Clothes.)

DRINK (Gen. xxi 19). The use of strong
drink, even to excess, was not uncommon
among the Israelites. This is inferred fitnn
the striking figures with which the use and
effects of it have furnished the sacred writers
(Ps. cvii 27; Isa. xxiv. 20; xlix. 26; Ii 17-22:
and also from various express prohilntions ana
penalties (Prov. xx. 1; Isa^ ▼. 11; Hab. li
15,16).

Dbink, btrovo. The Hebrew term Mke^ar,
rendered " strong drink,** by some is supposed
to be allied to ker^ and to be seen in the Latin
cremare. The term denoting "strong drink,**
from a root signifying to burn, may rSer either
to the mode of preparing it or to the burning
and feverish effects of mtoxication. Others
suppose it to be allied to a large family of
woxtls found in ahnost all tongues; shechar
being a sister term to sugar, suckar in Scotch,
zucker in Grermon, saocharum in Latin, trlKcpa
in Greek, with other similar forms existing in
many of the Oriental vocabularies. The root
is often used in Scripture to describe intoxica-
tion, as Gen. ix. 21 ; 1 SauL i 13, 25-36 ; 2 Sam.
xi 13^ 1 Ki XX. 16; Job xii 25; Ps. cvii 27;
IstL XIX. 14; Jer. xxiii 9. In all these pas-
sages the verb or its participle refers to intox-
ication; as they refer to ^oah, who was so
drunk that he lay shamelesriy without apparel ;
to Hannah, who appeared to Eli to mutter
unintelligibly under stupefying inebriation ; to
Nabal, who was sunk into utter insensibility ;
and to the staggering and vomiting which
strong drink produces. The noun whicn claims
kindred with such a verb, and which differs
from it only very slightiy in pronunciation,
is naturally supposed to signinr a variety of
intoxicating dnnks. The prophet Isaiah de-
scribes it as produdnp^ the same sensual and
beasUy effects as wme (Isa. xxviii 7, 8).
The term therefore seems to indicate any
intoxicating drink, whether brewed from gnun
or made of noneycomb, dates, or boiled fruits.
The Alexandrian interpreters, who were doubt-
less familiar with the barley-wine or beer of
^^7P\ render tins word by other terms signi-
fying intoxicating drink. Jerome, who in
this case " spake what he knew,** savs, that
shechar means every sort of drink that can
intoxicate,, which is made from grain or apple-

225

DRt
hdM, or wluin boiM7-aaaiba trt boiled down

Om fruit of the
palm gquMied out
^ Mid nude into

-\ liquor, uid when
wMot receiTBB &
.- oolour uid can-
't BitencT from pre-
pued herts. Tbs
phnM, "vfineand
rtrong drink" oc-
curs together MT-
or»! timen in Scrip-
turp, probably one-
uid -twenty times
and plainly meanii
Vfioe uid every

Cluldee pmphraata nndentood it ; to did Philo
the Jew; for the eiplui>tioD we haie KJveo in
Jtut his dafinition, m well » that of Origen,
the nott biblical •cholar of early timis.
Bbecur ii " Btape^iiiff,'' oyn Chrynoetuin ;
and Jerome often traiulates the t«nn by the
nmple word fbhOa*, drunkenneiH. Uegychius
define* it u meanins intoxicatitiff drink not
made frosi grapes. With the HebTews, i

DM

among the nHt, figs, pome*
granatee, apples, and particnlari; dates. Thia
date wine was in great r«queat among tbe
Farthiana, Indians, and other OiientiaiB; and
is said by Xenophon to have produced severe
headaches- We may naturally infer that the
strong drink includes this liquor of dat^ aa
well as ether artificial bevetaets.

The Mishna Hpeaks of '
[edeis" which Bartenon says was a beer
lade from wheat or barley steeped in water ;
_jid Diodorus Siculus says that the Egyptian
be<ir already referred to, xd ix tjjt xptO^v
nrofio, is not much inferior to wine in fra-
gnuice and strength. Pliny says that these
artificial winea Bt« ini^n capUi — too strong
for tbe head— and that the best of them an
jjorious.
In fine, we must ii<

mjor

I, this

iting

liquor — npiced wine. The priest when aboul
to officiate, and the Nazante during hia vow,
were to dnnk neither wine oor strong drink
— neither wine nor any other intoiicating
draoght When Hannah justified herself
from the imputation of Eh, she said, " I
have drunk neither wine nor rtrong drink"—
neither wine nor any other intoxicating be-
verage. "Wine is a mocker, strong drink is
raging." The cognate Arabic terms also denote
drunkenness. Mairo'ioides, the famous rabbi,
■ayi, that " strong drink " is made from crushed
wheat, bariey, and other things. In some pas-
sages of Scripture the allied verb does not
dtecriba absolute intoiication ; yet it seems lo
imply the use of a liquor which, if taken to
eicesa, poBsessed the power of inebriating.
That the Hebrews had sweet aAnibt— syrups
or dibt—ao one will deny ; but none of Uiese
ever come under the designation of "strong
drink" in Scripture, "Strong drink" is nut
■weet drink ; nor can a mere %ure. as in Isa.
xiiv. 9, prove it; and shechar surely can at no
time mean the mere fruit of the palm, any
more tJuui ale can signify the hu-ley from
which it a brewed— barlev either in its natural
or malted sUte. In Num. vi. 3 Onkeliw
renders the term by " old wine." If we com.
pare Exod. xiix. 40 with Num. iiviii. 7 we
shall find that strong drink is used in the
latter passage for nine itcelf. And lastly.
Bishop Lowtb, though he "»«■"'■«'"« that
"sweet drink is the correct rendering of
aheehar, nyi, on !■& t. 11, that it has
"its name bom its remarkable uKbruHnj)
gualitieB."

Other nations had tbe same beverage. Fliny
enioaeratei varioni vegetables which enter into

never foiget that the drink-
no ordinary magnitude. Drunkenness is as
disgusting as it is ruiaous. It crazes the
phydcaJ coQsldtutioa and damns the immortal
souL Inspired authority affirms that no
drunkard ■'^shall inherit the kingdom of God."
It is a sin very insidious in its nature, and must
be carefully guarded agwnst from our earliest
yean. It ste^ away characler and it injures
health. It prostrates the powers of the intel-
lect, deadens the moral sen^Diilities, and often,
eicites its victim into a fiend, or degrades him
into a brute. Men of patriotic and Christian
benevolence have of late years formed associ-
.tions on the Tirincil-le of abalineQce from all
nt'>xicittiiig drinks, which have been in many
lasoa happily succeasfuL ITie facta and ex-
hmples which thiy have accumulated are
LWlully striking in their nature, full of warn-
-na, and yet replete with encouragement to
all who rejoice in the progress of sobriety, and
in the eitirpation of a prevalent, infectioun,
hardening, and destructive vice. (See Wink,

VlNEOAR-j

DRINK OFFERING. (See Oitkbiso.)
DEOMEPARY-«r./( runner (I«a. Ix. 6)
—a species of the camel remarkable for swift-
ness of motion (.ler. ii. 23), which is from CO
to 90 miles or more in a day. He differa
from the ordinary camel in that he is smallet.

degree of heaL Ha
oaa Dns one nump or protuberance oti the
back. He is contrDlled by a bridle fastened in

•ftRO
ft Ting wUch pauM throagli the nose (3 KL ilx.
38). (SeeCuniJ

DHOUGHT (P«, nrii. 4). From ths end
of April to B«pt«mbeT the luid of Jodeft wu
Tray dry. It vim " the dnraght of nnnmer."
TtMgnairai lometiinei oompletdy ndlhend
(Pi. dL 4)>juid Um parohed with broken into

the earth like iron (Dent. xzriiL 33), ud all
the land and ttw ereatnrw apon it mffered;
and Dothinff bat the copioiu dewi ot tb« idght
ptuecaved the life of any living thins (Hag. L
U). The beat waa at timea exmvuve. Dt

d at 100 dcgreea of Fahnmhsit a

■eipent vwiee bite waa pcnaooona^ and attended
wiu imatiahle aDd" Wooiiing tlunt. But the
ndinaiy meaning u the word ie oeitaiDly
HUaopriate to the nibjact and comiectdon.

DsvuKStaasaB. (8«ei>BiFi,wiin.;

DBUSILLA (Aols zxIt. 24)_-t^ dar-
ter of the Herod irtu> is mmUoned Acta xiL
1-4, 20-23. She married FeUx the Boman
Koremor wfaile ihe bad snotBer bnaband
Uving, AzixQB, king of Emesa. fihewaapKseat
at the hearing of the apoetle Paul before her
huaband at Cffieareo.

DUKE (Gen. ixxvl IS) means only a chief
<x leader, and ii not a title of nobility.

DUl,GIMBR,awKPr(DHJL
iiL e, 10). The instrument
denoted by tbij word wab a
pipe or flute of reed, like what
the Italioiu caJl lampogna.
The Rablnos describe it an two
pipes connected with a leather
sack or Bidn. The dulcimer
of the present day ia entirely
unlike it, both in form and in
the mode of anng it Some
have mppoeed that the word

lather than an instnuD<

■old by weight Hence, as ti

wuyn says it is a yeiy eomnum material for
heatm^ ovens, even amang pec^ of Mmforl-
able circmnstanoak Niebnhr sayi, that In
Arabia the eicrementi of Msea. mm eamelt
are oolleoted in the (traets by ddldren, wtd
mixed with out itimw. It is ihen put in the
sun to drjr, and ia Am fitted for om. The
effluvia ariamg from the nas of it mnit be tbit
oSenrivs, and must alao mnetrate the food.
Liquid mannie— "looter ^dm^"— is refared
to m Isa. zxv. 10 ; and ooUeobons ot mannra
ontaide towna gave rise to miA iiipiMaliiiiii as
the dang gate (Neh. u. 13). Sanitaiy reenla-
tions were itrictly enforeed (Deal triii. 13;
Lev. zrix. 14). To make a man's honaa a
dunghill or pnUio receptacle <rf ordure was
deepest ignonuny (Dan. iL S: iiL 29) : so was
the menaoB made in UaL il 3; 1 ^ xiv.
10. To grovel on a dunghill was the maA at
profound soiTow and musnoboly (1 Sam. &.
S; Pi. cxiii. 7).

Ddho, Doti'8. fflee Dovi.)

DVBA (Dan. iU. 1)— an ezteodve rialn
in the provinoe of Babylon, where Nebnehad-
neoar oaiued the golden image to be ateoted.
The wind means "plain," and M. Oppsrt
finds it in a plun called Dowair, to the
Bouth-eaat ot Babylon. He nffirma, too, that
he discovered here the pedestal of a colossal

the r

a of which a

recognized at a village called

ed-Daumeli, 6 miles Bontb-west

of Hebron. 2. The Domah

which is the anhject of prophecy in Isa. irL 11

was probably a country settled by the descen-

iiv. 14). It ia BSid tbat they inhabited the
boniers ot the dewrt of Syna, 160 milee or
20O milee from Damaacus ; and b district of
country is there still bearing the name of
.Z>wiia Uu Samp, or the Sffrim Dvtaa. Others
regard the woida aa onlf a diflarent spelling
of Edom or Idumea. In this opinion the
Septuagint and Janhi concur, followed by
Knobd and EoeenmUller : while the former
is advocated by Geeauius, Ewald, and Hitiig.

DUST (Job iL 12). Sitting in the dust was
a token of deep hnmUiation (Lam. iiL 29) ;
while casting aahes upon the head was a
symbol of monming (Joah. viL 6). We read
in 2 Sam. ivl. 13 that Shimei cursed David,
threw stones at him. and cast dost— literally,
as in the mar^n, duated him with dust"
This seems to have been a spedes of impreca-
tion, and ia yet common in the East Thus
it ia laid of the Jews, when they raged agvnst
Paul, that they threw dust in the air, aa Ukey
■honted, " Away with such a fellow from the
rwth, for it is not fit that he ahoold live." To

DU8
ahkkc oS Uw dnit <rf
{K>tLx.M:lIaik*i U; Acta xfiL Sit «r
•zpMiiTe M aotiTC Tenimmataim. The €1
ttma ia midland to Imv bna eommMi Miun
tba Jnn. Attar tke; bad Mt > foot i
iMMfhwii ominil tbar ihook ofi tlie diut, so _
^TP'll^ti or poQtltiiig into their

tbon be dMiiored", (Sent, nviii 24). In
dnertB (j &M nud, iriikh, vhm i^tat«d bj

BiuiL^

wrfnl (Md-atonu*:

pl«gn« mnitioned in Biod.

Mdribaa oim ot tbnos
"The monmifi: ma

,. it •

aBwed to • mUe,

, and as ereiyluHiT ^

looMi nnd, it flew Movnd «■ in mcb whirl.

B thmnaelvea lo terrified

of OUT beaata, who w

M to need batening of loe mjue^ maa nneiea
in tlieir Wrings bat » melaDdioly aympfaony.
Fifty galea of wind at aea appear to me more
tuBf to be ciicoiuit«r«d tun one amonnt
"" ' '"a impossible to imagine da-

leolntely i

_ .... t 10 pac«a
r imperceptible : our
ivee were ao covered
. o render breathing vei; difficult; they bid
their faoM in the groond, and we coold only
nnoover our own for a moment, to behold
thia diwia of mid-day daricneaa, and wut
impatiently for ita abatement. Alexander't

Gambywa, in the Lybian desert, roee to my
reooUection with new impreaeiana, made l»
the horror of the icene before me; while
Addiaon*! admirable linea, which I alao re-
membned witb peculiar force on thia occaaion,
luuuied to posaesa aa much truth *• beanty —

. cxupied with hie . ^ .

if the reign of terror forbade commaiucation.
Ita fury apent itself, like the eturma of ocean.

DWX
» mffidently oonqnered to addraaa e«ch

iJL 1(L ^ee AsHU, Moub«.)
DWELLINGS (Lev, Tii. 26}. Though
~ie of the mdar tiibea lived ii

simple hatnta of life which i

i and eomfoitable dwdlinga.
aiMi and shuea were formed

To thia siiDide, primitiTo, and apeedj tDod«
ot raiaing a dwelling the prophet Isaiah
alludee, whan he consratiiktts Out Church on
hcT enlarnment,— " Gnlanie the place of thy
teat, and let thno etretch fortb tbe cuitaina of
thine habitations : spare not, lengthen thy
cords, and strengthen thy stokeg " (Iiia. liv. ^ji.
Sometimes tenta were divided into apaitmenta
by means of cnrtains, and the giuund was
covered with mats or carpcta. Taa door was
formed of a fold of cloth, which was drvpped
or raised. Tbe fire was lnndled in au eicavsi-
tioD in the middle of the teat ground, and tbe
CDokiog utensils, which were very few and
aimple, were eaaUy moved from place to pbuw.
Sometm^es tmb were ei:j>enRively adorned and
furnished; and tbey ore very common dwell-
ings at this day among many nations. The
form of many modem tenta in tbe £aat ra-
aemblea the hull of a ship turned upside down.

Tbe tents were pitched under the shade of k
tree, as was Abraham's (Gen. iviiL 4), or by
the nde of a fountain or running stream.
Buckingham describeu with some minutenesa
the form and aspect of the eastern tent, aa he
saw it near Aleppo, occupied by a sheikh, —
" The tent occupied a space of about 30 feet
square, and was formed by one latve awning,
supported by twenty-four smaJl i»les, in
four rows of six each, the ends of the awning
being drawn out by cords fastened to p^^s
in the ground. Each of these polea giving a
pointed form to the part of the awning wlHch
it BQpported, tbe outside looked like a number
of umBrella top* ot (mall Chinese s[dre« The

bait of this aqoaro wu open in front laA at
the nde^ having two rows of poles oUar, ud
the third was cloaad by a reeded putdtion, be-
hind which wu the apartment for the femiJea,
niRinincled entirel* or the tame kind til mat-
ting. . . . Whco the three atigelB appeK«d to
Abraham in the ptaini of Hraire, Ee i« repre-
sented ai ritting in the tent-door in the heu of
the dar" (G«tL zniL l-Vf). AoMrdiDg to Ihia
form Abrabam'atenthadadiaded, opeBfront,
in whidi he could lit in Um heat of the day, and
yet be seen from afar <dt ; Bad the ^lanment
of the female* where Sarah tna, iriten be
■tated her to be within the tent, waa inune-
(Uatdy behind thii, whtniii ihe [npared tlM
meal for the gneet^ and from whmoe the
batenedlo their propbetiD declaration.

When the hauta «t manldnd dunged, aad
their porniita fixed them to one ipo^ thdr
direllingi were bnitt with » view to prama-
nency ; and we may nppoae that the edence
of bioldiiig waa weU imdentood at a very early
period. The ildll rvquired to bnild the arl^
udependantly of iniirired dinctionB, mart have

DWE
Hiat large and oofrtly hooMa were aften
bnilt in Judea we have scriptnral evidenoe
ger. cdL U; Amat iiL iH; Hag. i. 4), tboogfa
doobUeea thcoa which were ooonped by ths
mam of the people were nide and inomvement,
whan oampared to the miAIBwg or even the
vary ordinaiy claiM of onr hmM. Many erf
them were built d mod. iriiidi wwa mtiife
lAan the rain deaoendeit car the atctm awept
over tlum, aad tJMyaffenled Bttb pirteotlca
to the inmatte, for thtevea AastliaaiA and
■tole (Mhitm aS; vL 1^ aoTjob i^. 16).
They that dwtit in beoMa at d^riuiNt bare
trembled at the uproaoh d the hnrrioana.
The laiga Imnpa if imbiimsd day nca die.
Bolved, and the mortw wm omIm*. It oonld
not piwerre the edtflaa from fdling into a
heap of minL How terriUe then the manaoe
cJ Qodl— what utter and lealatlaai davaatation
it fontoldr (Xaek. ziii. U, 13,14.} Svoh a
fearfol catastrophe waa witneaaed by Belaoni in
E^ypt,~"ItKihq>paned,"lieeaye, "thatwa

been cDnBidnable. The attempt to bnHd the
tower of Babel wcmld not have been made by
those wbo had only a mete elementary know-
ledge of ardiitectnTal prindplee ; and the early
-■ ■ ^f Egypt remain a wonder to aU

itiiking decoratii

did the water reach them
it levelled them with
gronnd. The rapid
■DBam carried oR all that
waa befcre it— men, women,
children, cattle, com, eveiytiiing was waahed
away in an initant, and left the pUice where
the village etood withoat anything to indicate
that there had ever been a honaa on the spot."
When saoh mud walla ware dried by Uw
they were apt to open, and into aoch

L ■ : 1; — crept and

"As if a 1

hia hand on the wslL and a urpent bit him"
f Anrae v. 19).

The following cat reprcMnla the gnnmd plan
of an eastenhoose. A A A A ia the honia,
built in ttie fcsm of a doiater ■oirouuding the

open oonrt. The entrance ia ly a door
was oommonly locked, and attended by
ne who acted aa porter (Acts xiL 13).
This door opens into a porch, which ia for-
niahed with the conTaniences of sitting, utd
through which we pass, both to tha flight of

DWE

ftain which leads ap to the chambers and alao
to the open quadrangular court.

We wdl first examine the court and its uses.
It is called the middle of the house, or * ' midst **
(Lukev. 19). and is designed to admit light
and air to tne apartments around it. It is
covered with a pavemen^ more or less costly,
which receives and sheas rain, and is often
supplied with fountains or weUs of water (2
Sun. zviL 18). In Daniascus ever^ house has
a court of this kind^ and the wealtmer citizens
BiMure no expense m making them places of
delightful resort in the hot season. A colonnade,
aaaa (such as is often seen in modem houses),

surrounds the court, and supports a gallery or
piazza above. In this court large companies
assembled on festive and other occasions (Esth.
L 5), and it is then fumiiihed with carpets,
mats, and settees or sofas, and an awning or
roof of some suitable material is stretched over
the whole area. It was probably sudi a roof
which was uncovered for tne accommodation of
the paral3rtic (Mark iL 4). And it is also
fdluded to in the beautiful figure of the psalm-
ist (Ps. dv. 2), when he describes God stretching
out the heavens like a curtain. As to the case
of the paralytic, it may be proper to observe
that our Saviour was probably in the court or
area surrounded by a dense crowd, through
which it was imp<^ble to pass with the
diseased man. They therefore ascended to the
roof, and after removing the covering which
was stretched over the court, they let him
down over or bv the way of the roof into the
midst before Cnrist. Around the court, over
the doors and windows of the house, each
apartment has a door opening into the court or
gallery, and the communication with each is
only on the outside ; so that to go from room
to room it is necessary to come out into the
court or gallery. These galleries are guarded
by a balustrade or lattice-work in front, to
prevent accidents. Sometimes also choice plants
grew in the courts with aromatic heros and
blooming flowers. Thus ta^yn the psalmist,
with an evident reference to this custom, " Thy
wife shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of
^hme house: thy chilth^n like olive plants
^■ud about thy table" (Fs. cxxviiL 3); and
^* 230

DWE

I>erhaps our Saviour alluded to the same prac-
tice, when he says in his last discourse, " I am
the true vine." On that moonlit evening the
vine that grew in the court of that house where
he had eaten the Supper may have been seen
shooting its tendrils along the window of the
upper room, or trained to twist itself in graceful
festoons by its sides. Seeing this as tbey were
about to retire — for the paschal service had
been concluded, and he had already said,
** Arise, let us go hence*' — ^his mind fixed upon
it, and made it the basis of a beautiful illustra-
tion and a very tender appeal
The rooms of the ground floor often include
a whole side of the court, and are en-
tered by spacious doors from the piazza.
The rooms on the further side of the
court, both above and below, are as-
signed to the females of the family, and
upon them is bestowed the greatest
expense. Hence, as some suppose,
these rooms are sometimes odlea
palaces (1 KL xvi 18; 2 Ki xv. 25;
Isa. xxxii 14 j. The ** house of the
women" (Estn. iL 3) was probably
peculiar to the royal residence, and
might be like that referred to, 1 Ki.
viL 8-12. It is suptpoeed that in the
houses of Judea, as in those of Aleppo
at the present day, the ground floor
was appropriated principally to do-
mestic uses, such as storing provisions,
oil, baggage, lodgings for servants,
&C., Sec

If we ascend to the second storey by the
stairs before mentioned, we find the chambers
are large and airv, and often finished and fur-
nished with much expense and elegance, with
mats, curtains, and divans (Mark xiv. 15).
This room or storey is higher and lai^er than
those below, projecting over the lower part of
the building, so that the window of ti^e apart-
ment, if there is one, considerably overhuigs
the street. Secluded, spacious, and commodi-
ous as such a room must have been, Paul would
be likely to preach his farewell sermon there.
And in a large company it is common to have
two circles or ranks, the outer circle being next
to the wall, and elevated on cushions, so as to
be on a level with the lower part of the window
casement. In this situation we may suppose
Eutychus fell asleep, and was thence precipi-
tated to the street or into the court.

To most of the eastern houses a structure is
attached called olca?i. It i» sometimes built
over the porch or gateway, and has two or
three apartments; and in other instances it
consists only of one or two rooms, and often
rises one storey above the main house. The
oleah is used to entertain strangers, also for
wardrobes and magazines, or for places of
retirement, repose, and meditation (Matt vi
6). There is an entrance to it frcoai the
street, without going into the house ; bat
there is also a communication witii the jnl-
lery of the house when it is needed. The
terrace of the oleah afforded a mudi more
retired place for devotional exerdaes than the

KHjf of Uie mun house, whidi ir

) house" [Mktt xdv, 17). Ilie nature Hid
> prsctinbility of our Lord's Adrioe an endent,
' lor the ituroaee ii nnifonnlf ao oantiivcd th«t
ir come down by it with-

" umier clULmbcr" (2 KL i
chamber " (1 Ki. xx. 30).
olemh. (See Chambel)

L 12), the inner of the house.

i» dannute the The roof a aimrlf flat, allowiitg only mf-
fide&i elevatioa to mrrj off the water, and

' "- br ft parwwt,

balnatnde,leat

and (Deut xziL 8). Awall
I Ae roof demgnataa the

."EE

"upper room" (Acto L 13), called the
■r chuuber" (Acta ik. 8), la aoppoeed

e resembled the apper rooms in mcxlem

housee of the East. They are very often con-
structed after this fashion. The first or groond
floor is appropriated entirely to stormg ail
and other articles, the second floor is occu-
pied by the family for commoD d^y use,
and the third floor or loft ia often fitted up
for social meetings, Ac (Acts L 13; ii. 37;
It 8.)

But the roof is one of the moat important
parte of ao eastern house. As already men-
tioned, we ascend to it by a flight of stepa, which
are entirely unconnected with the interior of
thehoase. "Lettiim which is ou the house-top
not come down to talcs anything out of tus

the

but it is M low &ti a wbcde
range of bnildinga, and aren a
rtraet, mi^ be pMMd over
withont being <d>liged to come
down ^id asoBud wtdn. Ae
roof ia oorered wiu a kind of
cement which harden* by ex-
poaore to the weathor, and
forma a dean, amooth, and
very a^preeable floor or torace.
Sometmies clay,, or earth of
some kind sufficimt for vege-
tation, was used, and hence
the frequent allusion to grass
upon the house-topa (2 Ki
III. 26; Ps. ciiix. 6): and
sometimes tiles or broad bricks
were used. The roof was a
place of repose; and Nehemiah
intimates that, during the
feast of tabernacles, the people
constructed booths on the roof
(Neb, riii. 16). The roof waa
also a place of resort (2 Sam.
xi 2; Isa. it. 3; uiL 1: Jer.
xlviii.38:LukeTii.3). It waa
^iif naed for drying linen and flax ;

and thus Sabab contrived to
hide the spies [Josh, ii. 6).
Sometimes a tent was spread
to protect the sleeper from the
cold and damp of the night (2
Saui.xri.22J. Buthowpteo-
rver the arbour or wicker clneet upon
p£ may be during the burning heats

be very disagreeable
the rainy season. They who lodge in either
at that time must be exposed continually
to the storm beating in upon them from
every qoarter. In luiusion* perbape, to this
uncomfortable situation, Solomon observes,
'■ It is better to dwell in a comer of the house-
top than witti a brawling woman in a wide
house " {Prov. iiL S) : in a comer fotmed with
boughs or nishes into a little arbour, which,
although cool and pleasant in the dry and
sultry months of summer, is a cold and cheer,
less lodge when the earth is drenched with
rain, or covered with snow. Solomon saya
•gain. " The oontentioni of a wife are a con-

DWE

tinual droppiiiff." '* A continiial dropping in
a veiy nunv oay, and a contentiooB woman
are alike** (Plrov. ziz. 13; and xzviL 15). It
iq[>pean from those proverbs that the booths
were generally constructed in the comer, where
two walls met, for greater safety ; for on the
middle of the roof they had been too much
exposed to the storm. (See Paxtoa*B lUuttra-
tkmt of Seripturt, iL, p. 535.)

The roof was also a place of conference, so it
is recorded in 1 Sam. ix. 25 '*that Samuel
communed with Saul upon the top of the
house.** It was also a scene of worsmp^ often
idolatrous, but sometimes pure and spiritual
Peter went up to the house-top to pray (2
Ki xziiL 12; Jer. ziz. 13; Zeph. L 5; Acts
X.9J.

Tne windows of eastern houses, as already
intimated, open into the court. Hence the
appearance of eastern dties, in passing through
the streets, is very gloomy and inhospitable.
Sometimes latticed windows or balconies aro
open upon the street ; but they wero used only
on some public day (2 Ei ix. 30).
The doors of eastern houses aro not hung with

hinges. The jamb, or
inner side-piece of the
door, projects in the
form of a circular
shaft at the top and
bottom. The upper
projection is received
mto a socket in the
lintel or head -piece,
and the lower proiec-
tion falls into a socket
in the threshold or sill, as represented in the
preceding cut.

The doors of eastern houses are made low,
especially when they are in an exposed situa-
tion; and one must stoop or even creep to
enter them. This is done to keep out wild
beasts, or enemies, or, as some say, to prevent
the wandering Arabs from riding mto tnem.

Chimneys wero probably unlmown, though
the word occurs. Hos. xiii. 3. As Jerome re-
marks, the wora here rendered chimney, in
the English version, is ovlj foramen inj^rietef
" a hole in the waU.** What we call chimneys

EAG

were not invented till the fourteenth century.
The smoke of ancient houses escaped through
apertures in the walL The hearth (Jer. xxxvL
22) was a fire-place or portable furnace, such
as is still used m eastern countxies.

The materials for building were abundant.
Stone and brick, and the best species of timber,
for the strong and heavy as well as the light
and ornamental work, were easily obtained.
Hewn stone was often used (Amos v. 11>,
and marble of the richest vein and polish (I
Ghr. xxix. 2; Esth. i 6). Cedar was emj^o3red
for wainscots and ceilings (Jer. xxii 14 ; Hag. i.
4), which were of carved panel work, with
mouldings of gold, silver, or ivory. Perhaps
the prorasion of ivory in them mav account
for tne expresaions, 1 Ki xxii. 39 ; Ps. xlv. 8 ;
Amos iii 15.

In addition to what we have before said in
treating of the olecUi, it may be remarked that
the winter and summer houses, or parUmrs
(Amos iiL 15), were construct^ with par-
ticular reference to the season. The summer-
houses were built Partly under ground, and
paved with marble. The fountains which
gush out in their courts, and the various con-
trivances to exclude heat and secure a current
<d fresh air, render them exceedinglyrefreshing
amid the torrid heats of summer. The winter-
houses might have had accommodations cor-
responding to the season.

We are told that it was customary amoiijg
the Hebrews to dedicate the house whoi it
was finished and ready to be inhabited. The
event was celebrated with joy, and the divine
blewing and protection implored (Deut. xx. 5).

The eastern mode of building is brought to
our view in the case of the destruction of the
temple of Dagon by Samson. It is probable
that the place where Samson made sport for
many thousand spectators (Judff. xvi. 27) was
a court or area consecrated to the worship of
Dagon ; that this was surrounded by a range
of galleries (Ezek. xli. 15, 16) or cloisters, which
were supported chiefly by one or two columns
in front, or at the centre. The removal of one
or two contiguous pillars would involve the
building, and all that were upon it, in one
common destruction.

E

EAGLE (Dent xxxii 11). The generic
name may denote other ravenous birds — as vul-
tures (Mic. i 6). The eagle is a well-known and
ferocious bird of prey, unclean by the Levitical
law (Lev. xL 13; Deut. xiv. 12), whose peculiar
properties are often alluded to by the sacred
writers. Its habits, its swiftness of flight, its
voracity, the high and lonely pinnacles it selects
for its dwelling-place, its keenness of sight in
pursuit of its prey, are described in Num. xxiv.
21; Job ix. 26; xxxix. 27-30; Prov. xxiii. 5;
XXX. 17, 19; Jer, xlix. 16; Ezek. xviL 3; Obad.
4; Hab. L 8; iL 9; Matt. xxiv. 28; Luke xvii.
.^. In these two last pasMges, according to
iKimei the Jewish nation is compared to a
232

tempting body, exjxMed in the open field, and
inviting the Koman army, whose standara was
an eagle, to come together and devour it. The
eagle was also the Persian standiOTl. The
tenderness of the eagle towards its young is
characteristic, and is beautifully and accurately
described, Exod. xix. 4 ; Beut. xxxii. 11. The
rapidity of the eagle's flight is alluded to in
Deut. xxviii. 49; 2 Sam. i 23; Jer. iv. 13;
xlviii 40; Lam. iv. 19^ its destnictive power,
in Isa. xlvi 11 ; Hos. viiL 1, and its lon^vity,
with Uie popular opinion that in renewing its
plumage m advanced age it gains a new lease
of life, is intimated in Ps. ciii. 5 ; Isa. xL 31.
The "ravenous bird** (Isa. xlvi U) might

EAR

better be rendered "eaglei" and it b a &et^

aeoording to Xeiiophon, that CTnu, who ii

-"-^-' %i under the firun irf Hi M^e, had ma

f IT the itandanl 01 hi

alluded

image of that bird ior the itandani of hit may.
£AR— the OT^an of hearing. The Hebrew
tattler was puUidy to bore the — -^ u- —
-uit, if the ^-»-j .-

r of hi* eer-

iB,6).

jT maA of diagraoe imt apon a man whonad
■o little love Cor peraon*] freedom. Some,with-
oat foundation, think there ia an allndoa to
this old custom in Fe. iL 6 ; and variom wa;i

ieh heart (1

referred to with the qnotatii:
Heb. J. r "
doll and

eartJer. vi lOj'is a fignre o:

import. , "Itching am* (3 Tim. h

oecnnjag in
the symbol <d a
vt 10). _ Uodr-

. bi'berev^
and dissatii^ed with ertabliahed truth.

EARING (Gen. ilv. 6), EABINO-TIME
(Ezod. iziiT. 21). Earing ia an old English
word for ploughing. The aune word is need,
Pa. cxxix. 3, and ia Oanalated ploughed. What

eanble land y and the won) ear, in the eanH at
to cultivate, la fonnd in the bdlowing i— iijia :
—Dent. nd. 4: 1 8»m. viiL 13; Im. xxx. 34.
The word itoell ia rdated to the I^lin aro and

hould be of
anch a. character that all coltivfttion of the soil
trould be deemed saperflaons.

EAR-RINGS (Gen. ids. ^). This word
ocean, Eiod. xudi. 2, 3; and in Isa. iii. 21 we
have the word noeo-jewels, and some Ternons
have "an ornament fur the nose" in the above
passage from Genesia. The weight of the
ornament mentioned in tMs passage might
appear afanOBt incredible, if we were not in-
fonned by travellers that the women of the
Eaat, even in modem days, wear ornamenta of
equal and even {[reater weight. Poor people
use glass or bom mstead of gold or silver. (See
Clothb.)

EARNEST (2 Cor. L 22)— something itoing
before, or given in advance aa a pledge or
« M more in reserve : thus earnest, or
•at-monn, is a sum pud in advaooe as a
pisi^ of fall ^yment at a fotnra time. In a
spiritual sense it denotes those gifts and giaoea
which the Christiaa receives as a pledge or
earnest of perfect hoiiDeee and happiness m the
future world. Those graces are at the same
time B foretaste as well aa a pledge. They
differ not in kind, but idmply in degree, from
telidlics of heaven. The Holy

the higher fi
Spirit IB the

* of o

apint : . .

pledge is taken bac)c when the promise which
it guaranteed is folfiUed; bat vrhatever is
given as earnest, being a part in advance of
the wht^ ia of oowse retained.

EARTH (Ps. ziiv. 1). The word itaelf ,ia
allied to ths Hdmw vtb, and the Soottiah

EAR
or Saxon ga^ The Hebr«w« bad *ariavi
names for the earth. It is oalled AdamaJt,
Britx, or Aohar, The Sist two are. also nsOd
for tie earth aa a whole. AdamaJt, it., nd
earth, often denotes arable land (Gmo. it. 2;
laa. 1. 7 ; III. 23). ^pAor is dry dnat, ■• Num.
zziiL 10, where it ii on emMem for a nnmeroiia
people. Man was made of earthly dart (Ctan.
B. ^, to which he returaa (Gen. iii. 19 ; Job x.
9; Eccl. xii. 7), '.Vr..;.« ^ sortt are called,—
L Oaah (Job viL fi), rlenoriptive of the coMDT
and acnrf of a. leper's skjn. & itMoAiM (Job
ixi.33; x][xviiL38). 3. JftprqiAal Mod 1 IT).
J^e flpng dnst ia Abiit (Dent XlviH. 34: Nah.
i. S; I'snt. iii. HI Ad atom of dust, Statkat
ii.<. \! I'o. r. ,<!.-» till.- ordinaiyaooaptatiolt
< rl .' puBsage dted, it la used
- 1.. ileirateonlyapartiau-
J T 1 1 . iihnae, " all the kins-

dems of the earth " (Esra i. 2), means onn'
Chaldea and Aaayria : and it ia often restricted
toJudeaonly.

Lomr parU of tKt eartK (Isa. xUv. 23) may
signify literally the vallej|s, fignraliveW the

Cve, or it may be an image of praoand
oihatiaB (Pa. Inii. 9; Bph. i*. 9).
EuTH, DITOIOH or. Scriptnn refsn to a
three-fcdd diTidoo under the sma ef Noah.
Sudi a sattlament waa indeed of Qod, as Uossa
plainly intimates, — "When Ute meet High
divided to the nations their icheritanoe, whe

jf the children of Iirael" (Dent i ., _,.

This language seems to imply that Canaan
waa the original and divine ollobnent of the
Hebrew race. The posterity of Shem were
to occupy Western Asia, those of Japhet

t^m were to inhabit the hotter regions of the
south, though wB find Niinrod and Cuahites
in the plain of Shinar, (See Babilom.) The
tenth cht^iter of CieneeiB is full of ethnological
instTDction. There we learn that {onrteen
sons or clans were sprung of Japhet, twenty-
five from Shem, and thirty-ona from Ham.
It is not easy to trace out the people sprang
from these very ancient progenitors ; yet many

descent of the Celtio races frron Oomer,
the Medea from Madaj, the Icnians from
Javan, ftc. One of Eber's eona was muned
Peleg, or division, because in his days the
earth was divided. It is doubtful whether
this language refers to anch a divisiDn of the
earth as is produced by migration, or whether
the elusion may not be to some physical con.
vulsioo that alarmed the eariy world. (See

supposed that Eorah and his oc—,.. .

destngred bj a andden earthquake. The earth-

BO violent as to sennte one part some distaoee
bom the other. The earthqnake was among
the fearful signs whidi attended the cmdGxJon

EAS

of our Saviour. That the scene was terrible
may well be inferred from Matt zzviL 51-54.
Severe earthquakes often visit Palestine. One
that happened in 1837 did awful damap^e in
Tiberias, and about a third of its inhabitants
I)eri8hedl The earth was seen to open and
close again. In this fearful catastrophe many
thousands were killed in other puMx», and
whole villages were laid in ruins. Earth-
quskee are mentioned among the calamities
which should precede the destruction of Jeru-
salem (Matt. xxiv. 7) ; and Josephus and other
historians affirm the literal fumlment of the
prediction. Earthouakes, in prophetical lan-
guage, denote revolutions and commotions in
states and empires.

EAST (Gen. xxviiL 14). Two terms denote
the East— one signifying " in front of.*^ and the
other, *' rising ^ — that is, the rising oi the sun,
as opx>o8ed specially to the west, or where the
sun goes do^'n. The Hebrews used this
word to describe all the coimtries or provinces
lying around and beyond the rivers Tigris and
Euphrates, as east or north-east of Judea.
(See Ararat.)

East gate (Neh. iii 29, and Ezek. x. 19)
may mean what was afterwards caUed '*the
beautiful gate" of the temple. The same
phrase in Jer. xix. 2 may refer to a gate which
opened into the Potter^s field.

East sea (Ezek. xlvii. 18; Joel il 20) is
the same with the Dead Sea, (See Salt Sea.)

East street (2 Chr. xxix. 4) — an open
space, probably in front of the temple.

East wind. (See Wind.)

EASTER (Acts xii. 4.) In every other
passage of our translation this word is ren-
dered passover, and of comxe denotes the
some season or fefltival. (See Feast.)

EAT, EATING (Isa. Ix^-i. 17). The He-
brews were scnipulous about eating and
drhiking with the £^)tian8, as the Eg)rptian8
also were about eating and drinking with the
Hebrews (Gon. xliii. 32); and the refusal to
eat with one im])lied an entire separation
(Matt. ix. 11 ; John iv. 9 ; 1 Cor. v. 11). ITie
accusation against Peter was, Acts xL 3, " Thou
wentest in to men uncircumcised, and didst eat
with them.**

The manner of eating among the Jews is
still conmion in Eastern nations; the guests
reclined on couches or mattresses, resting on
the left elbow, and using chiefly the right
hand. This peculiar position makes the
interesting scene described, Luke vii. 36-50,
perfectly natural— \'iz., when a woman came
Dehind the Saviour, washed his feet with tears,
and wiped them with the hair of her head:
and it also shows how one of the guests could
repose his head on another's bosom, as John
lav on Christ's breast at the Last Supper (John
xiii. 23). Women were never present at Jewish
meals as guests.

The present mode of eating among Eastern
nations illustrates some interesting passages
of the New Testament. In Syria the guests
use their fingers: a knife, spoon, and plate
being used only oy foreigners, and that as a
234

EBA

special privilege. The bread, which is ver^
tnin, is dippea in the vegetable soup : and if
there is a very dainty morsel on the table, the
master of the house takes it in his fingers and
presents it to the mouth of his guest. From
Matt. xxvi. 23 we may presume that Judas
was near enough to our Lord to use the same
dish, and from the additional circumstances in
John xiii 26, 27, we may infer that he was
near enough to receive the sop from our Lord*8
hand, according to the custom above described.
(See Feast.) Wilkinson describes the Egyp-
tian mode of eating as follows: — **It is sup-
posed the tables were of a long figure, whi&
may have been the case in Egypt even during
the Pharaonic ageSj since the brethren ^n
Joseph * sat before him, the first-bom accord-
ing to his birthright, and the youngest
according to his youtn * (Gen. xliii 33), Joseph
himself eating alone at another table. No
tray was used on the Egyptian table, nor was
it covered by any linen; like that of the
Greeks, it was probablv wiped with a sponge
or napkin after the dishes were removea, and
polished by the servants when the company
nad retired. Having neither knives nor forks,
nor anjT substitute for them answerinp^ to the
chop-sticks of the Chinese, they ate with their
fingers, as the modem Asiatics, and invariably
witn the right hand. Spoons were introduced
at table when soup or other liquids required
their use, and j^rhaps even a knife was
employed on some occasions, to facilitate the
carving of a large joint, which is sometimes
done in the East at the present day.** (See
Washing.)

To eat a meal together is regarded in the
East as a pledge of mutual confidence and
friendship ; nence the force of the expression,
'* Yea, mine own familiar friend, wnich did
eat of ray bread, hath lifted up his Leel against
me " (Ps. xli. 9).

The expression, " eating the flesh and
drinking the blood of the Son of man," occur-
ing in John vi 53-58, is evidently metaphoricaL
This appears from the context, and from the
design ot the discourse, which was introduced
by an allusion to the eating of manna. Our

51) ; and it was in perfect accordance with this
figurative language to 8]>eak of those who
received him, and exercised faith upon him,
as eating his flesh, and drinking his blood.
Parallel phrases may be found, Jer. xv. 16;
Ezek. iii 1 ; John iv. 14 ; the force of the last
passage is api)arent from John vi. 35.

EBAL, MOUNT (Dent xi. 29), and
MOUNT GERIZIM, were situated in the
tribe of Ephraim. They were but a short
distance apart, and in the valley between was
the old city of Shwhem, now NabKis. The
altitude of these mountains d(»es not exceed
700 or 800 feet ; their sides are rocky
and precipitous, and they are remarkable
for the solemn ratification of God's covenant
with the Jews, which took place upon them,

EBE

ftnd a particular account of wbich we have in
Deut. xzvii. 12-26; xxviiL 2-68. A modem
trayeller speaks of the lofty, craggy, and
barren aspect of these two mountains, which
seem to face each other with an air of de-
fiance— Ebal on the north and Grerizim on the

SOU^L

According to the injunction of Moees, the
Hebrews, after they obtained possession of
Canaan, built an altar and celebrated a feast
on mount Ebal (Deut. xzvii. 4: Josh. viiL
aO-35). The Samaritans contended that this
should have bem done on mount Grerizim, as is
read in the Samaritan Pentateuch, and vindi-
cated by Kennicott, and not on mount Ebal;
and they afterwards built a temple on Gerizim,
the ruins of winch are still visible, and re-
finEirded it as the Jews regarded their temple at
Jerusalem. The remark of the Samaritan
woman at Shechem to our Lord is in allusion
to this difference of opinion, — **Our fathers
worshipped in this mountain; and ye say,
that in Jerusalem is the |^aoe wbere men
ought to worship" (John iv. 20).

EBED-MELECH — ib'n^*« tenatU (Jer.
xzxviii 7}— ^n Ethiopian servant of Zedekiah,
king of Judah, who was instrumental in sav-
ing the prophet Jeremiah from death bj
famine, and who, for his kindness in this
behalf, was promised deliverance when the
city should fall into the enemy's hands (Jer.
xxxix. 15-ld).

EBENEZEB (1 Sam. iv. 1). This name
is used in the passa^ cited, and also in 1 Sam.
v. 1 ; but the apphcation of it to a particular
place was a subsequent event (1 Sam. vii.
5-12). In commemoration of a signal victory
over the Philistines, Samuel erected a monu-
ment near the field of battle, and called it
" Ebenezer," or the " stone oi help," saying,
** Hitherto hath Jehovah helped us." Hence
it is often said, '*Here we will set up our
Ebenezer,*' or here we will establish a me-
moriid of the mercy and faithfulness of God.

EBER (Gen. x. 21) was the great-grandson
of Shem, and the ancestor of Abraham, in
the seventh generation. (See Hebrews.)

EBONY (Ezek. xxvii 16) -a well-known
wood which is produced in India and some
districts of Africa. It is susceptible of a fine
poluih, and is used for musical instruments
and ornamental work.

ECCLESIASTES, or (as the name signifies)
t?ie Preticher, is the twenty-first in the order of
the books of the Old Testament, and professes
to be written by Solomon towards the dose of
his splendid and eventful career as monarch of
IsraeL Solomon's authorship has been some-
times called in question, but the following
portions of the treatise distinctly imply it,
or the personation by some one of the mon-
arch:—

The author has much to say of himself, in
different parts of the book, which can agree
to no other man but Solomon. Thus, in the
first chapter, he says, "The words of the
Preacher, the son of David, king of Jeru-
salem." "I, the Preacher, was king over

ECO

Israel in Jerusalem.** But none of the sons
of David, except Solomon, ever "was kiio^
over Israel in Jerusalem.*'

Again, Solomon is represented in the sacred
history as a man of consummate wisdom (1
Ei. iii. 12). So the writer of this book says of
himself, ** I have gotten more wisdom thaoi all
they that have b^n before me in Jerusalem;
yea, my heart had great experience of wisdom
andf knowledge" fEccL i. 16).

Solomon is fnruier represented by the sacred
historian as excelling all the Israelitish kings
in the grandeur of his buildings, the number
of his servants, the splendour of his equipage,
and the multitude of nis possessions. Besides
the magnificent temple which he erected in
honour and for the worship of Grod, he pre-

Sared superb palaces for himself and his house-
old, and increased in riches till silver came
to be as stones in the streets of Jerusalem (1
Ei X. 21, 27). Hear now the writer of the
book before us describing his buildings, his
possessions, and his wealth. (See EccL ii
4-9). Surely no one aoquaiuted with the his-
torj of Solomon can doubt that these words
apply specifically to him, and in many par-
ticulars to no one else.

It IB further recorded of Solomon that be
had many wives, strange wives, wicked wives,
who proved a snare to him, and turned him
aside from following the Lord (1 Ei. xi. 3, 4).
And the writer of tnis book declares, '* I find
more bitter than death the woman whose heart
is snares and nets, and her hands as bands.
. . . One man among a thousand have I
found ; but a woman among all those have I
not found" (EccL vii. 26, 28).

It is said of Solomon that he wrote many
proverbs. He was undoubtedly the author of
the book of Proverbs, or of the greater part of
it. We are told in the first book of Kings
(ch. iv. 32) that *'he spake three thousand
proverbs." So it is said in Ecclesiastes,

Because the Preach^ was wise, he still
taught the people knowledge; yea, he gave
good heed, and sought out and set in order
many proverbs" (ch. xii 9).

Thus the book of Ecclesiastes declares itself to
have been written by Solomon. The accotmt
which the writer in various places gives of
himself was true of Solomon, and of no one else.
Nor is it of any weight to allege, in opposition
to this, that the book, in the original, contains
some words not purely Hebrew; words of
foreign extraction. 'Wnen we consider the
extended commercial relations of Solomon,
and the intercourse which he maintained in
many ways with the surrounding nations, it is
not at all strange that he became famUiar
with outlandish words. Nor is it strange that
he should occasionally use sMch. words in a
composition like that before us. Now, if a
later author may have personated Solomon,
and written this dissertation in his name, in
what way, were such its origin, could it hiave
found its way into the Jewish canon?

It is difficult to understand the connection
and bearing <^ mdaj parts of the book of

235

ECO

Ecclesiastes ; and therefore tome suppose
that other speakers than Solomon are occa-
sionally introduced : that the book, in short,
is a dialogue, or dramatic composition. Senti-
ments of a sceptical nature are recited as
objections which the wise man takes care both
to notice and to overthrow. The question which
he proposes to Jiimaftlf to solve is, — What is
the nicest felicity^of man? and he does not
answer this question by a series of abstract
inouiries and subtle investigations, but he
einbodies tJie varied and powerful results of
bis own experience. His Ule had been a grand
experiment, and he solemnly declares the issue
to which he had come.

Sudi are the results of his inquiries as
directed towards himself, from whicn he now
passes (ch. iii.) to the external world ; and thus
ne comes to a consideration of time, and of
mankind as existing in time. He investigates
an that relates to this subject, and finds that
God has indeed ordered everything beautiful
in time, and that everything is dependent upon
€rod ; but he sees that men act unjustly toward
one another, and mutually embitter each
other's Uves. He perceives that the just are
often wrongfully dealt with by human tribu-
luds (r. 16), while the unjust are permitted to
escape witn impunity: and thus the pious does
not meet with nis just reward in this life, nor
the wicked with his proper punishment. From
this he draws the conclusion (v. 17), that Grod
will judge them both, and will then assign to
the just nis true rewajxl, and to the unjiust his
true pumshment. In this manner the preacher
shows that one grand argument for a belief in
a system of rewards and punishments after
deathj lies in the unjust treatment which men
experience at the hands of one another.

Having thus arrived at the idea of God, he
next endeavours {v. 18) to ascertain the nature
of the relation existing between man and the
Deity, witii the view of discovering in what
the superiority of man over all other creatures
really consists. He examines life in all its
several aspects, but cannot perceive that man
enjoys any essential superiority in either his
birth, his life, or his death, in all of which the
fate of every created being is in all external
respects the same. He therefore justly con-
cludes {v. 21] that this is to be sought for in
the future after death, when the spirit of man
ascends to dwell with Grod, while that of the
brute sinks into annihilation.

Again (ch. iv.) he enters upon the world's
wide stage, to view the life of man as exhibited
in society. And here a sad spectacle presents
itself before his eyes : he beholds man discon-
solately weeping over the wrongs inflicted by
the hand of his brother man. Touched with
emotions of pity and sorrow, he exclaims (v,
2J, ** Happier are the dead because they are
already aea<L than the living because they are
yet alive.'' He proceeds still further, and finds
that all the labour and turmoil of men owe
their origin to a mutual envy ; and that this
frequently assumes the hateful form of avarice,
causing tnem to hoard up treasuree merely to
236

ECO

the end that they may become richer than their
neighbours, while they themselves are totallv
unable to enjoy aught of the fruits of their
parsimony.

^ Beinp^ thus brought to an immediate con-
sideration of the Deity, the poet goes on to
describe further the conauct wnich man diould
pursue towards his Creator; his discourse turn-
ing especially on sins of the tongue, to which
men are so prone that they often ^U into
them from sheer inadvertoice. He wamii (ch.
V.) against wordiness in prayer, since one who
speaks much is extremely liable to let f aJU some
foolish thing. Having laid down his precepts
on the subject of our duty to Grod with regud
to language, he returns to a consideration of
the manifold evils which follow in the train of
insatiable avarice, and these he places before
the view of the covetous man {vv. 9. 17) with
the intention of checking, if possible, tne greedy
thirst of gain.

This suggests to him the precarious tenure
on which all earthly possessions are held ; and
shows him that, should he by any accident be
deprived of them without allowing himself to
enjoy them, the reflection would render him
far more unhappy than he would have been
had riches never fallen to his lot. He sub-
joins {v. 18) the rational advice, to enjoy with
moderation the gifts of Providence, insiecid ol
striving incessantly after more. He sets forUi
also the folly of the miser, in allowing himself
no enjoyment in this life, which he permits to
pass from him like a shadow, without knowing
what the future is to bring forth. And in ch.
vii. he pauses awhile to lay down a number of
additional maxims, the fruit of his preceding
investigations.

The Treacher having completed his inquiries
into the obligations of man to himself, now
enters (ch. viii) upon those which he is under
to his fellowmen^ and, first, he takea into con-
sideration the king as the highest individuid
in human society, and prescribes rules for the
conduct to be observed towards him. He
begins by recommending to subjects in general,
as their first and highest duty, an unshakm
fidelity to their sovereign (r. 3), and then
speaks of the punishments which await evil
rulers.

The work closes with a description of the
latter end of man. in which is depicted, in
faithful colours and with a master nand. the
gradual approach of old age, and finally of
death.

The grand lesson he means to inculcate is
kept steadily in view: **Fear God and keep
his commandments." In this lies the true
dignity and sole happiness of the human race.
Any pursuit that tends not to earnest piety
and sincere obedience will terminate in sad
and bitter disappointment. Solomon's life, re-
viewed and commented on by himself, solves the
great problem by which muiv are perplexed
and seduced. Let us learn oy his example.
The lesson will save us from exclaiming, in
sorrowful retrospect, ** Vanity of vanities ; all
is vanity and vexation of spirit." Various

ED

meamngs have been given to Uie feminine
term Coheleth, rendered preacher. Ginebnig
takes it in its literal sense, as *' gatherer ** m
the people; and, aooording to him, the pnrpoae of
the oocik is *' to gather together the desponding
peoide of God from the various expediencies to
which they have resorted, in consequence of
the inexplicable difficoltieB and pvplexities
in the moral government of Goo, mto the
oonrnmnity of the Lord, bv showixig them
the utter msnfBciency of all human efforts to
obtain real happiness, which cannot be secured
by wisdom, pleasure, industry, wealth, &c.,
but consists in the csjm enjoyment of life, in
the resignation to the dealings of Providoioe,
in the service of God, and m the belief in a
future state of retribution, when all the mys-
teries in the present oourse of the world shall
be solved.

" The method which the sacred writer adopts
to carry out this design is most striking «id
effective. Instead of writing an elaborate
metaphyncal disquisition, logically analyzing
and refuting, or denouncmg, ex MrfAedro, the
various systems of happiness which the differ-
ent orders of minds and temperaments had
oonstmcted for themselves, Solomon is intro-
duced aa recounting his psinful experience in
all these attempts. Thus by lajring open, as
it were, to the gaae of the people the stouggles
of a man of like feelings with themselves, who
could fully sympathize with all their difficulties,
having passed tnrouffh them himself, and found
the true clue to their solution, the sacred
writer carries out his design far more touch-
ingly and effectively than an Aristotelian
treatise, or the mount Ebal curses uiwn the
heads of the people^ would have done.

**The book consists of a prologue, four sec-
tions, and an epilogue: the prologue and epi-
logue are distinguished bv their beginmng with
the same phrase (chs. i 1 ; xii 8), ending with
two marked sent^oes (chis. i. 11 ; xii 14), and
embodying the grand problem and solution
proposed by Coheleth ; whilst the four sections
are indicated by the recurreiuse of the same
formula, giving the result of each experiment
or examination of particular efforts to obtain
real happiness for the craving soul (chs. ii. 26;
V. 19: viii 15)." — Ginsbur^ on EccUsiatUs.

"ED — witness (Josh. xxii. 34) — ^name of an
altar erected in peculiar circumstances.

EDAB, TOWBB or. (See Toweb.)

'EjyES—pUa&wrt (Gen. il 8)— that part of
the earth in which was situated the garden
planted by the Almighty for the residence of
our first parents, and where they dwelt at the
time of tneir apostacy. Eden was the district
in which the garden or paradise was situated.
The word is also applied generally to denote
anyplace remarkable for beauty and fertility
(2 m xix. 12; Isa. xxxvii. 12). The attempt
to establish the locality of the garden of Eden
is of oourse attended with great difficulty, and
many have been the theories which have been
formed concerning it. It is supposed by many
to be safe, however, to fix upon Armenia as
embracing this interesting spot.

EDE

Manv traditions of Eden and its happiness
have noated among the recQrds of various
nations. *' Immetuately after the birth of
man,** sinfls Hesiod, "the golden age com-
menced, the precious gift ox the immortals
who acknowledged Cronus as their sovereign.
Mankind then led the life of the gods, nee
from tonnentinff cares, and exempt from labour
and sorrow. Old a^ was unknown; Uieir
limbs were braced with a perpetual 'vigour;
and the evils of disease were unf elt. when
the hour of dissolution arrived, death assumed
the mild aspect of sleep, and laid aside all his
terroTB. Every blessing was theirs ; the fruits
of the earth sprang up nxmtaneously and
abundantly; peace reignec^ and her com-
panions were happiness and pleasure.*'

The human race have some faint reminiscence
of the happiness they have forfeited, and some
longing after another scene of feUcity. Be-
lievers are reserved for a ndaler Eden than
that which bloomed in the eastern world— even
an *' inheritance incommtible. undefiled, and
that fadeth not away.** (See I^abadibb.)

Eden, house op (Amos i 5). This term,
in its connection, indicates a place of some
imp(Mrtance. Modem travellers &id a place
near Damascus bearing a name of the same
import (house of pleasure), which they suppose
to oe the same mentioned Dy the prophet.

EDOM — red (the name of Esau, after the
colour of the pottage for which he sold his
birthright) (Judg. xL 17) — called Idumea (Isaiah
xxxiv. 5) by the Greeks and Romans — ^was the
name of a district of country inhabited by the
Horites (Gen. xxxvi 21), or Horims fDeut. iL
12), lying south of the Dead Sea, ana border-
ing on Moab. Edom, or moimt Seir, was
onginallv a small strip of elevated land be-
tween the desert of Zin on the west, and
Arabia Petrsea on the east. The climate was
delightful, and it was remarkable for the
richness of its soil and the almost impr^poable
fortress it contained (G«n. xxvii. 2Q ; Jer. xlix.
16). It derives its name from Esau, called
also Edom (Gren. xxxvi 43), whose descendants
are supposed to have settled there, and extends
across the whole southern border of Canaan,
from the Dead Sea to the eastern gulf of the
Bed Sea, including mount Seir. Of the
eastern mvision of the territory Bozra^ or
Bezer, was the capital, and Petra (or Sela)
of the southern. Teman, a gprandson of Esau
(Gren. xxxvi 11), resided hero, and save his
own name topart of the province (Job ii 11 :
Jer. xlix. 7, 20). The Edomites wero governed
by kings (Gren. xxxvi 31), until thev were
oonouered by David (2 Sam. viii 14), thus
fulfilling the prophecy which Isaac gave to hia
son Jacob (Gren. xxvii 29). Hadsrd, a lineal
descendant of one of the Idumean kings,
regained the control of the eastern province.
The inhabitants of south Edom afterwards
revolted from Jehoram (2 Chr. xxi 10)^ and
sustained some severe reverses (2 Ki xiv. 7:
2 Chr. XXV. 11); and were finally conquered
by Nebuchadnezzar.

There is no country on the face of the globe,

237

EDR

the present state of whidi more folly attests
the truth of prophecy than Idumeo. The
predictions are singularly specific (especially
isa. xxxiv. 5, 1017; Jer. xlix. 13-18; Ezek.
XXXV. 7 ; MaL i 3, 4) ; and their accomplish-
ment is fiilly^ sustained by the testimony even
of the enemies of the Bible. Modem travel-
lers unite in their declaration that it is one
broad plain of barrenness and desolation, and
that its present state could not be more
graphically described than it is in the words
of the prophetic writers. (See Petra for an
account of the fulfilment of prophecy.)

EDREI (Josh. xiiL 31). L One of the
capital cities of Bashan, the ruins of which
still remain under the name of Edra'a^ about
75 miles north of Bozrah. It is situated
in a deep valley, and is surrounded by
ruins 2 miles in circumference. Og, king of
Bashan, was defeated at this place by the
Israelites, and his kingdom assigned to the
half tribe of Manasseh.

2. Another town of this name was in the
tribe of Naphtali^ and it has been identified
with a ruin 2 miles south of Kedesh (Josh.
xix.37).

EGG (Dent xxii. 6). This passage humanely
prohibits the taking away of a brooding bird
trom a nest, and is similar in its nature to the
provision respecting other animals and their
young (Lev. xxii. 28 : comp. Isa. x. 14). (See
±*ARTRiDOB, Scorpion.)

EGLON". 1. A PERSON (Judg. iii. 14), and
king of the Moabites, who held the Israelites
in bondage eighteen years. He formed an
alliance with the Ammonites and Amalekites,
and took possession of Jericho, where he
resided, and where he was afterwards assassin-
ated by Ehud. (See Ehud.)

2. A PLACE belonging to Judah, supposed to
be the same with the hea|M of ruins called
Ajlan, 14 miles from Gaza (Josh. x. 3; xv.
39).

EGYPT (Exod. i. 1)— one of the most
ancient and interesting countries on the face
of the earth. As to the origin of the name
there is much difiPerence of opinion. In the
Old Testament the Hebrew word translated
Egypt is Mizraim^ the name of one of the
sons of Ham (Gen. x. 6), who might have
been the founder of the nation, Mizraim
as dual, referring to upper and lower Egypt.
It is sometimes called Ham (Ps. IxxviiL f)l;
cv. 23, 27; cvi. 22); and iJso Rahab (Pa.
Ixxxvii. 4; Ixxxix. 10; Isa. li. 9). I'lie Arabs
now call it Mizr, "red mud." Ham is ap-
parently spelled on the monuments Kem, and
means ulack. Eusebius says that Kameses
the Great was called ^gyptus, and gave his
name to the country.

Egypt consists of a long and narrow valley,
which follows the course of the Nile from the
cataracts of Syene or Assw^ to Cairo, and
of the extensive plidn which is situated between
the northern extremity of this valley and the
Mediterranean Sea. It extends from the
parallel of 24'* N. to Damietta, in ZV 35' N.
where the principal stream of the Nile dis-
238

EGY

chanres itself into the ocean. It is bonnded
on the east by Palestine, Idumea. Arabia
Petraea, and the Arabian Gulf, ana on the
west hj the Libyan desert. But the inhabited
part of the country is restricted to the vsdley
of the Nile, from 2 to 3 miles in breadth,
and endoeed on both sides by a range of
hills. The superficial extent of Egypt has
been estimated at about 11,000 square mile&
It naturally divides itself into two great
sections at the apex of the Delta of the
Nile (so called from its resemblance to the
Greek letter A), the countiy lying south of
that point being designatea Upper E^rpt,
that north of it, Lower Egypt. The soil of
Lower E^^ypt chiefly owes its exiatenoe to
the deposits of mud by the annual ov4^ow
of the river Nile, without which, as it hardly
ever nuns in that part of the worldj the whole
country would soon become an uninhabitable
desert.

The Nile is never mentioned by this name,
but is called in Exodus. Yeor, the river, and
in other places Sihor, tne black river. It is
the longest river in the world, and its source
was long unknown. Hence quaertre caput
NUi, to seek the head of the Nile, was a
common Roman proverb to denote an im-
possible undertaking. But Captains Speke
and Grant have so far solved the problem.
They found near the eouator thm great
lakes, one of which, namea Victoria Nyanza,
3,500 feet above the level of the sea, is the
main source of the Nile. (See Riveb of
Egypt.) The waters of this stream are indis-
pensable for the purposes of agriculture, and
being carried over the surface of the country
by natural or artificial means, are the cause of
its great fertility. In ancient times it was
reckoned the granary of the world, and is said
to have maintained eight millions of inhabi-
tants. The climate of Egjrpt is extremely hot,
but very regular. The atmosphere is dear and
shining, and by no means unhealthy, as its
remarkable diyness causes it to absorb vapours
of all kinds with great rapidity. ^

The early history of Egypt is involved in
impenetrable darkness. It is utterly im-
po8.<dble to reconcile the accounts of different
authors with each other, or sometimes even
with themselves; and the catalogues of sove-
reigns, stretching into the most remote an-
tiquity, are now justly regarded as unworthy
of credit. Of late years considerable lic^t
has been thrown on the era of particmar
d3rna8ties, and of individtial sovereigns, by the
deciphering of the hieroglyphic inscriptions on
the public buildings ; and it is worthy of notice,
that all which learning and industry have
succeeded in extracting fnim the monumental
inscriptions is in entire harmony with what
the Scriptures teach respecting the history,
manners, and customs ot the ancient £^3rp-
tians. So that it is now ascertained, beyonoa
doubt, that the E^pt of the Bible is not a
fiction, but a reahty — so far as it goes, a
pcture copied from actual life.

In the 10th chapter of GenesiB we find

aiiaats

zni m fi m wbom tlie coaatry
B bli a gxiation y- as the

at patnan.h But the mj'th ul

the luoiH^snTe or coDtem
of tl e th rty nne dj la t

from the cotmtr;, after a war of thirty ^ean.
and proceediDg northward, they aettled in Pa-
lestine, or3hepherd-land, sa the name literally
ngniSea.^ and became the PhiligtineB of the
sacred hiatorr. This event, accurding to Dr.
Ualei, WM about tventy-seven yeara before lie
DBDcemeDt of Joseph's adniiiiiBtration ;

anaan the patnan-h A
I. Tpl to so oom tb
t evident fr m th
I J ptnod th

Is of the Egyptians, this eeems sufficient
.count for the intense dislike of which the
shepherd tribes bad beoome iJie

i al] the art
a <e al life b a high

AljraJuuD fuuD 1 am n

he iTis^tuticent txdsees
tatnes wlu h bel og t(
nod of civihzati u ex i
at least se eral u^a.
I acCf rd n^ to ae theory
}s f Abraham sod the

of Jos ph occurred th

by the H^kftiB, or s
nneil the seventeenth

h rdea, whose p undenn

Taned ery little dun

years n aded and clu
m the teien uf Tha
period of 2fiO yeara
surpatiDD Udted, ex

ty and oppressi d wh
SB <if hatred upon the nun
They were at length expelled |

w tb the Israelites ; but this theory, though it
hae also met with strenuous supporten even
n modem times, may now be r^urded aa com-
p etely eiploded.

The interesting narrative of Joseph's being
carried down into Egypt, and of hia advance-
ment to the highest nonours of the atate,
throws great light on the internal condition of
the conntry at that period, and gives the ideA
of a complex system of society, and a well-
constituted yet arbitrary form of government-
Taken in connection with the raonomenbil
sculptures, the Scripture history proves beyond
the poaaibility of (ioubt that £gypt was then

had extended their conquMts widely over Om
I neighbouring natious, and had surrounded
I themselves with all the usual pomp and

>l lendour of an Eastern court, and that their
I iwricultnral and commercial punuita, and
I their cultivation of the arts and sciences, had

reached a height wliich we have been aocn>-

tomed to oanaider peculiar to modem time*.
I Bnt the dates and epochs are still matter of

Wide ccnjactuiSb For example, the epoch ol

ChcopB or Shufu, thti builder oi tbe Great
Pynunid, is. kcooiduig to —

LsSimht. 4»»B.c

B«tneeD the highest and Inweat ci[ these
estinutiH of the era of tbe builder oi the
Great Pyiainid at Menmhia we haie a dif-
ference of no leas than 3,072 yean : —

Delwesn Fftlmar ud hfjriia,
,. BrnKBCh Bud Pool^

The period dunng which the Hebrew race

was in E^rpt is popularly suprioeed to be 430
Year*, uid this ia in accordimce with tbe
Hebrew tert, E»od. lii. 40. But the Septu-
agint traiialal« this verw tbua,— "Now the
dwelling of the obildren of Igrael which they
dwelt in Egypt and in the land of Canaan,
was four hundred and thirty yeara." This
translation «aya that the time which interseaed
between tbe entrance uE Abraham into Canaan
and the eiodus was 430 years, aod that 215
yeorm or eiactly one half of the 430, are to be
attributed to the time from the entrance of
Abraham into Canaan, in his aeventy-Gfth
year, to the entrance of Jacob into Egypt in
the one hundred and thirtieth year of hin
age. Tbe Samaritan Pentateuch adopts this
cbrnnnlogy. and bo does Jouphua. The apoatle
Paul given the same view when he afOrma that
the Uvi waa 430 years after the covenant with
Abraham, llie lives of the Patriarchs lead to a
rioiilar oonciuaion. Levi was bom when Jacob
was eighty-ieTen, and wa* therefore forty-three
240

t, where he lived

been two hundred and fifty-six yeara i^ wbeo
Motes was bom, if the Egyptiaik Bojooni
lasted 430 years. " Hence," as Alford nvs,
*' seeinff that Jacob's marriage with R*cnel
took place when he was S5 [91—20—14], Levi,
the third son of Leah, whose firil son was bom
after Rach«ra marriage (Gen. xiii. 30-32),
must have been bom not eorUer than Jacob's
fftth year, — and cuDsequently waa about 42
ri30— 88] when he went down into Egypt
Kow(Exod. vL 16)l^viliTfd in oJ: 137 yaais :
!.«., about 06 [137—42] yeara in Egypt. But
(Eiod. Ti 16, 18, 20) Amram. father of Moses
and Aaron, married his father Kohath's sister,
Jochebed, who was therefore, as bxpreAly
stated, Num. iivi ,59, ' the daughter of Levi
whom her mother bare to Levi in Egypt.
Therefore, Jochebed must have been boni
within 95 years after (he going down into
Egypt. And seeing that Moses was 80 yeara
old at the eioduB (Eiod. vU. 7),— if we call x
his mother's age when he waa bom, we have
95 + 89 + I as a maximum for the Bojoum in
Egypt, which clearly therefi>re cannot be 430
years, or even 400; as in the former case z
would = 256,- in the latter 225. I£ we take x
= cir. 45, we shall have the sojourn in Egypt
= 215 yean, which added to the previous SIG,
will make the requireil 430."— On Oal. iii 17.

It is strange to find in the face of alllhis
chrunolugy, Bunsen lengthening the stay in
Egypt to 1,600 years, andLepdns shortening it
to about 90 Team, placing the arnval under the
eighteenth dynasty, and the exodus under tbe
nineteenth, and making the Pharaoh of that
time the son of Rameses IL Uanetho, on
the other hand, says, that Mcrni left Egypt

EGY

tmder Amosis, the first king of the dflhteenth
dynasty, the monarch who expelled the Uyksos ;
and Uuier's chronology B^prem with the state-
ment, i)utting the exouus in b. a 149L Great
uncertainty, however, still sunonnds the
question, though we know that the ftunons
eighteenth dynasty beppan about B. a 1526i

But if the sojourn in Egypt were so short,
ooold the population have so multiplied itself ?
The children of Israel left in the '^fourth gen-
eration," and it is difficult to give a correct
account of tiie time impUed But as has been
said, *'the generations may also be reckoned
from the descent, taking for a key the lives of
Joseph, the most prominent actor at the time,
and of Moses and Aaron, under whom the
£xodu8 occurred. At the time of the descent
Joseph was 39 years old, and he survived
till 110 jrears. This interval of 71 years is
a first generation, and is so defined in the
sacred text, — *And Joeeph died, and all his
brethren, and all that generation.' The
second will be that of Amram, the father of
Moses, and will readi through 70 years also,
to the birth and in&mov of Moses and Aaron.
A third generation will be the 70 years of their
life and that of their contemporaries, till near
the exodus : while the fourth will be that of
Eleazar ana Joshua, and their contemporaries^
auid will include the journey through the
wilderness, and the actual conquest of Uanaan.

** Again, we find from Ps. xc 10 that 70
years was already, in the days of Moses^ a
recognized and accepted length of human life.
Applying this at once to we case before us,
the sojourn in Egypt is plainly three complete
generations, with an excess of 5 years. If we
assume, also, the number of 25 years in Jose-
phus as exact, for the life of Joshua after
crossing Jordan, we find 5 + 40 + 25 = 70,
and a fourth generation will dose punctually
with the completion of tiie conquest and
Joshua's death. And this reckoning finds
an eiqpress confirmation in Judg. iL 7-10.

'*Tne calculation may also be made in the
reverse way. From the history in Genesis,
the probable average of the patriarchs, at the
birth of tiieir 51 sons, excluding the four
grandsons, is about 29 years. The mean age
of these sons would probably exceed 7 years.
Aasuming this average, 19b -h 7 = 203 =
7 X 29, or the interval to the limit before
the exodus is exactly eteven descents of the
same length. But one-half the total births
would plainly fall before, and one-half after
this Umit, when 29 yexurs is the mean age.
Hence, log. 1207100— log. 51 -r- 7 = 6*0817432
— 17075702 -T- 7 = '6248819 = log. 4*2158, the
required rate of increase in each descent to
pn»duce the Scriptural number. But 12 x
4*2158 = 50*58, which corresponds as dosely
as possible with tiie recorded increase from 12
to 51 in that first generation, and falls very
slightly below it. We have thus merely to
suppose the same rate of male increase and
average age at birth continued, and the sacred
numbers wiD result, almost with mathema-
tical accuracy, from the data the Pentateuch

B

EGY

itself supplies in the case of the tons and
grandsons of Jacob, at the time when the
sojourn in Eg3rpt berai.

*'The history in Exodus, then, implies the
special providence of the God of Israel, and
a high average rate of fertility, but one of
which all the separate elements are usual and
moderate in themselves. A family of three
sons and three daughters, between the tffes of
20 and 27; or of four sons and four dan^ters
bdow 36 or 36 yean; or of five sons and five
daughters between 20 and 60 yean of age,
has nothing in itself unusual or surprising.
The only thing remarkable in the sacred
history will be the prevalence of this rate,
on the average of thousands and ten thousands
of families, and through five or six descending
generationB. The result implies no change or
distortion of the usual laws of human life, but
simply a special blessing of God, to secure the
fulnlment of his own revealed pranise.'*— Birks
oaiheJExodut.

The circumstanoes connected with the de-
parture of the Israelites from E^ypt must
have served to keep them and the EgyptiaoB
strangers, if not enemies one to another, during
the lapse of centuries. But in the days <n
David and Solomon friendly relations again
sprung up between the two oountriesi Solo-
mon married the daughter of the reigning
Pharac^ who must have been master of
Lower Egypt, as he went up and took Gezer
from the Uanaanites, and gave it for a ^esent
unto his daughter, Solomon's wife (1 XkL ix.
16). '* And Solomon had horses brought out
of Effypt, and linen vam.*' Six hundred
shekelB was the price of a chariot, and fifty
the price of a horse. From some cause or
other unknown, this friendly intercourse ap-
pears to have been interrupted even during
Solomon's lifetime; for Hadad the Edomite.
and Jeroboam, who " had lifted up his hand
against the long,*' and became subsequently
monarch of the revolted Ten tribes, found
refuse and protection in Egvpt. After the
death of Solomon, in the hftn year of his
successor Behoboam, ** Shishak kin^ of Egypt,
came up against Jerusalem with twelve
hundred chariots, and threescore thousand
horsemen : and the people were without
number that came with him out of ^l^f3rpt ;
the Lubims, the Sukkiims, and the Ethio-
pians. And he took the fenced cities which
pertained to Judah ; and came to Jerusa-
lem, and took away the treasures of tiie
house of the Lord, and the treasures of the
king's house ; he took all : he carried away
also the shields of gold which Solomon had
made " (2 Chr. xii 2-4, 9). A very striking
corroboration of this part of the Scripture
narrative has been discovered on the Egyptian
monuments. In the great hall of thepsdace-
temple of Kamak the exploits of Shishak, or,
as he is there termed^ Sheshonk, are portraved.
In one large bas-relief he is represented as
bearing to the feet of three great Theban gods
the chiefs of the nations whom he has van-
quished To each figure is attached an oval,

241

EGY

indicating the town or diitrict which he
repreflentfl. One of Uie figures, with a pointed
bc«rd and a ph^ognomy unmistakablTi
Jewish, bears on his oval certain characters
which, on being deciphered, were found to
signify the ** Idn^om of Judah."

At a later period, however, a sense of crm-
mon danger m>m tne power of the Assyrian
empire induced the Egyptians and the Israel-
ites to cultivate friendly relations with one
another : and about the year B.O. 730, Hoshea,
king of Israel, refused to pay the usual tribute
to the king of Assyria, and entered into an
alliance with So. km^ of Egypt In conse-
quence of this defection the Assyrians took
Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria
(2 Ki zvii 6). The Egyptian alliances, so
tondly and so constantly coveted, led to the
ultimate overthrow of the kingdom. In the last
year of Jonah (ac. 609), Pharaoh Necho, an
enteri)ri8iiig and warlike prince,inarohed against
the king of Assvria to the river Euphrates,
and theldng of tfudea having gone out against
him, was d^eated and slain at Megiddo. The
victor then dethroned Jehoahas, the successor
of Josiah, after a brief reign of three months,
made his elder brother Jehoiakim king, and
imposed on the country a heavy tribute. But
the end of his rei^p was uiuortunate; for
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, having
inarched against him with a miffhty army,
the Egyptian monarch was overthrown with
great suraghter, and Nebuchadnezzar became
master of all the country as far as the gates of
Pelusium. His son, Psammeticus IL, en-
deavoured to recover the lost provinces, but
without success. But his successor, Apries.
the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, a martial
prince, was more fortunate^ and met with
great success in the beginning of his rei^
It was probably this circumstance which m-
duced Zedekiah, lung of Judah. to enter into
an alliance with him against Neouchadnezzar,
king of Babylon. The unfortunate result of
this alliance was distinctly foretold by the
prophet Jeremiah ; and the Jews soon found
that they were '* trusting upon the staff of a
bruised reed, on which if a man lean it will
go into his hand and pierce it;** for when
Nebuchadnezzar besi^ed Jerusalem, Hophra
marched from Egypt to relieve the city ; but
on the approach of the Babylonish* army he
immediately retreated, leaving the Jews ex-
XX>sed to the mercy of their enemies. In
consequence of this cowardly or treacherous
conduct the city was taken, and its inhabitants
carried away captive to Baoylon. In less than
a century after this event Egypt became a
Persian province. It fell into tne hands of
Alexander, b.c. 332. After his death the
Ptolemies for a long period reigned over the
country, but their dyxiasty came to a termina-
tion at the battle of Actium, when Egypt
became a pro\'ince of the Boman empire.

The original form of government in Eg3rpt

seems to have been a kind of theocracy. At least,

prior to the age of Menes, the supreme power

was lodged in a hierarchy, which claimed to be

242

EGY

intimately connected with the elder diviniticau
After Menes the government became a pure
hereditary monarchy, though in cases of emei^
gency a new sovereign was elected out of the
priests or soldiers, and inaugurated amidst the
acclamations of the people. The long was
surrounded with a stately oeremonial, haSowed
by pruneval tradition. The moat minute
regulation as to dress, diet hours of business,
repose^ and religious worsnip, were solemnly
prescribed to him — orations nom the books A
Hermes on the duties of royalty and the func-
tions of l^nslator and judge were daily chanted
to him. His power, however, was unbounded.
A priest by formal initiation, and a military
commander in virtue of his elevation to the
throne, this combination of the mitre, crown,
and sword, in one who was regaotled as a
** mortal god," enabled him to compel submis-
sion to rml edicts^ji^ere it might have been
justly withheld. The populace seem to have
had no franchise, tiiough their lives and pro-
perty were well guarded The immense armies
which were levied, and the stupendous national
works which were executed, prove that the
masses were drilled and laboured without
much regard to personal comfort or social
relations. But though the people could not
control the living sovereign, their forced pas-
sivity was compensated at his death. Thtj
sat m review upon the actions of his career,
and decided whether the rites of rp3ral sepultmre
should be awarded to his corpse.

The roval cognomen was Pharaoh for many
ages. The Egyptian word is Phra— denoting
the sun. As the sun in the sky, so was the
monarch among his subjects. Usually eadi
king represent^ on the monument has two
oval rings or cartouches, one of which contains
his distinguishing title and the other his proper
name — such as Pharaoh^ son of the sun — sun
offered to the world: Pnaraoh. avenging lord
of Upper and Lower Egypt ; Pnaraoh, vigilant
in justice, son of Sethoe. After the union of
Memphis and Thebes the king wore a double
crown, and was installed with vast magnificence,
anointed with great solemnity, and put in pos-
session of the emblems of majesty from the gods.

The country was divided into thir^-six
nomes, and each had its governor; the lands
were under his charge, and the taxes were
levied by his direction. The soil was pos-
sessed by the king, the priesthood, and the
soldiery, llie husbandmen who cultivated
the farms paid a portion of the produce as
rent. Prior to Joseph^s time the people
appear to have been independent yeomen,
but the criids of famine prompted them to
renounce their rights, and yield their lands to
the crown, paying as rent a fifth part of the
produce. The proportion thus paid as rent
was not exorbitant. The priesthood, however,
retained their lands, bein^ too strong to be
compelled or tampered with, as they could
easily secure the diHmiasal of a hostile adviser,
or even the de{>o8ition of his royal master.

Laws were administered by the judges of
the various provinces, the king being supreme

■ar of eqni^. In paiticolar, thiitr
I were choHen from Memphia, H^opolifl,
liebea,— ten from each of these citiei
1 a high bench of judicftture. It is
lie thAt many of these officen belonged
sacerdotal omer. Justice was admims-
free of charge to the niiton. Oratory
irbidden in their oourts, and the whole
lure was in the silent form of writing,
reidding judge wore a ctiun of gold and
OS jewels, having attached to it an image
goddess Thmci, to which the Hebrew
^d Thomnmu has some-
been compared. The
if EcvDt were an object
T ancient

EOT

But baridea thna cImbcs there moat haw
been a large town population in EgTpt, oom-
poaed of artizani and tndesmen^snch as
an^tecta, masons, weavers, painters. scnlptoM,

Linters,sci

embalmers, with workers
and wood.

The dT«sa of (he oranmon people wm soant
for the climate did not require beavy dothin
The labooiing men toi« a sort of apron <
phUabeg round their loins^ and acone had

JIf practised „ „

oriental natifma, and was
Ensable to initiation into
acred myeteiiea. The
of it is cdled in Joshua
reproach of Egypt," a
I implying two tmngs^

with peculiar bonoor, and
le RebreH^slaTea, for their
t of it dniins their aer-
.were spumed aaaracetf

B and degraded foreignera.

Erst and highest order
land was the printhood,

pussesBed a mighty and
)d organiiation. The key
^hority was wiUi them,
were the bards who, from
1 and retendTe memory,
I ancient lore — the his-
I who composed the annals of the king-
the oracles of law. and at tlie same time
rpository of medical and philosophical
1. Their power was unbounded, and
MWsenionB were immense. They claimed
cupied the largest portion of the country,
ey paid no taxes. The chief pontificate
to have been hereditary, for the priests
^ to Herodotus that they had a liM of
acred chiefs — son aucceediiig fatJier — for
^nenitions. The military order ranked
n importance. Each soldier possessed
-ea exempted from taiatiun. The army
rohibiteJ from following any trade, but
d, of coiiree, to cultivate their lands.
»t of the population was onenfranchiaed,
ODAtituted the general indnstrial class,
merous peasantry tilled and reaped

tensive meadows and hills as hcnismen.

sally despi&ed, denied admission into the
^s, and only allowed to marry among
.'Ivcs. The pilots and boatmen of the
rere leagued together by similarity of
and occupation. Fin^y, after the
ancy of the Greeks, there sprang up a
if interpreters, a species of bilingiiista,
ise fanuliee, as a natural cousequtiuce,
t oE tongues would descend.

EgjpUac Burfen-bearar

garment of the women of the lower class
consisted of a long loose robe that reached to
the ankles, and was fastened at the neck;
over it they wore a petticoat clasped to their
waist with a girdle. The men of better rank
wore above the apron a wide dress of linen
with ample sleeves. Cotton wOs sametimea
worUj but linen was preferred. Herodotus
describes some dresses as having fringes and
aa being named Csloeiris, over which waa
thrown a white woollen cloak which was laid
aside when they entered a temple. Priestfl
and pereons of high condition wore a nmilar
dress — to wit, the apron, and the spacions robe
which oovered it, which was so made that the
right arm was eniqsed and ready for action.
Toe men shaved their heads and wore wigs — »
custom which gave coulne«s to the head^ and
excluded the injurious effects of the sun.
These wigs were made with great taste and
care, usually of curled hnir with pluted locks
down the sides. They were need on all occa-
sions, and only in seasons of mourning did the
Egyptian men allow the natural growth of the
beiud and head. Their eor-ring^i — large and
' ' " gohl— were sometimes wronght

and fantastic fom

Both B)

honour and pre-endnencOi

The Eoyptiui toilet wu distiiiKUulied W
ita motaUic mimin. These, Kenenll; nude
of brotue, iren ronDd in foim, filed into ■
handle of wood or itone {aiioifiilly curved, and
thab miooth nuboea were bsauliiully polished.
Some of tiie Imelitish women, who Heem to
have tonned thenmlves into a liaterhood of
divine service, gave their miiron to Ifosoi:
and oat of them he formed the "Ia<er"and
its pedestal The armoury of the toilet cob-
lirted of combs, vases, and phials, for balding
c^tmenti oad cosmetics. Boxes are ml&o
foond, made of ebony or other predons wood,
and of various fantastic forms, sncb Bs birds
and fishee. The combs were 4 mcbes tong and
6 deep, and ware usually of wood, with teeth
on each side, the one row being of larger and
the other of smaller dimensiutiB. The Egyp-
tians were very fond of ointments, as are all
inhabitants of warm countries, for the lubri-
cmted bod; reeista the oppressive heat, and the
aUn is preserved in smoothnese and freshness.
Hie use of inch perfumes is refreshing to the
eihansted traveller, and oils, extracted from
TBiions plants, and different preparations of
*"■"*' tat, were employed for this purpose.
Egyptian ladies also ituned their eydids and
bnnn with a pieparatioii named stibium or kohl
Hmi; bottles for holding this dark powder have
"■ — ' — ■" -nEgypLsome having four - ■"-
its, evident'- " ' '

waa applied to the eyebrows i
These cssoitial implements, nc
wen of considerable leogtl^
broDia. 9pecimena of all tbt
found in the musanms of Eunipe. The British
Mosenm in particiilar contams cups, vases,
jua, niblets, pota, spoons, ladles, trinkets,
with bijonterie nude of alabaster, basalt,
244

porphyry, ivoiy, bone, earthenware, gold,
ail ver, bronie, and iron. (See LooElKQ-auaa.)

The Egyptians were fond of social cntar-
tainments, which were ottaa of great vnrietf
and Bumptnonsneas. They sat at their meiLb
— not reclining like toany eastern nationa-^^nd
their ronnd tables were raised bat a nnall
distance above the ground. The gaeata were
of both sexes— female seclniion waa unknown
In these andent times — and at their repasts
they used spoons and ladles, but Were Straogcn
to ibr luxury of knives and foks. The prin-
cipal food of the lower claeaea was vegetables,
which Egypt produced BO fteely. Thia diet
woe highJ}' relished by the inhabitants. The
Hebrew bibes during the privstiona of tfadt
march through the desert remembered "the
cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeki, and
the onions, and the garlic" In some paria <^
the Delta, the inhabitants subsisted almost
wholly upon a fish diet. We remembe^ said
thelsraeli tea, "the &ah that we did eat in Egypt
freely " (Num. iL 5). Not only were they foond

the Nile and lake Moeria, but they were also

i in artilicial ponds, and were caught with
line, net, and spear, (See Fibh, NtrO

The occupattoos of the peotile were manifold
both in town and country. The piiine busine™
of ths rustic population was Bttncoltore. The
houses of the people were ususlly built of erode
bricks, a species of material suited to the eojl
and climste. Brickmaking was thna an em-
ployment for thousands, and the mannfactore
seems at length to have become a royal mon-
opoly, for the royal eignature is uauafly found
upon the cubes. {See BRICK.) The hoDses
in towns seldom exceeded two stories, uid
were, as in oriental style, anrronnded by so
area or court. The ground floor was the scene
of all culinary preparations : Uie work of the

EGY

Imtcher, baker, and mOler was done in it.
Female slaves were usually employed in the
drudgery of these apartments, and she of the
lowest occupation is called in ScriDtore the
^* maid-servant that is behind the mm.** (See
Mill.)

The processes of metaUnrsy are often f omid
on the monnments — the beuows being worked
with the feet; and plating, gilding, moulding,
beating, were well understood and ezecated.
(See Ibon.) These arts, so prominflatly dis-
played m the fomitore of the tabemaofeii the
Israelites must have learned also in Egypt
Specimens of exoelleat cabinet work are pre-
served in the British Mnseom. The carpenters'
tools did not differ much from the modem
implements of the craft, the adse, however,
8api)l3dng the ]^aoe bofift of a plane and a
torning-laihe. v eneering and inlajong with
ivory or pnrecioas wood were common among
the Egyptian joiners and cabinetoaakera. The
manufacture of glass, porcelain, and potteiy
was upon an extensive scale in Egypt 3,000
^rears ago (see Potteb); and the numerous
tints and ooiours employed ^rove Uie workers
to have been acqtuunted with the properties
of metallic oxides. A purse has been found
knitted with small glaai bugles; and ladies
of high rank are seen in the act of stringing
beada. The Eg^tian artist could successfully
counterfeit precious stones^ such as the emerald
and amethyst. The cuttmg or engraving of
precious stones was executed with delicate
beauty and predsion; and the tasteful vases
and urns used for a variety of purposes have
commanded intense admiration, equally with
those of the best epochs of ancient Greece. In
their common merchandise the Egyptians used
rings of gold and silver, and the value of the
money was ascertained bv weight. They had
no extensive commerce by sea. In earlier
times they had no ships for foreign traffic,
but the busy inland navigation was character-
istic of the country. Burges and boats were
seen everywhere on the Nile, and their solemn
processions were generally made on water.
The richer citizens seem all to have kept their
pleasure wherries, the sails of which were some-
times painted and embroidered. (See Ships,
Solomon.) ^ The majority of these character-
istic Egyptian occupations are grouped togetiier
by the prophet Isaiah in hispicturesoue oracle,
significantly named the '* Burden ot 'Egypt,**
xix. 3 : —

""The m>irli too. of Egypt shall fail In her;
And iwill destroy her tact:
And they will seek to idols and mntterers,
To the olTinerB, and to the wizards.

The meadows of the river, by tiie river's month.

And all the sown ground by the river,

Shall wither, driven away, and shall be no more.

The flidiermen shall lament
All that throw hook into the river shall monm.
And thoee who east nets upon the waters shall
languish.

The flax-dressers shall be confounded.
And so shall the weavers of fine linen.

Her pillars are shattered,

And all her hired labourers are grieved in so jL"

EGY

"When an Egyptian was seized with sickness,
a Host of physicians were at his service.
'*Everv place swarms with doctors,*' says the
Greek mstorian ; and we know that Hiennes
wrote six books on medicine. Whatever the
nature of his malady, some medical man had
made it his special study. The physician was
allowed to practise only in one oranoh of his
profession; the Irasiness of the aurist. oculist,
dentist, surgeon, and druggist^ as well as the
curing of oiaeases in theneart, stomachy or
any other organ, was carried on by distmct
and separate practitionerB. Aocoudieurs were
almoat always women.

That the famous Egsrptian columns were
conied from the form ol certain trees is prob-
able, not only from their appearance, but from
the testimony of Herodotua, idio says, that
King Ammafrifl actually caused columns to be
made resembling pahn trees. Thev are without
bases, or have onlya plinth, ana that is fni-

auently circular. The capital is generally of
tie beu-shape, and is either quite plain, or ia
omamentea in several vairing modes ; fre-
quently it is surrounded ov rows of lotus
leaves^ either simply marked oy lines or sculp-
tured m relief; in tne latter case the capitals
resemble some of those of the Corinthian
order. (See Palv trees.) The obeUsk is a
frequent characteristic of Eg3^tian architec-
ture. These * ' needles " were made of exquisite
proportions and of stupendous dimensions, and
the red granite of Syene furnished a hara and
durable material. They were generally placed
in pairs at the entrance of the public emfices.
(See Pillab.) (For hieroglyphics, see Wbit-

TSOA

The pyramids are another striking charac-
teristic of ancient Egypt, and have bete
recognized as one of the wonders of the world.
These earth-giants are immense structures,
presenting a form of building which is the
least liable to decay. According to De Sacy,
one of the best Chriental scholars, the name
comes from the Egyptian word "Pehram,"
denoting " tJie sacred " — a name converted by
the Greeks into Tymana, The old Greek
historian, Herodotus, gives a long account of
these amazing edifices, which we have not
space to transcribe. Tne pyramids of Ghizeh
stand on a rock in the eoge of the desert,
but close to the valley of the Nile, above
which their base may be elevated 160 feet
or more. This rock rises abruptly from the
plain, which for some 60 or 60 rods towards
the Nile is covered with dr^ting sand, and
it is ascended by stone steps. Half-way up
the cliff some tents are pitdied for the ac-
commodation of travellers. When these are
insufiBcient, some ancient tombs, excavated in
the rock near by, are occupied as lodging
places. The laigest of the pyramids, that
of Cheops, is 732 feet square, and 474 in
height It covers a little less than 13 acres
of ground, and is composed of 202 tiers of
square blocks of limestone, varying in tiuck-
ness from less than 2 to 4 feet. Each ascend-
ing series recedes about 2 feet from the

vztarior nde of the one below it, the whole
fanning k mcceenon of temtcea. These tre
the etepB by whicli the ucent of the pyramid
il made. It ia very laborious, but prai-ticabli

to penonB irf common Btrength, and perfectly
nle. This pynunid is BQppoeed to have bmn
bi^t more thui two thonBuid years before

Chriet. Some of these vast edificei have been
entered— rooms exist in their very heart— ami
they seem to have been deeigned

"The bones of the two oppreuorB (Cheops
and Chophren, builders of the first and second)
who for two generations tormented hnndreda
of thousands day after day have been tore
from their Bepufohral chambers, which were
destined to defy the cariosity and destructive-
nesa of men, and preaerve their bodies for ever
from the annihilation which they dreaded.
But the good and philanthropic kiog (Mycer-
inusj builder of the third), who put an end to
the inhnman cppressiDii of the people, and in
eonsequenoe of this lived in poetry and snng,
even to the latest times, as the people's darling,
has, even to our days, although his cofiia has
been broben open, remained in his own pyra-
mid, and has now, rescued from the msm of
rains, found a restinu-pUce worthy of hiui.*
A notable destiny! The old monarchy of the
Fharaohs, of which he was the eighteenth ruler,
has passed away ; two other monarchies haTe
fallowed it, and the destroyers of the most
ancient have also mode their exit from the
■tags of history. The gods of EKypt have
crumbled into dnit; 'son of the Fharaohs'
I> a name of reproadi in the Pharaohs' land ;
even the lacgaaefi has grown dumb among the

* The bodr of this king Is now In th* Brltlih

The body of Mencherai (Myoeiinns),

. .... now rests mora securely than it did
□,000 years ago — in ^e world-ruling island
whioh is protected by the might irf freedom
and dviliiation, still more than by the waves
which eocnrcie it — amid the treasures of every
realm of nature, and the meet Boblime mnains

Prof. Piazzi Smith has in two worics essayed
tp show that the pyramids, in shape, position,
and angles, were built on astronolnical prin-
ciples, and that they oontain original standard
measnres of quantity and length for all natJim

The aphyni ia another curious stru
This composite symbol, with its great c
eyes and a quadruped body, belongs to ue
same class of early religious emblems as the
Assyrian human-headed hulls and lions, and
the Hebrew cherubim. It guarded the portico
of the temples, and was closely associated with
the national worship. (See Cherub.)

The temples of Luior, Kamak, Esneh,
Edfou, and Syene, are famed for their v■8^
ness and symmetry. Thdr ruins are sub-
lime; their tall imposing colomns an a mag-
nificent spectacle, — " their ffrandeurawe% their
beauty wins the eouL" In short, the archi-
tecture of Egypt overawes the woriiL and
defies imitation. The "wisdom of the Egyp-

B from

h they Is
B if the7

by which they raised such ponderous Uooki «f
stone to the altitudes they now oocnf^ ia th*
temples and monuments are not known lo
m engineers. Yet. amidst all this qilaD-
and taste, how debased their snptmti-
! Animals and heibe wens objocfa of

EGT

tuuTWuI adorktioii, and kSorded KbatuJant
tkflm«a of Sfttir« to n«ghb(niiiii|; states.

We cBiinot enter into any detailed philolo-
gies account of the primeTal ton^nie of tluA
wondofol rtrse, that have left behind them k>

ibUuoes

•Mndant, and bean minyiOHlced Msca
to its liugoMio anceabr. It has, 1
been ocaniptcd priiicipauly by ita liui
poraticn cf mch to '" "■'"

ei omunierta ar'

lutod a

It, iriMl compared with the pnra midi'
laicm of Wjclifle and Ohaocer. Still,
more than 000 radical elTinoni of the aaoient
tongne have now been dinntemd. It haa
affinitr with both tha Syro-AiaUc and lado-
Eoioptan langoages, bnt of i

>f raoh a kindai

aatiqnit;, .

dialects and fixed ammiK a (bignlar poopk,
with whom iti fiexional deraloiHiwnt waa re-
tarded, mum e*«nr gouMtiui for wanal
centnnaa, nay millenninmi, thonght, teb,
■pokfc walked, and aetod in the hallowed and
varied roatine of ita revered predeoeawra.

Hie thedogj of Egn>t waa, like eray thing
ebe in the oonntry, qnite pecnUar. The
■" — " '— ■ 1 numerouB popnlation, and

olagy wM vast and indeSnite, fnllof eymbolaud
hidden meaning, yet gradually debased into the
most ignoble uumal worship. The tenets of
the anoieiit patriarchal faith were not wholly
ohacured for agea, but were gradually buried
bmeath the unoooth uid grotoqaa iymbolism
of BgTgdanritnaL Still, amidat thiiwtetebed
polyShnam there aiq>ear glimpaea of faith in

npreme and Mvermftti power, mile hia
la attriUilea wen deified in the rank and
divinitiM. In lacli a conntif.

moulded and modified by the tsieatboo^ «
■ocm repreannted in aome embodied a*~~~

origiuted a mtmbei of datiea. ^te
generative power of nature, poaonified fei
Atbor as a wunao and a mcdier, pervaded
the entire mythology. It would anHit, tab
tlMt one of Um ewiM forma of their Q««
head waa a l^iad, eonaistiiig of Odiia, laii,
and HoTua— the rcmuant ol an eariier and
purer ci«ed, in which waa amtuned the
primeral tmth, that plurality In unity ooDSti-

when the veil ia lifted from

bruta adoration I Hie glory of ita aoolptarea,

paintingB, conoiMati, pyramid^ and tomha ia

dog, hawk. Mid ibia were prime divinitdea ^
over the country; that in aeveral provinces
the lion, aheep, goat, ape, and monaa liad each
ita shrine, ita gnardiana, ita ritual, and ita
Totariea— wat fed bf aaered handa with the
choicest daintie^ embalmed when dead, and
its momiDy laidin a comecrated cemetery.

A portion of the sacred books haa been

-ved down to otir own time. It was

in the royal tomb* at Thebea, and one
■imilar to it was discovered by ChunpoDion
in the Muwom at Turin. Champollion
thought it a species of liturgy — Ritud latti'
ra>re._ LepmuB, after abler and more thorongb
eiaminatJQD, has named it <iai Todten-bueh —
the Book ca the Dead. Leiniu siipposea
the pa^ma to belong to the fiftaenth or aii-
teen^ centnn before the Christiaa era ; and
Bunasn inagmea that it formed one of the
ten of the fourth claai described by Clement
of Alexandria.- Lepaina si^— "Thia bocdc

•-lif

BHU
larmilMi tha only eiamiile of • great 1
tun litenry work, tnunnitted from tL
PhanHMic time — ■ onmpiktioii, indeed, mada
at Tariooi tunea and probably in varioni parti
of Egypt, but one, the original plan of which

u — i.i_ i^i_^gg fgf (j,j iranoteat age,

a, like the othor aacnd

awcibed to Hemiea or Thuth.

3'

entiun repeatedly occun of ' ike Book,' aa
cU as of the 'Book* of Thath' [cha. IxviiL

■pply-" Th

toe foiMTal obaerraucea ol the ancient Kgjp-
tiuk^ and exhilrita tbcir bmtiiji Pantheon fivm
OnriB, the final Jadge, to the eTer-reciurina
beetle, with its insxtricable functiona and

o full of

Hanj booki have been written on Egypt
which we cannot ipedfy. We recommend
Champollion, Wilkinion, Boaallini, ani'
aen. Lane'i Modern Xajntiaia la alao
iafonnation. See aln> Oibonie'i Egmt.

EHUD (Jnda. iiL 15}— a atm of oin, of the
llibe of BcoJandn, who delivered the braalitea
frem die oppnaion which they goffered nnder
EEkm, king of Uoah The loaslitea sent
Ehod to p«y •omi tax or tribute lo Eglon, as
a token of thJ^ allegiance. Under tiie pre-

ELA
ment, Ehud drew a diwgei wfaicb be h»d mad*
aipreaely for the potpoae, and ^re him a
mortal wonnd. The damer waa gut inion hia
right thigh, for he waa, like many ol htatriho,
' handed. The onitom <rf delivoing ooo-
'ret miean to have

, _ ai Ehad** widt WM

known. Such ii the onat
thin day, aa tmvdlen

ence chamher ia olaarad of all bat the mea-
matm. lEtmA fled towaida mount ^bnin,
andaammoning the opptlMed Inaditea to hit
help, they aecnTed the fcsdt of tha Jordan, ao
that the Hoabitea by whoa thcdr land waa
eaniaoned might not ewwe. Aa aoon aa lu
had ooUected a anffident iaroe, he fell npou
Uoaliitea, and cat them off in arery

18), bat afterwank
, DeioDg to tna tnoe <a Dan (Joah. xa.
^,. Neither tribe aeema to have been in
aotnal poaacarion of the plaOb AftO' tha aik
bad been taken by the Philiatinea, and Dafloa
had fallen before it, it was lent wf^ fran
Aabdod to Ekron, to the great ooaaternatioa
of it* inhabitant*. From £kion it waa con-
veyed home again in a new car^ to irtiich
were yoked two milch Idne, on wiiich a yoke
had never b(«D lud (Judg. i. 34, 3B ; 1 Sam. v.
10; Ti. IT: 2Ki. L 2; Jer. uv. 20; Aran I

; Zeph. ii. 4-, Zech. ii. 5,7). Ekioniafonnd

a a modem village named Akri, 6 milea to

he lODth-west of Aamteh.
ELAH. L A PBasoH [1 Ei. ivL 6)— acm

nd Hucceaeor of BaaAha- king of laimeL Aa
.^ waa revelling at a fnend's houae, he waa
aagawinated by Zimri, one of the officera of hia
army. (See Oubi.) He reigned only two

2. A PLACE. ViLLCi Of (1 Sam. rviL 19).
The IiraeiiCea were encamped in thia vallej
when David challeiiged and slew Goliath, ft
received its name from the numbsr of ten-
trees which grew in it It ia anppoeed
1 a valley about 11 milei aontn-weat

Jemaalem, in which still grow aoota of

the laiseat ti^rebinth treee to be leen in any
part of Paleetir -

ELAM. L
eon of Shem, a
and PeieiauB.

2. A coUNTHT (Gen. liv. 9), settled by tha
family of Elam, lying east of Bbinar and
-.orth of the Persian gulf, and a part of the
ndent Persian empire. Chedorlaomcr waa
ne of its earliest kings (Gen. Bv. 1). Shndian
'as the capital of the province {Dan. viii. %.

^e sacred writers, Susiana ia meant, Tlia
trlike people, disttngniahad
for their skill aa bowmen (Isa. iiii. 6; Jer.
ilii. 3!>|, and regarded aa a formidable enemy
(Esek. "»■' 24). Some of thia "**^. or

ELA

rftther Jews whose usual dwelUiig wis tliere,
were present in Jerusalem at the miraoulons
effoaion of Grod*s Spirit on the day of Pentecost
(See Pebsia, Shushan.)

The *' faltering again the captivity of Elam**
( Jer. xlix. 39) is generall;^ supposed to refer
to Uie restoration of the kingdom of Penda by
Cyrus, who subdued the Babylonians, as they
had previously subdued the Persians.

ELATH (Deut iL 8) or ELOTH (2 Chr.
▼iiL ^7)-^ seaport of Idumea, of great cele-
brity, l3ring on the shore of the eastern or
Elamtic gmf of the Bed Sea, and a place of
much imixirtance in Solomon's time (1 Ki
ix. 26-28). It was probably a part of David's
conquest H. Chr. xviiL 13), and was re-cap-
tured by the Edomites in the reign of Jehoram
(2 KL viii 20), taken from them t^&uk by
XJzziah, king of Judah (2 Ki ziv. 22), and
afterwards seized l^ the king of Damascus
(2 Ki xvL 6), who was in his turn deprived of
it by the kinff of Asfl^ria (2 Ki xvi 7-9).
Elatii adjoined Ezion-treber. (See EooF-
Gebeb).

ELDAD-^^ovedo/ Ood (Num. xi 26)— and
MEDAD, were of the seventy elders of Israel
appointed by Moses to assist him in the
government of the people. When the elders
were assembled around the tabemade to sedc
wisdom from God on a particular occasion
Eldad and Medad were absent. The Spirit of
God was, however, poured out on them there,
while they continued with the camp, 'as well
as on their colleagues who surrounided the
tabernacle, and they began to prophecy. Their
proceeding was represented to Moses, and he
was askea to prohibit them, but he aeclined,
and, so far from wishing them to be silenced,
he uttered a prayer that all the people miffht
receive the same Spirit which was upon Eldad
and Medad (Num. zL 29).

ELDEBS— from the Saxon word dd, de-
noting age (Exod. iii 16) — a comprdiensive
title, the peculiar force of which mu.st be
determined by the connection, &c While in
Egypt, the elders of Israel (Exod. iv. 29-31)
were probably either the heads of tribes or the
oldest and most judicious of the people. And
though their authority was in its nature pater-
nal, they were regarded to a certain extent as
the representatives of the nation. In the
Hebrew commonwealth every cily had its
elders, who seem to have possessed a local
jurisdiction somewhat like our justices of the
peace (Deut. xix. 12; xxi 1-9; Josh. xx. 4;
Judg. viii. 14 ; xi. 5. 6; Buth iv. 2. 4, 9 : Ezrax.
14). There was a select body of elders, however,
chosen and appointed for special duties (Num.
xi 16, 17, 24, 26) ; and they seem to have been
taken from^ tiie general class of elders. The
expression is, " Uather me seventy men of the
elders of Israel, whom thou knowest to be
elders of the people, and officers over them.*'

The sevenfy men who were with Moses at
mount Sinai were also seventy of the elders of
Israel (Exod. xxiv. 1, 9). At a subsequent
period of Jewish history we find a tribunal of
seventy elders known as the sanhedrim, which

ELE

the Babbies maintain was a oontinuanoe of the
original appointment of elders by Moses. It
is generally agreed, however^ that the sanhe-
drim was a distinct organization, unknown till
the time of the Maccabees.

The term dden is used in the New Te<sta-
ment generally, if not alwajrs, to denote a dasB
of officers in tne Jewish or Christian Church«
Concerning the duties which apportoined to
their office there are conflicting opinicms. It
is supposed by some that in Acts xi 30 the
word etdert means simpl v the aged men.

The persons called ''^elders,*' Acts zx. 17.
called "overseers,'* Acts xx. 28, and

are

" bishops" in Phii i 1. ]Slders were ordained
(Titus 1. 5). Elders were to gain converts and
refute objectors. It was the duty of elders to
visit the sick. ** Is any sick amoof you ? let
him call for the elders of the chunm" (Jas. v.
14). When they are associated with the
apostles (as in Acts xv. 6), officers or members
of the Christian Church are intoided; and when
the]^ are associated with the dvil authoritx
(as in Acts xxiv. 1|, officers of the Jewiob
church are intended. That the corruption
and contempt which attadied to the latter
in their judicial character was very genoal in
our Saviour's time, appears from Matt xxvi
69 ; xxvii 3, 41 ; and that the former had ex-
tensive ecclesiastical power, appears from Acts
xvi. 4.

Eldebs, bstatb of the (Acts xxii 5), means
the whole body^ bench, or order of the elders.
In Hebrews xl 2 elders means j>erson8 of a
former age — ^the persons whose faith and feats
are recorded in the subsequent verses of the
chapter. In the book of Bevelation "four-
and-twenty elders" are a sjrmbolic class of
worshippers round the throne in heaven. (See
Bishop, Council.)

ELEALEH (Num. xxxii 3^ 37)— a dtv of
the Amorites assi^ed to the tnbe of Beuoen.
It is denounced in the prophecies, among the
cities of Moab (Isa. xv. 4; Jer. xlviii 34).
And to this day the ruins of a town are seen
between 1 and 2 miles north-east of Heshbon,
that still retain the name of Eleale or El- Aid.

ELEAZAB— 6W the helper, 1. (Num. xx.
28) The third son of Aaron (Exod. vl 23), and
his successor in the office of high priest, which
he held for upwards of 20 years, and his family
after him. till the time of Eh. Nadab and
AbihUj Eleazar and Ithamar, together with
their Ubther Aaron, were consecrated to tiie
sacerdotal office. The first two were struck
dead for a particular sin. (See Abihu. )

Eleazar, being the eldest surviving son, suc-
ceeded his father, and was himself succeeded
by his eldest son Phinehas. according to the
covenant (Num. xxv. 12, 13). The office con-
tinued in !Eleazar*s line through seven sucoes-
sions, and then passed into the line of Ithamar,
in the person of Eli. who was both high priest
and judge. In Itnamar's line it contmued
until the reign of Saul, who caused Abimelech
to be slain, and probably transferred the
priesthood to 2iadok, who was of the line of
Phinehas; for in David's time we find the

2-19

ELE

priesthood •ostained lointly by Zftdok and
Abiathar, who was of Ithamar's family (2
Sam. XX. 25). Afterwards Abiathar was
deposed (1 KL u. 27), and Zadok sustained the
omce alone; and the succession continued in
his line thenc^orward until the captivity.
(See Abiathab.)

Abiathar received the title of high priest
after his deposition (1 KL iv. 4), but it was
nothing more than nominal ; it could only have
been a secondare rank, such as Zephaniah held
( Jer. lii 24). Why the sacerdotal succession
was transferred from Eleazar to Itbamar we are
not informed ; but we are told wh^ it reverted
to the family of Eleazar, (1 Sam. iL 27, &c )

2. <I Ghr. xi 12) A warrior of distinguished
courage, two of whose exploits are receded, I
Chr. xi. 11-18 and 2 Sam. xxin. 9.

3. (1 Sam. viL 1) The son of Abinadab, to
whose care tiie ark was committed when it was
sent bade by the Philistines.

EL-ELOHEISRAEL-6^-6^ o/ Israd
(Gen. xxxiii 20). The word El is from a
liebrew word signifying an object of adoration.
It is most frequently used of God, but is
applied both to Jehovah and to heathen gods.
It enters into the composition of a variety of
words, to which it gives a highly significant
meaning, — as El-Bethel, Daniel, Jabneel,
Othniel, Peniel, Ac. (See Elol)

El-Bethkl— tAe Ood of Bethel (Gkn. xxxv.
7)— the same with BetheL (See Bethel.)

ELECT (1 Pet L 2), ELECTION (Rom.
ix. 11). Both in the Old and New Testament
a class of persons is spoken of as the ** elect,"
** mine elect " (Isa. bcv. 9), " the elect " (Matt
xxiv. 22), "his elect" (Sfark xiiL 27), "his
own elect" (Luke xviiL 7), " God*8 elect"
(Rom. viiL 33; Titus I 1), "the elect of God''
(CoL iiL 12). So also in the New Testament
a corresponding phrase often occurs, " elected
together with you " (1 Pet v. 13), " the purpose
of Gxxl, according to election " (Roul ix. 11),
" election of grace " (Rom. xi. 5), " election of
God" (1 Thess. i. 4), "calUui^ and election"
(2 Pet L 10). These terms, m Uieir various
connections, involve a very important and
interesting doctrine^ concerning which Chris-
tians are much divided in opinion. It is
evidently a matter of mere revelation, and
many of the reasonings and inferences ot men
are therefore likely to be very vain and
erroneous. "The counsel of the Lord, that
shall stand " (Prov. xix. 21). And we may be
fuUv assured that in his counsel there is
nothing inconsistent with the infinitely perfect
attributes of his character, or with the free
agency and responsibility of man. The term
is applied in three distinct senses.

1. Individuals are elected bv Grod to some
special work, as was Cyrus ana the apostles of
our Lord.

2. Communities are elected to national bless-
ings, as were the Jews.

3. Persons are elected in Gtxi's severely
gpu:e to eternal life, who are " chosen m
(Jhrist before the foundation of the worldL" in
order to be holy and without blame before nim.

250

ELI

Elect lady (2 John 1). Whether this title
is applied by John to some eminent Christiaa
woman, or whether it was a figuratiye exnres-
sion, denoting a Christian church, has been
disputed. If a person is meant the phrase
may signify either the elect Kuria or ^btc
lady Edecta: the former is the most likely
supposition.

ELEMENTS (GaL iv. 3, 9), elsewhere ren-
dered "rudiments" (CoL iL 8, 20), or the first
principles of an art or science, is a term applied
to the ceremonial ordinances of the Hoeaic
law, which were worldly, weak, and heggaarlj,
inasmuch as they consisted very mudi m
outward or worldfy observances (Heb. ix. 1),
and were of temporary and partial service
when compared with the disdoeures of grace
and mercy which they were desi^^ned to shadow
forth. In the case ot the Colossiana, probably
these rudiments of ^ the world embraced the
doctrines of some vain and deceitful philoso^y.
The word has also a material sense in 2 Pet
iiL 10, where we read, " The elements shall
melt with fervent heat, the earth also, and the
works that are therein, shall be burnt u^*
In this verse it has been suj^posed to signify
the component parts of which the phyncal
universe is composed, and which, in ancient
philosophy, were thought to be four, — ^fire, air,
ea^th, and water. But as heat cannot well be
said to melt itself, the allusion may be to the
heavenly bodies. (See Colosslanb.)

Bhl— exalted (1 Sam. ii. 11)— a descendant
of Ithamar. the fourth son of Aaron, and
successor of Abdon as high priest and judge
of IsraeL In consequence of his negligence
or injudicious management of his two sons,
Hophni and Phinenas, he suffered severe
chastisement These youn£[ men seem to have
been spoiled by paternal indulgence ; for when
they offended deeply their father spoke softly
unto them. Samuel was directed to disdoee
to Eli the iudgments that would come npon
his family (1 Sun. iiL 13, 14), chiefly beciuise
of his neglect of paternal duty. The old man
received the intelligence with remarkable sub-
mission ; but it was not until twenty-seven yeazB
after that God fulfilled his threateninga. His
two sons were both slain in the same battle with
the Philistines, into whose hands the ark of
Grod felL The aged priest, then in his ninety-

Shth year, was so overwhelmed when these
amities were made known to him, that he
fell backward from his seat, and broke his
neck. Eli was a good man, though wanting
in finnness to his own household. His heart
trembled for the ark of God^ and the news
of its capture hastened his death. He had
governed the Hebrews in all their ooncems,
civil and religious, for the long period of forty
years (1 Sam. iv. 18).

ELl — my God. (See Eloi.)

ELIAB (1 Sam. xviL 28)— the eldest son of
Jesse (1 Sam. xviL 13), and a man of angry
and envious temperas appears from hia tr^t-
ment of his brother JDavid.

ELIAKIM. L (2 KL xviiL 18) An officer
in the court of Hezekiah, king of Judah, and

e
cai

ELI

one of the commissioiierB appointed to treat
with the king of Assyria, who had laid meffe
to Jerusalem. We have a minnte and deeply
interesting account of the whole scene, 2 ICl
xviiL andxiz.

2. (2 Ki xxiii 34) Son and successor of
Joeiah, king of Judah. His name was changed
to Jehoiakim. (See Jehoiaxim. )

ELIAS. (See Elijah.)

ELIASHLB (Neh. xiii 4)— an officer of the
temple. To oblige Tobiah, a relative, he took
the stores out of one of the courts of the
temple, and fitted it up for Tobiah's lodgings.
As soon as Nehemiah knew of it, he caused
idl Tobiah*s furniture to be cast out, the apart-
ments to be thoroughly cleansed, and the i^res
to be returned.

^lAEZEBr-OodTthdp (Gen. zv. 2)— a name
of frequent occurrence in the Old Testament.
The most distingmshed person who bore it was
Abraham's steward and confidential servant
(Gen. zxiv. 2). Abraham calls him the ** stew-
ard of my house," or literally, " son of posses-
sion of my house,** and speaks of him as his
heir — as the '* son of his house " — his heir-at-
law. These words do not imply that he was
*'bom'* in Abraham's house, as our version
has it, for he is called ** Eliezer of Damascus."
Probably he was a near relative or kinsman,
and some are inclined to identify him with
Lot.

EJABiU— God Jehovah (Job xxxiL 2)— a
friend of Job, and a kind of arbiter in the
controversy between him and three of his
acquaintances who had come to sympathize
with him in his calamities. Elihu regarded
lx>th parties as in the wrong — Job, for justif3r-
ing himself rather than God; and his three
friends, for their unfair or unsatisfactory mode
of answering the afflicted patriarch. Elihu
was the youngest of them alL He is called
the Buzite, from Buz, the place of his nativ-
ity, probably a city of Idumea, as were also
Dedan and Teman (Jer. xzv. 23 ; xlix. 7, 8 ;
Ezek. XXV. 13). llie ground taken by the
three friends of Job respecting the cause of
his calamities was, that his professions of piety
were hypocritical ; and these were Grod's judg-
ments upon him for his sins. Elihu shows
that this inference of theirs was rash and
unauthorized, and proceeded from a limited
Wew of God's proviaential dispensations. He
censures many of the feelings and en>reesions
into which Job had been betrayed by the
taunts and reproaches of his visitors ; and then

Suts him in remembrance of the infinite attri-
ates of the Divine Being as a ground of
submission and confidence. The soothing, yet
faithful and honest discourse of Elihu is
finely contrasted with the sharp and severe
language of the other three ; and especially
are his wisdom, piety, benevolenoeu and
sympathy admirable, when we consiaer his
youtn and the chaxacter and standing of
those whom he addressed (Job XTxiii. 23, 24).
(See JfB.)

ELIJAH — God JehovaK Concerning the
•lineage and eariy Ufe of this distinguished

ELI

prophet, the Tishbite, the Soriptures give us
no information. We are told that he was a
native of Gilead, a country on the eastern
bank of the Jordan. He is first introduced
suddenly to our notice as bearing an awful
message from God to Ahab, the king of Israel
Ahab, havinff abandoned the worship of
Jehovah, ana paid homage to idols, had in-
duced the great bulk of the nation to imitate
his example. The prophet is commanded to
bear to him the terrible tidings that he and
his people would be visited witn the scourge of
famme : *' As the Lord Gkxi of Israel liveth,
before whom I stand, there shall be neither
dew nor rain these years, but according to my
word" (1 EX xviL 1). We learn from the
New Testament that the drought lasted three
years and six months (Luke iv. 25 ; Jas. v. 17).
The drought extended to surrounding coun-
tries, for the famine prevailed in Zarephatii, a
cit^ of Zidon, in tne country of Pnoenicuk
which lay to the north-west of Canaan. And
JoeephuB gives an extract from an andent
lustorian. which speaks of a drought that
prevailed over all that land for one entire
year ; and this took place under the reign of
a king who was contemporary with Ahab.
Elijah having delivered this message, at Grod's
command went and hid himself by the brook
Cherith, where Grod promised to protect and
feed him. (See Chebith.) In this retreat he
was fed by the ravens, and the brook would
supply him with drink. But a question has
been raised whether the original word, ore6«ii,
denotes literally the birds known by that
name. Various opinions have been advanced
on the subject. Some commentators affirm
that they were angels who had assumed the
appearance of ravens; others, that they were
merchants, in proof of which Ezek. xxvii. 27
is referred to, because the same word is there
employed to denote merchandise; others, that
they were Arabians; and some, that they
were the inhabitants of a town called Arabah
(Jodi. XV. 6; and xviii 18). The first theory
sufficiently refutes itself. That they were
merchants, or even individuals, seems highly
improbable; for had they been individuals
Grod would not have spoken of them so enip^-
matically. And, besides, it is to be borne m
mind that Ahab had sought Elijah through
every nation and kingdom, and it is therefore to
be expected that he would first make a vigilant
search for him in his own dominions. In these
circumstances it is very unlikely that there
would be any persons found, so far raised
above the fear of the king's command, as to
conceal the man whom the monarch aeemed
his greatest enemy; more especially since all
must have known that their present distress
had come upon them through the instru-
mentality of Elijah. So that we appear to
be shut up to the conclusion that the orebim
were literally ravens. Such, too, is the trans-
lation of Aquila, Svmmaohus, Theodotion, the
Septui^gint and other ancient versions, with
only one exception. To the supposition that
ravens were employed, it has been objected

251

ELI

that birds undean aooordin^ to the law (Lev*
xi 15) oould not be used in ministerinff to Uod*8
servant. But the law did not prohibit any
one from using food that had been borne on
the back of a camel or horse, both of which
are unclean for food acoordmg to the law.
When it is said, "The ravens brought him
bread and flesh in the morning, and bread
and flesh in the evening," it is not meant
that they served him on these occasions with
a meal of cooked food, but only that they
brought provision periodically, consisting of
animal and vegetable food, which, by means of
a fire of dry wood, Elijah might easuy prepare
for his own use.

As most of the streams in Palestine were
onlv winter torrents, dried up in a very
early part of the summer, Cherith soon
shared the fate of others dependinff uDon
the rainy season. It is simplv statea (1 Ki
zviL 7) that " after awhile, * or as it is
rendered in the margin, " at the end of
days," the brook dried up. The waters of
Cherith having failed, Grod commanded Elijah
to seek another abode (1 KL xvii 8, 9).
Elijah set out at once upon his poumey,
attended as it must have been with con-
siderable danger, for he required to pass
through the territories of Ahab. in his
way to Zarephath. which lav on the north-
west of Galilee, between lyre and Sidon.
Having arrived at the gate of the city, he saw
the woman gathering sticks whom God had
pointed out as his benefactress, having very
probably marked her present occui>ation as
the sign by which she was to be recognized (see
Mark xi 1-6. and Luke xxii 7-13). Elijah,
thirsty from his lon£^ journey, having saluted
her, requested that she would give him a little
water to drink. And as she was going for the
water, he called after her, saying, '* Bring me
also a morsel of bread in thine hand." But
she assured him in the most solemn manner
that she had no food in her possession, with
the exception of a handful of meal and a
little oil, which she was just preparing to
dress for her only son and herself, as the
last diet they had any prospect of enjoying,
after which they anticipated nothing but star-
vation and death. Nothing shaken in his
faith that God would prove true to his word,
the prophet insisted that she would comply
with his request, and supply him with the
refreshment he n^aded, even lief ore she or her
son tasted of it ; and for her encouragement
he assured her, upon the authority of God.
that her small store should not fail till God
had sent rain upon the earth. The woman
believed him, did as she was commanded,
and realized all that was promised, ''for
the meal wasted not, neither did the cruse
of oil fail" (1 KL xvii 16). But while
this small family was enjo3dn^ comparative
prosperity in the midst of umversal desola-
tion, a dark cloud was at the same moment
suspended over them. The widow*s only
son fell sick and died. This sad catastrophe
slie virtually changed upon the propnet,
252

ELI

under the impression, peihaps, that m h«
had been instrumental in causing the droaffht|
with all its fearful oonsequenoes, he had
nourished her and her son only that a man
terrible visitation might fall npcm them.
The man of Grod stayed not to ezpostnlate
with her regarding her mistake, but imme-
diately took the ooipse of the youth into his
own chamber, laid him upon his own bed, and
having stretched himself upon the lifeleas body
three times, he cried unto the Lord, and tlie
young life was restored.

The prophet having lived in quiet retimnent
for a considerable time, is again called intoaotive
service (1 Ki xvii 1, 2). The phrase, ** after
many days," refers to the time that the ptroidiet
had lived with the widow at Zarei^uwh, and
** in the third year " refers to the period of the
drought. Ckimmentators have found some
difficulty in attempting to reooncQe the i^
parent discrepancy between the language of
the historian (1 Ki xviii 1) and of our Savionr

iLuke iv. 25) and the apcetle James (Jas. v.
.7), the two latter denning the time to be
three years and six months, while the fonner
sneaks of Elijah as leaving the widow's liouae in
the third year, after which only a short poiod
elapsed till rain fell abundantly. But the
form of expression, *'in the third year,**
both in Heorew and Latin, means, "anet
the third 3rear." or sometime between the
third and fourth year. Though neither dew
nor rain had moistened the earth for that
long period, in oonsequence of which a sore
famine prevailed over all the land, but
pressed with special severity upon Samaria
(1 Ki xviii 3), the heart of the Idng re-
nuuned unmoved by the judgment, yea^ be
even appears to have increased in obduracy
in proportion to the extent of his sufferings.
HIb chief concern seems to have been how to
save his horses and mules alive, heedless of the
multitude of human beings that must have
been perishing from hunger (1 Ki xviii 61.
Yet in the court of this idolatrous monarcu
there was a most devoted servant of God,
named Obadiah. steward of his house. Now
Ahab proposed to his steward that they
should scour the land, each taking a dif-
ferent direction, and go tiirough the whole
of it in quest of any fountains and brooks
which were not yet dried up, that they
mi^bt obtain provender for the fawitAingr
animals. As these arrangements wne being
made at the palace in Samaria, the word <rf the
Lord came to Elijah, commanding him to go
and show himself to Ahab, and prcnnising that
He would send rain upon the earth. Ajid as
he was going, in obedience to the command, he
met Obadiah, who appears to have set out >
little before the king (1 Ki xviii 16). When
Obadiah saw Elijah he at once recognized him;
and having prostrated himself at the seer's
feet, he exclaimed, "Art thou my lord
Elijah?" The prophet requested Obadiah to
go and tell Ahab that he was at hand (1
Ki xviii 9, 10). Knowing what searoh
had been made for the prophet at home and

ELI

abroad, Obadiah scrupled to obey EliJIUi; be-
lieving that Grod womd exercise the greatest
care over him— would, if he saw any evil
about to befall him, remove him away, no one
knowing whither, referring no doubt to the
sudden and mysterious manner in which Elijah
had disappeared at the commencement of the
drought. And should he inform the king
that he had seen Elijah, and the king be
unable to &id him, his life would be sacrmoed
for the prophet's. But Elijah having assured
him that he might dread no hann. ashe would
certainly that day stand before Anab, he com-
plied with his request and informed the king.
On receiving this intelligence, Ahab went to
meet £3ijan, and ajb once charged him as
the cause of the present misery. Elijah
promptly retorted, that not he, but the
king nimself had brought upon mmself and
his people this dreadrul calamity, by for-
saking Grod and serving "Raaiim. The
<^vine messenger also proposed to prove the
accusation in a manner that would be satisfac-
tory to botli parties, and impressive to the
entire nation. What was popoeed being
reasonaUe, and Ahab no douot naving some
idea that the return of rain was connected
with the goodwill of Elijah, at once yielded
assent. So Ahab sent a£d gathered together
all the diildren of Israel at mount Garmel,
and also the prophets of Baal, in number 450.
But though Elijah desired that the prophets
of the groves should also be callea to the
scene, they did not appear. Verv probably
as they ate at the table of Jezebel, and were
imder her authority^ she would not permit
them to attend; havm^, perhaps, some dread
of the result, and unwillmg that her faich in
her gods should be put to so severe a test
(See Gbovs.) The scene is sublime, the one
champion against hundreds on Carmel!

When the people and the priests of Baal
Had assembleo, Elijah rebuked them in cut-
ting terms for their want of dedsion as to
whether Jehovah or Baal ought to be served.
He then proposed that two bullocks should
be provided, and that each party should take
one — the prophets of Baal, on the part of
their ffod, and he on the part of Jehovah j and
that, having each cut their bullock in pieces,
and laid it upon the wood on the altar, without
puttinff any lire under it, they should call
upon tneir god, and he would invoke Jehovah ;
the test being that he who answered their sup-
plications by sending fire to consume the sac-
rifice, should be held as the true Grod. To this
proposal the people readily assented. And as
there was omv one prophet of God present,
and the propnets of Baal were numerous,
being ^0 men, Elijah proposed that they
should make the first experiment. So, having
dressed their bullock and placed it upon the
altar, they iiresented praters to their god from
morning until noon, crying, "O Baal, hear
us.** But there was no answer. And they
leaped upon the altar which thev had made
(1 Ki xviii 26), or as it is rendered in the
maigin, " they leaped up and down at the |

ELI

«

altar.** The Septuagint renders it,
round the altar,'* leaping up and down. Then
"Elijah mocked them, axid said. Cry aloud;
for he is a god : either he is talking, or he u

Eursuing, or ne is in a journey, or penidventure
e sleepetlL and must be awaked. And thej
cried aloud, and cut themselves, after ihear
mannei^ with knives and lancets, tUl Uie blood
s^^ed out upon them** (1 KL xviiL 27, 28).
When the day had nearly passed away, and
the time of tne evening sacrifice drew ni|^
Elijah called the people near him. He then
erected the altar of God, by setting up twelve
8tone& representing the twelve tribes <n IsmeL
and dug a trench round about them; and
havinff arran^ the wood upon the altar, and
laid the sacrifice upon it, ne requested tho
people to fill four banels with waiter, and pour
it upon the sacrifice and the wood. This was
done three times, tiU Uie water filled the trench
that was about the altar; and t^us it was
made evident that there could be no fire
secreted among the wood. Everything being
in readiness, ^^ah presented a very rtanark-
able prayer. The result was instantaneour:
'* Then tne fire of the Lord fell, and consumed
the burnt sacrifice, and the wood, and the
stones, and the dust, and licked up the water
that was in the trench. And wnen aU tiie
people saw it, they fell on their faces; and
they said, the Lord, he is the Grod ; the Lord,
he IS the Grod. And Elijah said unto them.
Take the prophets of Baal; let not one of
them escape. And they took them; and
Elijah brought them down to the brook
Kiahon, and slew them there** (I Ki xviiL
36-40). Whether Elijah had any speaal com-
munication from Grod regarding uiese idolaters
we are not informed ; but in putting tiiem to
death he acted according to the pkdn letter of
the law (Deut. xiii 5; xviiL 20).

Judgment being executed upon Grod*s ene-
mies, Elijah expected a return of His favour
to the nation. In confident anticipation that
his prayer would be heard before it was pre-
sented, oe assured Ahab that he might go up
to his tent and refresh himself, for there would
soon be abundance of rain: himself, in the
meantime, retiring to the mount to pray for it
(Jas. V. 18). Having implored GrooL ne sent
his servant up to the top of tiie hiU to look
towards the sea for some indication of the
answer; but there was no apparent response.
In full confidence, however, that rain would
come, and that speedily, he sent him again,
until the seventh time, when he returned with
the joyful tidings that a doud, no bigger than
a man^s hand, was rising out of the Mediter-
ranean. Satisfied that his prayer was now
granted, he commissioned his servant to tell
Ahab that he should without delay prepare
to go down, lest the rain might hinder him ;
for rain often falls in such copiousness in the
East as to render travelling impossible. Mean-
while the little cloud, driven by the wind,
soon covered the face of the sky, and the rain
poiired down in torrents. (See Cloud.)

The enraged Jezebel now sent a message to

253

ELI

Elijah, asBtiriiig him that ahe had taken an oath
that by that hour on the following day he should
be as one of the slain prophets: and the man
who had boldly faced an angry king, terrified
by the threatening of this wicked woman, arose
and fled for his lite. He came to Beer-sheba,
a town situated at the south-west extremity of
Judah. There he left his servant, Ymt went
himself a day's journey into the Arabian desert
Fatigued with his journey, and downcast in
spirit^ he sat down under a juniper tree, and
in a morbid moment requested that God would
take away his life. But while he lay and slept
imder the juniper tree, an angel was commis-
sioned to bear food to him. Twice was he
aroused from slumber to partake of the food
that was thus supplied.- Refreshed by such a
banquet, he went on in the strength of it forty
days ana nights, till he came unto Horeb, the
mount of God (1 KL xix. 1-8). Over what
sjpace the prophet travelled during these forty
days we are not told. The language of the
passage would lead us to suppose ^lat he spent
forty days in travelling from Beer-sheba to
Horeb; out the distance is not so great that
such a period could be occupied in going over it.
Having arrived at Horeb, the scene of the
old legislation, he went into a cave and lodged
there. Not long had the prophet been in that
lonely situation till the voice of God was heard
addresaing him in the language of reproof, —
" What doest thou here, Elijah ?" To which
he replies, that zeal for uie honour of Grod bad

E revoked the wTath of his countrymen againiit
im ; that the children of Israel had already
demolished the altars of Jehovah and slain his
prophets, he only having escaped deRtruction.
and his life being daily sou^t. The Lord
commanded him to go and stand upon the
mount before the LorcL" that he might receive
fresh manifestations of his power and mercy:
and as Elijah was preparing to obey, the Lora
passed by. and a dreadful wind, and earth-
quake, ana fire shook the mount, and seemed to
convulse Nature to her very centre. These
were succeeded by a calm, when a gentle voice
fell upon the ear of the alarmed prophet ; on
hearing which, Elijah wrapped his face in his
mantle, and went and stood in the mouth of the
cave, when God again addreKsed him. Having
repeated the former reproof, and Elijah ha\'ing
returned the same answer, God commanded
him to return to the scene of duty ; to go by
the way of Damascus and anoint Hazael king
over Syria, Jehu king over Israel, and Elisha
prophet in his own room, who would com-

C'e the work of reformation which he had
m. And to check his desponding fears,
and encourage his heart, God iniorms him that
the Btate of religion was not at such a low ebb
as he Bupx)osed ; for even at that moment, in
degenerate Israel, there were 7,000 men who
had not bowed tne knee to BaaL So he de-
parted and found Elisha in the field ploughing
with oxen, cast his mantle over him, and very
probably accompanied the act with some words
which are not recorded. Be that, however, as
it may, Elisha understood what was meant by
254

the ftcft, for he left the ozfn and went after
EUjah; a Ki xix.) But the ancontiiig of the
two kings was deferred by ^jah and per-
formed by Elisha some yean after. (See 2 JKi.
viiL 7-15; ix. L)

About two yean after theee events took
place Elijah was sent lyy God to Ahab to
reprove him for his sin, and foretell hia
doom, for having fraudulently seised the Tine-
yard of Naboth whom Jezebd had put to
death because he refused to part with his
paternal inheritance. Elijah found the king
m the vineyard of which he had just taken
possession. The nght of the man of God
appean to have excited in the guilty mind of
Ahab dreadful apprehensions^ for he exclaimed,
'*Hast thou found me, O mme enemy?" As
it is not probable that uie kin^ had seen Elijah
from the time that he had witnessed the ms-
pleasure of God manifested throu^ Elijah
against the idolatrous priests, he might ni^-
raJly congratulate himself that he had been
freed hx>m all further annoyance by the prompt
and decided measures adopted by his wife (1
KL xix. 2, 3). But Elijah^s appearance under
such drcumstances very natmcally called to
recollection the past transactions of mount
Carmel, together with the bloody tragedy that
had just been completed. Elijan assured him
that since he had given himself over to all
manner of iniquity, God would visit him with
a corresponding punishment; and that the
vengeance of Jehovah would descend not only
upon himself, but even upon his posterity.
When the drought was brought upon the land
Ahab's heart remained unmoved ; but on the
announcement of this judgment, which was
more personal, his spirit was somewhat sub-
dued, and he gave evidence for a time of a
sincere penitence, in consequence of which
judgment was deferred in Ahab*s day, but
afterwards inflicted.

Ahab having been slain in battle three yean
afterwards, his son Ahaziah, who reigned m hu
stead, having fallen from the roof of his palace, Yfy
which he was severely injured, sent to thegod <tf
Ekron to inquire if he should recover. Elijah,
on bein^ directe<l by €rod, met the messengen
of the kmgr, and sent them back to their master
to inouire if it was because there was no God in
Israel that he consulted the gods of the heaUien ;
and at the same time to intimate to Ahaziah
that his present malady should certainly ter-
minate in death. Ahaziah, surprised at the
speedy return of his servants, as well as at the
message which they 1x)re, and perceiving by
their description of their informer that he was
Elijah, sent a ca])tain with fifty men to take
him. But when the company had niched the
summit of the hill on which Elijah was seated,
and the captain had delivered the message in
the kiiig*s name, Elijah prayed to God, who
sent fire from heaven which consumed both the
officer and his company. This being reported
to the king, a second party was dei^tohed,
who shared a similar fate. But the king behig
set upon the destruction of the prophet, sent a
third company. On coming into his presence,

ELf ^

its captain fell down at the feet of the njli of
God, and implored that Elijah would spare
their life. The Loid then said to Efijah
that he might accompany these men^ and
solenmly assure the kmg that the prediction
already announced should be duly verified:
'*And he died according to the word of the
Lord which he spake by Elijah."

But the time of the prophet's sojourn upon
earthy and the termination of his labour, were
chrawingtoadoee. On the eve of his departure
he paid his last visit to the various seminaries
of prophetic instruction. (See SoHOOL. ) Both
the fact of Elijah's departure and the mode
of it appear to have been made known to
Eliaha, and to the students attending these
schools. From whatever motive we are not
told. Elijah requested once and again that
EUsna would leave him while he went to visit
the coUeges at Bethel and Jericho, and when
he went from them to the banks of the
Jordan. But as Elisha declared his fixed
purpose in no case to leave him, thev went on
together. On leaving Jericho, fifty of the
young men, " sons of the prophets,** who had
no doubt received much boient from his pious
counsels, followed them at a distance, and
beheld the two prophets advance towards
Jordan. Elijah took his mantle and smote the
waters, and they divided, so that both went
over on dry sround. Having crossed the
river, Elijah aslced Elieha what he should do
for mm before he was finally separated from
him. Elisha requested that a double portion
of his sfiirit might rest upon him. Elijah
assured him that, though the request was ^preat,
vet it would be grantea if Elisha should witness
Ids translation. And while the^r were eamestlv
engaged in conversation, a chariot of fire witn
heroes of fire appeared, and parted them, and
Elijah was taken up by a whirlwind into heaven.
Elisha saw it, and cried, "My father, my
father I the chariot of Israel and the horsemen
thereof;" and he saw him no more (2 KL ii

About seven years after the ascension of
Elijah a letter is said to have come from him
to Jehoraxu, king of Judah, reproving him for
his ^Toss wickedness (2 Chr. XXL 12-15). Various
conjectures have been advanced r^parding this
letter, whether it was written by the prophet
before or after his ascension, or whether Elijah
fihould not be read Elisha. Josephus and
others imagine that this writing was indited in
heaven, where Elijah now was. and sent to
Jehoram by the ministry of angels. But there
is no reason to suppose that so singular a
miracle was wrought m favour of an idolatrous
prince, who had Moses and the prophets,
which, in our Saviour's opinion, were sumcient
to instruct him in all points necessary to salva-
tion, and needed not any additional writing to
be sent him from the other world. Others,
therefore, are of opinion that this letter was
written before Elijah's ascension into heaven.
Boothroyd, in his translation of 2 Chr. xxi 12.
instead of Elijah, actually reads Elisha, and
adds, that this correction seems absolutely

necessary, though not oonfinned, peihaps, l^
any one MS. or ancient version.

The last two verses of the Old Testament
contain a promise that Elijah should again
u>pear, in the character of a reformer, imme-
diately precedii^ the public appearance of the
Messiah (MaL iv. 5, 61[. That the Jews ex-
pected a hteral accomplishment of the predic-
tion of Ihe re-appearance of the great reformer,
and that they had pretty accurate ideas as to
the time tdien that event should take place^
seems evident from John L 21. But that the
prediction had its fulfilment in the appearance
of John the Baptist seems obvious from Luke
L 17^ and also cram our Saviour's own words
to his disciples in descending from the mount
of transfiguration (Matt xviL 10-13). EUiah
came also on another occasion. He descended
from heaven in company with Moses, and held
converse with Jesus on the summit of the
mount concerning his decease.

Elijah was indeed a hero of wild energy
and indomitable ooura^ He appears aU a^
once on the scene of action, as if ne had dropt
frcfm heaven; and his work and warfare bemg
over, he rose again in majesty to his native
skieSb This mighty Mer i^pears to have had
little in common with ordinary humanity.
He lived above it in lofty nobility. He moved
through the world like a supernatural visitant
who had but one erraud by which his whole
being was absorbed. He never stooped from
his exalted sphere; the burden of the Lord
pressed so heavily on his spirit that it gave to
nis entire aspect and attitude an unapproach-
able sublimity. He spoke in tones of thunder
to a guilty people, ana his brow seems to have
carried upon it the lowering terrors of divine
indignation. He caught, without shrinking,
the bolt from the thunder-doud, and hurled it
in Grod's name at Ahab and his Idngdom. The
one passion of his heart was jealousy for the
Lord of hosts, for the maintenance of his
honour and worship. His visit to Horeb re-
kindled his zeal, for there the law had been given
which he strove to defend. Moses was severe,
Elijah was stem ; the one was a man, the other
like a demigod; awful in his sympathy, and
unearthly in his attachments ; a stranger to aU
the minor realities and associatioiis of every-
day life. And as there was so little of man
about this living receptacle of inspired energy
and vehemence, he needed not to put off a
body already spiritualized by the burning soul
within it; but, in a chariot formed of kindred
flame, he ascended at once into the joy of his
Lord.

ELIM fExod. XV. 27)— the second station
of the Hebrew host after they had crossed the
Red Sea. It had twelve fountains and seventy
palm trees. It is supposed to be connected
with the Wady GhurundeL

ELIMELECH— wiy God king (Ruth i^ 2)— a
Bethlehemite, and the husbuia of Naomi,
Ruth's mother-in-law.

ELIPHAZ— w« OofTa strength {Job ii. 11)—
one of the three friends of Job who came to
sympathize with him in his calamities. He is

255

SLI

c&Ued the Temanite, probably because he was
a native of Teman. a oountnr of Idumea,
settled by one of tae descenoants of Esau
(Gren. zzxvi 10, 11 : oomp. Jer. xliz. 7. 20 ;
Ezek. xzv. 13 ; Amos L 11, 12 : Obad. k 9).
Eliphaz seems to have been the eldest of Job s
friends, and he is the first M them to com-
mence the convenation with the afflicted
patriarch. He falls into the great blmider
common to them all — that of supposing' that
some gross enormities of which ooh had been
guilty were the causes of his fearful punish-
ment. The style of Eliphaz is bold and
flraphic, especially in describing the divine
nolmess ana majesty (Job iv. 12-17).

ELISABETH-<A« oathofOod (Luke L 5)-
the wife of ZachariaiL and greatly distinamshed
as the mother of John the Baptist. Sne was
a descendant of Aaron; and of her and of
her husband this exalted character is ^ven by,
the evangelist— "They were both righteous
before God, walking in all the commandments
and ordinances of the Lord blameless." The
name is the same as Elisheba, the wife of
Aaron, after whom she may have been named
(See Zachariab.)

ELISHA—(?<Nf« solvation— the son of Sha-
phat, the disciple and successor of Elijah — was
a native of Abel-meholah, a village belonging
to the tribe of Issachar m Galilee. He was
taken from the plough and appointed by Elijah
to be his successor, tor, directed by G^ Elijah
found him in the field and threw his mantle
over hiuL Elisha ran after him and entreated
that he mieht be allowed to go and bid fare-
well to his lather and mother ; but on receiving
an enigmatical answer from him, he slew a
yoke of oxen, boiled their flesh with the in-
struments with which they were ploughing,
and feasted the people. After whicn he went
and ministered unto Eliiah (1 Ki. xix. 16 to
the end). He was with him in his last journey
to the schools at Bethel and Jericho, and when
he crossed the Jordan. He saw his transla-
tioi^ caught his falling mantle, and received a
double portion of his spirit. When he returned
from witnessing the ascension of his predeces-
sor, the young men who had accompanied the
prophets from Jericho saw Elisha approach
the banks of Jordan, take the mantle from
his shoulders and smite the waters, sashing,
"Where is the God of EUjah?" And when
the waters parted asunder, so that he passed
over on dry ground, they said^ " The spirit of
Elijah doth rest upon Elisha." Though
these young men had seen Elijah caught
up from the earth, they doubted whether he
were really taken up to glory, but thought
that the Spirit of the Lord had snatched mm
away, ana left him upon some distant hill or
in some remote valley. Under this impression
they requested Elisha to allow them to send fifty
strong men in search of the absent prophet.
Elisha at first refused, but being importun^
he yielded to their solicitations. They went
and sought diligently, but in vain.

While Elisha remained at Jericho the in-
habitants presented a petition to him, Uiat he
256

crying,
bald-hc

ELI

would put forth his power and sweeten the
sprizigs round their city, for ** the water was
naught, and the groimd barren.'* In the
means employed — casting salt into the water
— there was no adaptation to the end gained,
so that the result proved the mfracoknis
interposition of God bey(md all diipate.
Elisha next seems to have retraced tiba cocnit
which he had lately taken in oooupaaj with
his predecessor. Ilavinff crosMd the Jovdao,
he came to Jericha Leaving Jetieho, he
passed through Bethel on his way to Oannel,
where Elijah seems to have made faia abode
(2Kiiv. 25). In calling at Bethel, bia oVjeet
might be to inform the students of the pro-
phetic seminary there that he bad witneind
the glorious departure of Elijah to the upper
world. That such a communioatioin had oeea
made by him, and that it had been indus-
triously circulated, as it was of snch amaryeDous
description, seems coi^nnedfinoimthe £actthat
a number of young men, deeply tainted with
the spirit of tine age, ran after filisha when he
departing from Bethel, and mocked him,
ing, " Go up, thou bald-head, go up, then

id-head," referring, aa is supposed, to that
baldness on the back part of the head wliioh
hj Orientals was considered most ignominioaa.
Elisha, indignant that reproach ahould be thus
cast upon his message, or upon the BCaster
whom he served (Luke x. 16), tamed and
cursed them, when two she-bean mahed oat
of the woods, and tare forty and two of than
(2 Ki. ii 23, 24]. It is supposed by some that
these bears did not destroy the youths, bat
simply woimded them. Our Engush yexsioii
reaos, "tare forty and two of them/* bat
necessarily implying that death ensued. JSlidia
next went to moimt Carmel, and thenoe to
Samaria (2 Ki. ii 23).

After the death of Ahaziah the son of Ahah,
Jehoram his brother reined in his stead.
From the days of David till the deaA of
Ahab, the king of Moab had paid tribate to
the kmg of laraeL But now he threw off tiie
yoke, and Jehoram, in order to punish him^ie-
solved to enter the field against him. For
this purpose he obtained the alliance of the
kings of Judah and Idumea, with all their
forces. The confederate marched seven days
int4) the wilderness of Edom, that they waAx
to more advantage fall upon the eitemy; out
they had nearly perished for want of water:
so that Jehoram concluded the Lord had
brought out these three kings into the wOder-
ness to deliver them into the hands of the
Moabites. Jehoehaphat, as was natural for a
good man, inauired whether there were not a
prophet of tne Lord to whom appUoation
mignt be made in the emergency. One <d tbs
servants of the king of Israel mtimated that
Elisha was at hand. How Elisha was induced
to follow tiie armies of these kings so far into
the desert we are not informed ; probid^ he
was directed by God, that he might be present
in their extremity, and aflford them an example
of God*s continued and benignant sapenn-
tendence. The prophet, however, on Deing

ELI

consulted, indignantlv told the king of Israel
to go to the gods of his father and mother.
Bat being entreated, for the sake of Jehosh*-
phat, he reoeived the royal applicants, and
uttered a remarkable inrophecv ot deliverance
(2 KL iii 1-25).

On his return home again from this expedi-
tion, the widow of a pious prophet came to
him, entreating his aia in a case of family
distress, as in consequence of the death of her
husband she was involved in debt, said being
unable to meet the demand, her creditors had
come to take away her two sons into bondage
till they should discharge the obligation — a
course permitted by the Jewish law (Lev. xxv.
39 ; Bilatt. xviii 25). On inquiry. Elisha found
that she had nothing in the house of any
worth, except a pot of oil, which was of little
value. At the prophet's direction she bor-
rowed as many empty vessels from her neigh-
bours as she could obtaon. And having shut
her door upon herself and her two sons, she
poured out the oil into the empty vessels until
they were all filled; aad the increase of the oil
only^ stajed when she had no more vessels to
receive it. This oil Elisha directed her to sell
in order to pay her creditors, and to use the
surplus of it tor the benefit of ner family (2 El
iv. 1-7).

In passing from Carmel, probably to visit
the schools of the prophets at Bethel and
Jericho, Elisha was in tne habit of calling at
Shimem, where a woman resided, equally dis-
tinguished for her wealth and beneficence,
who, as often as the prophet passed that way,
made him a partaker of her hospitality, and,
with her husband's concurrence, prepared a
small apartment, such as was set apart for the
reception of strangers, in the outer court of
her own dwelling, and into which Elisha went
every time he passed by the town. Elisha,
desirous of rewarding this woman for such kind-
ness, but finding her contented with her present
condition, could confer no temporal favour
upon her ; but as his servant Grehazi suggested
that she had no child, and her husbimd was
oldj he promised that she should have a son,
which promise was in due course of time real-
ized (2 Kl iv. 8-17). This child, so promised
and given, having grown up, went out one day to
his mther while he was m the harvest field,
and was suddenly taken ill, exclaiming in

Xiy, "My hctfid, my head." This was
t is called "a stroke of the sun," whidi
often terminates fatally shortly after it
occurs. A young man. one of the servants,
at the father s commana. carried him home to
his mother, who nursea him upon her knees
till noon, when he died. Having laid him on
the prophet's bed. and shut the door, she
requested her husoand to send one of the
young men to saddle an ass and convey her to
the man of Crod at moimt CarmeL In eastern
countries it is common for females to ride upon
an ass, while the person who guides the animal
goes behind and urges him forward. And
while she was yet at a distance, Elisha saw her,
called to his servant to meet and salute her,
8

e£i

heard her melancholy story, at leng[th resusci-
tated her child, and dehvered mm to his
mother^ whp, when she received him from the
dead, tell at the prophet's feet and bowed
herself to the ground (2 Ki iv. 26-37).

Elisha came again to Gilgal, a town belong-
ing to the tribe of Benjamin, a little to the
south-east of Jericho, during the time of a
great dearth, from which the sons of the pro-
phets suffered in common with others. Ehsha
requested his servant to set on the lai^ge pot
that had been formerly in use, but of late had
been little employed, and prepare for them
pottage. One of the young men went out to
the field to gather herbs, and " found a wild
vine, and gathered thereof wild gourds his
lapfuL** Tnese gourds the young proidiet,
bemg ignorant of their quality, ahred into
the pot. The eaters, when tne mess had
been tasted, suddenly exclaimed, *' There
is death in the pot;" but by putting a
little meal into it by the prophet's direction,
the bad qualities were countmcted, and they
sustained no harm (2 El iv. 38-41). ^ At
this time a man came from Baal-snalisha,
and brought to Elisha bread of the first-fruits,
twenty loaves of barley, and full ears of com
in his scrip or garment, which Elisha ordered
to be set before the people that they might eat.
Gehazi expressed astonishment that his master
should purpose to set so small a quantity of
bread before 100 men. which would not be a
mouthful to each. But Elisha repeated his
injunction, and assured him, on the authority
of God's own word, that they should not only
all partake of that apparently scanty supply,
and be satisfied, but soould even leave of^ it ;
and so it happened accordingly (2Ki iv. 42-44).

The next miracle wrought by Elisha was
very striking, whether we consider the wonder
itself or the manner in which it was brout^ht
about, llie Syrian's in one of their incursions
into the land of Israel, had carried away a
little maid, who was taken into the house of
the captain of the Syrian host, a man of valour,
and held in much esteem by his master : but
he was afflicted with that dreadful malady,
the leprosy. It being the duty of the young
slave to wait upon Kaaman's wife, sue ex-
pressed a desire that her master were in
Samaria with the prophet that was there,
for he would cure him of his leprosy. Ana
there is little doubt that some of the miracles
that had been p^ormed by Elisha were re-
corded by the damsel. Tnese sayings were
reported to the king of Syria, who urged
Naaman to go witnout delay, with large
presents of gold and silver and raiment to the
king of Israel The monarch wrote a letter
with his own hand, respectfully reouesting the
king that he would heal Naaman of nis muady.
But the kinc of Israel having read the letter,
rent his clothes, and imagined the messatre to
be a device for seeking a quarrel with nim.
Elisha having heard that the king had rent
his clothes, sent to him^ saying, that there was
no cause for such manifestations of' grief : for
if Naaman should come to him he would be

251

ELI

ooiiTmoed that there was a prophet in Israel
Immediately the Syrian omcer, with all his
retinue, was at the door of the prophet's humble
abode, and Elisha sent him a me«»age, with the
injunction, ** Go wash seven times in Jordan,
and thy flcNsh shall oome again to thee, and thou
shalt he dean." But suoi attention was not
what the proud captain was in the habit of
receiving, and was anything but what he had
anticipated. Being offended, too, at the mean-
ness and simplicity of the rem^y proposed,
he " went away in a rage." One of his own
attendants ventured thus to remonstrate : " My
father, if the prophet had bid thee do some
great thing, woulaeet thou not have done it ?
now much rather, then^hen he saith to thee.
Wash and be clean ! " This sage expostulation
had the desired effect; he went and dipt him-
self in Jordan, according to the prophet s direc-
tions, and fully realized what was promised.
Being now convinced that the Grod whom
Elisha served was the only Crod in all the
earth, he returned again to him and intreated
him to accept something as a token of his
gratitude; out the nrophet, though urged,
positively refused. Naaman then besought
the propnet to grant him two mules* burden
of earth. What he designed to do with the
earth we are not informed. It is highly prob-
able that Naaman wished to renounce so far
idolatrous worship, and that he intended to
construct an altar to Jehovah of earth taken
from Grod's chosen land; but he was super-
stitious in his request, and indecision and
compromise appear in his explanation. The
presents refused by EUaha were, however,
coveted eagerly by Gehazi, and stealthily
obtained by him. Alas ! his greed and false-
hood brought Naaman's leprosy upon himself
and his posterity, (2 KL v.) (See Naaman.)

It would app€»ur that Elisha had remained
for some time with those attending the semi-
nary at Gilgal; for we find the yoimg men
complaining to the prophet that the place
where they abode was too strait for tnem,
and requesting his permission to go to the
banks of Jordan and cut down wood, that
they might construct for themselves another
abode, and that he would abo accompany
them to superintend the undertiJdng — to
which he assented. It happened that while
one of them was cutting down a piece of wood
on the edge of the river, his axe nead dropped
into the water, and the river being deep at the
very margin, he concluded it was lost. On
expressing lus deep sorrow, because it was
borrowed, the propnet commanded him to cut
a piece of wood, and cast it in at the place
where the iron dropped. It rose at once to
the surface and swam, and he recovered it (2
Ki vi 1-7).

The king of Syria, in making war against
Israel, usually emploved ambuscades as his
favourite stratagem ; but Elisha, through the
Spirit of God, warned the king of these plots,
by which he was enabled to avoid ruin. The
Syrian sovereign at first could not aocoimt
for Jehoram's discovering plans which were
k 258

ELI

laid in the utmost secrecy, unlen aame of his
own servants were betraying him. One of
his counsellors having heard, however, of
the continuous and startling mirafilwi that
were performed by Elisha, suggested ver^
conclusively that tiie seer, who was capable
of reading the thought^ of men, was anite able
to detect the secret counsels of the king.
Having learned, on inquiry, that the pcopliet
was residing for the time at Dothan, a town
belonging to the tribe of Manawnnh, lie tent
some soldiers to encompass it, in order to take
him. The prophet*s servant saw the city
surrounded with an army, and emcwed to
his master great alarm. But Elisha prayed,
and the Lord opened the eyes of the yoaaff
man, and he saw all the mountains ronna
about covered with chariots and horses of file.
And when Benhadad's amiy came near, Elidia
prayed the Lord to smite them with blindness;
and he went out and told them that that was
not the dty they sought, but if they would
follow him, he would conduct them to the
man of whom they wefe in quest So he led
them into Samaria, and then prayed the Lofd
to open their eye8--when, lo ! thejr discovered
that they were in the very capital of the
enemy. Jehoram, in his hayste to be avenged
on Uiem, asked the prophet "My fathefv
shall I smite them? shall I smite them?*
The prophet nobly refused, and spumed from
him such a dastardly revenge (2 1^ vL 23).

Though the Svrians came no more in com-
panies unto the land of Israel, yet Benhadad.
having collected aU his hosts, went up and
besieged Samaria, till it was reduced to the
greatest straits (2 KL vL 8-23.) (See Afl^B
Head and Dove's Ddno.| The object of
Benhadad was to cut off all supplies, so that
the people of Samaria would be compelled to
surrender. This the king of Israel dreaded,
and in order to prevent it kept watch bitnaalf
frequently gpin^ round the dty on the top of
the walL JPassmg along one day, his attention
was directed to a woman by her calling for help^
and supposing that the aid she needed was
food, he repbed, '* If the Lord do not help
thee, whence shall I help thee?" But the
woman gave him to understand that the hdp
she required was that he would interpose his
authority and cause justice to be done her in
a case in which she uiought herself wronged.
She and another woman had bargained, each
in her turn to kill her son for food; and
that, according to agreement, she had been
the firflt to provide the tragic feast ; but when
it fell to the lot of the other to butcher and
eat her son, her maternal feelings reooiled
at the thought, and she hid him. (^ hearing
that such a deed of cannibalism had been
perpetrated in the dty, the king rent Ids
clothes, and bound himself imder an oath
that Elisha should not live another day: and
he sent a messenger to execute his bloody
purpose. Elisha, meanwhile ritting in his own
house with the elders, knew what had been
resolved on, and mentioned to his auditon
the qoick coming of the royal ezeentioner.

ELI

The decree and fulfilment of it are simnltaneoas
in the East, but the door of Elisha's dwelling
was secured against the murderous intruders
(2 Ej. vi 32, 33). In the interval the kinff
aeems to have repented of his rash resolve, and
hastened after uie messenger to prevent the
execution of the sentence. And wnen he came
to the prophet he accused him of not prajring
to Goa to deliver them from their present
distress ; for as the evil was manif estlv- from
the Lord, and he had power with God, ne was
very criminal in not employing his super-
natural influence to save the nation. Ehsha
Erophesied^ however, that there should by that
our next oay be abundance in Samaria, and at
the same time assured one of the king's favourite
attendants that, because he had doubted the
word of Grod now spoken, he should only see,
but not partake of the amazing plenty. This
prophecy was strikingly fulnUed, for that
nignt a panic seized the Svrian host, and thej
fled in disorder and trepidation, leaving their
numerous stores behind. The people, on re-
ceiving inteDi^ience from four lepers who had
wandered in distress to the Syrian camp, went
out uid pillaged ; provisions rapidly and amaz-
ingly fell in price ; and the lord on whose hand
the king leaned, was trodden under foot in the
fl;eneral rush and commotion. Elisha's word
had come to pass. This flight of Israel's ene-
mies was caused bv God making them hear a
noise of a mighty host of chariots and horses,
and they conduded that the king of Israel had
obtained the alliance of the Hittites and the

^

lans.

Suaha then came to Shunem, and gave
notice to the woman whose son he had re-
stored to life that there would be a famine
in the land for seven years, and warned her to
seek an abode for herself and family in another
oountxy, that she might not suffer from that
scourge. So she went and dwelt in the land
of the Philistines seven years, at the end of
which she returned again to her own country,
and finding that her possessions had been taken
up by some other party (but whether confis-
cated by the king, taken possession of by a
relation, or lost by the negligence of her agent
in her absence, cannot now be ascertained),
she went to the king, {nraying him to do her
justice, and cause her land to be restored.
And it so happened, that just when the woman
made her request to the kin^, he was talking
with Gehazi concerning the mighty works that
£lisha had donej and while Gehazi was re-
hearsing to the kmg that Elisha had raised to
life the son of a certain woman, his attention
was arrested by the earnest entreaties of the
very woman herself, when at once he recog-
nized her, and exclaimed to the king, **Mj
Lord, O king, this is the woman, and this is
her son^ whom Elisha restored to life." On
being informed by the woman concerning
all the circumstances of the case, the king
ordered an officer to restoro all her pro-
perty, together with all its produce from the
time that she had left until that day (2 Ei
viiil.6).

ELI

What became of Elisha during these seven
years of famine, we are not informed; nor
have we any account of him until he went to
Damascus, the capital of Sjnria, to execute
the order of declaring Hazael king, which
order had beenflnven to Elijah, his predecessor.
At that time Benhadad the king was side,
arising, according to Josephus, from a fit of
melancholy on account of God being so power-
ful an enemy against him, which he saw was
the case when he understood that his army had
been routed, not from the invasion of a foreign
foe, as they supposed, but by a supernatural
intervention, fienhadad knowing somewhat
of the mighl^ deeds of Elisha, and that he
was possessed of the power of making known
to men ^diat was hid from common mortak,
sent Hazael, one of his prime ministers, to
the ^phet with huge and costly presents^ to
inquire whether he should recover of his sick-
ness. Elisha told Hazael to inform his lord
that his disease was not in itsdf mortal, but
nevertheless Grod had made it known to him
that it would certainly terminate in death, —
referring evidently to the manner of his death
as recoraed in 2 KL viiL 15. Then the man of
God looked steadfastly upon Hazael, with grief
depicted in his countenance and tears flowing
from his eyes, until Hazael was ashamed, and
asked the prophet why he wept. And the
prophet recounted in awful language the bloody
and barbarous cruelties which the conqueror
should infiiict on his native land (2 EL viiL
7-13). About a year after the above events
took place. Elisna anointed Jehu king over
IsraeL (See Jehu.) In his last sickness
Elisha was visited by Joash, the king of
Israel, who came down to the prophet and
wept over him. The dying prophet gave
him symbolic promises of deliverance nom
the domination of Syria, though the king
failed to understand the symboL and take full
advantage of it. At the age of ninety years
— during sixty of which he is supposed to nave
prophesied — Elisha died.

Some time after the prophet's decease a very
remarkable circumstance occurred at the place
whero he was buried. A band of Moao^l^es,
having invaded the land, were seen at a httle
distance by a company of mourners beuinp^ a
man to the grave, just when they were passmg
the sepulchre of Elisha. !hi order to avoid
detection, they hastily removed the stone from
the mouth of the cave in which the mortal
remains of the man of God were reposing, and
cast into it the corpse they were carrying;
but no sooner did it come into contact with
the bones of the prophet than the man revived
and stood up.^ ^* After his death," says the
son of Sirach, in his eulogium on this prophet,
**his body prophesied; he did wonders in his
life, and at his death his works wero marvel-
lous" (Ecdes. xlviii 13).

The life of Elisha bears a milder aspect than
that of his predecessor. It was calmer than
the hurried career of the Tishbite— less abrupt
and vehement, hot stOl full of eneigy and
decision. In Elijah there was the imiwAna d j

EU

tin prophetic ininilM
•"e Utter,

I oftener into *TiiipatIiet
knity. Elijali Ixlraifed
a Van town mod dvilia

ithetico

about him, o

Uct with hi , . ,

dcMit, Eliahs to Uie town mod dviliwd life.
Botli MB illtutriom ipedmeni of that noble-
nm (rf aim, that IcAv conngc, that buroin^
pi^v, that vakmnu and <lisititer«!tedpatriotinii
whioh are cieat«d by the elevating grace and
tba inipiring influence of the Lord of Hoeta.
^ELISHAH (Gen. I. 4)-a Km o( Javan.

ISlisiBthe Fdnponnemu.

ELKANAH— fiorfyoWMWf. SeTen persoDB
of thii nam* are found in Scripture, the be«t
known <A whom i* the father of Samu^ the

'"SjtOBH (Nah. L l)-the birth-place of
Nahnm Uie prophet. Jerome placed it in
Galilee ; other* put it at Allnuli, near Moral

Aiinch. Some identify it with Lonna;

ntoi* probably it wa* Larsa, whioh \» now called
Bankareh.

ELM (Hoa. iv. 13). The origioal is else-
where tranilated oak. (See Oae. )

ELOI— my Ood (Mark xv. 34)— one of the
name* of the Moat High, but ii applied to
other objects of adoration. It is the oihA of
the AiubiaDs. {See £l.) Th? eicUmation of
our Saviour is m the Syro-Cbolilaic tongue,
and is taken from Pa. nil. 1. Tbe peculiar
application of the putiage may be learned fi
oompaxing Isa. liii. A, 5; Zech. '" " '
aii. 63; 2 Cor, t. 21; GaL iii. Vi.

ELOHIM in the general name of God, and
comee froni a root signifyinB to be an objcTt of
dread and reverence. The witch of Endor
gave this name to the awful apporitinn of
Bamoel. Angels, as being creaturta so higlJy
exalted above men ore therefore Elohim. So
in Ps. xcvii. 7, "Worship him, oil ye grids."
In the apostle's quotation in Heb. l 6, "gods"
is rendereil angelik Mogistiateti ore objects of
revNvnce to their snbiects, and are tberefoi'e,
in Hebrew phrase, Elohim. " Thou shalt nut
revile the gods, nor curse the ruler of thy
people" (Eiod iiii. 2»). In this portion of
Exodus Elohim ia several times rendered
"ludges." So also in the same sense it is
found in Ps. liiiiL 6, 7. But in a special
it is applied to the Divine Being, num«n
KJum, of whom the universe ahould stand
and before whom it should bow itself

_ ~ . ._. . „ _.je audi mciliod of pnaarr-
tbeir dead. Othen nppoas that it ww to
reserve the body fcr the ihrellinB-plaoa of tb«
•oul, after it had oomplsted its wiaui trawni-
grstions. The emhahnen or phniciaiia won
regarded as ncnd officer*. The deoeaaed
person was opened (both head mikd body), the
mword vessels and oigaos entirely naKrm^
and the cavities filled inth drup aaA apica* —
such as m^h and cassia — by which the bwBMiUia
were imbibed and abaoihed, wad the fonn ne-
served from deca^. It waa then ■watbediB
linen bandose^ with a profusion of aromatk*
— the outaiae naving been previondy rablied
with saltpetre. The price of embabniiK a
nncle bodv was sometnneB upward* of l^JOg,
and f rom tliat down to £41 or £6S. Sometimca
the process lasted from thirty to Berenty days,
and afterwards the body was placed in ammn

BDu aiierwaros tne Doay was piooea m aanin
of sycamore wood cr stone. The featon* d

in deep prostraUon
ELUL BeeW
ELYMAS. (S<

le Month.)

(See Bab-jism.)

EMBALM (Gen. L 2). I'he practice of
embalming prevailed at a very early period.
The Hebrew* learned it from tbe I^yptians,
by whom it was understood very perfectly ;
and it is said that the inundatioQ of the Nile,
which kept the flat country under water for
^ tKarlytwomontliseTeryyear,prolMUyobliged

the decensed were often painted on the MtSn,
and it was then placed upright agBimt tha
walls of the house, where it often reniainad fv
ynra^a perpetual mrmenfo nori to it* UTnig
relativsH and posterity. Finally, the bodies
were placed in subterraneous vautia in the

■^ _ .._... of perfect preservation. Among the
poorer claases a simple and less expenaivs
process of embalming waa usually Morted to,
cedar oil and saltpetre being the principal
means employed.

We have no evidence that embahnins was
piactiBeii by the Hebrews, eioept in the ease*

. . im^ns till their

could be carried into the land ol

promise. (See Bdbt, EottT.)

EMBROIDER (Exod, nviiL 39V-« wod
descriptive of an art well known to the anciiDt

Hebrews, and which they seemed to have
learned in Effypt '*Baiment of needlework,"
** clothing of wrought gold," was the fruit of
this art and skilL In luxurious Tyre the
▼ery sidls of their vessels were of embroidered
wonc, — "Fine linen, with broidered work
from "Egypt, was that which thou spreadest
forth to be thy sail; blue and purple from
the isles of Ehshah was that which covered
thee" (Ezek. xzviL 7). In reference to the
refinement and prevalence of this Mt in
ancient Eg3rpt, Wilkinson observes, "Many
of the Egyptian stuffs presented patterns
worked in colours by the loom, independent
of those produced by the dyeinff or printing
process, and so richly composed that they vied
with dotiis embroidered with the needle. The
art of embroidery was commonly practised in
gnrpt, and seems to have been learned by the
B^orewn fExod. zxvi 26; xxvii 16). The
gold threaa used for these purposes is supposed
to have been beaten out with the hammer
(Ezod. xxxix. 3), and afterwards rounded.
Pliny mentions doth woven with ^Id threads,
sometimes entirely of these matenalLwithout
any woollen or Unen ground." (See Dibtafp,
Wkavbb.)

EMERALD (Exod. xxviii 18)— » verv valu-
able ^;em, of a pure green colour, to wnich it
owes its oiief value. The deepest colours are
the most valuable. Pliny, m his Natural
MiHory, b. xxxviL, ch. 6, thus describes it, —
"The sight of no colour is more pleasant
than green ; for we love to view green fields
and green leaves, and are still more fond of
looking at the emerald, because all other
sheens are dull in comparison with this."
The emerald is found in Peru and the East
Indies^ and was an article of Tyrian mer-
chandise (Ezek. xxvii. 16; xxviii 13). It was
one of the stones in the high priesVs breast-
plate. The Seventy and Josepnus seem, how-
ever, to make it the carbuncle — a gem of a fiery
red — the T"^^%»i ruby.

EMERODS (1 Sam. v. 6, 9)— the older
form of the word hemorrhoids, and the name
of a painful disease sent upon the Philistines.
Some think it resembled the modem disease of
the piles ; and others, that it was like dvsentery.
The Seventy and Yukfate, by their aadition to
verse 9, favour the first supposition, for they
close the verse by sayin?, that the Philistines
"made seats of skm lor themselves;" evi-
dently with a view to modify the pain of their
tormenting malady. It was customary with
the heathens to offer to their gods figures of
wax or metal, representing the parts which
had been cured of disease. So that one may
infer, in connection with 1 Sam. vi. 5, that the
priests and diviners of the Philistines recom-
mended a similar course.

BMlMS—drea^rul ones (Dent ii 10)— a
numerous and warlike people, of gigantic size,
who dwelt on the eastern oorders of Canaan,
and who were supplanted by the Moabites.

EMMANUEL. (See IiOfAinTEL.)

EMMAUS (Luke xxiv. 13)— a viUage 7
or 8 miles from Jerusalem, It was on the

ENG

way to this village that our Lord held a most
interesting conversation with two of his dis-
ciples. Josephus also mentions the place.
Some, as Eusebius and Jerome, followed by
Robinson, identify it witii Nicopoiis or Amwas,
10 miles south-west of Lydda. To support this
view, another reading in Luke is adopted, —
" a hundred and sixty furlongs ;" but the read-
ing has no authority, and, besides, how oould
the disciples walk and return that long cBs-
tanoe in one evening ? Schwartz finds it among
some ruins called Baburaya, and Thomson
places it at Kuriet-el-'Aineb^ three hours from
Jerusalem on the Jaffa road. Another site,
called el-Kubeibeh, is, according to Van de
Velde, as probable as say other.

EMULATION (Rom. xL 14; G^ v. 20).
The opposite meanings of this word in tko
passages above dted are obvious. In the last
case it is much the same with what is elsewhere
called envy and envyings (Acts xiii 45; 2 Cor.
xii 20) ; uid in the former passage it signifies
that holy strife or effort to equal or excel
others which is excited or provoked by the
exhibition of a good example.

EN, same as AIN, and denotes " fountain."
(See AiN.)

'ENAMr-fountaiint (Josh. xv. 34) — a place in
the vall^ 01 Judah.

ENCHANTMENTS. (See Inohantsbs.)

ENDORr-foKfitatn of houae (Ps. Ixxxiii 10)
—a town of Manasseh, within the territorv of
Issachar, 4 miles south of mount Tabor, where
lived the woman whom Saul consulted as hav-
ing a familiar spirit (1 Sam. xxviii 7-25). It
would seem from the passage in Psalms above
cited, that it was near this place that Barak
defeated Sisera, (Judg. iv.)

ENDOW. (See Dowby. )

EN-EGLAIN (Ezek. xlvii. 10)-a place in
the vicinitv of the l)ead Sea, but not identified.
It means '^ fountain of two calves."

EN-GANKIM.— fountain of gardent, LA
town of Judah (JosL xv. 34).

2. A dtyin Issachar, usui^y identified with
the modem Jenio. A beautiful and copious
streamlet of the purest water runs through
it, and excellent gardens in its neighbourhood
strikingly accord with its Hebrew etymology.

ENGEDI—/<wntatn of the kid (2 Chr. xx. 2),
or HAZEZON-TAMAR— a town about 30
miles south-east of Jerusalem, and directly
west of the southern extremity of the Dead
Sea. ^ It seems to have given its name to the
district which was celebrated for its palm
trees and vineyards (Song i 14) ; and modem
travellers speak of the district as affording
the richest wines. It was also celebrated for
its caves and almost inaccessible fastnesses (1
Sam. xxiiL 29).

The fountain still exists by the old and un-
changed name of 'Ain Jidy, which bursts forth
at once a fine stream upon a sort of narrow
terrace or shelf of the mountain, more than 400
feet above the level of the sea. The stream
rushes down tiie steep descent, but its course
is hidden by a luxuriant thicket of trees and
shrubs belonging to a more southern dime. The

261

ENG

more aDcient Hebrew nAme was HAsezcm-Tamar
-^oalm vQlaae, As such it is first mentioned,
baore the destraction of Sodom, as being in-
habited by Amorites and near to the cities of
the plain. Under the name of £n-gedi it
oocoTS as a city of Jadah in the desert, giving
its name to a part of the desert to which
David withdrew for fear of SanL At a Uter
period bands of the Moabites and Ammonites
came np against king Jehoehaphat, apparently
around the south end of the Dead Sm^, as far
as to £n-g[edi — by the very same route, it would
seem, wmch is taken by the Arabs in their
marauding expeditions at the present day,
alonff the shore as far as to 'Ain Jidv, and then
up the pass, and so northwards below Tekoa.
According to Josephus, £n-ffedi lay upon the
lake Asphaltis, ana was celebrated for beauti-
ful palm trees and opobalsam ; while its vine-
yaros are likewise mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment From it towards Jerusalem there was
an ascent ** by the cliff Ziz,*' which seems to
have been none other than the present pass.
In the days of Eusebius and Jerome En-gedi
was still a large village on the shore of the
Dead Sea. Bobertson was the first of modem
travellers to visit and fully identify it.

The present name and site of 'Ain Jidv
were first proposed by Seetzen. in a. d. 1806,
and are given upon his map ; out whether he
actually visited the spot, or only obtained his
information from the Arabs, we are nowhere
told (Robinson's Biblical Retearchcs, ii, pp.
209-216).

Wilderness of (1 Sam. xxiv. 1). Part of
the wilderness of Judah. It was one of
David's haunts, and from its numerous rocks
and caverns afforded at all times a safe

ENGINES. (See War.)

ENGRAVE (Exod. xxvuL 11). Engraved
seals are spoken of at a very early period of
the world. The names of the children of
Israel were directed to be engraved on two
stones; and the words **HoLrys8S to the
Lord " were also to be engraved on the hi^h
priest's breastplate; both to be like the
engraving of a signet (Exod. xxviiL 11, 36).
The signet is also mentioned before Joseph was
sold into Egypt. Job also speaks of engraving
with an iron pen upon a rock (Job xix. 24).
The ten commandments were engraved (Exoa.
xxxiL 16) ; and graven images were undouotedly
among the earliest objects of idolatrous worship
(ExocL XX. 4 ; xxxiL 4j. Allusion is also made
to the engraver's art m Ezek. xxiii 14. The
engraved lines were probably filled in with
colouring matter. (See also Acts xvii 29.)
The art of engraving, in various forms, was
well understood in ancient Egypt, from which
the Hebrews must have leamea so much of it
as enabled them to cut the gems in the high
priest's decorations. (See Seal.)

EN-HADDAH— /ovntotno/«peal(Joeh. xix.
21)— a border town oi Issaohar.

EN-HAKHORE — /oimtotn of the eaUU
^udg. XV. 18}— connected with tne history of
Samson.

263

ENR

EN-HAZOR— /otmtom of the village (Josh,
xix. 37)— a fortified city of Naphtali

EN-MISHPAT— /ouiitom of judgmenL
fSed Kadksh )

l&l^OCH—dedieiUed (Heb. xL 5)~the son of
Jared and father of Methuselah. He is called
** the seventh from Adam ** (Jude 14), to dis-
tinguish him from Enoch the son of Cain, who
was only the third from Adam. We are told
that he "walked with God" — ^an expressive
figure^ denoting the closest communion with
the Divine Being and entire oonformi^ to his
wilL And, concerning his departure ntxm the
world, it is said that **he was not, for Grod
took him" — a phrase which imports a mere
change of residence, without suffering tiie
ordinary dissolution of the body. Body and
spirit, without separation, were at once elevated
to glory. The character of Enoch has been
drawn by^ two apostles. The apostle Paul
bears testimony to the patriarch's faith and its
fruits (Heb. xi 5). The apostle Jude quotes
from a prophecy which, before his translatioB,
Enoch had dehvered (Jude 14. 15). There is
extant a treatise named the ** oodk, of Enoch."
Bruce brought three copies of it with him
from Abyssinia, and it has been translated
from the Ethiopic both into Enfrlish and Ger-
man. It appears to be an imitation, or, in
many places, a caricature of the style of the
Hebrew prophets, especially of Ezekiel and
DanieL The Ethiopic version seems to have
been translated from a Greek one^ and tiiat
again from a Hebrew or^inaL It is doubtful
wnether this so-called Book of Enoch was
composed at the period when Jude wrote his
Epistle; and though it had been published
by that time, there is no proof that the apostle
copied from it. The writer of the^ Book of
Enoch perhaps embodied some floating tradi-
tion of Enoch's prediction, which seems to
have had a reference to the judgment of the
flood.

It has been remarked that each of the three
grand diapensations of religion had its instance
of translation into heaven : the patriarchal, in
the person of Enoch ; the Jewish, in the i)eiBon
of Elijah ; and the Christian, in the person of
Christ, the author and spirit of alL

ENON— /ountoin (Jonn iii 23) — a town on
the west side of the Jordan, 8 or 10 miles
south of Beth-shean, abounding in water,
and distinguished as a place where John
baptized.

EN-RIMMON— /oMwtotn of the pomeffranate
(Neh. xi. 29) — a town of Judah, occupied aft«r
the captivity, but not as yet identified.

EN-ROGEL (Josh. xv. 7), or the Founiain
of the Foot, and hence, because fullers trode
the clothes they clcanea with their feet, called
the Fuller't Fountain, and afterwards Mary't
Fountain — was a reservoir of water at the foot
of mount Zion, and, as some suppose, the same
with the foimtain of Siloam. wnenoe the pool
of that name is supplied. £n-rogel was at tiw
entrance of the valley of the Son of Hinnnm,
from which point the border of the two bribes
proceeded up that ravine "unto the aonth side

ENB

of the Jebnsite, the same is Jernaalem;**
leaving the city within the liznxtB of Benjamin.
It is spoken of (2 Sam. xviL 17) as being
close to Jerusalem. There Jonathan and
Ahimaas waited to obtain intelligence from
the dtjTf which they carried to David when he
was driven out of nis capital by the rebellion
of Absalom. There Adonijah made a feast
for his partizans when he conspired against
David m his extreme old age (1 KL i 9).
Upon hearing of this act of treason, David
ordered the high pries^ with some other digni-
taries, to proceed to Grihon, a fountain np on
the opposite side of the city, and there anoint
SolomoxL and proclaim him king.

ENEOLMENT. (See Gtbknius, TAxnra)

EN-SHEM£SH-/attntom of the min ( Josh.
XV, 7) — ^a place on the northern border of Jndab,
supposed to be the same as the well of the
apostles, north-east of Bethax^.

ENSIGN. (See Bannbbs.)

EN-TANNIM, rendered ** dragon im«,*'
Neh. iL 13-Huune as the fountain of Gihon, m
the valley of Hinnom.

EN-TAPPUAH— /otmtotn of cUrona (Josh.
xviL 7). (See Tafpuah.)

EPAPHRAS (Ck>L i 7)-a distm^fuished
disciple of Colosse. and a faithful minister of
the (jrospeL His cnaracter is described by the
apostle Paul (GoL i. 7, 8; iv. 12), whose fellow-
prisoner he was at Kome (Phile. 23).

EPAPHRODITTJS (PhiL ii 25)-an eminent
disciple who resided at Philippi, and was com-
missioned by the church in that dty to visit
the apostle Paul during his imprisonment at
Borne, and carry him some supplies. He was
taken side at Rome, to whicn drcumstance,
and the procuring cause of it, the aposUe
alludes with strong commendation.

EPENETUS (Rom. xvi 6)— a beUever at
Home, greeted by Paul, and called, ** my well-
beloved." The next epithet, "first-fruits of
Achaia unto Christ,'* ought to be first-fruits of
Asia, for such is the better reading, supported
by preponderant authority.

EPU AH. (See Mkasubes. )

EPHAH. L A Place (Isa. Ix. 6).

2. A Pebson (Gren. xxv. 4). Ephah was a
pandson of Abranam, and his posterity settlini;
in Arabia, were desi^pated by the name of their
eeneral ancestor, as m the passage above cited
m>m Isaiah.

EPH£S-DAMMIM--emi of blood (i Sam.
xvii 1). (See Pab-dammtm.)

EPHESIANS (Acts xix. 28)— the citizens
of Ephesus.

Epistle to— was written by Paul to the
Christians at Ephesus. The church in that
renowned city was established and built up
under Paul's ministry (Acts xviiL 19, 21 ; xix.),
about the year 54 or 55, and this letter was
written by the apostle about A.D. 61, or 62.
while he was in prison at Rome, and forwarded
by Tychicus, *' a beloved brother and faithful
minister" (Eph. vL 21).

There has been some dispute as to the precise
Christian community to wnom this epistle was
addressed. Some have supposed that it was

EPH

intended for the church in Laodicea. Such is
the opinion of Grotius, Pale^, Greswell, and
Constoble; but it is without loundation.

It is, howevei^ remarkable that there are no
salutations in this epistle. Paul was at Ej^esus
for a considerable period, and must have formed
many friendships; yet ne remembers none of
his old associates in writing to them. Some
have been led b^ this and other considerations
to view this epistle as an encyclical letter— a
kind of sacrea circular addressed to a number
of communities, of which Ephesus might have
been the centre. The words, ' * in Ephesus," in
the first verse, are wanting in some old MSS. ;
yet the overwhelming mass of evidence is in
lavour of the phrase. Some clauses have also
been fixed upon to prove that the persons re-
ferred to in this letter were not thoroughly
known to Paul; but these phrases admit of a
better explananon. Thus the statement con-
tained in Eph. L 15 is of no weight in the
matter for which it is adduced. It merely
asserts that Paul had heard of the continuanoe
of their faith and love since he had been
separated from them. In the long interval
between his reddenoe at Ephesus and the time
of writing the epistle, he must have received
accounts of their state and progress; and
when these were satisfactory, he gave thanks to
God, the author of all good, for the steadfast
walk which his converts were enabled to main-
tain. The apostle speaks of the continuance
of their faith, not of the first hearing of it.
This accords with the languacfe of the same
apostle in his epistles to Philemon and the
Cfolossians. These parallel expressions confirm
the interpretation of Eph. L 15. In regvd to
Eph. iii 2-4, where it is written, ** If ye have
heard of the dispensation of the grace of God
which is given me to you-ward," the particle
rendered if really denotes forasmuch as^ or
^nce— that is to say, it does not imply douU
or unceriairUy, but rather serves to cormrm an
assertion, and only put it into a syllogistic
form.

There seems, then, no reason to doubt that
the epistle is rightly designated one to the
Ephesians. If Tychicus carried it to Ephesus,
he^mi^ht be charged in person with those
salutations which the apostle usually introduced
into the conclusion of nis epistles. Other cir-
cumstances might render it unnecessary for
Paul to send formal greetings to any of the
Christian individuals or households in Ephesus.
Some, without any good foundation, have
denied its genuineness.

The epistle is rich in sentiment, and has ever
been valued for its elevated, vivid, and glowing
illustrations of divine truth. It is the language
of a warm and devotional heart It presents
the scheme of ^jace in its wid^ relations and
loftiest attractions— as the offspring of (rod's
eternal purpose and sovereign love. It exhibits
duty in connection with doctrine and f aith.^ It
breathes an ardent spirit, catholic in its aims,
and p^enerous in all its aspects. On a review oc
its bterary and evan^bcal opulence, we can
almost pardon ihe quamt conceit, that Paul, by

263

EPH
\g to them a coropontion ■> magniiicent

1 epiiUe ii, wiaheil to comii«uutt« the
uuu for the books they hwl burned at

HeSuS (Acto lix. 36)-a oeletnitedcity
ia Minor, nituatwi on the river Cayster,
ti mouft, about 30 mileB «outh of Bmym*.
m the ornament and metropoli* of pro-
Jh Ana, add celebnted for a magnificent
leaf Diana. (S«Diaba.)

EPH
into their hands. (See TiWMwmPA.) Thi
trade wan *eiied with a panic, and iBiaad the
oproarioiu ahonL "Grr«at !■ Diana of Um
Ephenani ! " " The whole cat; WM filled wilh
confusion." A mob waa gathered. Mid mpiii
the eve of effecting wha' ■" "-^

tempUted — the eipuluon or iiwrinitinn of

the apaetle and hi* ooadiabn* by lairioi

violence, >o that no one could be nngled out or

puuixhed for the outrage. It woold Men, too,

that thii tomult took place at that laaKiB d

the ye«r — the month ncr«d to Diana, tb*

period of the Pan-Ionic gamai — when a

va»t coDcooiM of ittangera had crowded

iuto EphesuB, to that the miwm wne the

more eaiilv alarmed and collected. "Ha

tmeuta wh ho niddra, that "the mort

part knew not wherefore thejr h*d eotne

Ukgether." Ah ueual on moh nnnaainw in

th<' Greek citiei, the nub was to the theatn

Ui receive information of (ha eaoia and

character of the outbreak. Two of PwiT*

oimpaniontwerewiwdbytheaniwdi and

ihe apoetle, who had eicaped, wonld hiu-

"' aveverywjlliiislTtiMMawaagrrand

)rDui rabble, if hi* frionda, leanidMl

known to be an onponant of idoWnr,
■trove to addreaa the meeting, pKAmbij
to vindicate his own race fran bang Oia

When Paul came from the up|wi

tablehmd of Phrygi^ t.i the city, _ _, _.

commenced preachinsm the Jewish ■ynsgo)fiir.
The bleving of God attroded his iiiini»try.
Several conveita to the faith of the GuHpel
were baptized, and had imported tu them the
miraculous gifts of tongues and prophecy. He
j^terwardf commeDceiT preaching id a public
building, used tor a school; and for two years,
day by day, he rraHoned publicly with the
perverse and unbelieving Ephesians. Bj this
means, and by a series of wonderful ~

the city and country. Such was the effect of
his preaching, that many of the sorcerers and
other persons who practised the sujientitious
arta of le^rdemain and necromancy, collected
together their books on these subjects, amount-
ing to several thousand pitces, or, by Attic
Gomnutation, to about S3.W0 sterling in value,
and burned them. Ephesus was famed for its
"arts," "Ephasiao letters" were well known
in andent sorcery. An eihibition like this, of
the pover of divine truth, mi^ht be expected
to eicita the opposition of wicked men, and
aapecially those whose selfish intereots were
likely to Buffer by the prevalence of true
ruti^non. A great commotion was accordingly
eiated by a class of men whose living dependeil
on the worship of Diana ; and Paul nearly fell

the blame upon the Christiana; but Us
aopeanace was the ijgnal lor lenewed
clamour, and for two boon the tbeatn
resounded with the fanatiol yell, " Gtr^t
is Diana of the Bphaaians '. " The town-deik.
or rewrder— a magistrate of high ''•'"''■"c and
multifarious and reaponsible functions in then
HtiHi— had the deiterit)' to pacify and '<'""■'«
first, by a judicious adiuiitnre ri

flattery, a

hen by sound legal advice, ta

that the law n ._ , .... ._. „

Kpheaiaii assize was going un, and that all
charges might be formally determined before
the sitting tribimaL Sach a scene coald not
fail to eicite more inquiry into the prindplas
of the new religion, and bring more converts
within its pale.

Ephemis was visited by ApoUot (Acts iviiL
24), aii.i it WBH in Ephesus that Paul rectnved .
the kind ufBces of Onesiphorus.

The church at Ephesus is severely raboked
anrl threatened (Rev. ii I-ll) by the great
Head of the Oiurch, for its coldness and bsck-
sliding. A miserable Turkish village, cajlfd
Ayasaluk, occupieB nearly the site of tha
" ' ■ 'as formerly tha harhoor

jsh. frui

;ethe I

nrated. On the hill some tracea al the
alls and a solitary watch-tower mark
it of the city. Something is seen that

rushed. Of the temple of Diana n
remains. A more thorough change a
be conceived than that which has ]>

Y.VU
l^phi'MUS, It n-aa orco tlie sent nt active
cianmfrce, biit the very aea ban nhrunii from
its Bolitary shores. Ita rtreets, once popnloua
with the deroteea of DioDft, are nov ploughed
over by the Ottoman eerf, or browswi by the
■heep of the peuantB. It w>i eariy the
■tronghcjii of Cluistiaiiiity ; now not > BOe^a
Chriition dicells witbin iL While thoiuaiid*
over the world read the epistle to the Epheouu,
na one reads it in the ^^^ to which it vmm
oriKinally kddrewed. The lamp has been
eitinaiiiBhed and the ganctiiary desoUted.
The threatened blight has fallen on Spheaua.
(See DEHBTknrB, Diana, Paul.)

EPHOD fEiod. IXTiu. 6)-on6 of the CHen-
tial arijclei of the prieat'i official dreu. It
was made of plain linen (1 Sam. iL 18; 2 Sam.
tL 14), except the ephod of Uie high priest,
which was (onbroidered with various colours.
It consisted of two paita, one covering the
back and the other the hreut, and botb united
upon the two shouliiers. It ii soi
dtwcribed aa having been thrown o'
Hhonlden, and, hanging down befora, u, wan
croased upon thie breast, and then carried roond

loUJte of godH and an ephod (Judg. »vii 5;

EPURAIU-Mfeuife^ruil/Wnea. 1. AfIS-
-V (Cren. xlL 02). The second aon of Jouph.

KgypUaa Ephod

the waist to servo as a Birdie tor the robe. On
each ahcolder wai a large precious atone or
epaulette, upon which were enfiiaved the
names of the twelve tribes ; and upon the
place where it croAsed the breast was the
breastplate. (See BHiASTPLAra. ) The better
opinion is, that the girdle was woven with the
ephod, or "up-^a it''^(Eiod. xxviL 8), and that,
comine out from it on each side, it was brought
amona under the arms like a sssh, and tied
upon the breast, and ao aeciired both the epbod
and the robe. The epboiL or Bometbing re-
mblicg it, and called by uie lame name, wis
__.__.(___..__-.._.(_ _^_^ ^ Chr. XT.

worn by o^ier

Qide<ni made an ephod which

of their grandfather Jacob was Uterally till-
aied. (Comp.Gen,i!viii».20;Num.ai8,21.)

2. Tbibk OF. occupied one of themoateligibla
sections of the land of promise. The Ue^tei^
nnean was on the west, and the river Jordan.
on the east, a portion of Manasseh OU the
north, and parts of Dan and Benjamin on the
south. Tlie dty of Shiloh was withhi tha
bounds of Ephraim; and after the revolt of
the tea triben. the capital of their kingdom
waa always within the bounds oS Bphraiffl:
BO that the whole kingdom is sometimes called
Gpbiaim (Jer, mi. 9, IS, 20). Zphrsiim
waa a loi^e tmd populous tribe, somewhat
haughty in character, and it aeems to have
exercised a kind of control over the otiisr
tribes long before the diiniption of the kingdom.

3. CiTi OF (2 Sam. xiii. 23)— a onosiderable
town, aitnated about H miles north of Jsm-
salem, on the way to Jericho, and within the
bounds of the bibe of Benjamin. It waa to
this place that our Saviour retdrcd ^ter the
raimng of lAEorru (John xL 54) ; and it is not
improbable the same place ia intended in 2 Chr.
liii. 19. ButItotnnaon.inhiaA<inwHiy,BrgneB
that the Ephraim of the New Testament la
identicftl with the Ophnh and Bphron d the
Old Tartament, lying 20 Soman milea N.N.B.
of Jnusalon, and otherwise called Ephraim,
2 (Thr. xiiL 19, and perhaps the saow aa " Baat-
hazor, which is by JBtdiraim " (2 Sam. xiii 23).

i. FoHXST or WOOD OF (2 Sam. iviiL 6). The
tenitorj' originally assigned to the children of
Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh). was wood-
land (Josh. ivii. 10-18; Fs. ciiiii. 6) and
probably a portion of it remaininir onclsared
was called the wood or forest of Ephraim (1
3am. xiv. 20,26; 2Ki. u. 24). Anotberplace
of the same name was situated eaiit of the Jor-
dan, near Jabesh-Gilead, and was memorable
for the battle between David and the rebel
army under Absalom (2 Sam. iviii. 6).

0. Mount (Josh. xx. 7), was south of the
plain of Esdraelon. The name was given to
a range of hif^landa running through tha
poeseeeions of Ephraim, and stretchiiw into
the territory of Benjamin. The soil waa fertile,
except that |>ait of the ridge which lay towards
the Jordan. This was rocky and difficult of
BBcent, and towards the D^ Sea perfectly

EPHRATAH (Ps, cxixiL 6; 1 Sam. i. Ij
I KL xi 26). The Ephiathites of Bethlehem-
Judoh are mentiuned, Ruth L 2; and we are
elsewhere told that Ephrath is Uie same with
Bethlehem (Uen. luv. 16, 19).

Bethlehero-Ephratah was so called to distin-
guish it from another Bethlehem in the tribe
of ZebuluD (Joflh. xix. 16). (SeeSBTHLEKEU.)

EPHBATH (1 Chr. iL 19), or EPHRATAH
{1 Chr. iL 50), waa the second wife of CoieU

EPH

EPHRON rCen. xxiii. 8). 1. The Hittite
from whom Abraham bought the cave of
Machpelah.

2l a mount (Joeh. xv. 9) identified by some
with mount Ejpnraim. (See Ephraim, citt of.)

EPIC UREANS, /rom ^e Grtek EmJamrnot,
Mping, The Epicureans were followers of
Epicurus, an Athenian philosopher. The
founder of the sect was bom at Gargettus in
Attica, B.C. 344. He was much distinguished
i^ his early years ; and having improved and
enriched his mind by study, travel, and other
means, he came to Athens when in his thirtv-
sizth year, and there fixed his residence. The
city at that time was crowde<l with the wi^e
and learned of various sects of ancient philo-
sophers. Exncunis had made himself well
acquainted with the {irinciples and doctrines of
these schools ; and by comt laring them together,
an& exercising his own independent judgment,
he had formed a new system which he was
anxious t(» promulgate m tiie metropolis of
Greece. His ^ve but agreeable manner as a
teacher, and his virtuous conduct as an exem-
plar, soon drew together a number of disciples
and followers, "not only from Greece, out
from Egypt and Asia.** His mansion was
situated m a pleasant garden, where he chiefly
continued to reside and prosecute his labours
in study and teaching, with little interruption,
till the period of his death, which hapi)ened in
his seventy-third vear, B.C. 271.

The great leactin'jr points in the system of
Enicurus may bo briefly stated as follows: —
Man*s great business in the exercise of his
reason is the pursuit and attainment of ha]^pi-
ness; and hence the end of all |)hilosophical
research is to fit men to choose with certainty
what is best suitetl to keen themselves free of
pain, and to i>resorve ana i)n)mote health of
body and trantpiillity of mind. Philosoi)hy
was divided by him into two parts: phyfics,
which respect the cimteniplation of nature;
and ethics, which relate to the r^ailation of
conduct. The doctrines of Kpicunis ^-ith
reference to the physical world were these:
The universe, which consists of body and tqiace.
is eternal uiid infinite. Bodies are com|M)sea
of an immense multitude of atoms brought
together under the influence of gravity by for-
tuitous concussion. The soul is a natural
substance, com|)o8P<l of the finest atoms ; and
the mind or intellect which thinks, judges, or
determines, is formed of the most subtle par-
ticles, which are fitte<l for most rapid motion.
Its various emotions may be reduced to two —
pleasure and i)ain. These feelings produce
corrcsnonding desires or aversions which set
the will in motion, and thus become the springs
of action. Epicurus admitttMl the existence of
divine beings, but did not l)elieve that they
keep up any intercourse with mankind, or give
themselves any concern with the i>reservation
and government of the world. Still they are
worthy of reverence and worship^ because of
their excellent nature, which consists d a thin
ethereal substance, endowed with the high
qualities of mind, and not liable to decay.
20G

EPI

They reside in a manmcHi of perfect p>arity,
tranquillity, and happiness.

Such was the phsrsical system of this philo-
sopher. Its radical defects are the entmeoos
views of the nature of (irod, and hjs agency m
the creation, preservation, and government oC
all his creatures ; the assumption of the exist-
ence of material atoms, acted on by certain
forces, as the elements out of which the universe
sprung; and the attempt to explain all the
phenomena of matter and mind upon mechan-
ical principles, as if the soul, equally with the
body, should l>e considered a mere machine.

liie ethics, or moral system of Emcanu, to
which the former branch was suborainafeey wm
designed by him to deliver men from the iwij
of troublesome passions, and lead them to tM
enjoj'ment of a life of ease and happineaib Ii
this department he taught that the end of
living is the attainment of felicity. A tranquil
life, free from evils and enriched with pleasore,
is man's chief good. Of pleasure there are two
kinds : the one, a state of rest in whidi mind
and body are free from every cause of mieiB-
ness ; and the other, that violent kind of deli^
which arises from gratifying the appetite aM
passions. The former constitutes true hai^oi-
ness, and should form the sole object of human
pursuit. As the means of reaching the perfeo*
tion of bodily ease and mental txanquilH:^.
Epicurus enjoined uiion his followers a rigu
aiiherence to the cultivation and practioe o£
virtue, which, aocortlin^ to the ancients, oon-
sisted of the four cardinal points, — prodeiios,
temperance, fortitude, ana justice. Undw
temiterance was embraced moderation, solniety,
continence, and gentleness; and under justice
was included beneficenoe, compassion, grati-
tude, piety, and friendtihip.

This view of morals is good, so far as it goes;
but " weighed in the balances of the sanctuaiy/*
it is very defective. The first principle of all
true morality is love to God, our Proprietor,
(Governor, and Redeemer; but of this EpicunB
did not, and could not speak. And, bes^cs,
the moral nature of man needs renovation;
and every syntem of ethics which wants a
statement of this truth at its very foundation
is only fitted t4) mock human miseriea. The
Word of God alone reveals all that man is, aQ
that he needs, all that he may obtain, how he
may acquire it, and what he should beoome.

After the death of Epicurus his memory wm
long revered, his doctrines maintained, and
his maxims followed ))y a numerous buid o£
devoted followers. Even when other schools
of philosophy began to fail, the suoceation of
Epicurean oisciples was continued without
intemqition. Under the Roman
they flourished considerably for many
In several places they had public sen
where their doctrines were taught. At Athens
the Epicurean school was supported by a regn-
lar allowance from the public funds. Henee
the haughtiness and insolence of those whoBH
Paul encountered in the Athenian market-
place (Acts xviL 18). Not only was their
favourite system assailed by the pi«adM» of

".TesMS aod the resurrection." but their secular
privilc^ea were bIbo eD<lalig«red. At Mom
)t«iod the Epcnreasi had erred from the
integrity and nmpUdtj ot life wbidi the
fotmoer of l^wiT net had maintained. They
mads it their great boniieBH, however, to traiu-
tnit to posterity an nuimpaired view of the
doctrines and maxims of their great roaster,
to effect which they adhered aa much as poeaiblo
to hia own words ; and, therefore, the sensual
eicewea of many, if not all of them, at thin
time, can only be aooounted for by supposing
that they ondentood "pteasure" in its second-
ary unie, namely, the gratiGcatiun of the
K^wtite and passions. In this degraded and
dagrailing condition this wet mbaiated, and
giadnaUy decreased in numbers, character,
mnd influence, till the dediae and fall of the
ompiie of Rome.

^ISTLES (2 FeL iii 16)— a term apnlied
to the inspired meBBana or lettws of advice
addnasad by the apostles or first preachers of
Christianity to churches or individtiali); and
which, though primarily dtmgned for the re-
Itak^, instraotkm, guidance, and enooorage-
ment of those to whom they wen addressed,
fnnuHh the like rule ct faiui and practice to
all Ghriatiuia and cfanrches in Bitnilar circmn-

natural oonrss itia apoetlee could pursue,
after preaohing the Gospel in any town or
disbict, and sstablisbing a church, that they
■bould thus address their converts by letter, t«
remind them d the doctrines and injunctioni
they had cecdved, and to illnstnte mote folly
the dntiss and oUigationB ot diBdple& The
spistles may be regarded as iOnstcating, apply-
ing, and enionnnK the truths which are tauffbt
in the parables and convenatiomt, but eepecioUy
in the life aod death, of the liivice Redeemer;
and they preaent to ua a beautiful and hormoni-
ODS system of Christian precept and doctrine.

There ie about epistolary writing a peculiar
tone of familiarity which is univenally relished.
The stiffnSBB ancf formality of a regular treatise
are laid aside, and the writer of the letter
■peaks as he feels ; his ideas and emotions are
committed to paper as they rise up in hia mind.
He talks as a friend to friendx ; and bis diction,
whcD read in ths epistle, will remind its readers
of his conversational address and style. And
if the chnrchea had asked advice from Paul,
they would peruse his reply with the more
eagemeas, that they might learn their duty in
deEcate drcnmstancea, or solve the peculiar
difflcoltiss which annoyed or perplexed them.
And if anything eibaocdinair in their history
prompted the apostle to write to them, the
attachment and anzietr for their welfare which
nich cotrespondMice miplied must have dia-
poaed them tolistaitohis aivnment and bow
to hia aothori^. It is a mai£ ol Qod's infinite
gooibMSB and condesoension, that the greater
pi»tion of the New Testament consista ot epis-
tolary eipcsitiaDS ot doctrines and enforcements
of duty. The epiatles of Paul generally oonaiit
of a doctrinal basia and apra^cal
Some of the epistles of the Knr

are ailJressed to chiirclies, and some to indi-
viduals, while a third claaa receive the name of
" calJioUc "—according to some, becaoae tlu^
are a spedes of circular meant for many
churches; according to otheia, because they
were intended for nnirersal Christendom;
according to a third theory, because their con-
tents are not of limited or national adaptation,
but of geoersl or catholic Interest. Neither of
these tbaories exactly harmoniiea with facts :
and the name not being of inspired origin, nor
yet bestowed by the writers themselves, is of
no great importance to the modem reader.

Of the epistles, Pftol wrote fourteen ; James,
one ; Peter, two ; John, three ; and Jude, one ;
which are more particularly noticed either
under the names of the individuola reapectively,
or of the churches or persons to whom they
wrote. The following table is supposed to
show the ^bable ehrouological order of the
epiatJes, with the places at which thn were
written, and the date of each. It will be per-
ceived that Oie earliest and latest date embrace
a period of leea than twenty years for ths whole.

"' ~ ' "'"■ O/CArtB.

...ColoHa, or Uscediinls,....l»M

&>bsalsiis,...
HtlUppUna, .

...Babylon....
...Ephesua,...

EBASTnS (Acts lii. 22) was the ateward
r treasurer of the city of Corinth {see Cham-
KBLiisl, and a convert under Paul's preaching
'. 23). He foUowed Paul to Epheaus,

A Dr..,.!- t-,. \ra.^f^^nia i & ^ta v . w OOl

Orcboe by the Greeks and Romans. It it
represented by the modem Warka, or Irka,
lying to the south-east of Babylon. Some
have wrongly supposed that Erech was the
same mth Edessa (now OrfSh), in northern
Mesopotamia.

ESAIAS (Matt iii 3)— the same with Taaiah.

ESARHADDON— Hnjr of Aunria (2 KL
xix. 37)— was the son of Sennacherib and grand-
son of Sargon. The elder brothers, who had
put their father to death "in the house of
Nisroch, hisgod,^' ded into Armema, and Eaar-
haddon, next in age to them, ascended the
throne. His name is spelled on the monu-
ments Aaahur-ak-idin ^ " Asahnr has given
a brother." Esarbaddon reigned about thir-
267

aovenoBa Tibuuui. In oat of

tiona Ujvu^b, kiiu of Judah, .

MDoag twenty-two lone" of 3yri» and Cypi

who iiad ' ' ' " *"

n of Ninmid— k boDdiiig, ■ecorilajt
m bcMMt, "roch M tbe kint||Kbii

Iwer, Tunot tmBb

jypras cUv t«blet», with nUfriotu, UpiL

to do tonc»liiiacription«,liiiwmtheBnterf»J

WM gBthered duifaig hii i«igiL Ha

■dad by nil kmi juhiw
QjpaL or HudaiunlDi
,, tmoar wboae no NiM-

AwTBU, NnrzTKH.)

BSAn-Jhnn (G«a. nr.
!S),oT£DOUP3«n.zzin.
1)— ion o( Imo aad Be-

He m* > mui of Limvij
mould, "T«daUov«t lOnk
bairygannent'* Huotte
D>m«,Sdain,m<imiw''Mi<,'
WW omvad txom tha tm

It ii aaid in Scripture that & king nf Anyria
" carried Miuugwb to Babylon" (2 Chr. ixiiiL
11): and tliiii fact, which miRht at fint sight
aiipear unlikely, ia one of those utriking coinci-
dences which verifythe old Scripture narrative.
For Eearhadiion was Idng of Babylon as weU
H of Nineveh, and built biniKlf^a ixUace in
the former dty, and one of big hroQiera had
been the Chaloean vioeroy. Manaaseh is also
apoken of as fumishina raatcriala for bii paUce
at Nebtd Yunus. He it was also that rc-
peopled Samaria with various eastcm colonie-H.
conducted thither by "the great and nohle
Aanappia." Esarhaddon was one of the
greatest of those Oriental monarchs; and he
calls himself "kins of Asayria, Babylon,
Egypt, Monie, and Ethiopia." He also erected
no las than thirty palaces and templea, and
■nmetimes ravaged lormer edifices for mate-
rials. One of ueee wm built on the soiith-

w^ an knkntiDi

a lofty and oluTilraaa ift-
turt^ almoal m, itnuUmlt t*
tJie nnuoth, peaarfnL nd

Gdent Jacob. Bm tt-
laoM were wann, a>d
when eidtemetithad paaed
away hii diapontutt wai

tj feeUng senna to tuTi m-
~ daen^ hmi. He bad tt*
Reoerosity with wfaidi na-
ture had endowed hnn, ant
that loT« wfaidi gno* en-
atea. In abort, he wh a
frank and bononnUe tmm
ofthewoii],biit4

-jligious tml

The moet important events of his £_._..
intimately connected with that of Jacob, that
they will be considered nndor that atticW
Hia family settleit nn mount Sev, eaM of
Jordan, which was hence caUed Kkm, and
hia descendant) were the Edomit«a, one <J Am
most powerful and formidable nationB of ttst
age. (SeeEitoH.)

E3HBAAL (I Chr. viiL 33) — the mm
with Ishbnsbeth. (See iBHBOSHEm.)

E9HC0L— (rfiufer. 1. A Pebsok (Oml liv.

Thesjnaaas

by the Israehtes to eiplore thejpniaiised land
and ascertain ita situation, fertility, Iul, mbw
to this brook, and cut down • branch «f a tim

ESH

-with ft angle duster of grapes, which was so
laige and heavy as to be borne upon a staff by
two men. This thej took to their brethren,
as a visible illustration of the richness of the
•ofl and its productions rNum. xiii. 24 : zzxii.
9). Modem travellers still refer to the fertility
of the Wady, to the largeness and number of
the grapes it produces, and a well called 'Ain-

ESHTAOL (Josh xv. 33)— a town in the
lowlands of Judah, though afterwards in the
possession of Dan (Judg. xiii 25; xvi 31).
It is supposed to have been situated south-east
of Askalon.

E8HTEM0A (Josh xxi 14 ; 1 Chr. vi 57),
or ASHTEMOH (Josh xv. 60)— a town in the
southern part of Judah, assi^ed to the sons
of Aaion. It is identified with a place now
named Semua, 7 miles south of Hebron.

ESPOUSE. (See Bktboth.)

ESROM (Matt i 3; Luke ill 33). The
same with Hezron (Gren. xlvi 12).

ESTATE (Mark vi 21) is the ^neral name
for an order or class of men m society or
government. As in Great Britain the lords
and commons are called the estates of the
realnL_(See £ldkb& )

ESTKER or HAUASSAH. The Utter
was her Jewish name, signifying ** myrtle** —
the former her Persian name, meaning a ttarj
or the planet Venus. It was customary for
eastern monarchs to change the names of
individuals when they first attracted notice, or
had high honours conferred on them. (See
Gen. xli 45; Dan. i 6.) Agreeably to this
I>ractice, it is reasonable to suppose that the
new name was given to the virgm either when
she was first brought to the palace, or when
she was elevated to the rank of queen. She
was bom an exile in the land of Persia. Her
father's name was Abihaii Having lost her
parents when very young, her cousin Mordecai
adopted her, and supplied in an admirable
manner the place of both father and mother,
guardian and trainer.

After the dismissal of Vashti for her contu-
macy in refusing obedience to the call of the
king, the despot appointed officers in all the
provinces of his kmgdom to select the most
beautiful damsels that could be foimd, from
whom he himself might choose as queen her
whom he deemed most suitable. Esther's
beauty did not escape the notice of these
officers: she was accordingly removed from
under tne roof of Mordecai to the palace of the
kin^. Hegai, who had the charge of the
virgins till the^ ceased to be such— that is,
be<^ime concubmes — struck with her beautv,
determined that no unnecessary time shoula
be lost in presenting her to his master. A
whole year was requisite for preparatory
purifications^ so the materials for these were
given speedily, and Esther otherwise was
treated with respect and honour. Each of the
virgins, as she was about to be introduced to
the king, was anxious to adorn herself in the
most fascinating manner, that so she might
win the high honour for which she was com-

EST

petin^; but Esther took the thin^ which
Hegai offered without dissatis&tction, and
with apparent unconcern. Yet the king was
immediately ravished with her beauty, pre-
ferred her to all the other virgins, and soon
(in the seventh year of his reign) decked her
head with the royal diademMualdng her queen
in the room of v ashti The nuptials were
celebrated with royal magnificence — by a
splendid feast, the bestowment of munificent
gifts, a general amnesty to prisoners, and
relaxation of tribute to his subjects. Subse-
quent events teach impressively that this
was effected by Divine Providence — that
Jehovah makes even the bad passions of man-
kind to praise him, and that aU things woric
together for ^^ood to all those" — whether
nations or individuals — "who are the oidled
according to his purpose.*' The king to whom
Esther was married is in Scriptm^ styled
Ahasuerus, and seems to be the Xerxes of
profane history, who reigned after the Darius
of the book of Ezra, and before that Ar-
taxerxes in the seventh 3rear of whose reign
Ezra received his commission. (See Ahasu-
EBDS.) Esther, however, is not for a moment
to be confounded with that monster of
barbarity, Hamestris, between whom and
the heroine of Scripture there is no resem-
blance save in name. Soon after her eleva-
tion to the rank of queen, Esther received
a communication from Mordecai, which she
laid before the king, to the effect that two of
the king's chamberlains were conspiring against
their sovereign and meditating his deauL The
matter being inquired into, was found to be as
reporteci and the conspirators were seized and
executed. Up to this period the parentage
and people of Esther haa been kept a secret.
The reason for this probably was, that were it
known, it might have created dissatisfaction
and jealousy among the Persian nobles and
subiects, and have endangered the lives of
Esther and the rest of her kindred. But
despite this precaution, troublous times were
not far distant from the Jews, in which the
desien of God in raising Esther to be queen is
not difficult to be discovered.

An A^a^te named Haman at this time was
prime-minLster, and an all-engrossing favourite
of Ahasuerus. The monarch had issued an edict
rec^uiring that the utmost reverence should be
paid to this individual, and the despotic order
was generally obeyed!. But a Jew named
Mordecai^ cousin of Esther, no doubt from
conscientious scruples, would not do homage
to a doomed Amalekite; his refusal excited
the fierce ire of the selfish, haughty, pas-
sionate vizier, who, having ascertained that
Mordecai was a Jew. vowed revenge on the
whole of that unoffenoing people. He accord-
ingly cast Pur— that is the lot — to ascertain
what day and month would be most auspicious
for the execution of his bloody purpose. " The
disposing of the lot, however, is of the Lord."
Twelve months are, according to its decision,
allowed to intervene between the decree and
the execution of it. Having thus fixed on the

209

EST

time for the utter extirpatioii of the Jewish
race, he obtained the kmg^fl coiuent to issue
the decree. The publication of the edict
caused the greatest consternation and sorrow
among the Jews. In particular, Mordecai
was grievoiisbr distressed, and considered
within himsou what he could do to prevent
the dreadful catastrophe. Esther remained
for some time ignorant of the decree. To
explain this ignorance, we must recollect the
secluded lives which women in the East were
then and are still comi)elled to live. Their
apartments were not only distinct, but guarded
with the utmost vigilance — no one having
a right to enter the harem, or to communicate
with any of its inmates, save the master
himself, or he who received his permission.
Mordecai, hj constant attendance, and per-
haps by bribing some of Esther's attendants,
found means of occasional intercourse with
her ; and when she heard of his great distress
of mind, she sent to inquire the cause ; upon
which Mordecai disclosed the whole matter to
the queen, and unred her to interpose her
influence on behalf of her countrymen and
countrywomen.

Now, a law existed among the Persians that
no one uncalled should venture into the pres-
ence of the sovereign, under pain of death;
and heathen writers teU us that an executioner
was always at hand, readv to execute summary
vengeance on any who snould dare to disobev,
unl^ the king were graciously pleased to hold
out the golden sceptre, in which case the indi-
vidual was pardoned. Tlie reason for this law
is to be found in the constant dread of assas-
sination in which eastern princes lived, their
history being little else than a record of con-
spiracies, usurpations, and assassinations. This
law extended also to the persons who composed
the harenL Tliere was an additional reason
why the law should apply to them : for not only
might they be guilty of compassing or devising
the deposition or death of the sovereign, and
on this account be doomed to seclusion, but
also, where there were so many females assem-
bleu together in such a capacity, it was imi)os-
sible but that disputes and contentions should
be constantly occurring from mutual dislikes
and jealouriies ; and had the right of indiBcri-
minate access to the presence of the king been
allowed, his tranquillity and peace must have
been subject to continual interruptions. Esther
remembered tlus law. More than this, a month
had elai)sed since the king had sent fur her into
his presence. This seems to have been dif-
ferent from former j>ractice ; for when informa-
tion of the conspiracy was to be given, no
notice is taken of any ditiiculty in obtaining
access. It was possiUe, then, that the ardour
of the king's jMUsion was abated. These
thoughts stagger her mind, and she at first
shrinks from the request urged by Mordecai.
Mordecai, on being informed of heft reluctance,
does not desist from Ms request. He uives,
as motives for compliance, her personal safety
and that of her relations, the very existence
of her people the Jews, and the seeming de-
270

EST

sign of Providence in raising her to her inaiiiit
condition. Affection for Mordecai, paftnoiimi

Siety, as well as the fear of penoiud Iniit,
etermine the purpose of Esther. Her renln-
tion briefly is, " I will go in to the long, and if
I perish, I perish.** She seta abont the ezecn-
tion of her purpose directly, wisely, pioms^.
Having, alon^ with her attendants, spent tines
days in humiliation and prayer Dcsore Ged,
while her friends without the palace weie
simultaneously engaged in the same rTrnrclBnn,
she on the third day lays aside her moomiitt
robes, arrays herself with more than wonted
^n^andeur, and ventures at length to mppear
m the presence of Ahasuerus. Josej^nis
details minutely the circumstanoes of the
interview. He says she was aooompanied by
two attendants, on one of whom she 1»^»m>«\
while the other bore her train : and that thus,
with blushing countenance and pleasant mien,
yet not without some symptoms of trepidatioD,
she appeared before the king. The king was
in the inner court. The houses of Pendan
nobles and kings consisted of three oomtib
The outer one was aUotted to the more pofalie
life of the owner, such as holding levees,
receiving ambassadors, petitions, &a Into
this court Esther woulu not have cared to
enter. The next, or inner court, was the
more private abode of the kins, ** where nous
but himself, his eunuchs, and the yooag pagv
his minions, had continual Mmng^ llis
innennoet court is the harem, the sechisioii
of whose inmates has already been alluded ta
It was to the second court that Esther now
approached. Josephus and ti^e Apociyphal
book of Esther relate that when the queen
beheld Ahasuerus sitting in all his glory
and grandeur upon his throne, and a frown
darkening his forehead as she approached, dtie
fell into the arms of one of her maids m a
swoon, on which the king leai^ed from his
throne, and taking her into his arms, put the
golden sceptre into her hand, thereby aasoring
her that no evil should befal her for the viola-
tion of the law of which she had been guilty.
The story, however, has about it a fictitioaB
air ; and were we to attempt dovetailing it into
tlie narrative of Scripture, it would scaroely
be found to harmonize with the preceding or
sul)se<]uent context. It in the more natural,
as well as the more biblical view, to sappose
that as soon as the king perceived her, his
*' first love'* returned in all ite ardour, and
that as Esther stood awaiting his pleasore in
the court, he at once held out to her the
golden sceptre. "So Esther drew near M»«i
touched the topof the sceptre.**

The j)lan of Esther was tiie dictate of sound
discretion— an understanding enlightened hum
on high. She makes no mention during this
her first interview of what lay nearest to her
heart ; had she done so she might at onoe have
been repulsed. She merely requests the king%
presence and that of Haman to a banquet
prepared for them. Haman was oideiea to
appear and accompany the kihg — a hi^
honour to the vizier, which our cuatoms and

EST

maimera. so widely different from tlioee of
Orientalists, will lutfdlv allow us to appredateu
At the ban<]|aet she still refrains from present-
ing her petition, and merely repeats her invi-
tation to another banquet on the succeeding
day. To tlids tiie king and his minister con-
sent. During that night, by a wonderful
coincidence, which illustrates the control of
Jehovah over the hearts of men, Haman and
the king had their thoughts engrossed with
the same person — viz., MordecaL Haman,
intoxicated with pride, and •maddened with
rage, was plotting the destruction of the stub-
bom Jew, and already, in anticipation, saw
him aflBzed to the gibbet llie jdn^ from
motives of gratitude, was considering now he
might rennffd him for discovering the conspiracy
juod preserving his life. On the morrow, when
•Haniftn tiiought to have obtained the king's
consent to the death of Mordecai, to his great
mortification he was comi)elled to lead the
captive Jew through the city on horseback,

Srodaiming before him, — "Thus shall it be
one to the man whom the king delighteth
to honour." These drcumstances combined
to favour tiie object of Esther ; she represented
to tiie king the nature and extent of the threat-
ened destruction, as well as the guilty author
of it. She was successful in her cause, and
the roval indignation was turned upon HaJnan.
That naughty ^rrant was hanged on the very
gallows which he had erected for* Mordecai,
his estate was given to the queen, and his
office and honours bestowed uxx>n Mordecai,
of whose relation to Esther the king was now
for the first time apprised. Esther requests
further that the edict contained in the former
letters should be cancelled. It was contrary
to a fundamental law of the constitution to
reverse a decree. But the monarch issued
counter letters, recommending the Jews to
prepare th^dselves for the 13th Adar, and
autnorizing them to defend themselves against
every attack on their lives or properties.
Thus was the dreaded evil greatiy counter-
acted if not entirelv prevented ; and the Jews
'* had li|^t and glaoness, and joy and honour.'*
In Shusnan alone, 500 of their enemies were
slain on the 13th Adar, among whom were
the ten sons ol Haman. At tne request of
Esther, the same privilege is given to the
Jews on the succeeding oav in Shushan the
palace. On that day 3u0 fell under the hands
of the Jews; and to prevent all possibility of
re-action, as well as to exhibit a salutary warn-
ing to others, the ten sons of Haman were
publicly hanged. In the provinces, in which
the liberty of the Jews was confined to one
day, there fell of their foes 75,000. But the
victorious party strictly abstained from all
rapine and plunder. To commemorate this
deiiverauce, the feast of Purim was instituted,
so called beobuse of the lot by which Haman
determined the period for the perpetration of
his diabolical scheme.

Book of, is the seventeenth in the order
of the books of the Old Testamenti and
embraces * period of probably less than

ETE

twenty years. It bears the most unc^ues-
tionalue internal evidence of its autiienticity;
and the feast of Purim, of the institution
of which this book gives an account, is still
objBerved bv the Jews, who hold tiiat, what-
ever majr be the fate of the other parts of
their Scriptures, this will ever be preserved.
It contains an account of the elevation of
Esther to the throne, tiie pride and envy of
Haman, his malicious plot for the destruction
of the Jews, the turning of his schemes
against himself, the honpur and dignity of
Mordecai, the destruction of the enemies of
the Jews (and among them Haman's family),
and the power and glory of the king.

The Jews call it MegiDah Esther, as it
usually forms by itself a distinct rolL Some
ascribe the authorship to Ezra, some to a priest
called Jehoiachin. Others refer it to the men
of the great synagogue, while many ffive it
to Moroecai himself. The name of Goa is not
mentioned in it, nor are there any aUusions
to the interpositions of a divine ^vidence.
Perhaps it was written for the Persian annals,
for "tne book of the chronicles of the kings of
Media and Persia." In that case pious reflec-
tions would have been in vain in a document
which was to be laid up among the ardiives of
a heathen kingdom. Its whole air and tone
show it to have been comixjsed in Persia. Its
inspiration is its place in the canon. It con-
tains facts; and, under the gruidance of the
Spirit, those facts so instructive in their
nature are preserved to us in Holy Scripture.
The facts are merely recorded — the woros said
and deeds done are not sanctioned or com-
mended to us. In the Septuagint there are
additions to the Book of Esther, concerning
Mordecai's dream, a prayer of Mordecai and
Esther, with other tragments and supple-
ments which betray themselves as unworthy
forgeries of a later age.

ETAM (Judg. XV. 8, 11)— a famous rock,
probably near a city of the same name in
Judah, built by Rehoboam (1 Chr. iv. 32; 2
Chr. xi. 6), and lying between Bethlehem and
Tekoah, and may be represented by the
modem Urtas.

ETERNAL, ETERNITY (Deut. xxxiil 27;
Isa. Ivii 15). These terms, when applied to
Jehovah, embrace the past as well as the
future. Bein^ self -existent, he must be eter-
nal He is without beginning or end of years.
When applied to the future existence, hap-
piness, or misery of man (Matt. xix. 16; 2
Cor. iv. 17; Jude 7), these words denote the
endlessness of the state. Aad it is to be
observed that, if they are restricted in their
application to future punishment, they must
be restricted in the same degree to their
application to future happiness and even
existence. When applied to the principles of
truth and justice they signify unchangeable-
ness. In Matt xxv. 46 we read, "Aad
these shall go away into everlasting punish-
ment: but the righteous into life eternal"
The epithets apphed to ''punishment" and
<*life"^ are different in the English version;

271

ETH

but tbey arc the same in the oritpnal. The
words, for ercr, trerlnsting, eternal^ &c, are
often ufied fkmrativelv to denote long duration,
or that the (>bject will last a8 lon^ aa itH nature
is caT>able of la8tiiiK» aH (tu». xvIl 8 ; xlix. 20 :
Exoa. xiu 14 ; Han. iiL r» ; but thi8 reHtricted
sense is always shown by the connection, and
affords no argument in favour of the like
restrictions in other connections, where the
term is evidently employed in its full force
and extent.

ETH AM (Xum. xxxiii 6) — one of the early
stations of the Israelites in their joumeyings
to Canaan. It^s said to have been in the edge
of the wilderness, and was probably situated
between the (>ulf of Suez and the bitter lakes.

Etham, the wildeknehh of (Num. xxxiii
8), was pn)bAbly part of the great desert or
wilderness of Shur, which lay around the
bottom of the western gulf of the Bed Sea.

ETHAN (1 C!hr. vi. 44), called the Eirahitt
(Ps. Ixxxix., <i7/c), was remarkable for his
wisdom (1 Ki iv. 31). He is 8upp<»sed to have
written the 89th Psalm, and was a leader of
the tomiile music (1 (^*lir. xv. 19). (See Darda. )

2. A son of Kish, of the family of Merari,
by some identifictl with Jetluthnu.

3. A Tievite of the family of Kohath.
ETHAXIAf. (See Month.)
ETHBAAI^K-iYA B<tal (1 Ki. xvi. 31)— a

king of Sidou, and father of Jezebel, the queen
of Aliab. It is wrong to identify him uitli
Ithobal, kin;,' of Tvre ; for TjTe and Sidon had
each itH nival family and Huccession.

ETHKli (Josh. XV. 42)-^me of the cities in
the low anintry — Sh4'])hohi)i — «)f Judaii, but
given to Simeon. It Hocms to have Iwen after-
wan is called •lethera, and Eusebius places it
2() mili^s fmm Kleuthen)|)olis.

ETHIOPIA — sfiH-httrufd^ or tnnnrtl cnm-
jttfxiou, fn>ni two Greek wonlrt (Actj* viii. 27).
The Hebn.'w word Cunh, which is here and
elsewhere tron.slatetl Kthioiiiti, seems to have
l)een ajiiilied t«> at least three distinct countries.
It wa» ii;sed very much as the word India is at
this day.

1. In Z<'ph. iii. 10, where the im>phet
s]H.>aks f»f .Tudah's return fn>m caT>tivit^*, it
may refer t<j the country east of tne Tigris,
the princi]wl seat of the captivity, which is
calh'd Cuthali, (2 Ki. xvii. 24 : com]). Ps.
Ixviii. 31; Tsa. xviii.) Fn)m this coimtry,
called also Ctish, the modern name KlmsL^tan
may be derive<l,

2. In Xim:!. xii. 1 the wonl Ethiopian has
Ixren referred to a country of Southern Arabia,
lying along the Ked Sea, elsewhere called
Ciitih/tn (Hab. iii. 7), in whifh lost passage
allusion is made tr> the (Mirtion of nistory
recorded Num. xxxL

3. In numerous other passages (Isa. xlv. 14 ;
Jer. xiii. 2i^; Ezek. xxix. 10; xxx. 4, 9; Acts
viii. 27) it must be understood as Ethiopia
pn»per, Ijing south of Egypt, and inchubng
the m()dem countries of Nubia and Abyssinia.
It wiis a mountainous and well-watereii c<»un-
try (Isa. xvii. 2 ; Zeph. iiL 10). The northern
part was called by the Hebrews Stba (Isa. xliii

272

EUP

! 3), after the eldest son of Cosh (Gen. z. 7), and
by the Romans MenL The inhabitMitB an
said to have been men of great stature (Iia
xlv. 14) ; and this is oonfiimed by the »<nmsitA
(treek historian, Herodotus, who says they are
the ** tallest of men;" while Solinus roondlj
avera tiiat they were 12 feet in height.

llie Ethiopian queen Caadaoe (which was
the common name of the queens nil that cooii-
try) reigned in Seba. Her treanirer was bap>
tized by PhiUp (Acts viii 27). There is a
version of the Scriptures in the Ethiopian

l^^TNICE (2 Tim. L 5)~the mother of the
evangelist Timothy. Sne was by birth a
Jewess, but marriea a Gentile (Acts xvi IL

EUNUCH— 6rt/-A«per (2 Ki. ix. 32), xm-
dered in our version both " oflBcer ** and
** chamberlain." Eunuchs were employed by
eastern kings to take charse of the beds and
lo<lging apartments, and also of the sednded
princesses (Esth. ii. 3). In PersiaD and Tmldih
courts the princiiMd offices are held by eonodii
(Acts viii 27).

EUPHRATES (Gen. ii 14). The Hebiev
name is Pherath. The reading in GenesiB ii
Hu Phfrath, meaning, " this is Pherath." Bat
the (jreek translators seem to have read Em
Pherath as <me word, and thus loimng noun
and pronoun together, they made the name
A*Mphrates. The name Pherath wj^ifiw* peerf
water. Bv others an Aryan origin is aairigiied
to the word. The Euphrates is a famons rivci (tf
Asia, which rises in Armenia, on the northern
side of mount Taurus, receives many tritnitariM
in its uindin^ course along the borders ol
Syria, and, skirting the desert, passes throodi
the inid<lle of Babjr'hm to the sea. Its wbok
length is 1,500 miles. It is navigable for
sliijM of .'lOO tons to Bassora, 70 miles above
its mouth, and for large boats 150 miles. It
flows in a bn>ad, deep current, filled to thie
level of its lianks, and at Babylon is consider-
ably less than a mile in \^'iuth. The Tigris
flows in a narrower clianueL \^'ith deeper buks,
and a less ra]>id current. The countonr between
the two rivers slojies towards the ^^^Agris. and
thiLs greatly favours the draining off ol the
superfluous waters of the Eu})hrate8.

llie Euphrates overflows its lionks in the
sjiring of every year, when the snow of the
Aniienian mountains dissolves; and it some-
times rises 12 feet. It rises in March, and
continues with overflowing volume till the end
of May. Dykes, lakes, and canals, coiistmcted
at vast exiK'Use, preserved the water for irri^
tion during the dry season, and prevented its
carrying away the soiL The Euphrates is
called in Scrijtture the *' great river, and wis
the eastern boundary of the promised land
( Deut. i. 7 ; Josh. L 4). ^ It is sometimes (mly
named the river (Ps. Ixxii. 8). It is the natural
and ap])ropriate s^mltol of the Arayrian power
(Isa. viii 7). The Eu) titrates, like the Nile,
has gathered around it many interesting asso-
ciations, fn>m the early mention of it, and from
its c<innection with the primeval abodes of the
earliest human families.

EUR

BXJROCLYDON (Acta xxviL 14)— a very
tempestuous wind, and now known under the
name of a Levanter. It blows ht>m the north-
east, and its duiger results from its violence
and the uncertainty of its course.

EUTYCHUS (Acts xx. 9)— the name of a
▼<iung man who fell from the third storey of a
house where Paul was preaching in Troas.
Sitting on the window, which may have been
opened for ventilation^ ne fell outward into the
ooort, which, as usual, was within the house,
or round which the house was built He was
killed by the fall, and his restoration to life
was a miracle. (See Dwellxkos.)

EVANGELIST— i7o«peW€r (Acts xxL 8)—
one who brings good tidings. Hence the
writers of the four Gospels are called "the
evangelists," because they, in a pre-eminent
sense, declare good tidings of salvation through
Christ. Evangelists were early designated
as a particular class of religious teachers (Eph.
iv. 11) ; and some suppose that, without oemg
ttttached to any particular chiuch, they aban-
doned all worldly relations and pursuits, and,
probiUily by the commission of the apostles,
preached the Gospel wherever they were callea
(2 Tim. iv. 5). The pastors, on the other hand,
were orduned over some spiritual community.
One of them was Philip, who had first been
m deacon of the church at Jerusalem ; but &fter
his fliffht from that city he seems to have
resided principally in Cesarea, and to have
ptreached the Gospel wherever he found occa-
sion. Mark- and Luke are, perhaps, to be
considered evangelists in tiiis sense, as well as
in the more common one of having written
Gospels. Both of them were preachers of the
Gospel for many years before they committed
the substance oi their preaching to writing:
and we may suppose that such men were of
preat assistance to the apostles by accompany-
ing tiiem on their journeys, or by following up
and continuing the work which had been so
successfully begrun. The primitive order of
evangelists, distinct from other public religious
teachers, is supposed to have been merely
temporary, like tnat of apostles and prophets;
but the principal duties and services which
they performed, and many to which they were
not called, seem to have fallen upon those who
in modem days are called missionaries.

EVE (Gren. iiL 20) — the name given by Adam
to his wife. It is derived from a wora which
signifies life, and was applied to her as the
mother of all the living. In consequence of
her disobedience to the divine command (see
Adam), she was doomed to suffer a multiphca-
tion and i^gravation of sorrow, especially in
the birth of her offspring. It was also declared
concerning her, that her desire should be to her
husband, and he should rule over her (Gren. iii.
16). It is well known that in those coimtries
which are unenlightened by the Go8i)el women
are the most degraded and miserable slaves to
man ; and, taking into view the delicacy and
sensitiveness which are characteristic of their
sex, we may suppose this part of the original
sentence is visited upon millions of them with
T

EXO

intense severity even at this day. (See Abel,
Adam. Bibth, Cain.)

EVENING (Ps. Iv. 17), EVENTIDE (Gen.
xxiv. 63). The Hebrews reckoned two even-
ings : one commencing at sunset, and embrac-
ing the period of twilight; and the other
commencing at dark. Some suppose thsA Uie
first eveninff commenced as early as three
o'clock in tne afternoon^ and the second at
sunset It was in the mterval between the
two evenings, at whichever of these periods it
occurred, that the passover was to oe^ killed
and the daily sacrifice offered. (See marginal
reading of Exod. xii 6 ; Num. ix. 3^ zxviu. 4.)
Eventide is the same with evening-tune.

EVIL (Amos iii 6). (See Sin.)

EVIL-MERODACH (2 Ki. XXV. 27). (See
Babylon, Nebcchadnezzab.)

EXCHANGERS. (See Chanoibs of

HONET.)

EXODUS. The Hebrew name is vedUh
shemoth — the two words with which the nar-
rative commences. Exodus is the name of the
second book of Moies, and the second in the
order of the books of uie Old Testament, and
is descriptive of its design; for the word is
derived from a Greek term, which signifies
ffoing outf or departing ; and the book contains
the history of the rele&se of the Israelites from
their bondage in Egypt, and of their going out
of that country up to the promised land.

This book is cited as the work of Moses by
David, Daniel, and others of the sacred writers;
and it has been remarked that twenty-five
distinct passages are quoted from it by Ohrist
and his apostles in express words, and nineteen
in substance. It comprehends a history of
nearly 145 ^ears, or from the death of Joseph
to the erection of the tabernacle. It may do
thus divided as to its contents : —
* 1. An account of a change of dynastgr in
Egypt, and the consequent oppression of the
Hebrew tribes.

2. Birth, preservation, early education, and
career of Moses ; his patriotiran, his exile, and
his flight into Midian.

3. The divine commission which Moses
received from Jehovah in the burning bush,
authorizing him in God^s name to demand from
Pharaoh the emancipation of his people, and
empowering him to authenticate nis mission
by impressive miracles.

4. The demand made uix>n Pharaoh, with
its varying results, and the ten plagues iimicted
on him and his people in succession.

5. The paschal feast, the sudden and simul-
taneous emigration, the pursuit, and the
destruction of Pharaoh^s army in the Red Sea.

6. The song of triumph, the inarch into tiie
desert, manna, water, Jethro's advice. Sinai
and its manifestations, the law of tne ten
commandments.

7. Many enactments of statute law on a
great variety of topics necessary to the govern-
ment of the nation.

8. The addition of a ceremonial law, with
the tabernacle, priesthood, and sacrifices, com-
manded by Godf, and immediately brought into

273

EXO

Active obnervanoe by the people, who gave
williiiRly for the establishment of the national
worship, while God hallowed all by his own
visible und symbolic i>re8ence.

It is a very interesting period of early sacred
history which the book of Exodus embraces.
It records tiie fulfilment of God's promise to
Abraham— ti^t his seed should be freed from
slavery. It narrates the institution of that
religious system which was to last till the Son
of God should appear on the earth. It bears
apon it many evidences of its genuineness and
authenticity.

It may be wondered that Pharaoh was not
sooner impressed by the miracles wrought in
his presence by Moses and Aaron. Thers
were at least two reasons which contributed
to the hardening of Pharaoh*s heart. At first
he seems to have thought that Moses and
Aaron were only ma^dans like his own wise
men, but of a supenor class; and at length,
when his jugglers confessed *'the finger of
God" in tne works of the Hebrew leaders,
Pharaoh was not convinced, because he
imaffined that the God of the Hebrews might
yet De overmatched by the divinities of £p3rpt.
The king of Ecypt believed in a plural!^ of
gods, and still cnerished the hope that his
patron deities might be able to protect him.
He might at the same time have reasoned,
that his court magicians would have displayed
their power far more eflfectively by repelling
the miracles of Moses and Aaron, than by a
faint imitation of them.

The plagues inflicted on Egyjjt were not
only fearful visitations, but were deHignoil to
show the foU^ of the national sui)cr8titions.
The Nile which was turned into blood, the
frogs which annoyed them, the flies which
pestered them, the cattle on which fell the
murrain, ftc., were sacred objects among the
Egyptians. So truly does Jehovah nay,—
" Against all the gods of Egypt I will execute
judnnent"

The book of Exmlus is the token of God's
fidelity to his promise. The comment of the
Psalmist upon it is natural and devout, (I's.
Ixxviii. ; cv.) Critics differ greatly in the
application ojf a dual test to the authorship, or
in the aasi^ment of sections to an ElohiHtic
and JehoviHtic writer. There may bo some
supplements in the book, but a unity of origin
it evident throughout. (See Egypt, Moses,
Bed Sea.)

EXORCISTS (Acts xix. 13)— those who,
by the use of the name of €ro<l, attempti'd to
expel evil spirits from places or persons of
whom they had possession. It was not an
uncommon profession among the Jews, as we
may infer from Matt, xii 27 and Mark ix.*38.

EXPIATION, PEART OP. (See Feasts. )

EYES (Gen. xiii. 10). The figurative uses
of this word abound in the sacred writings,
and are generally obvious. In the visions of
Ezekiel and John (Ezek. i 18; z. 12; Rev. iv.
6, 8) the allusions are evidently to the alacrity
and vigilance with which tne ministen of
JehovaL perform his wilL
274

EZE

The phrase, an " evil eye,** ii the aymbol of
a mean and envions dispositiaii (Pror. nuL 6;
Matt xz. 15). Supentitions aboat an ml
eye are yet common in the Eastern world, and
prevail still in the Scottish Highlaadb.

I^ane says, — *' Mothers who have the BCMt
tender regard for their children alnuMt oai-
versally neglect their personal deanlinaoL Isrt
a covetous or evil eye should light npoa tlWL
Nothing distresses an Egirptian parent moR
than that which in other countries u oouDdared
to ctrnvev a compliment— admimtion of the
child. If any one is seen to stare at» ao ae to
envy the offspring, the mother haatilj i

it awav, to peiform some supentitioiia rite
as a charm against the suppoeed evil eye.**
The word is also used with many peeuiar
references.

** Ew-terviee^ means the work of tiiost
who labour only when their master la ptei-
ent, but give up work as soon as he tons
his back (Eph. vi. 6). Against this un-
principled procedure Paul warns Chriatiaa
slaves. Intensity of affection is denoted is
GaL iv. 15w To keep anything with p^i'itii''
delicacy and care is to keep it as the a|iple of
the eye (Deut xxxiL 11; Zech. it 8). As
putting out of the eye appears to have been a
Darbarous Oriental punishment (Jer. liL 11;
Jndg. xvi. 21). We read in Prov. xxx. 17,—
**llie eye that mocketh at his father, and
despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens ti
the valley shall pick it out, and the yomg
eagles shall eat it" This threatening reoeivBB
the following illustration from Roberts : — ** 1m
tlie East, in consequence of the superstitiaas
of heathenism, numerous human Dodies ars
exposed to bea>me the prev of birds and
wild beasts; and it is worthy oi being rt-
oorded, that the eye is the first part selected
by the former as their favourite portion. It
is, however, considered to be a great misfortiiBe
to be left without sepulchral rites; and it is
no uncommon imprecation to hear, 'Ah!
the crows shall one day pick ont thy eyea'
* Yes, the lizards shall lay their egss in thy
sockets.* ^'—Oriental lilugtratioHi, p. 3HDl

EYELIDS (Prov. vi 25). l*he word it
poetically applieii to the morning (Job xlL 18).
llie custom of adorning the eyelios for effect
is often alluded to in the sacred writings fS
KL ix. 30; Jer. iv. 30; Ezek. zxiiL 40), sad
prevails extensively now among eastern ladiei.
The hair luid edges of the eyelids are tinged
with a fine black |>owder, moistened with oil
or viuegiir, which causes a small black line to
appear around the edj^e, and at a distance.
and eHpecinlly by candle-light, gives a heavy
(lark shade to the eyes. The manner of dmug
it is ])articnlarl^ described by travellers. A
smooth cylindrical piece of silver or ivosy,
shaped like a quill, and about two inches hmg.
is dipped into the composition, and plaoM
within the eyelashes, which are closed over ik
"i?w«-*i/re,'^ or coUyrium (Kev. iii 18), wu
made of lead ore, with other ingredients.

EZEKIEL— 6^0(2 viU sumwrt (Esek. i Sh-
the son of Buzi, was both a prophet snd

EZE

priest of the Jews, carried into oaptivity
wiUi Jehoiachin, kine of Jud&h, and was
probably settled, witn other exiles, on the
banks of the Ghebar, a river of Ghaldea.
(See Chsbar.) He was favoured with sublime
-visions of the divine glory, and his prophecy
as a whole is characterized by great force,
sublime imagery, and as much perspicuity as
tbe subjects of it would allow.

Pbophsct of— is the twen^-sixth in the
order of the books of the Old Testament It
was uttered during a period of about twenty-
one yearB,perhaps oetween B. a 590 and B. c. 540.
The first eight vears of this i>eriod were contem-
poraneous witn the last eight of Jeremiah.
Orhe earliest portions of the prophecy foretell
and describe the overthrow of Jerusalem, at its
final siege in the reign of Zedekiah, and detail
Ezekiel's solemn inauguration into the pro-
phetio o£Bce. The first chapter tells the
sublime visions which he saw — the glory of
God — the cherubim — the bright cloud — the
sapphire throne — the burning ones which
suiTounded it — and the form of humanity
enshrined in this lustre, which presided over
and animated the myrtic mechanism. The
prophet is tiien directed to inform his f ellow-
captives that all their hope of speedy return to
Jiviea was vain, — that the capital of the
oountiy from which they had been carried
was soon to fall; and in successive visions he
18 shown its sin and provocations, which were
truly impious and daring — ^gross and profane
imitations of impure, heawen superstitions.
Still does the prophet continue to warn and
t^itify in vehement and audous expostulation.
But the respite was concluded, and judgment
could not be stayed. At length the city was
laid in ruins, and new bands of mourning
captives were transported to Babylon.

The attention of the prophet is now turned
to other countries. Though the^ rejoiced
agidnst Judea, and triumphed over its desola-
tion, they were not to escape themselves. The
overthrow of Ammon, Edom, Phili«tia, and
especially l^fe and Egypt is vividly depicted.
Gog is also involved. But light breaks in
upon the gloom, and a gorgeous scene of
rebuilded Jerusalem and restored Judea is
presented to the prophet. The temple is re-
erected and the nierarchy consecrated, and
the tribes enjoy in peace their respective
territories. This latter prophecy seems to
refer to Messianic times.

The book is one throughout— the same tone
and style prevail The title " son of man** is
given to the prophet eighty-nine times. There
are many repetitions of words and phrases : the
formula, "thev shall know,** occurs above forty
times. Yet there are a x>eculiar vigour and
boldness about Ezekiel — an unshrinking stern-
ness— a dark and sombre dignity. There is a
ffood deal of prose in his oracles ; but not a
uttle, at the same time, of what is picturesque
in imagery and commanding in diction. The
scenes ne describes are somewhat complicated
and not easily understood. Perhaps the
minuteness of toe description embarrasses the

EZR

attention, and by scrutinising the miuOT parti
we fail to catch a full glimpse of the wnole.
Ezekiel delights to amplify, and his style in
this respect presents a marked contrast to
that of Isaiah.

Another feature of the book is its constant
reference to the spirit and form ol the cere-
monial law. Ezeloel was a priest^ such allu-
sions were familiar to his mind, aiui he dwells
especialljr on the duty, privilege, and M»«iiring
of observing and hallowing the Sabbath. The
energy of his nature is conspicuous in his
oracles: it was needed in testi^dng agnunst
a sti£f-necked and rebellious people, wholoved
smooth predictions, and had been often ruined
by them; who needed to be held in check,
especially as captives in a foreign land ; for
they cherished the idea that Babylon might
soon be overthrown, and they might escape;
but the prophet is sharp and severe in repress-
ing this fooush and dangerous anticipation.

EZION-GEBEB, or GABER (Num. xxxiii
35; lELix.26)— adtyof Aral^atthehead
of the eastern or Elanitic gulf d the Red Sea,
adjoining Elath. It was nere that Solomon's
vessels were built, which were intemied to
trade with Ophir and Tarshish; and here, too,
that Jehoshaphat engaged in a similar enter-
prise, which proved a failure, for Jehovah
frowned uponit It derives its name — ^Ezion-
geber, or the bodJc-bone of a man — from a reef of
rocks at the entrance of the harbour resembling
that part of the human frame. (See Elath.)

EZRA, or ESDRAS— Ae;|)«r— is desipated

SBzra vii. I) the son of Senuah, and a c&soen-
ant of Hilkiah. We are told that *' he was a
ready scribe in the law of Moses,'* well skilled
in it himself, and admirably qualified to inter-
pret and eidoroe it. His descent from the
family of Aaron gave him an influence over
his countrymen which lus learning and his
piety controlled and directed to their best
mterests. By virtue of that descent he was
entitied to re-organize the old and hallowed
ceremonial forms ; but his morel character led
him to be equally anxious that the spirit ol
religion should also be revived. Although he
had been bom in the land of Babylon, tether
his father had been carried captive, and conse-
quentiy had never beheld the ** beautiful situ-
ation" of Zion, nor gazed on the glories of
its edifice, yet by study of the law, and by
inquiry among his countijmen. he had obtained
some adequate conception ot the Umd and
temple of his fathers. He understood their
banishment to be a punishment from Grod,
inflicted because of the frequent rebellions m.
the Israelites against "their king, their law-

fiver, and their judge." The result of this
nowledge, effected no doubt b^ the Spirit of
Grod. was a strong desire, which ended in a
fixed resolution, to visit his fatherland.

In the seventh year of the reign of Artax-
erxes Ezra received his commission to return
to his own land. The letter put into the
hands of Ezra by the monarch was every-
thing which reason could have expected or
piety desired. Full liberty is given to every

EZR

Israelite, of whatever tribe, who defllred it, to
return aJong vrith Ezra. The king and his
seven counsellors give to him handsome dona-
tions of silver and gold, and recommend him
to the liberality of all the province of Babylon,
that they might be able to purchase at Jeru-
salem '* bullocks, rams, and lambs, with their
meat offerings and their drink offerings, and
offer them upon the altar of the house of their
Cfod in Jerusalem.** In addition to the gold
and silver in specie, for the purchase of what-
ever was requisite, a number of vessels were
given, to be devdted to the service of God.
Jrrovided the sums furnished were not adequate
to the expenses of the work, Ezra was author-
ized to apply to the king's exchequer, and the
treasurers were commanded to supply his
wants. They were, besides, to be relieved
from the payment of every sort of impost,
whether toll, tribute, or custom.^ Ezra was
also emxx>wered to apimint magistrates and
jud^ for the execution of the laws enacted in
their own statute-book-^\iz., the laws of Mose^;
and full power was given over the lives and
estates of all Jews, to imnrison, to banish, to
confiscate^ or to put to deotJL Ezra's gratitude
for such kindness is not Buri)rising. He could not
fail to express his thankfulness to Artaxerxcs ;
but he looks also up to him in whose hand is
the heart of the king, and w^ho tunieth it like
rivers of water whitliersoovcr he udll, and who
on this occasion '*put it into the king's heart
to beautify the house of God which is at
Jerusalem."

He set out from Bal>ylon on the first day of
the first month Nisan, about the middle of
March. Nine days i^ter setting out thev
pitched their tents on the banks of a RmaU
river, Ahava, the identity of which is not now
api^arent : but it is thought, however, to have
been a tributary of the Euphrates. Tne design
of this halt was ap]>arently threefold,— first,
to recruit their strength after the previous
fatigue ; second, to afford to all time to deter-
mine whether or not thoy should accomitany
the caravan — especiiilly in order that some of
the "sons of I^evi " mi^ht be procured, none of
these having as yet jomed the pilgrims ; and
third, to imi)lore the guidance and protection
of Jehovah before commencing the principal
and most dangerous part of their ioumey, for
no military escort accompanied tnem for de-
fence. Indeed, Ezra was anxious that their
safe-conduct under God alone should afford a
convincing proof of the truth of his religious
belief, fi may excite surprise that so few
comparatively of all the tribes of Israel should
have avuled themselves of the opportunity to
return from exile. To account for this, we
have only to remember that, since the last
captivity, four generations had passed away,
and the ten tribes had been removed consider-
ably earlier, lliere is nothing wonderful that
in the course of such a long period thev should
have become somewhat aomesticated in the
land of their bondage. The length of the
journey was another reason why many, espe-
cially those who had families, wouli refrain
27G

EZR

from joining the company; and further ones
the defeat of the daAgeroos conspiiBcj fonned
by the Agagite, their condition had been quiet
and prosperous, and no appearanoe ci dooda
threatened to obscure the snn of their proe-
perity. From these drcnmstancea the nmnber
of voluntary emigrants was rather restricted.
With such as volunteered, however, Ezra set
out from the banks of Ahava, after an encamp-
ment of three days. After a journey of four
months they reached Jerusalem, on the fint
day of the fifth month, and gave their letter to
the viceroys, who, according to its require-
ments, did everything to further their enter-
prise. Ezra soon perceived that a stem and
steady reformer was what the people were in
need of. The morals of the i>eople, in coose-
quence of their mixed marriages with the
heathen, were rapidly declining. And what
was peculiarly distressing to "Emk wa^ that
" the hands of the princes and rulers had been
chief in this trespass." In consequence of
these aUiances the temptations to idolatry
were greatly increased, while the godly up-
bringing of the children was daily more d»-
regairded. The an^piish of Ezra was piropor-
tioned to the magmtude of the trespass. He
rent his garment and his mantle, pwoked off
the hair of his head and beard, ana sat down
astonied. His prayer on the occasion was so
touching and full, that " the i^eople wept very
sore." Shechaniah sug^;estea that they should
instantly set about rectifying the eviL and all
promised to Ezra their support in the discharge
of a painful duty. A convocation was sum-
moned, to w^hich all were required to attend,
on ixiin (^f confiscation and excommunication.
The i>eople attended as desired, and entered at
once into the proposal; but as the weather
was very unfavourable, and the investigation
into the extent of the trespass likely to be
protracted, Ezra, with a few of the chief td
the fathers, was appointed to see that the
resolution was carried into effect. During
three months wore they occupied in this
matter, which they were unable to bring to a
satisfactory t<.>rmination. llie autobiography
of Ezra closes here somewhat abmntlT. ^o
more is said of him till the arrival of Nehoniah
thirteen years aftor he himself had reached
Jerusalem, (Neh. viiL) After Nehemiah had
completed the wall of Jenisalem, Ezra, on
request, mounted an elevated platform, and in
the presence and audience of all tiie people,
who were collected in the street, and who
listened with the utmost attention, read the
words of the law. While Ezra read in the
original Hebrew, some of the other priests
who were prc^sent on the occasion interpreted
in the Chaldaic, which in Babylon had been
the vernacular tongue of the captives. Tliii
lightenetl the labour of Ezia, who read from
the morning until mid-day. This exercise was
continued on the subsequent day. The rea^ng
of the law led to the onservance of tbe " Feest
of Tabernacles," which lasted seven days, on
each of which Ezra continued the reacung of
the law.

FAC

This is the last action recorded of this eminent
reformer. We have no certain account of the
period or phice of his death. Josephns savs
that shortly after this feast he died an old
man, and was buried in great magnificence at
Jenisalem. But Persia also lays claim to his
remains.

The two chief things, says Prideaux, which
Ezra had to do, were to restore the observances
of the Jewish law according to the ancient
approved usages that had oeen in practice
beiore the captivity, imder the directions of
the prophets, and to collect and set forth a
correct edition of the Holy Scriptures. Prob-
ably he corrected errors that had crept into
tJie copies in use through the negligence or
mistakes of transcribers; and he changed
obsolete names of places for the more
modem.

Book of, is the fifteenth in the order of
the books of the Old Testament, and is a
continuation of the Jewish history^from the
dose of the book of Chronicles. The period
embraced by it is probably about eig^hty years,
and comprises a portion of the reign of the
ffreat Cyrus, with the reigns of his son Cam-
Dvses, omerdis the Magian impostor, Darius
Uystaspis, Xerxes, aim a portion of the
period of Artaxerxes. It may be noted, in
conclusion, that there are differences of stvle
in tiie book, which are easily and naturally
accoimted for either by the oifferent circum-
stances in which the author was placed, or on

FAI

the supposition that more persons than one
had a share in the oompilaticni. such as Daniel
and Haggai, the prophets. Tne book supplies
important information on a momentous epoch
in ancient Jewish history — ^to wit, the return
to Judea after the seventy years of captivity
in Babylon. It may be read most profitably
in connection with the prophecies of Haggai
and Zechariah. There are two apocryphal
books ascribed to Ezra under the name of
Etdrat, the Greek form of the name Ezra,
The book of Ezra is written in Chaldee from
the eighth verse of the fourth chapter to the
nineteenth verse of the sixth chaptor, and from
the beginning of the sevenUi chapter to the
twenty-seventh verse ; for as this part of the
work contains chiefly letters, conversation, and
decrees uttered in that language, it was con-
sistent with the fidelity of tne sa(n*ed historian
to transcribe the very words which were used,
especially as the people recently returned from
the captivity were familiar, and perhaps mor«
conversant, with the Chaldee than even with
the Hebrew tongue ; and it was probably about
this time that oral Chaldee paraphrases began
to be used ; for it appears by Nehemian's
account that all could not understand the law,
which may mean that some of them had for-
gotten the Hebrew during their dispersion in
the captivity. Some assign, likewise, to this
time the origin of the Jewish synagogues,
though it is possible that they existed befors
the captivity.

F

FACE (Gen. iiL 19). (See Blackness.)
Whatever of a thing is most exposed to view
is called its/ar«; hence we read of the fact of
the coimtry, field, gate, house, groimd, porch,
wilderness, waters, sky, &c

Facet when applied to God^ denotes — (L)
nis ommscience (1 Sam. xxvi. 20); and to
"provoke him to the face," is to do it very
openly and impudently (Isa. Ixv. 3). (2.) The
loighter displays of his glory, whicii cannot be
enjoyed in tnis world (Exod. xxxiii 20 ; 1 Tim.
vL 16). (3.) His favour and love, and their
gracious displays, when his face is said to shine^
or it is represented as a mercy to behold and
enjoy it, or a misery to be deprived of it (2
Chr. XXX. 9 ; Ps. xxxi. 16 ; Ixxx. 7 ; Dan. ix.
17). (4.) His \frrath, and the providential
disjilays thereof (Ps. xxxiv. 16). Christ's face
denotes— (1.) His person, as the image of
the invisible God (2 Cor. iv. 6). (2.) His
gracious, glorious, or terrible appearances
(Rev. XX .11). The "showbread" is called the
"iM^ki of laces." The word "face" occurs
often in Hebrew diction, as ** Turn not away
the face," &c Roberts observes, — "Does a
person ask a favour of his superior, it will not
be, in general, said in reply, *I grant your
requej»t ; * or, * You shall nave your desire ; '
but Nan tin mvggatti parttain — *I have seen
thy face.' Has a man greatly offended another,
and does he plead for mercy, the person to

whom offence has been given will say, ' I have
seen thy face,* which means that ne is par-
doned. Should a friend inquire, 'Well, what
punishment do you intend to inflict on that
fellow?* he will reply, * I have seen his face.'
In applying for help, should there be a denial,
the applicant will ask, * In whose face shall I
now look?' When a man has* nearly lost all
hope, he sasrs, * For the sake of the face of Grod,
grant me my request' " — Orienttd Illustration*
of Scripture, p. 177.

FAIR HAVENS (Acts xxvii. 8)-the name
of a harbour or ancnorage on the southern
shore of the island of Cret^ Its Greek name is
so well preserved that it can be identified; and
it may have been the harbour of Lasea. (See
Crete. Lasea.)

FAlRS^a word occurring seven times in
Ezek. xxvii 12-33. Fairs with us either mean
periodical meetings of buyers and sellers for
purposes of merchandise, or fixed places of
Duying and selling in any city or town, such as
we call markets. In the last verse quoted it is
rendered "wares;" and perhaps such is the
better rendering in all the verses. The three
great festivals of the Hebrew nation at Jeru-
salem were a species of fairs, in addition to their
purpose as rehgious observances.. (See Fkast.)i

FAITH (Matt. viii. 10). The word denotes
the credit we give to the declaration of God, or
to the evidence of the facts or propoBitiiQ|gg

VTk

FAI

fn'Mented to uh in tlio liible. The term appears
to denote the truth of the Goepel, or that which
is the object of faith, in Jude 3. llie faith
which is necessary to salvation, and without
which it is impossible to please God (Heb. xi.
6), combines assent with reliance, belief with
trust. Thus Christ is exhibited in the Gos]>el
as having made an atonement for sin; and
"whosoever believeth in him shall not perish,
but have everlasting life.** Exercising this
faith, the sinner is received and treated as if
he were just and righteous; and hence the
process is called justification by faith. The
Oelief or faith in him, by which this salvatiun
is secured, includes not onl^ a cordial concur-
rence of the will and affections in this scheme
or plan of redemption, togt^ther with ^1 its
relations and bearings as they are revealed
in the Gosfiel, but also such an actual per-
sonal trust in Christ as a Saviour as leads to
the remmciation of every other trust, to the
forsaking of all known sin, and to the cheerful
and constant obedience of all his commands.
Faith is not a principle too subtle to be prac-
tical, or too abstract to bo energetic. It is, in
some form of it, of universal power even in the
ordinary affairs of business. Men move not a
step without faith, or the belief that the enter-
prise they engai^e in will succeed, that the houxe
they are in will not fall, that the words thev
speak and letters they write vnW be understtxHi.
Christians walk by faith— live by faith. What
the^ believe has as much influence over them
as if it were to them an object of sense.

The faith of (htd (Rom. iii. 3) means his
faithfulness, llie term in Gal. v. 22 Hi^^nifies
fidelity. It is mentioned among the graces of
such as believe, — of such as already i)Ossess
faith.

There is also a kind of faith colled \A\e faith
of jniraclcSf alluded to by Christ in Matt
xvii 20. Such faith was the peculiar convic-
tion given to the apostles, tnat G<id would
work a miracle by them. Many things in
Scripture may be believed, and yet saving
faith may not be possesscHl, — " the devils
believe and tremble.*' (See Devil.)

FAITHFULNESS (Ps. Ixxxix. 1, 3.\ 34)
is a Di\'ine attribute, and denrttes the truth
and certainty of the accomplinhment of all
that the Divine Being has declared (Num.
xxiii. 10; Heb. x. 2.1).

FALLOW-DEER. (See Hart.)

FALLOW GROUND (Jer. iv. 3; Hos. x.
12) is ground hing fur a season out of culti-
vation, as in the sabbatic year. During this
interval the exhausted soil gathers to itself
the chemical elements which previous croj>s
had taken out of it. The same result is now
to a great extent secured by rotation of crops
and the application of different kinds of
manures.

FAMILIAR. (See DiviNATioif.)

FAMINE (Gen. xiL 10). We have an
account of several famines in Palestine and
the neighbouring countries. The most re-
markable one was that of seven years in
l£gyi)t, while Joseph was governor. It was
278

FAS

distinguished b^ its duration, extent, and
severity. Famme is often the result of a
siege (2 KL viii 12). but it is sometimes a
natural effect, as wnen the Nile does not
overflow in Egypt, or rains do not fall in
Judea, at the customary seasons, spring and
autumn; or when caterpillars, locnita, or
other insects destroy the fruits. In £g7P^
famines have been frequent and severe. Dar-
in; such seasons the worst and moat wanton
cannibalism has prevailed; and even when
grain is again plentiful it has been difliciilt
sometimes to wean the people from then
odious practices.

FAN (Isa. xxz. 24)— a well-known agricnl*
tural implement, which was used by the Jewi^
as it is l>y husbandmen of the present d«r,
to separate the chaff from the wheat when tae
wina is not suflident. The shovel which is
mentioned in thesame passaoe wasused to throw
up the grain in the air wnen the vind was
s^ng enough to cleanse it (Matt. liL 12)1

(See THRKSH, WlKNOW.)

FARTHING. (See Measuresi.)
FAST (1 Ki. XXI. 9), FASTING (Neh. U.
1), or DAYS OF FASTING (Jer. xrxvi 6).
In seasons of danger or general affliction,
when nature itself ceases for a time to crave
indulgence, it was customanr among the Jews
to abstain from food as a religious duty (Josh,
vii. G ; Judg. xx. 26) ; and the same practice
prevailed among individuals when the occasion
was iiersonal (£xod. xxiv. 18; 2 Sam. ziL
IG; 1 Ki. xix. 8). So our blessed Saviour
fasted forty days and forty nights (ftlatt. iv.
2). Some of these pn)tracted fasts were en-
(hired by the help of miraculous interposition.
Jewish fasts were kept with great strictnesa,
and generally fn)m evening^ to evenii^ — that
is, twenty-four hours — and included not only
an abstinence fn>m f(X)d but from all other
sensual indulgences. The body was clothed in
sackcloth, no shoes were worn, ashes were
sprinkled upon the head, the hands were
unwashed, tne head was unanointed, and the
synagogues were filled with the voice of suppli-
cation and the sobs of grief and i)enitence (m.
xxii. 12; Joi'l ii. 15-17). During the captivity,
four HpeciiU fa^t davs were obseni'ed (ZecL
vii. 5) ; the fast of the fourth month, for the
ca]>ture of Jerusalem (Jer. li. 27) ; the fast of
the fifth month, for the buniing of the temple
(Jer. Iii. 13); the iixnt of tho seventh month,
for Gednliah's death (tier. xli. 2); and the
fast of the tenth month, for the commence-
ment oi the attack on Jerusalem (Jer. Iii 4).
The law enjoined only one fast on the p^eat
day of Attmement ; but some of the Pharisees,
in Christ's time, fasted '* twice in the week.**

Fasts were evidently of divine authority.
Fasting at the present day may be regarded
as one of the outward means which may be
employed to humble and cliasten the sool, and
tniin it anew to the love and pursuit of holy
and spiritual joyiu There can oe no doubt of
its being allowed under the (xospel dispen-
sation, but it is not expressly enjoined (Matt
vi 18; ix. 15; Acts xiii. 3; 1 Cor. vii 5).

FAT
FAT. The tin of pan tat, or mat, ■■ an
•iticle of food, was iotanlicted to the Jam.
"All ths f&t u ths Ixnd-B. It ahaU b* •
perpetual Btatcte for yoar gmentiona thnragh-
oat all yoar dweUingt, that ye eat neither fat
nor blood" (Lev. iii. 16, 17|. No doubt aome
reli^ona lesson waa taught them b; this pro-
hibition—that the choicert part of 0»ery gift
vhich God oonfers upon ua is claimed bj'
himself, and shonld bs scmpuloosly deToted
to him. The Jews aa a nation were prone to
Isptoa)' and other cntaneoos diaorders ; and the
interdiction of fat as a matter of ordinary diet
was also the wise prevention of a etiniTilant
whioh baa a tendency to excite or aggravate
Buoh maladiesL " Fatnen " is often lued as a
igan — repreeenUng the best and richest of
nrthly piodnctionB, aa well as the dellghtfhl
andsatdafyingbtearinnof lellgian. Thefatted
>i>ini»1 was <^ed ^Jatlmg — ttie translation of
three Hebrew wonb (Oen. xiviL 38; Ps.

FA^orVAT(JoeliL34i (SeeWnii.)

FATH£R(Qen.ilv.8). Theword-fathar"
Ib used is thia ease to sigliify an " adviser " or
" oonnaeUor;" and U is not tmoanal for thia
idea to be oanneetad with it in eastern oonntries.
It is also nsed iritb k variety of applioatioiu
as denoting originator or instructor. Jabal was
the father of snob aa dwell in tents," and
Jubal of "such as handle the harp and organ."
Satan is the father nfliee or lian. (See Child.)

FATHOM. (See Mbasubes.)

FEAii (X Pet L 17). The fear of God i» a
e, and denotes such a reverence

(Tbrigtian grace, and denotes .
for his holy cnaxacter, and
such a dread of offending him

and made a feast" (Oen. uiz. 23). On his
birthday Pharaofa made a feaat unto aU his
servants (Gen. iL 20). Feasts were also held
at the end of harvest, vintage, and sheep-
ahearing (EcoL 1. 19).

It was coounon among ths eaatem natdona
to aak and bestow speoal favours at these
festivals. Thus it is recorded of Ahasuerus,
that in the hdght of bia festal enjojrmeut
he " aaid unto Esther, at the banquet of wine.
What is thy petition ! and it afaaU be granted
thee : and what is thy reqaeatT even to the
half of the Idngdum it shall be peifbrmed"
(Esth. V. 6: TiL 3). As the Hebrews brnugM

back with thero from their captivity U ' —

of lying at meoll^ so they leamed ti

the Persian volupntaoasnees^ The Rmnam also
were accostomed to this long continnaooe at
entertainmente : they assembled early on andt
occasiaas, and often remained together all
night. Enteitainmenta in tbe East are com-
monly held in the evening, at which time
the rooms are brilliantly ilhuninated. Great
preparations were made for tuah feasta, sudi

offending hi
: hishoh '

towBtchfDlnea8,b

iatdoD, and unceasing prayer.
It is entirely filial in its nature,
and is neceasarilyaccompanied
by love and obedienee. It is
the Kcnliari^ of the Chriattan
faith that the revelation of
God's jUBtiee in the Buffering
and death of our Divine It«-
deemer, which fills tbe eoul
with fear and trembling, die-
ctoaea at the same tune a
■cheme of unparalleled love
and mercy; ao that our strong-
eat impreeaions of fear, and
our deepest emotjona of love,
(jratitade, and confidence, are
derived fromacommoDaource,
and share acommon character.
FEAST (Luke liv. 13J,
FEASTS fr«v.uiit 2]. We
often read in the Bible of
feaata, or sumptuous enter-
tainments, and of the customs
pertaining to them. They
given to ealebrate or commem<H»to wuw im-
portant or Joyful event. Abraham made a
great feaat at the weaning of Isaac (Oen.
*»i S). At the marriage oi Jacob "I«ban
gathered together aU the men of the place.

Ecrplian Dreiser sod Pols.

a* "fat things and wine on the leea." The
Roman feast was always a (iip}w,whiah,
however, began about three o'clock. We sup-
pose it to nave been niach the same among
the Heln^wB. The gueets amused tbemsdve*
with atones, or sallies of hiunour, and aumi

TEA

timet witli enigmatical questions (Judg. xiv.
12), but more frequently with poetry and
music. The prophet describes such l>anquets
as enlivened oy the music of ** har|), viol,
tabret, and pipe'* (Isa. v. 12; xxiv. 7-9). The
]nrophet Amos, too« describe the debauchees
OS reclining on beds of ivory, and says of
them that they '* chant to the sound of the
viol, and invent to themselves instruments of
music, like David" (Amos. vL 5). The customs
of the Arabs resemble those which have been
described ; and perhajis we may say the same
of all Oriental countries. And such being
the festivity of these occasions, we see how a
feast became the emblem of great mirth and
gladneKs (Isa. xxv. 6).

Among the llomans the guests at fea^^ts
reclined urxm couches. The firht ceremony
was to bathe with the master of the feast, and
then to change their dress. Next, the first
man in order took his place at the head of the
long couch, resting the u])i>er part of his body
on his left elbow, and having a pillow or bolster
to support his back. The second guest lay with
his head and feet on a line, or i)andlel with the
first, from whom he was st'^farated by hiA own
bolster. Being settleil in their placeM, they
washed their hands (Mark vii. 2), after whicn
they were served with garlands of flowers, and
also with essences and perfumes (Ps. xxiii. 5 ;
xlv. 7; Keel. ix. 8; Luke viL 38).

The most honourable phice, or seat, or
"uppermoHt nx)m," as it is called (Matt. xxiiL
6), or ** highest" or "chief room" (Luke xiv. 7,
8) was the middle couch, and the middle of
tnat; and lymg below one at table, in to lie
as it were in or upon his bosom (John xiii. 23).
In ancient times, benides music and dancing
while they were eating, they had ctimbats of
gladiators. Some idea may be formed of the
nimiber of guests and the grandeur of an
ancient feast, from the fact that Julius Cspsar
once gave a XK>pnlar entertainment, the guests
of w^hich occupied 22,000 places (rooms or
seats). The accounts in the Bible of feasts
with a multitude of guests ore not, therefore,
so imx>n)bable as some have alle;j:e<l (Esth. i. 5;
Luke xiv. lG-24). Under the Mosaic dispensa-
tion the rites of hospitality were rendered
sacred by being connected with religion. Tlie
Israelites were not mt?rcly allowed, but com-
manded, to r»»j()ice before tiie I-iord in this way.
They were ordered to come to the holy place,
and bring thither their sacrifices, tithes, and
firstling (Deut. xii. 7). Evsry member of the
family was to join in this, and es(>ecially the
Tjevite, who had no other inhentance. In
these entertainments not only the children and
the Levites were to take i»art, but the slaves
of both sexes, the poor, tne widow, and the
orphan were to be invited (Deut. xvi. 11). In
consequence of these regulations the feasts of
the Hebrews were more or less religious obser-
vances, and were hence free from the abuses
which prevailed on similar occasions among the
heathen. We observe here, likewise, that our
I»rd gave no new commandment, but simply
expounded the ancient law, when he said!,
280

FEA

" When thou makeat a dinner (or a feast) . . .
call the poor, the maimed, the blind; ana thoa
Bhalt be blessed" (Luke ziy. 12-14).

There were aleo stated seasons of reUgioiit
festival among the Jews, attoided with parti-
cular duties and ceremonies, by the obseiranoe
of which some great event in God*k providence
was held in remembrance. Such were the
" Sabbath," which commemorated the creation
of the world,— the "feast of the PMsoYer,**
and the " feast of Pentecost"

The Sfibbath. The only weekly feast amoiw
the Jews was the Sabbath (Gen. ii 3; £zod
xvi 23 : Lev. xxiiL 3). The obaeryance of the
Sabbath as a Jewish festival partook of the
peculiar ceremonial character of their wbob
system of religion ; and it was also by speGisl
command to be regarded as a particular and
interesting memorial of their wondetfnl ddiver-
ance from "Egypt (Deut. y. 15), and as a sign
or perpetual covenant between God and them
(Exod. xxxi 13«17). And it is tme, moreover,
that so much of the Jewish SabbMi as stood
in carnal ordinances was done away when the
Ijord of the Sabbath came and made known
the true import of the ancient dispensatioa
(Matt xiL 1-15; Mark iL 28; LukexuL 14-17).
But with all such changes the original and
substantial principle of the institutinn wis
never abancfoned or lost sight of. Lahoor
ceased at the time of the evening sacarifioe
upon the day preceding the Sabbath, that pee*
paration might be made for the sacred irssnn
Mark calls this period the "preparation, thst
is, the day before the Sabbath" (Mark xv. 42).
Some suppose this was as early as three of tM
clock, or even earlier. Appropriate religioas
service was attended in the evening by eadb
family, and resumed on the next day, and
ever>i;hing relating to food, dress, &a, wis
prepared. When the day arrived, it was spent
m religious services (2 KL iv. 23), two extra
sacrifices were offered, and the showbread was
changed. This was the priest s work (Matt
xii. 5).

The expression, " seamd sabbath after the
first" (Luke vi. 1), more properly rendered,
"the nrst sabbath after the second,** is sup-
posed to denote the first Sabbath after the
second day of unleavened bread. The second
day of imleavened bread was a festival day: for
which a particular service was a|)point«d (Lev.
xxiii 5, ()), and from it the sabbaths were
reckoned — as first, second, or third Sabbath
after the second day of unleavened bread. (See
Sabbath.)

The word Sahbaths is sometimes used to
denote all the sacred days or festivals (Lev.
xix. 3, 30). Some of the early Jewish oonverti
t(> Christianity luul an intense longing to observe
these ancient national festivals— nay, seemed
to have reckoned their observance essential to
salvation. The a]x)stle carefully reprobated
such a notion as ruinous and delusive. The
practice had crept into the Gralatian chordi
(Gal iv. 9, 10), and also into the ColosBia
church(CoLii. 10, 17).

&abb€Uh<Uiy^s joamqf, (See Mbasubis.)

FEA

FmtA of New Moons or 7\nmnd». The fint
day^ of ever^ month was aacrea to the Jewi
(Num. xxviii. 11-15), and was to be observed by
abstinence ifrom common worldly businees, and
by religious duties and services (2 Ki. iv. 23;
Amos viii. 5). Particular sacrifices were
appointed in addition to the doily sacrifices,
and were to be attended with the sound of the
trumpet. The first day or new moon of the
seventh month, which was the beginning of the
Jewish civil year, was particularly regarded
above other feast days of the like period. It
was distinguished by more strict observance,
by extraordinary^ public sacrifices, and by
special annunciation and proclamation from
tne trumpets (Lev. xziiL 24 ; Num. xxix. 1-6).
The observance of these seasons being wholly
of ceremonial appointment, and not (like the
Sabbath) an origmal fundamental law of the
moral government of God, ceased with the
Jewish dispensation (GraL iv. 10). (See Moon.)

Feiut of PenUeottt or Feast qf Weekt, or Feast
of Harvest, lasted onlv one day. It was cele-
brated at the dose of harvests and was a solemn
public thanksgiving to Gk)d for the bounties of
nis ]m>vidence. It was observed at the end
of seven weeks (or a week of weeks), forty-nine
days from the second day of the passover. when
the offering of first-fruila was made, or tne day
on which "the sickle was first put in the
com." The sacrifices were special, Doth public
and private (Lev. xxiii 15-20; Num. xxviiL
26-31 : Deut xvi. 9-12). It was to celebrate
this feast that the multitude of devout men,
Jews and proselytes, out of every nation under
heaven, had assembled at Jerusalem, when the
promise of the Saviour was fulfilled in the
wonderful descent of the Holy Ghost, as related
in the second chapter of Acts.

Feast of Tabernacles lasted eight days, the
first and eighth of which were peculiarly sacred.
It was celebrated from the fifteenth to the
twenty-third of the seventh month, or first
month of their civil )rear. It was so called be-
cause the people during its continuance dwelt
in booths (Neh. viii 14-18) or tents made of
the branches of trees, as they did in the ioumev
through the wilderness, in memory of whida
the feast itself was appointed. During their
sojourn in the desert tney dwelt in tents; and
this feast was meant to keep them in memory
of that ancient i>eriod of tneir history. It is
also called ^e feast of ingathering (Exod. xxiii
16 ; Lev. xxiii 39-44), because it took place at
the close of the vintage, when the fruits of the
year were all gathered in. Some have sup-
posed that the people were required to attend
at the temple auring the whole of tiie eight
days, while in the other feasts an attendance
«n the first and last day sufficed. This festival
was distinguished by extraordinary sacrifices
and offerings, both public and private (Num.
xxix. 12-38; Deut xvi 13-15). A variety of
ceremonies were appended to the observance
of this feast in later times. One of these was
the pouring of water upon the altar. A golden
pitcner was filled at tne pool of Siloam, and
brought into the temple, tlux)ugh the water-

ris;

FEA

gate, with much ceremony. The water was
then mixed with wine, and poured upon the
sacrifice as it lay upon the altar. It seems to
have been adopted as an emblem of future
blessinfifs, perhaps in aUusion to Isa. xii 3. It
might have reference to the water that flowed
from the rock in the wilderness, and to the
blessing of future rain solicited on this occasion ;
but the devout Jews also considered water
emblematical of the Holy Spirit, and in their
writings referring to this custom, say, "Why
is it called the place of drawinp^? JBecause
from thence ve diaw the Holy Spirit ; as it is
written. Ana ^e shall draw water with joy
from the fountains of salvation.'* The rejoic-
ing on this occasion was such as to cause a
saying, " He that never saw the rejoidng of
the drawing of water never saw rejoicing m
all his life. ** Upon this day they read the last
section of the law, and also began the first, lest
they should appear more glad to end tliese
readings than willing to commence theoL It
was upon this day, the last, or the great day of
the feast, that our blessed Lord stood forth in
the temple, and spake with a loud voice the
animated and very expressive declaration im-
lying that the Holy spirit should be his gift

ohn vii. 37, 38).

Feast of Unleavened Bread or of the Passover
was instituted to commemorate the distingmsh-
ing mercy of God in passing over the families
of Israel when he went through Egypt to smite
the first-bom of evny other family with death
(Exod. xii 1-28). The time of its celebration
was in the first month of the Jewish sacred
year — answering to a portion of our March and
April — and it lasted from the fifteenth to the
twenty-first inclusive, or seven days. The
principal ceremony of this festival consisted in
the sacred supper bv which it was introduced,
the nature and preparation of which are stated
minutely in the passage above cited. A lamb
was selected witnout blemish, and roasted and
eaten with a salad of bitter herbs. The guests
were to have their loins girt, their staff in their
hand, and kneading troughs on their shoulders.
The bread which tiiey used was to be un«
leavened. The utmost strictness was observed
in regard to the removal of all leaven from the
house. This was done on the fourteenth day,
which some suppose on this account to have
been called the iirst day of unleavened bread,
though it was not one of the feast days.
It was instituted, or rather observed, the first
time on the night when the Hebrew slaves left
Egypt, and was ever after to be celebrated in
commemoration of the Lord^s goodness in sav-
ing their first-bom, and giving them a speedy
and effectual emancipation from Egyptian
bondage. (See Passover.)

These three feasts of "unleavened bread,"
"tabernacles." and "weeks," were the great
frativals of tne Jews, when all^ the males of
their nation who were of sufficient age were
required to appear before God (Exoo. xxiii
14-17 ; Deut xvi 16, 17). It might be natunOly
supposed that when all the men of the natio^
were congregated at Jerusalem^ the co^mJyi '■

cclebntioni, both

FEA
Uid npeciklly it! frontiers, being left nnpro-
tMted, «ould be attacked bj aume huatile
IMti'in; siul jet though many tribes iniDiical
tn the Ht'lmwi nutruundHl tbem on every
■ide, and munt have knonii thii neriudicol
t^ipiiTtimity (or succe»(nl iuvasiini, thvy nuvtr
touk advantoKe of it Uod bad given hi) people
a pivmiiie uf prut^ction, and it never failed
them, — " Nritlier aliall any man deaire thy
land, when thoa iholt go up tu appear liefore
the Lord thy God thrice in tlie year" (Eiod,
xziir. 23, 34). Verily the path of duty ii
the path of (infety.

The advontA^'es of tht

in a religiniu nndcivil viL _.

fonnaJ national recognitioii of Jebovah at
their kinj{ and ruler, and an the bountiful
girci of every (,ixid and gierfect gift, made
at aljited tiuieji and uuder such impoeizig
•nlemnities, could nut be without ellevt ou
the religiom character of the peopli-, while
the min^lJDg together of all the nation, fur

Cpoeea suited to coll forth the beat aovial and
evolent feelin(,-», would remind them of
their cummoa ori;.'iii, faith, and worBhiii, and
unite them more cloiely io bcmiU of religiuna
and friendly rcyonL It subdued animoaitiei
and rival fi-elink-s nmon); the tribe*, and made
them fwi themwlves the ciliienti of one cm-
miin territi^ry, the memhen of onu Great
Charch.

AtoHimailf or Ftntt of J^rptatian, was cele-
bratml on the tenth of tlie seTeuth miinth,
or six daj-H before the feast of tabernnclce,
and was the most important and solemn of
all the yvnrly fi-nsts. It woathe ilayon which
the pins of the year were lirou«ht into s|iecial
remeitilinincu. The {leople wore re(juln-d to
iiImtio it as a day of rigid rest, (aetinj*,
huuiilintiun, and aHliction of hoiiL The biL'h
priet't as the Lead and rcureiteDtntive of the
entire prieRtbond, penwiuitly offidatcd, and
entere.1 with Uood into the Holy of hoUnt-
where the life and L'lory of the tionctuary were
appointed to reside— and there he offered a
■acrificc for himnelf and his family, and tlie
whulo congregation of Ismcl, from the liii^ht'iit
to tlio lowest. He otfem) lint for hiniM^lf
and by this previous offering H-ns reckoned
legally pure, ere be made atonement for tlio
people. The stonement nia.lu on this duy was
the eeneml cxiiiutiun, and sei'nieil desired to
reach and uuHh away tliat dei'p Htain uf guilt
which remained on the heads of the [xsople,
notwithstanding Oie lilrvd which Unwed day
by day unccnsingly from thesltnr ofcimmon
sacriftue. 1'he manner of celebrating (his
feast is set forth in Lev. xvi. (See ^afk-

The Fcntt of Purim was obierTed about the
middle of the twelfth month. It was iiistitut«l
In commemoration of the deliverance of the
Jews from the power and malice of Eaman,
in the days of Mordecai and Esther. The
name is derived from Pur, a word which si^-
uifiea I0I (Ksth. iii. 6,7; ix. 2*, 32). This [east
is oelebiBted in modem times with nngidar
d with great li«enUuusnets and

FEA
extrava^oSL Whenever, m the hook id
Kiithtr Is nad, Haman's name fa msntinpfwL
the whole oongregatiaa dap their lunda aDa
cry. " Let his name and hit neinofy ha hletlad
out." The ohildnn have wooden bamnNi^
and they augment the noise and Tnfifiiiatiiw

this day as a duty. A man is In dnty bnoad,
it eaya, to get so inebriated Uiat ha oaanrt
diititignish between ths words, "coiMd hi
Haman" and "blessed be Mordaoai." And
this is in memoir of Esther's banoDst sf
wine, at which she dtfeatsd 1i~ •*— = '

FmHoftheDfdinUim. Thisfeastwi
tuted IM yean before Christ, in nuH .
of the new dedication of the sonctuarr, after it
hod been groaily profaned by the heathen m
anJ) AntiochuB Lpiphanes. The season of a
bration was in the latter part of the E
month, and of course partly in our Deoa
(Jolm X. 22). It was caUedoUo the faaK n

'lliu reasiin of this latter ceTem<my lies in the fol-
lowing tradition:— "That when the Mnctoaiy
had been cleansed and dedicated, and IM

[iriexta came to liubt the lamji which wsa ta
>um continual]; before the Lord, thara wM
no more oil f iiund than wliat wonld ham fbr
one night, all the rest being pollutad. As it
would take eiglit da)'»* time before tbey conU
get and prepare a froi-h supply — beeanee baa^
delilod bv the dead boilics of their enanit^
tbey would re<|iiire seven days uf puii£cali(m,
and one day more woidd be employed in ntbv-
ing olives and expressing the oil ; so that dw
Almighty wrought so ^reat a miracle that that
small portion c3 oil did bum eight <ian and
nigbtd, till tbey iiadgota fresh sapiiW. Whsn-
fun on tlie tirKt night they light one Jght in ths
srnugogiie ; on the Hiconil night, two ; on ths
ttiinl night, tliree; adding one every night till
the last nignt, when they h|,-ht up eight. Tbwt
Iam|is are to be liglitMl with oil of olive, is
eommemomtion of the miracle ; but where oil
of olive cannot be jirocured they light with
wax.--Allsn-8 Jf.d.ii«^, p. 416.

The Sabhalti Yrar, or Vear of Rdeattj wsa
every seventh year. No particular TohgliiH
services were prescribed lor ita celebc^iDBj
but the land was to be left nntiUwl, and ths
vineyards were to be undrvsasd, and ths
spontaneons produce of both iraa to be enjinad
by all the people in common (I^T. xsv. 3-7,
20-3^ Fruvision was mads br'tha tptdtU

FEA

apodtion of Grod to supply the deficiency
ood which this abstinence from labour for
rhole year would necessarily cause ; and a

was made that no debts should be collected
inff the Sabbatical year, and yet that none
ola for this cause refuse to lend to such as
lid borrow. Whether the law required an
olute release of debts, or onlv a suspension
he rifi^ht to enforce payment, nas been con-
nred aoubtful. The language of the law is,
rever, very precise (Deut. xv. 1-11).
lie Year of JubUee was a most singular
»ointment of the Jewish law. It was cele-
ted every hidf century, or at the end of
ry seven times seven years. The manner
ts celebration is particularly described. Lev.
'. 8-18. It commenced on the sreat day of
aement, and was ushered with tne imiversal
nd of trumpets throughout the land. The
larkable feature of this festival was, that it
»red individuals, families, and communities,
far as possible, to the same situation they
apied at the beginning of the fifty years.

servants of Hebrew origin were set free;
pledges were ^ven up; and inheritances
ich had been ahenated. no matter how often,
or what cause, came 1>ack to the hands ot

original proprietors. The only exception
I in the cases of houses built in walled
us (Lev. XXV. 29-31) ; for no kind of pro-
ty Capable of being accumulated, or not
essarv to agricultural enterprise, was
oxaea by the Mosaic law. And as the
ct of the vear of jubilee was known and
icipated. the business of society was con-
ted witn reference to that period, and of
rse no injustice or hardship was occasioned.
8 *' acceptable year of the Lord," occurring
oe everv century, renovated the face <n
ety, ana was a re-constitution of the Hebrew

'he Master, Ruler, or Oovemor of the Featt
hn ii 8) was an officer appointed to direct

servants, and to regulate the whole order

ceremony of the table durinp^ the festivities,
'/he Apocr3rphal book of Ecdesiasticus it is
I, "If thou oe made the master of a feast,
not thyself up. but be amone them as one
he rest ; take diligent care of them, and so
lown. And when thou hast done all thy
^ take thy place, that thou mayest l>e
Ty with them, and receive a crown for thy
l-ordering of the feast." One of his duties

to taste of the wine, that he might judge
ts quality and fitness for the particular
:e of the entertainment at which it was
ight in. Thus the master of the feast
ed the wine made by Jesus at the marriage
lana (John iL 8, 9).

ctists of Charily or Love, These are men-
od Jude 12, and are supposed to refer to

Bocial interviews established among the
f Christians, in imitation, perhaps, of the
iBh (Deut xii 18; xxvi. 12) or Gentile
rvances of like character. The Oreeks

Romans observed similar services. The
b was supplied by the contributions of the
(ts, each acccrding to hii ability. There

FEE

was no distinction of rank amonff the gneats ;
and everything was marked with simplicity,
temperance, and religious feeling. It was held
in the assembly or church, either after or befhire
the celebration of the Lord's Supper. Ter-
tullian, in his *' Vindication,** gives an account
of the manner in which these Christian feasts
were observed. " Our supper,** says he, " which
you accuse of luxury, shows its reason in its
very name, for it is (auled &y6cin\, that is, tove.
Whatever charge we are at, it b ^fain to be at
expense upon the account of piety; for we
therewith relieve and refresh the poor. There
is nothing vile or immodest committed in it;
for we do not sit down before we have first
offered up prajrer to GkxL We eat onlr to
satisfy hunger, and drink only so muda aa
becomes modest persons. We nil ourselves in
such a manner as that we remember still that
we are to worship Gkxl by night. We discourse
as in the presence of God, knowing that he
hears us. Then, after water to vraah our
hands, and lights brought in, ever^ one it
moved to sing some hymn to God, either out
of Scripture, or, as he is able, ol his own com-
posing; and by this we judge whether he has
ohanved the rales of temperance in drinking.
Prayer again concludes our feast." Pliny
seems to refer to the same custom when he
speaks of the Christian ** common and simple
me^*' Similar observances are customary at
the present day among some Christian denomi-
nations.

FEET (Exod. iii 6). To remove the shoes
from the feet was regarded as a token of rever-
ence, and also of mourning (Ezek. xxiv. 17),
so toat probably the priests officiated witn
naked feet; and^ in modem times, among
oriental nations, it is customarv to enter a
place of worship with the shoes off and the feet
washed. To wash the feet was a common
mark of hospitality (Gen. xviii. 4), and was
usually done bv a servant (1 Sam. xxv. 41;
John xiii. 5, o). Our eastern missionaries
have given particular accounts of the preval-
ence of this custom. At Sm3nma the washing
of the priests* feet by the bishop is a distinct
and very imi)osing ceremony, and is designed
to be an exact imitation of Christ's example.
The pope also gets through a similar perform-
ance. (See Clothes. Dust, Foot.)

In Prov. vL 13 Solomon describes a person
who "si>eaketh with his feet, and teacheth
with his fing[ers.** Of this strange allusion
Roberts furnishes the following apt and in-
genious illustration: — "It should oe remem-
bered that when people are in their houses
they do not wear sandals, consequentiy their
feet and toes are exposed. When guests wish
to speak with eacn other, so as not to be
obfl^ed by the host, they convey their mean-
ing by the feet and toes. Does a person wish
to leave a room in company with another, he
lifts up one of his feet ; and should the other
refuse, ne also lifts up a foot, and then suddenly
puts it down on the ground.

*"He teacheth with his fin^rers.* When d
merchants wish to make a bargain in the prei- M

1S^

rEL

•nee (if ulhoni, without making known their
tcnni, the)' rit im tlie BTounii, Lbvb a jiiwa uf
cloth tliruwii met the lip, anil then put «ach >
huid under, ftod thus ii]i«ik with the Rngi-ni!
When the BralimiiM ramvey reliipous mjTtcri™
to their diHcijilee thoy tcAch with their Sn^n,
havinK tlie b&nils ccincealeii in the fulda uf their
robei.''— OriVnta/ rUutlrationt, pp. SiU, *iT.

theword "chftiiu'MnNum. iKji, 50 ajul Im.
iii. la The; were wnm aniunit the aiiklns

Ijttle TiDfn *n hung v\xm thnn, which tinkle
when the foot in in oiotion ; uid they arc often
richly omanienteil. A similAr faHhionia fuuud
inATrica. (8fe Cr.oTii>3i. t'cHn-.}

FJiLlX (Acta xiiii. »i) wiM the Itnman
govemur ..t Jude», a.II. .W. He pen>uad«i
T>nuiUa to leuve her hiubuid, Azizus, kin); r>f
Eiaeia, and nukn-y him ; and they weru reiid-
ing at ('e*ore» wtien I'.iul wu brought there,
in custody iif a giiani iif Hildiem. to Ik examined
on a cinaae of awUtiun. &c (Sec Dkitsilla.)

On a certain day Paul was nmunoned to
appear bcfcn-e t'elix. thnt hu and bin wife m^bt
hear fn'iu liim wime aoomnt of the new mliijiou
of wlik'h hL' was a K-lieier nnd O'lvinjAte. The
aiHwtlv olicyt.-<l the oiunniouiij and so f»ithfully
did he rc|ir>iv« and admnuMh tlie ti'v^mor,
that 1ii< inailu him tremble in vii'W of hU idna,
anil uf their iiuimKlingpnniiilinient. We have
pHid reaMm to Iwlieve, however, that the im-
Iimmioo waa tntiwient; fiir he kc{it tlie apostlv
W OUntody two J'ear", witluiut any warrant <ir
ju>t CAugn— which wad in itiu'lf a mont vriel
■nil arlritmry att— and jKiatlHineil the inrjiiiry
rentiecting hiii own ealvntion, wliieli his mn-
■dence h.vl been i-xcited to aup.;ei>t. until a

arrivu.L Kin motivf in keeiiin^- Paid in ciih-
tiidy woa bnae enoii|;h: " lie hoiied also thnt
money ahoiilit lie given him iif Paul, thnt lie
might louse liini." He either hud njiiieprrw-
pmt of working on the fcelini,i< of the Cliri^-
tiHuy under the imiiredxion that they woidil
omtnbnte to I'anl'M reieaae, or, what i» more
likely, he knew that the aiHstle waa at that
tima in imiHeNiion nf a lar^ aiim of money,
with which ha )ia<l been entrusted for the relief
(if tlie ptMiror iiaintH. Felix was recalled to
Itiime !<onn after, and wan Hiiccvedeil hr Fetitnii.

FELLOES (1 Ki. vii. 33)-the inceen which
make up the circumference of a wlieeL \Mieelii
with aiHikra nnd felhwa nre oflen ri'prenented
on the AexTiiun and Egyiitian uiimumenta.

KESCUD t:lTY. (S« ClTV.)

FERRY-EOAT (2 Sam. xix. IR). Thia
won], HB uned by ua, ia of modern derivati»n,
and wa know the riven of Judea were min-
eralty furdable ; but when the tramilat^rs of the
hiatory found a word denoting the paiwinK over
the river (it might hai '
rude bridge of Bonie kin-,, .

a term moat intelligible

Fliiata, rudely formed of reeds, ic, i
-n Kgypt. (See FLCiAni.)

FIG
FERRET n,ev. xL 30). The
to modemii by this name is tamed in KiiRfK,
and used in catching rata. It is of tha urn]
family ; but the farnt mentioned in tbs Len^
ical law ia aupinaed by many to ha«e been if
the tiiard species, called die getto, which ■
found in the East, and ia said to be pcisrawB,

Acconling t

Rabbinical notion it waa i

tfeiTUS (PORCrUS) (Acta x*i». ST)-*-
cceded Felix, a.ii. CO, in the sovenmwBt uf
.Tudea under the Romans, and died in C
"-""' '"' " hearing before hi

he appealed to the emperor, and
Rome for trial (See Jupkai.)

FIELD (Uen. xniL UH-that is, "MU*
or a portion of cleared rround — applisd ■

Script^ both to an araUe tract a^ to lb
o]>en country. (See Acildaiu, Covixn,

FIG, 'fig tree [Im. zxzir. 4)— a weO-
known fruit which formerly abounded a
Judea (Deut viil 8), and ia often alladnl ts a
tlie aacred writinga. Tbe frait ia ita Bstinal
state, resembles the pear ; mad, with the kal
anil manner of growth, may be seal in tha

The tis tree spreails its branchea high sad
wide, and the leaves are broad (Gen. iiL 7] ; «
onvapecieatheyaresaidtobafiiundlorSfM
h>ng by ;{ Imiail.
H.-nce tiie Hliale
wiiH highly vului

one'a lie tree woaa
pniverljial pbraan

xix%-i ]«; Mi

iv. 4i Zech. '" "
.I..hn L m.
of the miHtatrik'
ing peculioriti
of the fig t™.. ia,

that the fruit shoots forth withont the -^r—
ance of any blossom, and even Lefiire the
lufLVcii. Itence a fig tree with leaves, but wiA-
ont fruit, may be known to be bairen for tbi
present aeason (Matt wL W). The puttinc
tiHth of the fig tree woa one of the earLR4
indit'utions of Hummer (Song ii. 13; Matt. uiv.
:«: Like iiri. 2!)); and a fiulnre of ita fniit
wui. a i.'Ti'at cnlnmity (.ler. t. 17; viiL 13; Jurl
L7, 12; Hab. iii. 17. IH). ITie fruit whidi tie
true bears during ten months uf the vcKriiii
three «irta :—

I. IVmripjfffJSnngiL 13). Theseai
towardatlie end of June. This early fig..
moat beautiful and deUcioiis (Jer. xxir. t).
Thiia Hosea uses thia figure, f iiiiissiis of
(imrs early attachment to Israel: * I nw your
fathers aa tbe first-ripe in Uie Eg tree at bn'
firat time" (Has. ix. 10). The figs of tLii
Kiuon easily drop off the bot^hs of the tm H

FIR

it be shaken ; and so sajrs Nahum in reference
to Nineveh, — " All th^ strong holds shall be
like fig trees with the hrst-ripe figs : if thev be
shaken, they shall even fall into the mouth of
iheeater*'(Nah.iiil2). ^

2L The summer fig, which appears in June,
about the time that the early ng is ripe, and
<3omes to mattirity in August. These last a
long time, and may be kept.

3. The winter fig appears in August, and is
ripe towards the latter part of autumn, when
the tree has lost its foluu^ If the winter is
not severe, it is pluckea in the spring as a
dainty. It is larger than the former, of an
oblong shape and a dark colour.

These various kinds of figs are eaten as they
oome from the tree, and are also dried in masses
or cakes. Abigail carried to David 200 cakes
of figs (1 Sam. xzv. 18). They seem to have
been an ordinary article of food, and to have
possessed medicinal properties. Isaiah directed
that a poultice of figs should be laid on the
abscess which had brought Hezekiah to the
gates of death (2 KL zz. 7; 1 Ohr. xil 40).

The cursing of the fig tree by our Saviour
(Mark xi 13, 21) has perplexed some persons
because it is said that the "time " of ngs had
not come. "Time of figs" signifies the season
of plucking them. The passage may mean
that it was not the " time *^ yet to gather figs,
and therefore it was reasonable to expect to
find some on the tree ; but it had none (rii>e or
unripe), though it had leaves, which, in a
beanng fig tree, are not found until after the
fruit appears. The leaves on the tree indicated
that it was the season of fruit, and the time of
the year proved that the gathering of figs was
not come; if, therefore, ^e tree bore fi£», now
was the period to find and eat them. It was
therefore cursed for its imfruitfulness. The
object undoubtedly was to inculcate a great
moral truth on the minds of the disciples.

FIRE. The ordinary nature and uses of
fire are weU known. It seems often in Scrip-
tiire to be connected with the appearance of
Divinity, as at SinaL So we read in the
18th Psalm, and in the ode of Habakkuk.
Christ, at his second coming, says the apostle,
shall be "revealed in flaming fire'* (2 Thess. L
8). The descent of the Spirit at Pentecost
assumed the aspect of " cloven tongues of fire."
In former times, too, fire from Grod fell and
oonsimied the accepted sacrifice. It came
down at the dedication of the tabernacle, and
was never to be extinguished. In many of the
ancient religions fire was a sacred emblem,
the representative of the sun. Theworship>
pers of Moloch made their children toiss
throuffh the fire to hun (2 KL xviL 17). The
sacred fire was sometimes carried before an
army about to engage in war. The Hebrews
were not allowed to kindle a fire in their
dwellings on Sabbath (Exod. xxxv. 3). No
honour was to be paid in any form to fire on
their sacred day: they threw contempt on the
sacred symbol of other nations. In an agri-
cultural country such as Palestine, where, at
oertain seasons of the year, the grass and

FIR

herbage are exceeding inflammable, any care-
lessness in carrying or lighting nre might
produce extensive conflagration and damage.
Moses therefore enacted that "he that Idndhnl
the fire shall surely make restitution** (Exod.
xxiL 6). Fire is employed as a metapnor to
denote severe trial or great loss. It also repre-
sents the punishment of the wicked in tiiie
eternal world, where the fire is never to be
quenched.

The world is at length to be consumed b^
fire (2 Pet iiL 7). G^offy shows that this is
a possible and probable destiny of the globe :
for its crust is by no means thick, and molten
fires glow and bum beneath it, so that the heat
increases every yard you descend from the
surface. Volcanoes are but safetv valves
from these central furnaces, and uie 2h.o6k.
of the earthquake indicates their power and
intensity.

Fire-pan (Exod. xxvii. 3)— probably in this
place and some others a vessel for carrying live
ooals, and thus it is rendered " censer^ *^je v.
X. 1 ; but it appears as "snuff-dish,** Exod.
XXV. 38, and its name indicates its purpose in
connection with lamps and tongs.

FiBB, BTRANOB. (See Asmu.)

FIR TREE (Hob. xiv. 8) may represent
various species of trees. (See Cxdab.) The
fir is a well-known evergreen, which grew
luxuriantly upon mount Lebanon and in other
parts of Palestine, and was a very valuable
tree. It was used for shipbuildmg (Ezek.
xxvii 5), musical instruments (2 Sam. vi. 5),
and in tne frame and ornamental work of costly
edifices a KL v. 8, 10; vi 15, 34; ix. 11:
2 Chr. ii 8; iii 5; Song i 17). Fir is still
used in the manufacture of harps, lutes, guitars,
&C. It was a tall, straight tree, of fine
appearance, in the tops of which tne storks
biult their nests (Ps. civ. 17). Hence it is used
to illustrate power or grandeur (2 Eli xix.
23; Isa. xiv. 8; xxxvii 21); and in Nah. ii 3
the brandishing of weapons of war is compared
to the shaking of the tops of fir trees by a
violent wind. The springm^ up of the fir is
emblematical of verdure and plenty (Isa. xH.
19 ; Iv. 13 ; Ix. 13), It is not, however, univer-
sally agreed whether the fir be the exact species
referred to in all these passages.

FIRKIN. (See Measures.)

FIRMAMENT (Gen. i. 17). The word
expanse would more perfectly convey the mean-
ing of the original word. A similar idea is
suggested, Ps. civ. 2 ; Isa. xL 22 ; and the same
word is used to denote a (x/vering (Num. xvi
38, 39), or a spreading over (Isa. xL 19), or
spread forth (Isa. xlii 5). The Jews probably
understood the word to denote an mimense
arch, sprung from one side of the horizon to
the other, studded with stars, and forming a
sort of separating wall between the upper and
lower waters. (Bee Ps. xix. 1; Dan. xii 3.)
The word firmament, however, is not of the
Scripture. It comes from the Vulgate and
Septuagint. It represents a false idea, an idea
current in Egypt; but the inspired narrative
makes mention only of an ea^Mnse — speaks

285

-»:•

FIR

truth, trutH which modem icieiioe doM not
ffainsay.

FIlfcT DAY OF THB WEEK. (See
Fkast, Sabbath.)

FIRST-BORN (Gen. xxviL 19). The firet-
bom male of every Jewish family, though by a
■uccettdon of wives, and of all beasts also, was
consecrated in a solemn manner to the service
of God, in commemoration of the judgment
which God brought upon the first-bum of
Egypt in the night of Israers deliverance.
Sevoral provisiona of the Jewish law relate to
the J&v^Wn. He received a douUeportion of
the estate (Deut xzL 17), and officiated as
])rie8t of the family in the father's absence or
death. The ])rivilo£^ of the first-bom were
obviously great, as in the cases of Esau and
Keubcn (Gen. xzvii. 29; 1 Chr. v. 1, 2) (see
Bibthbioiit) ; and there is reason to believe
that they extended to the Jewish families
generally, and that the religious was far more
desirable than the worldly ore-eminence. But
the former ceased when the priesthood was
committed exclusively to the tribe of Levi
(Num. iii 12-18). (m that occasion it was
enacted that a Le\'ite should be substituted
for every first-born male ; but the number of
the lattor exceeded that of the former by 273
personal It was then required that a certain
piece of money (about half-a-guinea) should be
paid for the reilemjitiun of these, and of aU the
first-born of Bucc<HMling generations; and this
redemiition mone^ became part of the sacred
revenue (Niun. iii. 12, 13, 40-51; x^iii. 15).
The first-bom of all 1jca.sts used in sacrifice
were devoted to the Lord, and could not be
redeemed; but the first-bom of beasts not
lawful for sacrifice might be redeemetl, if the
owner chose to redeem them ; otherwise the^
were sold, exchangetl, or dustroved (Exod. xiiL
13; Lev. xx\ii. 27). The prohibition, Deut.
xxiii. 18, refers to prostitution of both sexes—
dcHD[ being a Bodonnte.

Several figurative expressions are derived
from the rebtion of the first-bom; and by
iJl of them some extreme or superlative
quality or circumstance is denoteu. The
^rtt-bom of the p^xtr (Isa. xiv. 30) implies
extreme poverty; the lirH-hom of death (Job
xviiL 13) signifies s^jme fearful species of rapid
mortality; the firit-born of every creature (C-oL
L 15) denotes the beginning and head of crea-
tion; and the firft-tom of God (Heb. L 6)
expresses the dignity and superior glory of
Christ

FIRST-FRUITS (Num. xviii. 12). Thefirst-
fruits of harvest, of the vintage, the threshing-
floor, the wine-press, the oil-press, the first
bak(Ai bread of the new crop, and the first
fleeces of the flock were re(|uired by God to be

ivon for the use of his ministers, the prie.sts

Exod. xxiil 19; Num. xv. li»-21 ; xviii. 11-13).
ese offerings were brought to the temple.
No particular quantity was designated, but it
is sunposed that a sixtieth part of the whole
was tne least measure.

The manner of offering the fiiBt-fraits is
prescribed in Lev. xxiii 10-14. A iheaf of the
286

FIS

fint-ripe barley was brought on the Mooiid Aiy
of the paoover, and wavad hr the priest bsfcat
the Lord ; and, after beinff threehed fai a oaat
of the temple, a handful of it wae rinamnd Hid
roasted, and pounded in a mortar; oil «
mingled with it, and it was then olmed to the
Lord in the name and on behalf of the Bstiofc
as an acknowledgment of dependenoe sm
gratitude. Until this was done tiie harvvt
remained untouched. Trees were ""<*l**" for
three years;— the fruit of the fomrth jeerwai
devoted— it was **hohr to pnise the Lord
withal;** and in the fifth year the ownm
had full poimcwion (Lev. ziz. 23; 94; Nob.
xviii 12). The law of fint-frohs was of widt
extent. Not only was the sheef we hsrn
referred to presented to God, hot loftves bafcri
of the recent harvest were offered in gietitadt
to the God of the seasoiiB, who had awurf
the year with goodneis. lliere was alw a
heave offering of the threshinff^oQr. lis
sheaf seems to have been offered at the hsgfe-
ning of bailey-harvest, and the two loafcs St
wheat-harvest These oflerings weia waved
or heaved by being presented to the Tancm
quarters of the heavens, in token of Godle
universal dominion and inovidenoe. Tliefiii^
fruits are thus emblematical of abnndaBoe nd
excellence (Rom. viii 23), and also the esneit
or sample of a full harvest at hand (1 Oor.
XV. 20).

FISH. Fish was a principal article mEgyiit.
They were caught in Isrge quantities, and were
saltc<l and preserved. Thej|r were got both la
the Nile and in Lake Moens. All Yarietisiof
fishing, by spear, net, and hook, are vividly
represented on the monuments. When the
Ix)rd threatens Egypt, one feaxfol portion of
the menace mns thus, — "The fiancn dnD
also mourn, and all they that cast angle into the
brooks shall lament, and they that spread nets
upon the waters shall languish. And they
shall be broken in the purposes thereof, aU^it
make sluices and ponds for fish" (Isa. xiz. %,
10). This last verse refers to artificial leeip-
tacles of water, so common in EgypL and m
which fish abounded. Fish abonnaed in the
inland lakes of Palestine, especially in the
Sea of Tiberias. But no fiahmg-boat is now
seen on its waters, as in the days of onr Lord:
the fiHhers wade into the water and cast their
small nets, or a line is thrown from the beach.
(See Net.) Jemsalem was supplied froiatibe
Mediterranean ; and there was a regular mar*
ket, as is iniplie<l in the term fish-gate (Eaelc.
xlvii 10; Neh. iii 3; xii 39; xiiL 16).

Tlie fish has hmg been a significant embleiB
under Christianity. The Greek name ijfi^
is composed of the first letters of the woidi
Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour, — I^erovt

The worship of fishes was prohibited \(f
name in Deut iv. 18. Dagun was a fieh-gocL
(See Daoox.)

FISHHOOKS (Amos iv. 2. Comn. Jer.
xvi 16). The modem method of takmg ibh
vrith hooks was doubtless known in ths sariy
ages of the world (Job xli 1, ^ Hm qpear

FIT

FLU

wai also vied (Job zli 2, 7). About radh fiah
AS might be eaten, see under Glkan. (See

NXT).

The FISH-POOLS of Heshbon are used to
illustrate clearness, brightness, and sereni^
(Song vii 4). They were probably situated
near a public gate of the town, and well known
for their qualities. (See Hishbok.)

FITOHES (Isa. zxviii 25) — a vegetable
resembling the common pea* The word ren-
dered "fitches'* in Eiek. iv. 9 is rendered
"rye" in Ezod. iz. 32. Probably in the pas-
saffe quoted from Isaiah the word means
** dilL* It represents two Hebrew words.

FLAG (Gkn. zli 2). In this place it means
the rank herbs that^ grow in marshes and
by river-sides; and it is wronsdy rendoed
''meadow** in our version. The Hebrew
word acku is left untranslated in the Sep-
tnagint But "flag ** represents, in Ezod. ii 3^
anciher Hebrew word, and means reeds or
marsh weeds of any kind.

FLAGONa In 2 Sam. vi 19; Song ii 6;
Ho& iii 1, where this word occurs, it does not
signify drinking vessels, but rather cakes
ffxrmed of grapes. In the first place quoted

the Septuagint has "pancake;** and in 1

Ohr. zvi 3 it is translated "honey-cake.** In
Hos. iii 1 the literal rendering is " flagon of
gnupes;** while in the passage from the Song
of dolomon it is rendered " perfumes.** Our
traoslatorB seem also to have been puzzled by
the wordj and have in three places eked out
the meaning by the words, " ot wine,** placing
them in ituics twice. The confection seems to
have been formed of drv grapes or raisins
pressed together into a cake. Still the phrase
'' vessels ot flagons** (Isa. zzii. 16) may mean
vessels used in the temple service. Compare
Isa. zzz. 14, where the same Hebrew word is
used.

FLAX (Ezod. iz. 31) — a well-known plant
which furnishes the material of linen stuffs of
ever^ varietir. It was produced of the best
quahty in l^l^ypt (Isa. ziz. 9), and was an
urticle of eztensive commerce. The spinning
of flaz was anciently the labour of the most
noble ladies (Prov. zzzi 13, 19, 24). (See
Clothbb, Distaff, Linen.)

Whether cotton was known to the ancient
Hebrews and ^Kvptians has been matter of
much dispute. That the Hebrew term pishiah
means fliu[, is clear from Ezod. iz. 31; thesk
occurs thirtv-three times in Scripture, and is
translated "fine Unen.** The Seventy render
it /3tf o-o'ov, which some think to be cotton, and
some hemp. A Hebrew word from which
this Greek term is derived is also used in
Scripture, to wit, butz, which many are of
opimon represents cotton, not flaz. Another
noun, hadf is employed in the Bible, and is
rendered "linen.^* Of this substance the
priests* fiarments were made. Cotton (itself
an Arabic name, quin) is, however, supposed
to be referred to in some parts of sacrea writ,
as the book of Esther, where the word btUz is
employed, as well as in several portions of
Chromcles. According to those who have

ezamined the cloths in which Egyptian mum-
mies are vnapt, opifcton is sometimes employed.

Cotton Plant

espedaOjr in the case of children. Cotton
was cultivated in India at a very ancient
period. In the book of Esther i fl, where
the hangings of the banquet hall are described,
the word hourptu is used, and erroneous]^ ren-
dered in our version "green.** This term
seems the same with the Sanscrit hurpmta^
which signifies the cotton plant. The drapery
referred to seems to have been mudhi or
calico, woven or djred ol various coJounL (See
DwELLnros.)

FLEA (I Sam. zziv. 14)— an insect very
troublesome and very abundant still in the
East, as travellers testify from nocturnal
ezperience.

FLESH. (See Clean, Feast, Food,
Meals.)

FLINT (Ps. cziv. 8)— a hard stone, the
uses of which are well known. The w<ml
occurs in Deut. viii 15, where Moses says
that God brought water out of the "flinty
rock.** The rock referred to is probably one
of the granitic varieties so common in the
peninsula of Sinai The figurative use of the
word in Deut. zzzii 13 represents the great
abundance of oil ; and in Isa. i 7 and Eaek.
iii 9 it is used to denote firmness and con-
stancy.

FLOATS (1 Ki v. 9)— probably like the
rafts of modem days, bv which the timbers
already fitted for the building might be floated
coastwise to Joppa, and then carried over-
land to Jerusalem.
FLOCK. (See Sheep.)
FLOOD. (See Noah.)
FLOOR. (See Thbeshino-floob.)
FLOUR. (See Bread, Cake.)
FLUTE (Dan. iii 6, 7)— a.wind instrument
of music, made of reed, horn, bone, or wood,
and used on mournful as well as on festive
occasions. It was played like the clarionet,
though there were probably various modes
both of making and using it. The fMuhrokUhok
or pipe was, according to eminent writers, a
kind of pandean pipe, which was furnished
with bellows, and tnus was in its principle an
organ. Itistranslated/uteinDan. iiil^
pipe in the margin.

287

' an

FT-iUX, BLOODY (Actd xxviii. 8)— a rpecies \
(vf dyBentery — often in the Jiftst an epiJumic.
Tho earlier form of the word was flix. I

FLY (£x(nL viiL 21; Isa. viL 18J— the name
of a lar{«e tribe of insects, some ot which are
exceeiUn^Iy annoying ana destructive. Tliey
almimdeu in Kgvot and Jiidea ; and one K|>ecii*!«,
which is founff by motlem travellerH in tho
vicinity of the Nile, and cjilUtl the Aby^^dnian
fly, ii« as large as a bee, and is so terrible an
annoyiince to cattle and other largo animals
as to oblige them to fomake their jtastures and
ranges, and live to some place where they can
roll themsc>lves in the mud or santL Hence
we may judge of the terrible nature of the
inflictions mentioned in Kxixl. viii. 24 ; Isa. viL
18, in which last passage we are informed that
the fly shall l>c found in tlie v^ry places to
which the cattle resort to rid themselves of
their presence. The zcfjub may be the zimb
descrilKMl by Bruce as larger than a bee, and a
terrible plague to cattle.

FOLD. (See Sheep.)

FOOD (Gen. iii. 0). We may form some
judgment of the ancient diet from what we
know of the modem Oritrntals. Vegetable f(>o<l
is much more common than animaL Instead
of butter, Linl, and suet, they use olive oil.
A soup, or rather )H>ttago, of beans and lentiles,
seasoneil with garlic and oil, is still, as it was
of old, a favourite dish. Tlie ** red TK>ttago of
lentiles" for wliich Esau sold his birthright
was something of this kind. Kggs, honey,
milk, es]>eciallv sour milk, and ganlen i>r(Kiuc-
tions of every Icind, affr>rd the ]>rincii)al luate-
rials of eantem dii-t llie mo^t common dish
at this day in the Kast is tho pilau, which
consists of rice c<N>ki*<l with meat, bo as to make
a si>rt of broth, seasoneil variously, and coloured
blue, re<l, or yellow. We do not find animal
ffxxl often occurring, except u|K)n the (K'cxksion
of entertainments, or the exhibition of hos]>i-
tality U) a friend (Clen. xviiL 7; Luke xv. 2:^).
Though, as alx»vo stated, the Orientals make
far less use of animal footl than wo do. yet we
find it, in every successive age, upon tne tabh^g
of the rich ; and the animals used for this
pur|>^»se, especially neat cattle, were often
HalUd and fattened (1 Sam. xvi. 20 ; xxviii. 24 ;
1 Ki. iv. 2.V. Neh. v. 18; Isa. L 11 ; xi. 6; Jer.
xlvi. 21 ; Kzek. xxxix. 18 ; Amos vi. 4 ; MaL
iv. 2). Wild game, lambs, and kids may be
con»idertMl as the favourite viands in tho East.
At this day bi>ef is not much useil, though
from S('>nie texts aljove, and other similar
authorities, we leam that the flc»h of young
bullocks and stall-fed oxen was highly prized
(Prov. XV. 17; Matt xxii. 4).

In vur^ ancient times it was alwa}*8 the
master of the house, whether he were rich or
pfxjr, who slew the animal (Judg. -vi. !(♦).
Grecian and Koman writers mention a like
custom of later times. The ])reparation of the
food by cooking was the business of the mis-
tress. The tftouldfr was probably the choicest
part. Thus Samuel's cook set the shoulder
before Saul (1 Sam. ix. 24). It is customary
for the Arabs to serve up at one meal the
2S8

TOO

whole of any animal which they lukTe killed
lliis is occasioned in some mewnire by tiit
(difficulty of preserving firesh meat in that
climate (Gren. xviiL 7; Lake xv. 23).

The people of the East are parttcolitfiy fond
of fish, and in Egypt the^r oonstitnte a very
iiiilHirtint part of tneir sabsistence. TheRfore
the Hebrews in the desert murmured (Nmn.
xi 5). Melons, cucumbers, and omaiu are the
common food of the Egyptians in sommcE.
It is said that the E^^yptian ooicxna an the
sweetest in the world. Endive, or snoooiy,
is a common food of the poor. PnnlaBe
is also common. Radishes, cairotB, and the
leaves of the vine are also eaten. Leeks sad
garlic— the latter of which is imported from
the Archipelago — are a common repast. Gosti*
milk makes a great part of the diet of the
Kast, from the beginmng of April till Sepkem-
lK>r, and cows* milk the rest of the year. Hie
food of the common people of Aleppo in winter
is very plain, and consists of bit»d, the join
of grapes thickened to the conidstenoe of honey
or conciliated sour milk, butter, rioe, and a
very little mutton. We are tola, oonoemiaf
the Arabs, that roasted meat is almost riHrnlmr
t(» the tables of their emin, or prince^ and
also lamlM stewed whole, and stuffed with
bread, flour, mutton-fat, raisins, salt, and
aromatic heri)s. (See Bakb, Bread, Bcmii
Cheese, Cleax, Cokk, Eat, Fat, Feast, Fna,
LocM'HT, Milk, Mill, Ovens, Vinsgaa.)

FO(JL (Prov. XV. 5), FOOLISH (Job il lOJ,
FOOLISHNESS (2 Sam. xv. 31). These
terms are use^l by the sacred writers, scmietimes
t4) denote weakness or defect of nndcntandinfi,
as in their modem use (1 Cor. L 27; iv. lOj;
but generally they denote sin or widLedness (2
Sam. xiii. 13; Ps. xiv. 1; Prov. xiz. I). Fool-
ish talking, jesting, foolish and unlearned
questions, &c. (2 Tim. ii. 23), are such as are
vain, frivolous, or have no useful tendoicy.

The phrase, "thou fool" (Matt v. 22), im-
])lies not only an angry temper, by which sodi
severe language is prompted, but a soomfnl,
contemptuous feeUng, utterlv inconsistent with
the love and meekness which characteri» the
disci] >le8 of Christy and of course exposing the
individual who is under their influence to
"hell-tire."

FOOT (I)eut XL 10), FEET (G^en. xlix.
33). In tho first of these passages the phnse,
" watercdst with thy foot/' is supposed to refer
to some ))rocess by which tiie foot was employed
in irrigating the soil ; and some trace the aUa«
sion to a machine for raising and distribatin?
water, which modem travellers tell us is still
used for this i>urpose in eastern countries.
Philo s)>eaks of it as a wheel which a man tomt
by mounting in succession the steps which sie
cut into it. Others suppose that the ^H"«tm
is simpler still — being to the small streami
ttiat irrigate the eastern gardens, and which
are turned aside or stopped by interposing a
8<k1 or a sti^no — which mav be easily moveohy
the f(x>t. (See Water. ) Nakedness of the feet
was a sign of mourning (Ezek. xxiv. 17), and nf
respect or reverence (Exod. ilL 5). (See For.!

FOO

FOOTMEN (Jer. xiL 5). When Samuel
told the ancient Hebrews of the ceremony
which royalty should organize, he said, " He
shall taJLe of your sons . . . and some shall
nm before his diariots.** The custom is not
obsolete in some eastern countries. We read,
too. that ** the hand of the Lord was on Elijah ;
ana he girded up his Icins, and ran before
Ahab to Uie entrance of Jezreel " (1 KL xviii
46). The practice of men running before the
chariots of the nobility was common in our own
country ; hence the word footman has become
a general term for a man-serrant. In Num.
xi. 21 the word means foot soldiers, as well as
in 1 Sam. iv. 10. In 1 Sam. xxii. 17 it refers
seemingly to Saul*8 body-guard. The margin
sometimes gives *' runners."

FOOTSTOOL (2 Chr. ix. 18). Kings and
other rulers, sitting in state, required a stool
upon which to rest their feet. (See Caftiys.)
Tne divine glory which resided symbolically in
the holy place, between the cherubim above
the ark, is supposed to use the ark as a foot-
stool (1 Chr. zxviiL 2; Ps. xdx. 5). So the
earth is called Gtod*s footstool by the same
expressive figure which represents heaven as
his throne.

FORDS (Judg. xii 6). The fords of the
Jonhm were well known as being near Jericho
and Beth-bara (Judg. viL 24). There is a bridge
above the sea of Galilee. The word is also
rendered "passage." (See Fbrbt-boat.)

FOREHEAD. Certain marks were branded
on the brow of slaves to make known to whom
they belonged. Those were marked in Ezek.
ix. on the forehead whom Grod exempted from
destruction. So also in Rev. vii. 3. The
worshippers of the beast, as described in the
same book, had a similar mark.

FOREIGNER (Exod. xii 45)— any one not
of the genuine Hebrew stock. (Comp. Eph.
ii 12.)

FOREKNOWLEDGE (Acts il 23)-a
peculiar and essential attribute of the Supreme
Being (Acts xv. 18: comp. Prov. xix. 21;
xxviL 1 ; Isa. xiv. 24 ; Jas. iv. 14). It implies
the absence of any succession of time, as past,
present, and future (2 Pet. iii 8).

FORERUNNER (Heb. vi 20)— one who
not only goes before to a particular place, to
make arrangements for his successor, hut who
leads or prepares the way. The Athenians caU
the figs that are ripe before the rest by the
same word which, in the above passage, is
trasisiiAted forerunner — that is, the first-fruits
(oomp. 1 dor. XV. 20. 23). Christ is our fore-
runner— has entered neaven not only before us,
but in our name, and has secured it to us as our
final and eternal dwelling-place (Heb. vi 19).

FOREST (1 Ki vii 2f. Several tracts of
cotmtry were designated by this word. The
" house of the forest of Lebanon,*' which was
built by Solomon, and was magnificent in size
and style (1 Ki vi), was so called im>bably
ht)m the great qxiantity of cedar which was
used in the oonrtruction of it. In Isa. xxxii
IJ we read, '* the wilderness shaU be a fruitful
field, and the fruitful field be counted for a
u

FOR

forest** ^* Forest** seems here to mean a tract
of land uncleared^ its natural wood ; and tiie
signification of mb figure is, that what was
reckoned barren should be covered with vege-
tation, and what was deemed fertile should
become sterile and unproductive. The forests
mentioned in Scripture are— Bashan, Hareth,
Ephraim, Lebanon, Carmel, Arabian. Uie
south, the king's, and the wood of BetheL

FORGIVENESS (Acts V. 31). Forgiveness
of sin is the g^reat blessing of the €k)si)ei ' To
forgive sin is the exclusive prerogative of
Jehovah, of whose law sin is the transgression
(Ps. cxxx. 4; Isa. xliii 25; Mark ii 7). And
the Gospel makes known not only that there
is forgiveness with God, but also now he can
forgive sin and still maintain unsullied the
inmiite purity, and holiness, and perfection of
his nature, government, and law, and even
clothe them all with new glory.

The consciousness of e^t is universaL
Hence, in all parts of the world. Christian and
pagan, savage and dvilized, there are found
mstitutions or customs which have a direct
reference— more or less clearly defined— to
expiation and forgiveness; but the Christian
scheme alone makes known a way of meroy
(Acts xiii 38, 39), safe to man and honourable
to God, and, through Christ, offers forgiveness
— full, free, and everlasting — to all who will
believe and obey the Gosnpel (Acts v. 31 ; xiii.
38, 39; 1 John ii 12). The duty of mutual
f or^veness is also in the Bible urged upon man
with the most solemn sanctions (Matt, vi 14,
15 ; xviii 15-35 ; Luke xvii 3, 4). The posses-
sion of a forgiving spirit is a proof that we
have been forgiven ourselves. If God has
remitted the taitnta we owed to him, we may
well remit the pence in which any of our f eUow-
men are indebted to us.

FORKS (1 Sam. xiii. 21). The Oriental
manner of partaking of food is, like their
furniture, very simple. They make use of no
plates, spoons, knives, nor forks ; nor are these
unplements necessary. Instead of plates, they
use their round pieces of bread, upon which they
lay such things as we should put on a plate.
(See Eat, Eating, Feast.) Their bread is
broken with the nands, and their meat is
usuallv cut into small morsels before it is
servea up. When this is not the case, as in
the instance of boiled fowls, they tear it to
pieces with their fingers, and carry it to the
mouth in this way, as they also do in helping
themselves to rice, pulse, and other articles of
diet The dishes are of wood or tinned copper ;
in the Persian palaces, of silver and gold.
Even broth and milk are laded out in the
hollow of the hand, or the bread is dipped into
them.

The forkt mentioned in the above passage
were not used in eating. Thejr were prooged
instruments, employed either in taking meat
out of the vessels in which it was cooked, or
rather, we infer from the connection in which
they are mentioned along with "goads" and
"coulters," that they were used as agricultural
implements in gathering and removing tha ^

280 ^

FOR
crora. The uri^'iiuil plirosa ugnifie* a fork
vitb llirtt I'nmiii.

VURM (I'hJL ii. 6). Jams is siiiil hy the
■Twatle to have l>™n "in the form of GoiL"
llie mnniiiB of thin phnuw in often aniil to be
mmply that he wna in the eiuwncu of Gud.
Ifow, it is ■ truth thnt Jvaus is
enentioUy Dlvinv; Init this ia nut
the euct shulu of the truth which
the ingpired >iTiter Tn<
wishca ti) eiliibit. It is
thikt DO one con have "

VEA.
FOWL. FOWLEB, (Sae Bnoa.) Fcnrl
TEtinwntd fiiur Hebrew vord*, and may Bg-
niiy all kinds of birds, AJluaioiia to fowl^;
or the catcliiii£of birdi, occur in Pro*, vii. S;
EccL ii. Ill Fowling u often d«inctad(ml^
Egyptian monnmanta. (See Nsi.l

itof(i..d'
from the uueQCe <>f God. Furm
is that by which anything is
TecogQiied— ibi initwanl anil vbuble mpect
The furm of Uod is God's usual manifuxtation
of himself to men— thf iniriinua he anuniM in
his revelation of his Ifcinj; and plory. (ihiiat
aa God was luwBtesBed nE tbia, anil of
emptied himself when he became man.
of God" cannot ngtaly esseiice of Gnl ; fur of
this the lifileemtT did ami could not divest
binuelf. llut if "fonu uf G<xl" denutoiGod'
visible Rlory, nf this Jt'Siu did diveat himself,
when be came into our worU The t'wenre of
IKvinity ivaiaineil unchanged and imchan|n'
aide— Imt iU liiualink' form was Iniil iwide-
when He mailc hiiiiw^If rif nn rrimLition, and
took uiKin him thu form of a aurvunt- Still
Christ wax Uiid, pimeRwd i<f GinVi tvncnce.
anil dinjlnyiiiH uiwn fonnj but thi> InttiT wut
veiled in the fiihitss uf tile time iKiieutli a
robe of humnoity.

FOKNICATI()N{Mtttt.v.S3). This won!,
as usol by the sacnil wiiten, dvDotci varimiii
acts of lewdiu'ss and iDCiaititu.iH:y : and it is
aim RKurattvely apjilinl to idulntn*. or the
mingling of the pure worship uf Gi"! with the
impure rites of heatheniitm.
FORSWEAIt. (ri.e (.l.\Til.)
FOIIT, rURTRESH. (See Wak.)
FOUNTAINS ((Jen. xvi. 7). Sprinsfi. or
aonrces of water are riften mentioned by the
■acred wnterii. In the dry an<l tlilrHty land
uf Judea thoy were of [leculiar valne; anil
hence the lii;urative use of the wi>ril, when
applied to the hopes, l>li->wiug«, and consola-
tions nf religion, must luive heeii very fonriblc
to the Jews. A oieut numlier (>l pliuxn ri'-
i^ve thnr niuno from sonie fouatuiu in their
vicinity. (Siee AlH, En.) Per|*>tual fountain<i
(IT RjinnKs of living water were greatly valiiwl
(PiL xxxvL 7-»i Iwk xUx. 10: Jer. a 1.1; Joel
lii. l»l Zeoh. xiii 1; John iv. 10; Itev. viL
17). The enduring ciinsolatiriiui vi tliu GiMpel
are likened to tliwte iwreunial atmBlns whrnie
refreshing imwers wru never exbausteil, and
the felicity of heaven, which can never be hn-
paired, ia unageil forth t" us in this beautiful
comparison. — " The I..ani1> nhall lead tlieni unto
fonntainsof living water." The wonl fountains
Is figuratively used to denote children or tkm-
terity (Deut. xxxiii. 251; Prov. v. 111). (See

AlH, CisTiRN. En, W&teb, Wells.)

FOX (Kdi. iv. 3)— a well-knuwti umaL
reniarkalde for its cunning and vccadty.
Foxes, or rather jackala, aboiinded in mmw
dintricts of .Judea. They live on binb aal
«nall nnadnipeds, and follow
they may feed on luoh bodiei ai
nn the march. Hence

ybalrft

ThBmeth.«l adopted by SnraiH>n(Jiidg.__i

plain away the plain and obviou- ,

of this incident in Samson's life. All of thou
are far-fetched and over-strainsd. That tho*
is notbinu incivdiblu in the acooniit itself
ap|iears from thi' fact, that in ui andent
Roman festival it was customary to ccopl*
foxes in a nimilar way, with a brand bebrao
them. The crafty, artful nature of the fox is
proverbial (Kzelc nil 4). Our Lonl nib
Henxl "that fox" ILuke xiii. 321.

Volney says that jackals a;
hundmls in .Syria, in the (iarden
niin<i and tomUM. In aUnsion to aacn naon^
ourl-ordiuiyii. "Thefoxeshaveholo." Hemes
the alluHioii, Lam. v. 18, " Because of tbemonB-
tain of Zion. which is desolata, the Ibiea wdk
iipi>n it." These jackals wrought great hana
in the vineyards; aulAhere we rand, ScBgiL
L'>, "Take us the little foxei Out ■poil dta
vinen: for our vinea have trader nuMa'*
In the Idyls uf Theocritus simiUr dlunou

Sfoll Micoii's rtui-Tsnl* wiUi their deadlf UuT

Fr^\XKIXrEXSE(Eiiod.ixi. a4)-adi7.
nsinonii, aronuitic aiilMtance, uf a, yellow tinirc.
Utter and acrid to the taste, bnt eicce£n^y
odoriferous. The tree, whence the gum is ob-
tained by inciuun of the hark, grnwa m Aiatw,
and reeemblas the American samach. It U
ajao found in India, and, sh aome aupptf^it
was found in the muunt^nooa diatnel* of
Judea. It is sometimes called inoenia (Isa.
Ix. ti; Jer. vi 20; Luke L 9). It fa ealM
frank, because of the freenns with whiA it
Danis and givM forth its odoun; andtlwpar*

*

FRI

incense u that wMcb ie first obtainwl. Mid
fretjut frum fonign adnuitors.

Stoeet inceiue (Eiod, ixi. 7) mi^ht ■> w(_
be reiiderrd inccnjB of tpicet, uid u the com-
podtion inentiriavd Eiod. inc. 34. Ths sub-
■tuice which is ^iiBtally used in modam
aa frankiiiceiua is tbs prodoction of the Noi-

The OM of inceiue in the Jewish worship
may be Ie«med from Eiod. m. 7 and Lev.
xri. 12, 13, and it is Ggmatively etpployed
lepresent loTelj ncd >STee>ble qnalitita (Song
iu. 6; ir. 6, 11) and £svation>I fenraar JH^
L 11). Thiu the paalndst excUinu, — Let
iny prayer he wt forth before thee aa incenjie "
(Fb. cilL 2), In accordance, too, with thii
SFinbolic meaning it the scene depicted in
Rev. TiiL 3, — " Another angel came and etood
at the altar, having a golden ceiuer ; and
there was given unto him much incenae, that
he ihiHild offer it with the {n&fen of all saints
upon the golden altar which was before the

FKIEND (Exod. luiii 11). There are
several passage* in whidi this word is osed

when no actual friendship or i£ectioD is in-
tended (Matt ixii, 12 ; iivL 50) ; and in these
it is perh^ai employed ae a common term of
salutation, aa the word neighbour is often used
in m'ldcni times.

FKINGES (Dent. uiL 12) were the hem
or border of a particnlar Jewish gaiment
(Matt ix. 20; xiv. 36). At the time when
the Sabbath-breaker was atoned to death
(Num. XV. 32-41), Moses was commanded to
apeak to the childien of Israel, and " bid
them make fringet in the borders of their
gannenb throughout their generations," and
that they should " put upon the fringe of
the borders a ribband of blue,^ as a constant
tumembrancer uf God's cnmmaudments, and a
visible warning againat forbidden indulgence.
These fringee were a species of tasse^ and
were principally upon the "comera" ot the
dress. r«rhape the hem was of lace ; for the
original word denotes that which was twiated
like a lope, and hung like hair (Eiod. xixii.
31). It waa evident^' a badge of diatinction,
and the drees formed a species of national
uniform. These fringes thua became peculiarly
characteristic ; and it was this hem of spedal
Kcredness on our Lord's drees that the woman
touched (Matt ix. 20). (See Clothes.)

In some paits of Europe and Asia a Jew is
instantly known by his ^>pareL In all syna-
sogues. however, there is worn a kind of scarf,
from tliree to five feet long, and one foot
wide, which is furnished with fringee at the
comrm. The present Jews wear a long
taasel at each comer, oonsiatiDg of eight white
woullrn threads, knotted with five knots like
«iDaU buttons, and open and untwisted at the

FROGS (Eiod. viiL 2) — a well-known,
amphibious, loathaome reptile, found gen-
erally on the margin of brooks and ptnida,

FCIi
numbers as to fill their beds, ovens, and
kneadinE- troughs r. and when tbsy died, •• .
they did in im.

.Jution the c^n* In their oven, aiL

ing filthy revel on thcsr beds, iriien «lB«p«t wi

awaked hj the contact of thrir oold, clann.,

-!_■_ — renting Indesdj but another par-

, was Barred by this infiiotioiL 'Hieir

supentitiDU was punished. The fnii; was a
sacred animal, and in their pictnrea is often

FRONTLETS. (See PmrLACTEiiiKa.)
FROST (Gen. ixxi. 40). Jacob was in
Mesopotamia when he made this complaint;
Modem ttavelleis say that the night is there
as piercingly cotd as the day is scorchingly hot.
In cur regions when our days are warm, so are
ir nights ; but in the East, nights of intense
lid succeM days of bumitig heat. Jeremiah
thus prophesies of Jehoiakim — "His dead body
shall be cast oat in the day to the heat, and in
the night to the frost"

FRUIT. Lev. lii. 23 is the only pawage
in which this term is used in a doubUuI sense,
and it here means that the fruit of a tree newly
planted ahotl be regarded aa imGt to be offered
to the Lord until the fourth year of its growth.
The word ie used in a variety of figurative
especially in the New Testament, the

FUEL (Isa. ix. S) was so scarce in (he l<^t
that the people resorted to every kind of com.
bustible matter, even the withered stalks of
herbs and flowers (Matt vL 28-30), thorns (Ps.
IriiL 9: EccL viL 6), and even excrementa
(Eaek. iv. 12-lfi). It is supposed by the word
brand (Amos iv. 11) is meant a dry vine, twig,
or other brushwood, which is so light and com-
bustible as to be conanmed at ouce, if not
instantly plucked out; thus rendering the
striking figure of the prophet still more ez-
""ressive. _j3ee Coal, Dnso.)

FUT.FILLED (Mitt iL 17), This word is
generally used in reference to the occompliah-
ment of prophecy. It is to be observed, how-
ever, concerning the expression, tMat it miffht
t«/uWM— which is frequeutly used (Matt iL
16, 23; viiL 17; liL 17, &c, &c)-.tbe evan'
21il

FUL

does not happen merely for the purix)Be of
making good tne preiliotion. When it is said,
for example, that tliey i>arted ChrLsVa garments
among them, cadting lots, that it might he ful-
filled which was spoKen by the prophet, &c., it
is not intended that this was dcme in order to
secure the accomplishment of the prediction ;
but rather that, m or by this was fulfilled the
prophecy, Ac. ; or, thus it came to pass in ful-
filment of the prophecy, &c. Those concerned
had no knowledge generally of the fact that
they were fulfillizig a prophecy. Our Saviour
of course knew it; ana hence the jteculiar
expression, John xix. 28. There was a higher
end in view than the mere fulfilment of an
ancient oracle. (See Prophecy.) llic mean-
ing in many of the above and parallel passages
would be more accurately expressed by the
word verified, "In this event was verified
what was said by/' Ac.
FtJLLER'S ^lELD. (See CoNniiT.)

FULLER'fl FOUNTAIN. (See EN-KOGEL.)

FULNESS (Gal. iv. 4). This expression
has a i)eciUiar meaning in Home {lassages of tlie
sacnred writings. Tbe ** fulness of time,** in
relation to the Messiah, means the actual pres-
ence of the very time ap]N>iuted for his advent.
So when the day of Pentecost was fuUy come
(Acts ii. 1). The sajne wonl is used (John i.
10 and Col. i. ll*) to signify the i>erfect ami
comj)lete sufKcieucy of sniritual blessings in
ChriMt tlesus. to meet all the wants uf our
guilty, ruinea, heli>lesrt race.

OAB

The **fubie8i of the OodhMd" (CoL u. 9)
denotes all the attributes of the divma naXm
in their entire and complete perfection.

FUNERAL. (SeeBuBUU)

FURLONG. (See Mbasurbs.)

FU~RNAGE (Gen. xv. 17). Fumaoes wen
used for melting the predoos metals (Prov.
xviL 3). Many of these furnaces, as seen in
the Egyptian paintings, were smsil and ixnt-
able, rhey were also used to punish crimmsU
The furnace into which NebuchadneBar cs«t
the young Hebrews who refused to wonhip
his image was probably an open fnniace, or
place of fire, suindently confined to oonoentnte
the heat to the last extreme, and yet so opeB
that what took place in the midst of it ought
be easily seen. Such places are now foond
in Syria, uid were evidently used by idolater
as temples for the fires whicn represented their
gods, and in which they offered sacrifices.

FURNITURE, (igee Camkl.)

FURROW (Ps. Ixv. 10). The phrase.
"they shall bmd themselves in th«r t«x»
furru^i" (Hos. z. 10), is enhuned by the
context, especially verses 4 and 11-13L

FURY (Jer. x. 25) is attributed to God, Ski
anger, metaphorically, or speiddns^ «f^ ^
manner of men — that is, God^s piovidentisi
actions are such as would be peruirmed by a
man iu a state of an^er ; so that, when He k
said to |H>ur out His fury on a person, or on s

lople, it is a figurative expression for diipens-

ing uiHictive judgments.

G

GAAL (.Tudg. ix. 26) was the son of Elwd,
and the leader of a rtivolt against Abimelech,
king of the Shecbemites. He was, however,
defeated and put to flight, and his jiortLsans
wen> scattertxl and destroyed.

(JAASII (Judg. ii. y)— a hill in the territory
of Ephraim, in the vicinity of which was
IHninath-serali, where Joshua lived and died
(Josh. xxiv. 21», 30). The " brooks (or vallcyH)
of Gjuish" (2 Sam. xxiiL 30; 1 Chr. xi. 32)
were imtluibly in the same neighbourhood.

GAB15ATHA (John xix. 13)-a Hebrew
wonl, denoting an elevatetl filace, like the
bench of the judges in modem court rooms.
The fl(M)r of this raise<l platform, and {lerhaus
the whole area of the a]»urtment, was probably
paved ^^ith stones of tessclated work — a com-
mon practice in f>alaces and public offices.
Hence it is called in Greek by a word signi-
iyini^ the pavement. Mosaic pavement was
fashionable amcmg the Romans.

(GABRIEL (liuke i. 10)— one of the minis-
tering spirits of God, who was specially
charged with the message to Zachanas, re-
Bi)ecting the birth of •i(>hn, and to Mary,
respecting the birth of Christ. At an earlier
period he was sent to Daniel to unfold a vision
(Dan. viiL 16; ix. 21). The name signifies the
Hretif/th of Ood. Great honour is given to
Gabriel in the Koran of Mahomet

GAD— troop (Gen. xxx. 9-11). L TfiiBi or
292

(Xum. i. 25). The posterity of Gad, the
seventh son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's
handmaid. JacoVs prediction of Gad is
found in Gen. xlix. 19. And in Dent 'rrrm-
20, 21, Moses predicts still more particalsriy
the events which distinguish the histoiy ci
this tribe.

After the defeat of the kings of FashnTJ
the tribes of Gad and ReuUen petitioned
Moses to assign them their portion in that
district of the country, as it was favoorahltf
to their pastoral punuits, for they had a
great multitude of cattle. Their request wis
granted, and Gad's tribe was located south
of Iteuben, between the mountains of Gikad
and the river Jordan. In this iMMition they
were subject to frequent incursions fmn tbe
neighbouring hordes ; but they were vakmnis
(1 C^hr. V. 19, 20, 22 ; xii. 8), and, under David.
subdued all their enemies. In the song of
Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 20, 21) aUosion is made
to the enlar^foment and coursige of the Gadites;
to the provision made by Moses, the lawgiver,
for that tribe before the rest, on the east of
Jordan, and to the fidelity with which tiie
tribe fulfilled their agreement to so up fnth
the other tribes to the omqqiest of toe praniMl
land, pust as if no portion had been asngnsd
them m Bashan.

2. (1 Sam. xxiL 5.) A prophet and a psxti-
cular friend of David. Me was on mora thss

GAD

one occasion God^s messenger to David (1 Sam.
xxiL 5; 2 SanL xxiv. 13-19; 1 Chr. xxi 9-11), and
was idso one of his biographers (1 Chr. zxix. 29).

3. The Hebrew word, " the God," rendered
troop in Isa. Ixv. 11, infers to some heathen
(goddess, perhaps the goddess of Fortune.

GADARENES. codntby op (Marie v. I).
Gadara was one ot the ten cities called Deca-
iwlia. (See D£CAP0LI8.) It was on the east
of Jordan, in the vicinity of the lake of Gen*
nesaret, near the brook Hieromax. It gave
its name to the district or canton of which it
wa8 the chief town. The ruins of the city are
now called Um-keis. Gadara, in the time
of Joseph us, was an important dty, and the
metropolis of Perea^ or " the country bevond
Jordan. ** It now hes in ruins, being wholly
deserted on account of the scarcity of water,
though the foundations of its spaaous streets
are visible. In the vicinity are famous medi-
cinal 8prin£;8; and we are told by modem
travellers that the limestone rocks by which
the coast is bound contain numerous caverns
and remains of tombs, cut out by the early
inhabitants of Galilee — which even now seem
a fit resort for the wretched outcasts of society
who had their dwelling among them 2,000 years
ago (Luke viiL 27). (See Forter*s Handbook,
p. 311.)

Gebgesa, or Geraha, was another city in
the some neighboiu*hood, which gave to
another diiitrict the name of. the country
of the Gergesenes, or properly Gerasenes.
(rer^esa waH situated about 20 miles east
of the Jordan, and 10 or 12 south-east of
Gadara; so that the region generally might
be designated by either name (Matt. viii. 28;
Mark v. 1) ; and the discrepancy rather
confirms than invalidates the sacred history,
as it might so easily have been avoided.
The ruins of Gergesa are the most beautiful
and extensive on the east of the Jordan,
now called Jerash, where three temples, two
superb amphitheatres of marble, and nundreds
of columns still remain, among other monu-
ments of Roman power.

It was in this vicinity that Christ wrought
a wonderful miracle on two demoniacs (Luke
viii. 20-36). Thomson says — "Our first point
is, that the miracle could not have occurred at
(Jadara. It is certain, from all the accounts
we liave of it, that the place was near the shore
of the lake. Mark says that * when he came
out of the ship, immediately there met him a
man,' &c. With this precise statement the
tenor of all the narratives coincides, and there-
fore we must find a locality directly on the
shore, and every place must be rejected that
is not consistent with this ascertained fact.
Affttin^ the city itself, as well as the country of
the Gergesenes, was at the shore of the lake.
All the accounts imply this fact. Lattly, there
was a steep mountam so near at hand that the
herd of swme, rushing down it, were precipitated
into the lake. Now Gadara does not meet any
one of these necessary conditions. I take for
granted, what I believe to be true, that Um
Kels marks the site of Gradara; amd it was,

GAI

therefore, about three hours to the south of
the extreme shore of the lake in that direction.
There is first a broad plain hom Khurbet
Samra to the Jermuk, then the vast gorge of
this river, and after it an ascent for an hour
and a hall to Um Kels. No one, I think, will
maintain that this meets the recjuirements of
the sacred narratives, but is in irreconcilable
contradiction to them. It is true that a cele-
brated traveller, from his lofty stand-point at
Um Kels, overlooks all intervening obstacles,
and makes the swine rush headlong into the
lake from beneath his very feet. But to do
this in fact (and the evangelists deal only in
plain factsj, they must have run down the
mountain tor an hour and a half, forded the
deep Jermuk, quite as formidable as the Jor-
dan itself, ascended its northern bank, and
raced across a level plain several miles, before
they could reach tne nearest margin of the
lake— a feat which no herd of swine would be
likely to achieve, even though they were
' possessed. ' The site of the mintde, therefore,
vms not (U Oadara. This is an important
result. Nor was it in the country of the
Gadarenes, because that country lay south of
the great river Jermuk ; and, oesides, if the
territory of that city did at any time reach to
the south end of the lake, there is no mountain
there above it adapted to the conditions of the
miracle ; and, further, the city itself where it
was wrought was evidently on the shore. There
we must find it, whatever be its name. And
in this Ghersa, or Chersa, we have a position
which fulfils every requirement of tne nar-
ratives, and with a name so near that in
Matthew as to be in itself a strong corrobora-
tion of the truth of this identification. It is
within a few rods of the shore, and an immense
mountain rises directly above it, in which are
ancient tombs, out of some of which the two
men possessed of the devils may have issued to
meet Jesus. The lake is so near the base of
the moimtain that the swine, rushing madly
down it, coulil not stop, but would be hurri^
on into the water and drowned. The place is
one which our Lord would be likely to visit —
having Capernaum in full view to the north,
and (ialilee * over against it,' as Luke says it
was (ch. viii. 26). The name, however, pro-
nounced by Bedawln Arabs, is so similar to
Gerg^a, that, to all my in(iuiries for this place,
they invariably said it was at Chersa; ana
they insisted tnat they were identical, and I
agree with them in this opinion." — The Land
and the Book. pp. 376, 377.

GAI US (Acts XIX. 29) — a Macedonian
resident in Corinth, at whose house Paul
stayed while labouring as a missionary in that
city (Rom. xvi 23). He was probably con-
verted under Paul's ministry (I Cor. i. 14),
and accompanied him to Ephesus, and, with
Aristarchus, another of Paiil*s adherents, was
seized by the mob during the uproar occa-
sioned by the apostle's preaching. Reference
may be made to this individual. Acts xx. 4, and
3 «John 1 ; but some have supposed two
viduids to be intended. (See Ephesus.)

GAL

GALATIA, or EASTERN GALLIA (Acts
zvi. G)— a proM'nce of Asia Minor, lymg eant
of Fmygia, called Gnlatia on account of the
GauU, who were settleni in it; for thev had
invaded Macedonia about 280 yearn oefore
Christ, crossed the Helli>8pont, and settled in
Asia Minor. After Home years of turbulence
they yielded t<^ the Konian amis, and became
A Koman province, A. I). 20. Because a mix-
ture of Celts and Gr(.>eks formed its )x>pula-
tion. it was sometimes calletl (iall«>-(rraecia,
as Galli, Keltai, Galatai, are only diifcrent
forms of the same name.

Christianity was intr«)dnced into this pn»-
Tince b^ the anostle Paul, who vras there once
with 8ihM and Timothy (Art<) xvi. G), about
the year fift>'-three, and a^'uiii, four or tive
years aftt'rwards, on his return from C<»rinth
(Acts xviii. 2:^).

GALATIANS, epistle to, is the ninth in
the order of the books of the New Testament,
and was \iTitten by Paul about the year iA-iKK
Its desij^ evidently is, to correct some erroneous
(ipinions they had been taught, particularly
respecting the doctrine of justification by faith,
ana to instruct them as to the true scoi>e and
intent of the Gosik.-L This epistle is i»eculiarly
interesting, as it contains a reconl of the evi-
dences of Paul's aix>stleBhip, a hkt'tch of his
life after his conversion, and a iiia«*trrly eluci-
dation and defence of thn gn-atbut siiiipl*.* plan
of s:ilvation through faith in the Lmil .losus
Christ.

In none of the epistU-s does the ai>o>tlo di.s-
pla^ such fervour and anxiety. i'he fiT«)r
which ho Cf.^mbated was a fatal out- the
attempt to unite the ritual oi Mos(<<4 with the
simplicity <>f the Go»^)el. ITiis Jeuir»h pro-
pensity hod disi)layei1 itM^lf in an anient ^)ro-
selytizing s])irit, and many among the < ialatians
bad been seduced the proverbial fickleness
and excittibility of their national character hod
<liBi>layed itself in their sudden aiKwtasy. So,
after vindicating his ai)ostleship, the aix>8tle
enters fully into the merits oi the (question, an
to the relation of the law tt^ the (iospeL llie
reasoning is minute, and succinct. 'Flie argu-
ment is worked in fire. The law, he mointjiins.
is only intr(Kluct*»ry to the Gospel — was fitted
for men in their minority — was a Mclnx>lina«ter
unto (Christ. H»iw elo(iuently Paul warns the
(TaLntion churches to value their lilK^rt}' and
hold it fast -how he scorcher with a holy
indignati«m the covert enemies of a free salva-
tion, the intnxlucers of a mutilated and fettered
Gosi)el! (jrief that ho many hail been led
astray— wonder that they could have l>een so
easily imfjosed on —anger against tlieir plaut^ible
seducers, ore the predominant feelings in this
coini)ositii»n.

This epistle was written probably after l^aul's
second visit to the province; and various
opinions have been formed of the place whence
it was sent. Some few have suppotied that it
was Mnritten previr>asly to the council at Jeru-
salem. MacKnight thinks it was written from
Antioch, after the council, and before Paol set
out on his second missionary jouniey (Acts xv.

GAL

30). Michaelis and Townsend think that it
was written during the second missionaiy
journey, probably from Thessalonica (Acta
x\'ii 1). Many, with no small probability,
suppose that it was written at Connth, dniing
the apostle^B residence there for the spaced
eighteen months (Acts zviiL 11). Very manv,
and that plausibly, date it from Ephesus. when
Paul was there a second time, andstayed three
years (Acts xix. 1). Others assign it to Corinth,
during Paul's second visit to the city (Acta
XX. 2, 3). Theodoret supposed it to have been
written from Rome, as tne subscription has it;
and he is followed by Lightfoofc.

GALBANUM (Exod. xxx. 34)— a bitter and
resinous gum produced in Syria and its vicinity,
from the sap or milk of a plant which giowi
8 or 10 feet high. It was an ingredient of the
sacred incense, and is still valuable for it»
medicinal pro])crtie8, which resemble those <i
asafo3ti<la.

GALEED (Gen. xxxi 47). (See Giuad.)

GALII.EANS (Luke xiii 1)— a sect or party
of the Jews, who took their name from their
leader, Juilas, a Gaulanite or Galilean. It if
supix>aed that the party originated iki opposi-
tion to a tax imposed oy the Roman govvn-
ment on the Jews, A.D. 10-12. Judas and his
jiarty resisteil the government (Acts v. 37), and
maintaineil their opposition until the destruc-
tion of Jerusfdem and the temple. Jew^
historians tell us that the Galileans agRtil
with tlie Pliarisees, but were distinguished I7
an uncon(|uerable love of liberty, oontendinc.
on the Htrenj:th of Dent. xviL 15, that (ioil
only was their sovereign, and that all exAt-
tions of earthly princes were oppressive oikI
unlawful

The Galileans who are mentioned as having
l)een offering sacrifices at Jemsalem, vha
they were suddenly assaulted and put to dsnth
by order of Pilate, so that their blood fioircd
out and actually mingled with the verv sacri-
fices they were offering (Luke xiii. 1, 2), wew
pn^bablv the subjects of Herod, between whom
and Pilate there was a deep-rooted boetility
(Luke xxiii. 12). Their sudden and violent
death, in the very act of worship, seems tt>
have marked them, in the view ot swvne vh»
funneil a hasty and erroneous estimate of thr
ways of God, as the special objects of divine
indignation.

GALILEE (Matt. iv. 12; Mark L 9; Lake
ii. 31)). In the time of Christ Palestine «»^
divided into three ports, of which the northen
was Galilee, boundeii on the north by Anti-
Libanus; east, by Jordan and the sea ef
(Talilee; south, by Samaria; and west, hf
Phtpuicia, which occupied the north cosstnwn
Camiel to Tyre. It was distinguished iotv
Ui)i>er and Ijower — the former lying on
the north, and inhabited partly by Syxianti
PhuMiicians, and Arabians, wnence n «■■
called ''Galilee of the (Gentiles" (Isa. ix. 1).
or "Nations*' (Matt iv. 15); the latter,
especially the valley along the sea of TilMm
was fertile and itofiulous.

Within tliu limits of Galilee were of eU

comprehended lauchar, Zelniluii, N>phtkli,
and Aaher. OhriBt is called ' ' Jealu of Galilee"
(M&tt, xxtL 69], beoiue he WW biougfat np in
that jiroTince, and there lived, taught, and
called^bis first disdplea (Matt. iv. 13-23; xiii
55: Mark i. 39; Liieiv. 44i viii. 1: uiiL 6:
Jubn viL 1); and
tempt (John * '"
aiaoDg Jew*
timtB were ■ mongrel race, and used

liialect, which originated in the am „

of the Jaws who seized there after the txp-
tivit; with the Gentdle forsinien. Fetara
mode of Epeech at once proved uie place of hia
nativity— his " ipeech bewrayed hun " (Matt

ofth.

inpied by tribei, arooiid
Galileel

itic ptaina ot Eadiaelon are

ibol to i^ ioimd

nectwl with thii ample sheet . _ ..^

hallowed and interesting. The scenea of oor
Iioid's early life lay not far from it; and
Capernaum, so often Tinted by him, was npon
its margin. Foot at least of hia ^Hiatlea
gained a aabaiBtence npon ita waten — they

they were mmmoned away by the Redeemer
to become "fidiera of men." After their
Master had died, and they had been dispersed
by his death, Jesus found them again plying
their former occnpatioD on the old scene.

This inland sea was subject to sadden and
violent storms. A hurricane of this land
overtook the hark in which the distnples were
sailing without their Lord being with them,
Jesus in the early dawn of the morning ap-
proached the labouring skiS, walking over the
stormy billowa. Peter wiabed to meet him on
the floor of tike water, descended from tile ship,
and walked for a ahort distance in Ncnii^.
On anotlua occasion a atonn arose on tile li^,
while Jeans slept in the vessel. The disdplea
in their consternation awoke him. He atoae
in msjeaty, and rebuked the tempest, when it
quailed and hnshedat the T<doe of his aothority.
The scene of soch wonders can never be for-
gotten. ImaginatJon will often revert to it,
and [Hctnre out for itself the stiiking ind-
denta which are detuled in the evangelical
narrative. (See CumvEBXTH, and especially

gall' (Ps. liii. 21)— an animal fluid, ol
exceedingly bitter taste, secreted by the liver.
Alluri^ismadetoitinJohi-^ "■ — " "■—

Lam, ii. 11, and elsewhere. .

wold, in Ps. liix. 21, reference is m

13; ix.lUi^

cxtractiun of a

_, __., l>mh»l» hemlr

The word nwA, miiiered "mi

herb (Dcut, x

t IHuK

ji head!

]>|>y. It wu Ivi bitter as to ba
Lo term for bitti^r gnbatanoea ;
■A BOiir wino, Bour cider, ftc, iti called rriuqan
(Coniii. Matt. iiviL 34; Marie xv. 23.) The
term is uned with nvat force by Peter, to
dcecribe the spiritual state of Simon Ma),iia
(Aclj Tia 23). (See Myebh.)

GALLERIES. (See Dwellikos.) The
woid in Snog vii G. " the idng id held in the
■ pallories," signifies probably rincli'tg^so called
because the;" " "" '--■'- ■ ■
then [cadi-

Q the bock.

jfl liiigletK.

GALLEY. (See Ships.)

GALI.IO (Acta iTiii. 12) was the brother of
Seneoa, the famous philoM>|ihei\ wlio describes
him as k man uf uneomiDnn mihlnenH anil (dm-
ulidt;. He wai appointed pnoouiulof Achaia
by the Romao emperor Claudius, a, i>. K<. Ue
reaidefl chiefly at Corinth ; and when Paul was
pteaching in that city, and had eiciti^ the
jealousy of the .Tews by the Buccesa lA his
" ■" ' ", tliev t.H.k him by violence bifuru

wan (lisindi-

uf that kind which were not
law which be was apjkointt
and so he di^imituied the Darti
leaving the place
. Swjthi

As they were
umult occnrred, in which
uf the Jen'i><h i^urch, was

t appear

- --nrred ; and even if he hL,.

been present, the expreseion, that "he careil

tor nono of the- -"-■- - "

iniplira nothiui;

that be ilid not cone*

himself with tlie contruvi

liies of the various sects a

parties into which th<

attempt made at Jemsalem, m.d. 33, by tlM
uiipoacn of the Gospel, to stop the moouiB <f
Peter and the other apaatlcB. Hie faitfafol

x: ^

_^-_ were bronMit befcse the Jewish

council, and there boldly proclaimed lluir
infleiilds purpoACi This oouiaga excited tiwir
enemies to madnsM; Mid they had altMdf
nude uji their minds to pot thm to death, wlua
Gamahel, by a plain and if innaMn exhibitiaa
of the folly of nidi a step, ehuwad tbir
counsel Softened by his Ubentl KldKaiiaDil
having scourged the apoatlcs, they diacJiMnl
them. So distinguished was this mbU fat ma
wisdom and learning, that Paul want up to
Jerusalem to receive lostruction ftnm him, and
afterward* mentions this fact in Us oivtioD to
the ]>nmle of Jems^em (A.D. GO), as eridttice
that he bad the best oppintuoity to know tha
nature and requisitions of the Uw (Acta uiL
3). Various traditions are told of (iamalitl,
both by Jews and Christiaiii, all of UtOB
perhaiie without foundation.

GAMfra. (See Rack.)

GAMMADIMS (Eidt. ziviL 11). He
prevajling upiaion respecting this term ia, that
It is lather descriiitive uf the cbaractor of a
iwuple— as, the ■■lirave," the "warlike," U»
■' invincible " — than the name of any partinilsr
nation or tribe. Jerome renders it b^atora—
warriors — a kind of furlora hope.

GARDEN (Isa. i. 8). The nrdens of tbs
Hebrews wcru doubtless verv mue and timiik.
Allusions tu them are made, lien. ui. 3i;
Num. xiiv. tl; Job \m. 16; and there is rtsuos
to supixise thnt tliey were chiefly devoted tu
fruit and shade trees andonnoatic plants scd
herbs (1 Ki. xxi. 2; Song iv. IS-IC). Gardou
of niscs, ohves, &c, are also refeired lo in
Scripture. A reservoir uf water was

inity 1

far from evincing hc«tility
or in<liSi'renc'> to Paul, or
to religion generally, was
certainly wise and prudent
for a commisidiiner of the
Roman government, ap-
jiointed, as he was, to a
temiwraiy office in aforei
ivoviiiue. It is therefi
altugetlier a roisinteTpn:
tiim to use the ph™
" he cared for none of
description of irreligioc

apply it

these thingB,"
inditTereuce, i:
I any parties it

GAMALIEL (Acts v. 34)— a distingnishcd
Jewish rabbi, a doctor or teacher of the law,
and possessed of a large share of pnblic con-
fidence. It is said he was for thirty-two yean

PlonUuc and Sowli

no indispensable appendage, either in the fan
of a foiuitiun, well, or stream passing thrao^
it(Gen.ii.lOi lili. 10). The gardens aro(ia£
Damascus are described as abundk&tly watsnd
by httio currents, which are made to fin*
through every turt of them. Beaotifnl alh-
sions to this are made, Piov. ixL 1 ; In. Iviii.
ll;Eccl.ii,5,6. Thusa"weU.w»torodg»Klen,"

GAR

a ** garden having no water,** are the chosen
symbols of blessing and curse.

The gardens of Persia at the present day
are weU Isdd out, and cultivated with much
care. Gardens were used to some extent as
burying-places (John xix. 41) (see Burial).
and alio as places of religious worship and
retirement (Isa. i 29; Izv. 3). Gardens were
probably often unfenced, and formerly, as now,
esculent vegetables were planted on some fer-
tile spot in Uie open field. In the centre of
the field is still found in the East an artificial
mound, with a hut on the top just large enough
to shelter a single person £rom the storm and
heat Here a sobtary being is posted, night
and day, in the midst of tempests and storms,
for two or three months, to protect the crop ;
and if any depredation is attempted, tiie alann
is given to some adjacent village. This custom
fufiy explains the allusion in Isa. L 8. The
same kind of booth and keeper are often seen
in Egypt— a solitary object in the midst of
eztenoed fields. .Ajnong the Hebrews wateh-
men were stationed to guard the harvest, who
relieved one another (jer. iv. 16, 17; Job
xxviL 18). These keepers were not allowed to
prevent one from taking ^m the field enough
for the supply of his immediate wants (Deut
xxiiL 24).

GARLANDS (Acts xiv. 13). The heathen
adorned the victims of their sacrifices in a
variety of wa3rs. Probably the garlands men-
tioned in this passage were to decorate the
head of the ox which they designed to sacrifice
to the supposed gods.

GARLICK (Num. xi. 6)— a well-known
bulbous root or yegetMe— -allium sativum—

and of very pungent odour, which was in
common use in Egypt, and much esteemed by
the Jews.

GARMENTS. (See Clothes.)

GARNER (Matt iii 12)— a bam; an old
form of granary. (See Thresh.)

GARRISOl^. (See War. r

GATE (1 Sam. iv. 18). The entrances to
walled cities were seciu^d by gat^ either of
wood, iron, or brass (Acts xii. 10). Houses
also were protected in the same' way; and we
may suppose that sometimes a door or passage
was made in the nkto, so as to save the neces-
sity of opening me whole gate every time a
angle person would pass (Acte ziL 13). In

GAZ

many Asiatic cities there are broad streets
covered over wholly or in part, and appro-
priated to merchante or tradesmen in particular
branches of business ; and there were also open
squares in which the booths and stalls of venoers
were erected.^ These were frequenliy at the
gates of the city, which were of^ course places
of the greatest concourse (2 Sam. zv. 2; 2 Ki.
vii 1 ; Neh. viiL 1 ; Job xxix. 7 ; P*ov. xxii
22; xxxi. 23). The gates were often also the
places of judicial proceedings (Deut xvii 5 ;
XXV. 7; Amoe v. 10, 12, 15), the mode of con-
ducting which may be learned, Ruth iv. 1-12:
and of general resort (Gen. xix. 1), and ot
course frequented hjy idlers and loun^^ers. As
a remnant of old Oriental custom andlanguage,
the court of Constantinople is yet called me
Sublime Porte. As the possession of the gates
of the cit^r was a possession of Uie city itself,
the word is sometimes used to signify power
(Gen. xxii 17; Isa. xxiv. 12; Matt xA 18).
We are told that it is common in many parte
of Asia to build the gate or door of the house
of iron, very strong, and so low as to prevent
the incursion of the Arabs, who often ride on
horseback into the house ot those whom they
wish to harass and rob. Sometimes the gate
is not more than 3 feet high ; and to elevate or
exalt it was only to court the notice of the
destroyer, or to aamit a friend. There are other
figurative uses of the word which are sufficiently
obvious in themselves. (See City, Hell,
Jerusalem, Lazarus, Temple.)

GATH (Josh. xi. 22) — an ancient city in
the territory of Dan, celebrated as ^e birth-
place of Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 4). It was one
of the lordships of the Philistines; and some
place its site on a hill called Tell-es-S&fieh,
16 miles east of Ashdod. But Robinson
could find no trace of the name in that neigh-
bourhood. In the days of David it was in
the possession of the Philistines, and Achish
was ite king (1 Sam. xxi 10-15; xxvii. 1-7).
David afterwards captured it (2 Sam. xv. 18 ;

1 Chr. xviii 1). It was afterwards subject to
frequent revolutions (1 ICi ii. 39; 2 Ki. xii.
17; xiu. 25; 2 Chr. xi. 8; xxvi. 6). The
inhabitante of Gath are called *'Gittites"
(Josh. xiii. 3).

G ATH-HEPHER or GITTAH-HEPHER
(2 KL xiv. 25) — a city in the tribe of Zebulun,
and probably in the *4and of Hepher." It
has been identified with El-Meshao, a hamlet

2 miles from Sephtirieh (1 Ki. iv. 10). It
is noted as the birthplace of the prophet
Jonah.

GATH-RIMMON (Josh.xix.46)— aLevitical
city— is said to belong to the tribe of Dan
(Josh, xxi 24) or the half tribe of Manasseh
(Josh, xxi 25). But there may have been
two towns of the same name.

GAZA or AZZAH (Gen. x. 19)— a cit^,
and one of the five principalities of the Philis-
tines— was situated on the coast of the Mediter-
ranean, at the southern extremity of Canaan,
withhi the tribe of Judah (Judg l 18 ; 1 Sanu
vi 17), and about 60 miles south-west of Jera||M
salem. Joshua was not able to subdue it; M|^r

297 ^

GE15

though Ju<hih did conquer it, it did not ronioin
lun^ in tlieir hAndu. It wax in fact tlie
Philistine cai>ital. In the reigns of Jotham
and Ahaz it ruoovered its inde]>endence, but
was aj?ain subdued by Hezekiah (2 KL xviiL
S), It was afterwards subject to the Persians
and C'hnlileans, and was captured by Alex-
ander the (rreat after a five months* sie^.
It was aftem'nnls token b^ Alexander Jan-
naeufl, and frightful bar1>antie8 were inflicted
on the inhabitantM. Gabinius rebuilt it and
placed it under Koman i)rotection. In the
time of KusebiuH it was a flourishing city,
but has beiMi often reduced since that day,
and now consists of three small \illages, with
from 3,000 to 5,(X)0 inhabitants, llie modem
city of Ghuzzeh stands on an elevation; thu
houses arc built of stone, but make a vei^
mean api^earance. The scenery around is
1>eautiful, ami the ve^'etable productions are
luxuriant and fni^o'ant

GEBA (2 Ki. xxiiL 8)-caUed aU) " Gelwi
of Benjamin" (Josh. xxi. 17; 1 Ki. xv. 2*JJ—
lay on the northern border »»f that tril>e.
Hence the exprc-iHion.^, 2 Ki. xxiii. K, and Zcch.
xiv. 10, tlenote the length of the land. It
was in the viciuitv of this place that the
Philistines were (U'feated by David's army
(2 Sam. V. 2.')). It com.>sponas to the modern
Jel>a, on the top of a hill that looks north to
Michmash.

GEIJAL (Ezek. xx\ii. 0) — a city of Pha-nioiji,
20 miles north of Btyr».)ot, called Jif/hfi>}i }>y the
Greeks antl Uomans, and latterly Jifntit. It
now exhibits little else than ruins, which ai\'
sutficiently niH^''nifK>fnt to in'licate its f(>mier
greatness. In the (layw of 'I'yre's ^dory it was
famous ff>r shipbuilding ( Ezek. xxvii. 0). I'lie
•'land of the (lildites*' (.lo.di. xiii. T)) was the
extensive plain wliieh stretches aroun<l the city.

GEDAI.IAH (Jer. xl. o) was appointe<l hy
Xebuchatlnezzar to take charge of tlie L'overn-
ment of Palestine after he had sulMiued it
and destroyetl the t(>mple and capital of the
nation (2 KL xxv. 22). He was assassinatetl
by a party of the royal family of tFudah, headed
by Ishnioel ; of which event we have the imr-
ticulars in Jer. xli. Several other ]>ersoiis
of the same name are merely mentioned in
the Bible.

GEDOll (Josh. XV. 08) — suppowd t<» Ihj
Jedur, a t<»wn half way between Bethlehem
and Hebron.

(5 E I )EON. (See Gideon. )

GEHAZI (2 Ki. iv. 12)- the servant and
constant attendant of the jjrophet Elisha.
When the pro]ihet had acci^mphshed, by
divine i)i»wer, the wonderful cure of Xaaman,
the latter offered him a muuific^iint prt.*sent
as a t(^>ken of his gratitude, which the i>roi)het
decline! L Gchazi coveted what his master
ref us(mI, and l)y a deUberate falsehood obtained
a portion of Naaman*8 gift. As a punishment
for his offence, the very disease ^ of which
Naaman had just been cured was visited upon
him and his family (2 KL v. 15-27).

GEMAKIAH (Jer. xxix. 3) — Zedekiah's
aml)assador t^^ the king of Babylon, by whom
2U8

GEN

Jeremiah sent a letter to his oofdntiTiiieii in
ca])tivity, warning them agBinat the inanlgviioe
of any false hopes of redemption. There was
also a minister of Jehoiakiin of the same name
(Jer xxxvL 12).

GBNEALOGY a Chr. ▼. 1). The lineice
of a family, or list of anceston^ waa ptv>
served with extraordinary care (Exra iL 62;
Heb vii. 3) by the Jewish nation (1 Chr. t. 17 ;
ix. 1 ; 2 Ciir. ziL 15), not only because it was
through Abndiam that the privileges of the
Jewish Church were transmitted, bat chiefly
because of the deep interest widen was felt in
the ])rediction8 concerning the Metoah, and
the tribe or family from which he was to
8i)ring (Heb. viL 14). Man^ tables occur iB
Scripture. The variance which seems to exist
in many of the genealogical tables or stak»>
ments of the saCTed writers has been in a
great measure reconciled by those who hafs
dilip^ently investigated and compared than.
It IB a matter of astonishment that rroordi
of such high antiquity— and concerned prin-
cipally with names of families and individusli,
which are very liable to many inaccnraci«s-
aro preserved so perfectly. These paUic
tables, or genealogical records, were m ex>
istence as late as the time of Joeephns; for
he undertakes to show his own descent by
them.

The genealogies against which the apostolic
admonitions are directed (1 Tiin. i. 4 ; Tit iiL
0) were probably s])eculations on the subject
of genealikgy, wnen the reason for regarain;;
it ho ])articularly was done away by the appear-
aiun.* of the Messiah ; or they miiy have been
lists of (inostic emanations.

(iENEKATION (Gen. v. 1). The mesn-
int^ of this tenn are various. It is used t<>
denote a particuhir class of {)eonle (Ps. xxiv.
0; 1 Pet. ii. i)). It signifies tne liist^ry ss
well a>4 the lineage of a man — as in the passage
first cited, and Alatt. L 1 -and also the iiistuiy
of utlier thing^t ((len. iL 4). It is employed to
denote a i>eriod of time (Matt, xxi v. H4; Acta
ii. 40), sometimes contem]>oraries (Gen. vL %
and sometimes ixisterity or future ages (Ia-
xxxiv. 10). \Mien used to mark tlie lapse ctf
time, its imi)ort is very uncertain. Perhaps
it may generally mean, as it does in our day.
the i>en(Ml which tme generation or race d
men si)ends on earth. Every century contains
about thrt?e generations.

GENESIS. This is the name of the first book
of the IMhIe, and is derived from the contents
of the lx>ok— \iz., an account of the genentinn
or ]>nKlucti< >n of all things. Moses is generally
regarded as its author, and its authenticity u
settled })y the most indisputable e^denoe. It
has been remarked that jiassages dCthis book
are cite<l in the New Testament twenty-seven
times literally and thirty-eight times substan-
tially. The history it contains embraces a
period of at least 2,370 years, and presents to
us an account of the creation and fall of man;
the religion, arts, settlements, genealogisi*
corruption, and destniction of tiie antedilnvian
world, excepting eight souls; tiie re-peopling

GEN

and division of the earth, the dispersion of its
inhabitants, and the interesting biographies
of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. With-
out this history the world would be in com-
parative darkness. In the first page of Genesis
a child may learn more in an hour than all the
philosophers in the world learned without it
in thousands of 3rears.

It has sometimes been asked how Moses ob-
tain|Kl his information of past evtnts. Did he
fiifoand make use of earlier documents? There
can indeed l)e no valid objection to this theory.
It does not iri^ragn the inspnation of the author.
Documents may have been handed down to the
period of Moses, but we have no proof of their
existence ; and we cannot seiMirate any definite
portions of GrenesLs with certainty, and sa^
that they are independent and earlier composi-
tions. The peculiar use of the divine names in
the first chapters is sometimes laid hold of in
order to distinguish some sections as separate
fragments. Thus Elohim (God) is uniformly
used in the first chapter, which does not end
till the third verse of what is marked in our
version as the second chapter. In the next
two chapters Jehovah Elohim is as uniformly
employed by the histoirian, though the tempter
uses tne simple name Elohim, God; while in
the fourth cnapter Jehovah, LoBD, only is
employed. The peculiar emplovment of such
names is supposed by many to nistinguiah the

Sam. Text

Adam...... „ 180 800 980

Seth, « 105 807 912

JKUlOoEif ••••••#••«•••••••••■••••••••••• 4nl olD «rUO

Oainan, 70 840 910

Mohal&leel, 66 880 895

Jared, 62 785 847

Enoch,.. 65 800 8G5

Methoselab, 67 658 720

xjCUUvCQ^ •• • ••• ■ •• • •»• ■•••■•■••••••••• OO O^Af OOv

X^ UnXlif •••••••••••■••••■••••%••••••••••• «^^v ^^* ^^^

Until the Flood (Gen. ▼. 82;) ,^

From Adam to the Flood, 1,807 years.

GEN

several productions of various authovs, of whom
some find four or five. But the critical applica-
tion of tests in phrases and sections is capricious
md contradictory. On the other hand, it is
alleged that this distinctive use of the divine
names is not arbitrary, and that they are em-
ployed in unison with their appropriate meaning
— a proof of unity of authorship. Elohim is
Deity in himself; Jehovah is Grod in covenant
relation with man. Creation is the work of
Elohim ; redemption that of Jehovah. The
divine Being could not be called Jehovah in
the first chai>ter, since no one existed with
whom he could stand in a covenant relation.
But this theory, true in its outline, cannot be
sustained throughout the whole book without
considerable straining.

It is well known tbjBit the chronology of the
earlier chapters of Genesis is not eaauy made
out, for the data of calculation are but few and
faint. Various modes of computation have
existed; and the Hebrew, Samaritan, and
Septuagint texts adopt different systems, the
Samaritan being the shortest and the Septua-
put the longest^ In order to afford a distinct
idea of such differences we subjoin the follow-
ing table. The first column denotes the yeart
b^ore the birth of that son who carries on the
gen«Edoffical series; the second column, the
remainder of the years ; the third, the sum of
the years, or the whole duration of life : —

Heb. Text

130 800 930

.... 105 807 912

.... 90 815 905

70 840 910

.... 65 880 895

.... 162 800 962

.... 65 800 865

187 782 969

.... 182 595 777
500 — —

100 — —

LXX-

280 700 930

205 707 912

190 715 905

„.. 170 740 910

165 780 895

162 800 962

165 200 865

187 782 969

188 565 758

600 — —

100 — —

1,656 years.

2,262 years.

If we disr^nrd, first, the hundred years
which the LXa. add to the first nine members
of the series, and which the Helnrew thrice
adds to the year of the age at procreation,
and, secondly, the reduction of the remainder
of the years of life which is thus produced, we
find a perfect accordance of the numbers in the
first five members, and in the seventh, Enoch.
The only discrepancy at the sixth member,
Jared, is, that the Samaritan text shortens the
remainder of his life to 785, and the sum of his
years to 847, instead of 800 and 862, which
numbers we expect, according to the Hebrew
and LXX. It was necessary to reduce Uie
numbers 800 and 862 by fifteen years, because,
according to the latter numbers, Jueid's deatii
would, in the Samaritan text, fall fidfteen years
after the commencement of the flood. These
variations arose not from negligence, but be-
cause the keepers of the Samaritan and the
originators of the Septuagint texts adopted
different systems of chronology, as to the length

of a human generation, and especially as to the
predse year and epoch of the flood. The
chronology of Josephus is nearest to the Sep-
tuagint; that of Usher is generally given m
our English Bibles.

There are in Genesis some changes of names
of placM ; but such anticipative alterations are
easily accounted for, and their number is not
so great as many would suppose; for some
usually adduced as examples in proof are
founded in error. The commencing section of
Genesis is full of truth, robed in simplicity
and beauty ; and its other histories, like those
of all ancient nations, consist of genealogy and
Inography. The style is easy and natural.

— - — ^^ — — ^- — 'J • —— — — — ~ ^ ~~ — — ~ — ~ 9f —

without labour or embellishment ; sometimes
graceful and pictures<iue, and occasionally full
of pathetic touches, introduced without effort
ana repeated witiiout artifice, as in the history
of Joseph.

GENNESAEET. (See Chxnuerbth
Tiberias.)

299

reory

GENTILE (Rom. ii. H). Thin was the name ,
by which the Jew8 4ii8tin{^iirthe(l oil the rest of
the world from themnflveH. All who were nf»t
JewB and circumciHetl they re;,Tirdwl nd^Gentilen,
or heathen ; and aj» such, they were excluded
from the reli;;ioui« ]irivile;;eH and relatione by
which the J own were so greatly exalted. But
the Gotfi)el places Jews and Gentiles on the
same footing (Acts x. 1-48; liom. ix. «30-33:
xL 1-36); and now, in the wonderful order and
economy of the divine government, the CK'ntiles
iMimpose the great VxHly of (t<m1*s ptK»j»le, and
the flews, who reject the Messiah, have Ix'come
a reproach and by-wonl in the earth. The
woni Hellenes, Greeks, in the writings of Paul,
usually denotes the Gentiles ; but Hellenists
(Acts vi. 1) means Jews bom out of Palestine,
and s])eaking Greek. (See Greece.)

G ENTi lej<, cou rt of th e. (See Temple. )

Gentiles, isles of the (Gen. x. 5). denote the
isles of the Mediti*rmnenn, and ixThaiM Asia
Minrtr and the wholu i»f Kuro])e, which were ])eo-
] >\td by the children < tf Japheth. (See I slandb. )

GEllAH. (See MeasikE8.)

GEKAR ((Ten. x. 10) -a capital city of the
Philiitines — was situated soutii-west of Ga7ji,
l)etween Kadesh and Shur, and may be the

i)lace nf>w called Khirbot-fl-Jorar ((Jen. xx. 1).
[t is remarkable that Ixith Abraham and Isaac
retire I to this place during the prevalence of a
famine, and were ImjIIi guilty of deceiving
Abimelech, the king of the i)l:ice, resiK-'cting
their wives. It.-* bite has not Ik-cu ascertjiinod.
'ITie hereditary name of its king was Abinielev.h
((•en. XX. 1 ; xx\i. 1).

Valley ok ((len. xxvi. 17). was the residence

i»f Isajkc, pn»l«;hly in the vicinity of the citv

ai>i>ve dertcrilied, that now called Wady-el-

•k'nir.

GKK(;i:S£NES, GKRGESA. (See

(•ADA REN eh.)

GKKSlIOM~*franr/rr (Exod. il 22) — the
lir8t-lM»m son of Mo.sty^.

GKUSHON (Gen. xlvi. 11). the eldest of
the HOU.S (»f Levi. The line of Kohath, a
younger son. ro:<e to pre-ominene*'. for Aaron
and the priests belongetl to it. The Gershon-
ites had chai^^e of the coveiings and cords, &c.,
of the tabernacle, and thi;ir cities were placed
among the northern tribes.

(;KR1ZIM. (See Edal, Mokiah, Samari-

T.VNS, SHECHEM.)

(JKSHUR CJ Sam. xiii. :<S)-a district (2
Sam. XV. 8) lying on the east of Jordan, north
of llashan, and near nioimt Ifermon. a .sec-
tion of the country now called El-Ijcjah (Josh,
xiii. 11. 13). The district alnivc mentioned
retaineil its independence in the time of
David (2 Sam. xiii. 'Ml. Travellers tell us
of a bridge over the .ninlan, l»etween the sea
of Tiberias and mmmt Jlermon, called the
(ieshur (Jisr, or Jisser Beni-«rakub), **tho
bridge of the sons of Jacob."

(iESHURITES (1 Sam. xxvii. 8)-a trilx)
inhabiting a country between Arabia and
Philiritia.

GETHSEMAXE— o/fMflwrrfw (Matt. xxvi.
36)— a retire<l T^lace, containing about half au
300

GIB

acre of land, on the western aide of mount
Glivet, commanding a foil view of the citp ri
Jerusalem. The name indicaites tlie fertuity
of the snot, espedaily in olives. It wu caDed
" a garden,*' thoogh it was probablv a gr^^ve
laid out in walks and furnished with toYmtains,
affonling shade and sednsion to those who
resorted thither from the noise and distraction
of the adjacent city. It is aboat a rtooe*!
cast from the biuok Gedron. and it now oqb-
tains eight latsre and venerame-luoking oliTei,
whose trunks snow their great antiquity. The
spot is sandy and bairen, and appears like a
forsaken place. A low broken wall snrrmuidi
it. It is said that the monks, to whom this
ground now belongs, preserve the kernels of
the olives that grow there, to nse as beads ior
rosaries. The identity of the spot cannot wdl
be doubted. There, under the olive shade,
the Son of God endured that pressure of im*
speakable a^ny which caused nim to excLun,
" Mv soul IB exceeding^ sorrowful, even unto
death ;'* and under which, in a cold evening;
and in the open air, his sweat was as it wen
*' great drops of blood falling down to die
ground."

GEZER (Josh. xvL 3)— an andent city of
Canaan. It lay on the southern border of
Ephraim^ north-west of Jerusalem. It re^
midned m the i>o8se8sion of the Canaanite^
(Josh. X. 33; XVL 10; Judg. i. 29) till Uiu king
of Ecr>l>t subdued it, and gave it to Iw
daughti'r, the wife of Solomon (1 Ki. iz. 16).
Solonum rebuilt it (1 KL ix. 17).

(;H0ST— a different form of the German
word " geist," principle of life (Gen. xxv. 8).
To "give up the ghost** is a common term in
our versi(m to express death. It is the yield-
ing up of the spirit or soul to God w*ho gave it

(iHOHT, Holy. (Sec Gon, Spirit.)

GIANT-^-earfA-ivrn ierriffena (1 CHir. xx.
C). Sometimes this word is employed to de-
note men of great violence, cruelty, and crime:
and at others it denotes men of extrabidinaiy
size or height. Both si^nses may bo combined
in Gen. vi. 4. The antediluvian giants were
men of mighty strength an<l daring impiety,
and seem to correspi>nd to the Titans of Greek
mythology. The sons of Anak were the most
noted ojf the latter class which the sacred
writers mention. They dwelt in Hebron, and
were such mighty men that the Israelites
thought of themselves as mere grnrahoppen
in cttmiuuison; an expression, however, by no
means indicative of exact relative size, hot
simply denoting a fearful mlds in strength and
stature. ITie king of l^lian (Deut. iiL Hi
and Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 4) were men of
extrjwnlinary size. Persians and families of
great tallness and strength have often been
foun<l in various parts of the world. (See
Emtmh, Rephaim, ZaMZUMMI118.)

GIBBETHON (Josh. xxL 23)— a dty of the
Plulistines, within the tribe of lian, where
Baasha killed Nadab, son of Jeroboam (1 Ki
XV. 27.)^

GrIBPjAH (the word is often rendered
" hill** in our version, and often stuids as a

GIB

proper nAme, 1 Sam. xiii 2) — » city a few
miles north of Jenuudem, called "Gribeah
of (the children of) Benjamin" (2 Sam. zxiii
29), in distinction from one in Judah (Josh.
XV. 57). It was also called " Gibeah of Saul "
(2 Sam. xxi. 6), because it was his birthplace
and residence (1 Sam. x. 26; Isa. x. 29).
Robinson finds it in the village of Jeba, which
is little else than a mass of ruins. Its inhabi-
tants were eminently wicked, as they evinced
by their conduct, recorded tf udg. xix. 30, to
which Hosea refers as proverbial (Hos. ix. 9;
X. 9). The city was terribly destroyed ( Judg.
XX. 46). Gibean in or of the field ( Judg. xx. 31)
was a phbce adjoining Gibeah of Benjamin.
Gibeah of Judah Bobinson identifies with
Jebah, 9 or 10 miles south-west from Jerusalem.

GIBEON (Josh. X. 2; 1 Chr. xvi 39)— a
neat city in jBenjamin, 6 to 7 miles north of
Jerusalem, inhabited by Hivites, who secured
the protection and alliance of Joshua by
stratagem (Josh. ix. 4-15), and were conse-
quently attacked by the five Canaanitish
kings, out delivered by the aid of the Israelites
(Josh. X. 10: Isa. xxviiL 21). In the dose of
i)avid*s and beginning ot Solomon*s reign
the sanctuary was there (1 Ohr. xvi 39, 40;
xxi 29). Near to it was a pool-jnrobably the
'* great waters'* referred to by Jer. xli 12—
where Abner was defeated by Joab, and also
a ** great stone" or monumental mllar, per-
liaps to the twentv-four men of David and
Ishbosheth who fell there (2 Sam. ii 13; xx.
8). It is named G«baon in Josephus, and is
now called £1-Jlb. It lies on the summit of a
hill, and Robinson speaks of a foimtain just
below the ridge to the north.

The WiLDBRNESS OF GiBEON (2 Sam. ii 24)
was doubtless in the vicinity of tne city of the
same name ; as was also the valley of Gibeon,
famous for the victory over the five allied kin^s
above described, and for the wonderful miracle
performed there (Josh. x. 12).

It IB supposed that the four cities named.
Josh. ix. 17, enjoyed a sort of federal govern-
ment (comp. Josh. X. 2; ix. 11).

GIBLITES (Josh, xiii 5)— so called from
GebeL (See Gebal^ The word is rendered
" stone-BQuarers," 1 Eli v. 18.

GIDEON— 6reaJfeer (Judg. iv. 11)— the son
of Joash the Abi-ezrite, and the same with
JerubbaaL the seventh Judge of IsraeLa mighty
man of valour, and peculiarly favoured with the
presence of the Lord. He was a very humble
man ; and when the angel proposed to him to
go in the strength of the Lord to save Israel
nrom the hands of the Midianites, he replied.
" Behold, my family is poor in Manasseh, and
I am the least of my other's house." The
Lord was pleased to favour Gideon with most
remarkable tokens of his power and grace in
the instance of the fleece and the dew, which
are parlicularly mentioned in Judg. vi, vii,
and viii Gideoxi, by a simple strataffem,
routed the Midianites, and nobly refused the
proffered crown of IsraeL The hero after-
wards countenanced an infringement on the
national worship, in the fafancation of an

GIL

ephod, which " became a snare to him and his
'house.'* He ruled over the northern and
eastern tribes for fifty years. He is honour-
ably mentioned, Heb. xl 32.

GIER-EAGLK (See Eagle. )

GIFT (Exod. xxiii 8), GIFTS (Rom. xii 6).
The practice of making presents as a token of
honour, respect, or affection, prevailed very
extensively m eastern countries in early ages,
and is still maintained. Hence to refuse
making presents to a king was esteemed a
mark of contempt (1 Sam. x. 27). Eongs and
princes often made splendid gifts of gannents
to their favourite officers, and to others whom
they were disposed to honour (Gen. xlv. 22, 23).

The peculiar offeringsunder the laware spoken
ofasg&tB(Deut.xvil7;Mattv.23^24). (See
Cobban, Otfebino, Saobifiob.) And it is
with Hingnlar force that the blessings of the
Grospel, and especially the great blessing of
eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord,
are odled gifts, inasmuch as they never could
be purchased, and nothing can be given in
return for them. The word (HJU is also em-
ployed to describe those graces or qualities
witli which Christ only can endue his disciples
(Eph. iv. 8, 11, 12). Some of those which
were bestowed on the early apostles were
miraculous, and demgned to confirm their
claims to apostolic authority; such as the gift
of tongues, of prophecy, &c, and when the end
of conferring them was answered, they ceased.

GIHON. 1. (Gen. ii. 13) One of the rivers
of Eden, supposed by some to be the Araxes
which empties into tne Caspian Sea. Oihon
signifies impttutms; and this is the course of
the Araxes. Others suppose that the river
known to modem geographers as the Oxim,
which the Arabs at this day call Jihon, is the
same wiUi the Gihon.

2. (1 Ki i 23) A fountain or stream near
the city of Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxxii. 30), beside
which Solomon was anointed (1 Ki. i 38, 39).
There seems, anciently, to have been a fountain
of this name outside the city to the west, which,
to prevent its being found by an invading host,
was covered over by Hezekiah, and brought by
subterranean channels into the city (2 Chr.
xxxii 3, 4).

GILBOA (1 Sam. xxviii 4]— a ridge of
mountains west of the plain of Jordan, and
souUi-east of the great plain of Esdraelou,
which the Arabs of this day call Ljebd Oilbou.
It is memorable as the field of battle on which
Saul and his three sons fell (1 Sam. xxxi 8; 2
Sam. i 21).

GILEAD—heap of witness, 1. A Place
(2 Ki X. 33). or GALEED (Gen. xxxi 47,
48), so called because of the monimient which
was erected by Laban and Jacob to perpetuate
the remembrance of their covenant, was a
mountainous region, embracing Trachonitis,
east of the JordiML The term is used rather
indefinitely by the sacred writers. The pos-
sessions of the tribe of Gad are described as
" all the cities of Gilead, and half the land of
the children of Ammon" (Josh, xiii 25). And
the half tribe of Manasseh are said to Iimah

301 J^^

GTL

received, as part of thoir inheritance, "all
BaHhan and half (iileail" (Ji«h. xiii M, 31):
and in Deut. iii. 12, 13, 10, half mount (rilead
is said to have been javen to Reuben and Gad,
and the rest of Gilead to >raua8iieh; while in
verse 15, we are told that Gilead was given to
Machir. The ixMsessions of Manasseh lay
north of the Jabfx>k, anil were divided between
his two sonri, J air and Machir; the former
taking the land of Argob, and the latter the
land of Gilead, or the northern i>art of it;
and the Reubenites and Gadites taking the
tract between the Jablx>k and the Arnon,
including the southern section of Gilead.

Gil>:ai), the ij^nu of (Deut. xxxiv. 1), as
used in this passage, probablv denotes the
whole country cast of the Jordan to ^Vrabia,
including the modem Belka.

Gilead, mount, proi>erly speaking', is the
ridge or Hummit which rises 0 miles south of
the Jabbok, and extends 5 i»r G miles frr)m east
to west. It is now called Itjtlaad. But there
wM a mountain of the same name west of the
Jordan, at which part of Gideon*s army deserted
him (Judg. vii. 3).

There was a tree in Gilead, the i?um of
which (hence called '*the l)ahn of Gilead")
IMWsessed medicinal proiierties (Jer. >iiL 22;
xlvi. 11; IL 8), and wa» an important article
of commerce (Gen. xxxviL 25). Strabo, the
prince of anciont gco^^anhers, si)eaks of a
lield near Jericho, iu Palcatine, which was
full of these balsam tn-'i;.-*. The sap is like
x-iscid and tenacious milk, and coagulates
ra])i4Uy. It was vuluaMi.' for inHamuiations ;
and in the time of Al»'\aiider wa«< t'Htiinated
at twice its woi^'ht in hilv^r. (Sfc J^alsi.)

2. A PERSON (Num. xxvi. 'j;*, 30; Judg.
xi 1, 2), in both which cases* the name is prol>-
ably derived from the fact tliat the individuah)
resided or had their inheritance in (JrileiuL

GILGAL-n,//«/ (Josli. iv. 2l)). The
origin of this name is pven us in ilosh. v.
0. It was a village in the ])lainH of Jericho,
east of that city and north-east of Jerusalem,
and fri»ni 3 ti> 5 miles west of the river Jor-
dan. It was the first ]>lace of encampment
of the army of the Isnu'lites after passing
that river, and there the twelve stones were
set up as a memorial of the miracle. It was
the restin^'-place of the ta1>emacle until it
was taken to Shiloh, whence it was again
returned t*) Gilgal (1 Sam. x. 8; xv. 33),
and also the st:at of government, or place of
rendezvous, during Joshua^s wars with the
Canaanites. In Samuel's <lay it was one of
the ]>laces ior holding a circuit court (1 Sam.
vii. Hi), but afterwards became devoted to
idolatry (Hos. xii. 11 ; Amos iv. 4). A village
calle<l Jiljilieh is perha[>s a comipted pro-
nunciation of the ancient name, ana occu]>ies
thepositii^n of the old GilgaL

Tne word quarries in Judg. iii 19 is ren-
dered fn'uren imagtM in the margin, and, if
correctly rendered, shows the prevalence of
idol worship there. Other interesting ind-
tients connected with this place are recorded,
1 Sam. XL 14, 15: xiii., xv.
302

GLO

There was another Gilgal " beride the pduiif
of Moreh,** not far from Shechem, Aiuf ooa-
nccted with the hiatory of £lij»h aiid EHahiL
A chief oonqnered bv- Joahiuk ia called king
of the nations of Giigal (Joeh. xiL 23). In
Josh. XV. 7 a Gilgal is mentioned aa<m the Darth
border of Judah (Dent xi 30; Josh. xn. 23L

GILOH (2 Sam. xv. 12)— the town of Ahitho-
phel, bat nothing is known of it nve that it via
IP Judah.

GIRD, GIKDLE. (See Clothes.)

(illRGASITE (Gen. x. 16), or GIRGASH-
rrSS (Gen. XV. 21h:» tribe of the Canaanitc^
or a sept of the Uivitee, who are suppoeed to
have inhabited a aecticm of tiie oountiy east of
the Sea of Galilee ; whence, as some lappoie,
liiith no good reason, came the nAme ot the
city of Gerflcaa,

GITTAH-HEPHER. (See Gath-befhzb.)

GITTITES. (See Gate.)

GITTITH. Ps. \Tii. Ixxxi, and Ixxxiv.
are inscribed **to the chief musician npua
Gittith.** The word may refer to a particular
instrument of music — so ciJled from being
invented at Gath — or to a particular tone; or
it may have relation to some oircunataiiDB
in the time or occasion of iU oompontian.
which the word Gittith denotes, bnt whidb
has not been preserved.

GLASS (1 Cor. xiii 12). Glass is nsuallr
said to have been invented in the twelfth cen-
tury ; bat the ancients probably used some srmi-
transiMirent substance, such as talc, thrcnif^
which a degree of li^ht was admitted, and ex-
ternal objects very mdistincUy seen. Sped-
mens of such substances are often found amoog
Itoman antiuuities. Looking-glasses (Exod
xxxviii 8 ; Job xxxvii IS) wert) doubtlMi
made of i>olished metal One of the latter if
supposed to be meant in James i 23, and one
of the former in 1 Cor. xiii 12. But ^asi
was made in £gy])t at a ver^' remote period of
its historv — as remote as the period of Joseph
and the Lxodus— ^and the process of TTfiVirc it
is rei>resented on the monuments. Glass ui
also found among the ruins of Xineveh. Glass
could not therefore be unknown to the He-
brews. Zelnilun was promised '* treasures hid
in the sand*^ — a reference, i>erha]ii9, to ^ass,
and in the very neighbourhood wliere, accoid-
iiig to riinj, the making of glass originated,
or was re-disct>vered. (See Crystal.)

(;LEAN (Ruth u. 2). In the joyful season
of harvest the Jewish tanner was not allowed
to forget the poor and the stranger. A special
command was given (Lev. xix. 9, 10) that be
should leave some of the fruits of fields and
trees for them to gather.

GLEDE (Deut xiv. 13)— a rapacious Isrd
of the kito or vulture species. The original
word is rendered ruHurt m Lev. xi 14.

GLORY, (;L0RIFY (Ps. xlix. 16; Iss.
xxiv. 15). These terms are of frequent occur-
rence throughout the Bible ; and are so oommoa
that many fail to see how very significant they
are.

To ^orify is to render glorious (Dan. ▼. 23;
Acts iii 13; 2 Pet. i 17). Hence the oompie-

GNA

tiennve precept of the apoatle (1 Cor. t1 19, 20),
mqairing the dsvotioD of our whole powers uicl
facoltiee to Has one great end, "toe glory c^
God " [1 Cor. I. 31), or making God ^orions.
The glory of God is diaplayed to bis creatiireB
in the works of creation, providence, uidgTaoa;
to that they ore without excuse who tee only
the things that are made, and the evidence
titty f urush of hia eternal power and Godhead,
and yet n^ect or ref UM to gloii^ him u God
(Rom. i. ^32|.

Under the Moauc economy the gloiy of God
often appealed in same vimlde emblem, bat
dwelt especially within the vail, betwerai the
cheralrim (l El. viii. 11 ; Pa. Ith. 1 ; Zeob. u.
5). It ii, hawerar, in the plan of redemption
that we have eihibited to na at once a com-
plete, oonsiatent, and perfect diaplay of the
glory of the dinne character, to which every
other manifeatatJoD of it, wheUier in creation
or providence, or in the former diipeiuatiana
of his ^^ace, were and are sabeervient.

The Helirow formula, "give glory to God."
ipeaoa, make confession, tetl the truth (Jaeh.
' *iL 19;. John it M). 11i8 words, " my glory,"
■o often found in the Psalnu, mean, "my
HvBT," the eeat of feeling, according to the t
Hebrew idea — " Mr heart ii glad, and my
BvBr rejoiceth." llie Hebrew word rendered
" glory " means wewM ; tbeliverie the heaviest
rftheviseera.

GNASH, GNASHING (Pa. cni. 10; Matt
viiL 12) —a striking or ^rinduu* of tlie teeth in
the paroxjBme of anguish or deepair.

GNAT (Matt xiiii. 24)— a very amaU but
bvnbleeome insect common in hot countries.
In the passage dted the words itrain at shonld
rather be iCniin out, as in Archbiahop Parker's
Bible ; the phrase will then better eiprees the
groH inconiiateiicies which onr Saviour re-

*^AD (Judg. iii. 31). ThU was a rod or
pole about 8 feet long, armed At the largest end
with a piece of iron, with which the plongli-
ahare was &eed from clods and earth : and at
the amalleBt with a small spike, by which the
oxen were urged on in their labour.

Maondndl aaya,— "The oonntry^ple were
now everywhere at work ploughing in the
fields, in order to bow cotton. It was observ-
able that in plonghing tbey use goads of an
extraordinary aixe. Upon the me^mrilkg of
several, I found them about 8 feet long, and
■t the bigger end 6 inches in circmnference.
They were armod at the leaser end with a sharp
prickle for driving the oxen, and at the other
end with a iznall apade or paddle of iron,
strong and massy, for cleansing the ploi^h
fmm the clay that encumbers it in working.
May we not from hence conjecture that it was
with sach a goad aa one of these that Shamgar
made that prodigioos alauehter related of him T
(Judg. iiL 3L} I am confident that whoever
ahonld see one of these instmmenti would
judge it to be a weapon not less fit perhapt
fitter, tbao a iword for anch an execution.
Uoads of thia sort I ww always Died here- i
aUnit% and also in Syria; and the reaaon is.

GOB

hol^ „ - ,- ■

rhicb makes it necessary to nse such a goaa as
I above described, to avoid the encoinbrance

GOAT (Lev. iiL 12). Goats were among the
hief poBseBiions of the wealthy in the early
ires of tbe world (Gen. uvii. i; 1 8am. nv.
Resembling the sheep in

is valuable for
<' milk e

rocks and m

for thy fond, for the fooiT of thy household,
and for the maintenance of thy mtudeos"
(Prov. iiviL 27). The hairwaa used for mann-
factures of various kinds ; it was span by the
Hebrew women for the curtains of the taber-
nacle (Eiod. iiv. 4; Nam. xiii. 20; Heb. il
37). The akin was made into vessels or bottles
(Josh.ii.4; Ps. ciix. 83; Matt ii. 17), and in
modem times into leather [moroco). It was a
clean aiumal by the Jewish law (Deut liv. 4),
and was much used in sacrifices Hjev. iiL 12;
Num. IV. 27; Szia vi 17). The pecnUar

Jnalities of goats occasion frequent figurative
liusioQs to them. The boldness and strength
of the leaders of the flocks are aEuiled to, Frov.
iix. 31 ; Zecb. i. 3 ; and they are niade to
represent oppreesors and wicked men generally,
Ezek. u«v, 17; raii. 18; Matt xxv. 33.
In Darnel the he-goat is the aymbol of the
Klacedonian empire.

Wild oiuts (Dent xiv. B), now crfled tbe
ibex, or mountain goat were of tbe same
species i but being confined to the high and
aJmoet inaccessible summits of mountaina, were
seldom taken, and were of little domestic use.
The mountain goat is still found in many parts
of Syria, and the fleeh is nearly of the flavour
of venison. The Bedouins make bags or bottles
of tlieir skins, and rings of their boms. Whi>n
they are found among the rocks, they usually
elude the pursuit of the hunter, sometimes
leaping twenty feet ; but in the plains they ai

COB

where the iHraulitoH fought two battles with
the I^hilistincH. It is hui)IM)imm1 to 1)e the some
with Oezer (1 Chr. xx. 4). (See Gezek.)

(;()HLET (S<«iK' \'il 2). (See Cvw) The
wr>nl rendered '* vi:il " in the Ai^ocAlj^pse means
goblet- in Hlia])e like a Hacramental cup.

GOD- tfood (Gen. I 1) -the name of the un-
created (Creator of all thin;^ He in revealeil
to UM in an endless varii'ty of ways in his works
and providential government (U<im. i. 10), but
more fully in the Holy Scrintures, as a Spirit
infinitely wise, holy, jutft, and benevolent. He
is clothed with i>erfection, and he exists with-
out change. He is enthnmed (m eternity, and
h e fills infinity. Self -existent and independent,
he is the uncontrolleil governor of the universe.
Though he is truly and essentially one in his
iHiing, natiure, and attributes, and the only

i>n>i)er object of religious worshij) (Deut. vi. 4 ;
sa. xliv. 8; xlv. 5, 0, 14, 18, 21, 22), yet he is
clearly rcveale<l to us as the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Spirit (Isa. xlviiL 16, 17: Matt
xxviii. 19, 20; John L 1-3; v. 23; x. 30; xiv.
2:^, PhiL il 0; 1 'Hm. iii. 10). The Trinity is
a pnmiinent doctrine of revelation, and is not
inconsistent with unity of essence. To each of
the three persons of the Trinity are ascribed
the essential attributes of the su]>reme God,
while they are distingnisheil from each other
in the sacred writings by all the acts and all
the forms of speech by wliich men are accus-
tomefl to <lesignate different i)ersons. Among
a multitude of passages the toUowing may be
cited: -(Jen. i. 20; iii. 22; xi. 6, 7; Acts v. 3,
4; 2 Cor. xiiL 14; Col. ii. 9. This <1iKtinction
in the (iodhead is real, and not merely appan^nt
or nominal. Tlie error of suintosing that there
is no distinct i>ersonality in tne (itKllioad not
only contnuUcts the plain and i>al^table meaning
of Scripture, but renders salvation by atone-
ment impossible ; for the Son made expiation,
and the Fatlier acci*ptt.Hl it, and the S^nrit
ap])lies its blessings. Holding ditfi^rent but
e<iually erroneous views of the jHJrson of (Mirist,
I'liitarianism and Swedenborgianism are at
op^KMito i)oles in donjring the di>ctrine of the
1 nnity —are alike opp<ised to the language and
the<»log^ of the l^aptismal fonnula and the
aiK>st4ilic benetliction, which so distinctly and
Tiiimistakably teach a Triune •Jehovah — the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghfwt. As
everything concerning the moile or manner
of the divine existence must be necessarily and
entirely a matU.'r of divine revelation, it is to
be received as such witli the most profound
and humlile reverence. Tlie student of the
Bible, however, and especially the teacher,
woulfi do well to settle in his mind distinctly
and definitelv what are the facts or truths
which the Bible makes knimTi to us res]K.-cting
this great mystery of our holy religion ; and so
to arrange and classify them, that they shall ex-
hibit at one Wew, to his mind, and to the minds
of those he teaches, exactly what is revealed,
and no m<»re ; and in doing this, esi)ecially
when the matter is of such great solemnity
and iinpfirtance, it is safest to abide as closely
as iHMsible bv the language of inspiration.
304

GOL

God is, Grod preserves, Gkid lei^pis. God will
iudge, God is to be adored, ^nused, tmted.
loved, and obeyed. Atheinn is an mmstnnl
monstrosity. Pantheisms philosophiaJ subtlety
lying at the other extreme of enor. To uj
that everything is God, is Tirtiullj saying
there is no God. Our duty Is to live to Goo, ac
we live by hioL

The words Ood and Cfoda are frequently used
to express the office, power, or exoeUeoce <i
some created being; as angels (Psl xcriL 7),
magistrates (Exod. zxiL 28), the devil (2 Cor.
i v. 4). (See Ch rist, Eloi, GnBan, Jihovab,
Je8U8,SptiutJ

GODHEAI) (CoL a 9)>-tfae nature or cmi-
tial Xyeing of God (Acts zvii 29; Ban. L SOl.

(;ODLINESS (2 Pet iii 11). Piety, it-
suiting from the knowledge and love cf Goi,
and leading to the cheerfuTand ooostant obedi-
ence of his commands. In 1 Tim. iii 16 it
imports the substance of revealed religion.

GOG. (See Magoo.)

GOLAN (Deut. iv. 43}— a conndenUe dtr
l)elongin^ to the half tnbe ci Mimsssnh. sm
situated m the north-western part cl Hm qU
kingdom of Bashan; whence the district, d
which it was the capital, is called C/amUmHiL
It was east of the sea of Tiberias, and ilin
bears the name of Djanlan. Golaii was ooeof
the cities of refuge (Josh. zx. 8.)

GOLD (Gen. u. II)— the heaviest and oat
malleable of metals, is found at thm piesentdsy
chiefly in Africa and South Ajmerica. Sefcnu
places are mentioned by the sacred wiiten
as abounding in gold; such as Opldr (Job
xxviii. 16), Far\'aim, or C^evlon, as some snp-
]>o6o (2 Chr. iii. 0), and Sneba and BasoM
(Ezek. xxvii. 22). The use of gold was vny
common amon£[ the Hebrews. Several psiti
of the temple, its furniture and utemals were
overlaid with this precious metal (EtoL
xxxvi. ;M-^^; 1 KL vii. 48-50); and rnniy
of the vessels of the wealthy, as well as their
]>ersonal ornaments and insignia of office, were
of gold. Its abundance in those early timei
almost exceeds lielief. The Hebrews had
various epithets to distinguish the InmAm of

nhrsM

**golduii candlestick'* is a contradictKm in
terms. The word candlestick means a itirt
or i)iece i)f wouti shaped and prepared fat
holaing a candle. Our frugal anoeKton did
not employ metal as a lightholder. The wocd
caiuUestick, at lirst literally and expressiTdT
correct, l)ecame -so common in use that it did
nut cease to be employetl when various metsb.
Tiiouldefl and carveil^ carried the household
; li^'lits u])on them. > or the form, design, and

history of the sacre<l lampstand, the
referroil to the article Candlestick.

GOLDSMITH (Acts iiL 8). MetaUmgic
processes are referre<l to in several portioDS of
IScripture (Ps. Ixvi. 10; I*rov. xvu. 3; las.
xhi. <i). Loth gliding and plating an sl-
luded to.

GOL . G03

3I1GOTHA. For ax acoount of the dia- suppoeed, judging from etyniolagica and an-
at to the alleged mta of Calvaiy or dent vertnoos, that this mav mean, — fL) The
otha, see Calvabt. The following cut wood of those treo) which thoot out homoD-
laenta the church which b*« been built tal branchea, mch u fir, cedar, kc: (2.)
Squared timber; (3.) Smooth or planBd tun-
ha; (4.) Any light floating wood; (6.) Any
wood that does not readily cormpt; (6.)
Pitched wood; (7.) Wicker or basket work
made of osier or other phable materiali of
the same qtedea ; [S.J Or any of the kinda of
wood that abound with resinous, infammable
juicea. The weight of authority, or rather
oonjeotiii& u between the cypreM and cedar.
The Greek name of cypnei bean a naem-
blanoe to the Hebrew of gopher. It was
CfOiddeTed by the ancients as the moat dqrslile
wood, least exposed to worms and natural
decay ; it abounded in AmjiiiB, *■■ used very
commonly for shipbuilding, and was abnoet
he spot which tradition affirms to have the only wood which could furnish suitable
the place of our Lord's cmclfixion and timber for so large a vesseL The cedar is
'■'■ ■■" ■ Itwasuaed

the Septujfrint and Josephoa read four GOSH^T^L (Gen. xIt. 10) A fertile aeo-

ta only), and his aimour cotTeaponded tion of postara land in the north-eastam

bis stature and etrength. The partiou- division of Keypt, between the Sad Sea and

of hie defeat in angle combat with David tiie river Kile, or rather what is termed its

^ven, 1 3am. ivii. Felueiac arm, Dpon the BoQthem border of

.28am. xiL 16-22 is an sccoont of several Canaan, and was allotted by Joseph to bis

ests, in one of which Rlhanan, a Beth- father and bis brethren; where they dwelt

nite, is spoken of as having slain Goliath for upwsi^ of 200 years. It was, for graz-

Gittite. In another which occurred in ing jiurpoeeB, "the beat of the land" (Qen.

1, a man of stature, with twelve fingers ilvii. 6, 11). and is found in the modem pro-

twelve toes, is represented as having been vince esh-ahnrklyeh, extending from the

. by Jonathan, David's nephew. In a neighbourhood of Abu Za'hel to tio sea, and

1, a giant named Sapb waa slain by Sib- from the desert to the former Tanaitio branch

ai, the Hushatbite; and ■ fourth was of the Nile, thus including also the valley of

'oen Isbi-benob and Abishai, in which the the ancient can&l of tbe lUd Sea — the Wady-,

er was slain. Theee four, it is said, were el-TumeylAh. Settled upon the waters of US

to tbe giant in Gath. The probability is, Nile, the Israelites practirad irrigation ; their

some other giant than Goliath is intended land abounded with figs, vines, and pome-

lia verse, as one of the four persons named grauates; the people ate of fish &ee1y; while

bis brother, and not his Bon. and tliat Ihe the enumeration of the articles for which they

reading of 2 Sam. xzL 19 is given ia I kmged in the desert corresponds remarkably

XI. 6. with the list given by Mr. Lane as the food of

}MEIC (Eiek. iixviii. 6) — the eldest the modern l!'elIilhB. Thus the laraehtes, when

of Japheth, whose posterity ]ieop1ed a in Egypt, lived much as the Egrptians do

I distnct of Asia Minor, embracing Phry- now ; and Goshen probably eitendeil farther

From them came the natives of northern west, and more into the Delta, than has usually

ipe. Hence, too, the Gauls and Celts, been supposed. They would seem to have

t/tt bandt of Odtoft, and in later times lived intenipeTsed among the Egyptians of that

people of Germany, France, and Britain, district, perhaps in separate v^uiges, much as

Welsh words Kmnero and Kumeracg, the Copts of the present day are minrfed with

ting the peo^e and the language, are the Mohammedans. This appears from the

sn^ allied to Gomer ; Cyinroeni, Cymbri, ciicumstance of their borrowing "jewels ol

bri, sufficiently attest their origin. gold and silver " from their Egyptian neigh-

3M0RRAH. (See Sodom.) Sours; and also from the fact that their honsas

RODMAN or thk houhb (Matt. 11. 11) were to be marked with blood, in order that

IB the master of the boose, and was a word they might be distinguished and spared in the

>mmon use when the authorized vermon last dr«td plague of the Egyptians. (See

made. It is probably a corrupted form of BoMnson's Biblitat Saearclia m Palutitie, L,

^nglo-Saxon ^mrnan. the first syllable of pp. 76, 77.) (See Eoift.)

h IS preserved in the second i^Ilable of 2. (Josh. iv. Gl) A oit^ in the territory of

vroom,inwhichtheletterriiacotTnption. Judah, which gave the name of tbe land of

JPHER WOOD (Gen. vi. U). The ark Goshen to the country around it

constmcted of gojAer wood. It has been GOSPEL (Marie L 1). The word vdiioh i* ,

GOU

rendered " gospel ^—good-wptU or neitt—ia this
nuMff* is elsewhere rendered "good" or
^^glad tidings " (Luke iL 10 : Acts xiiL 32).
Hence, when we say, "the GtMpel according
to Matthew," we mean, the history of Jesus
Christ Uie Son of God, and an account of the
salvation offered by and through him, as the
Bime was prepared, under the guidance of the
Hol^ Ghost oy Matthew, one of our Saviour's
disciples. The original tenn rendered gospel
is noi found in Matthew, nor Luke, nor John,
but often in the epistles of PauL A Harmony
of the Gosi>els is an arrangement of these four
histories in such a manner as to show their agree-
ment with each other, and to present them, if
possible, in connected chronolc^cid order.

The Gospels are the same m essence, but
different in form. ^ Matthew presents us wiUi
memorabilia occasionally grouped and classi-
fied, in order to prove that the scattered
lineaments of ancient proi>hecy are em-
bodied in Jesus of Nazaretn; while Mark
confines his Gospel especially^ to the actions
of Christ, who went about doing good, whose
davs were spent in works of ceaseless and
suolime benevolence. On the other hand,
the biography of Luke breathes a catholic
spirit, is more uniform in its progress, and
mOTe sustained in its character, exhitnting
Jesus, not as the Messiah of the Jews, but t)ie
Saviour-God of the world. The comixisition
of the beloved disciple is quite unique. The
Saviour appears in it unbosoming himself as a
hiend, not delivering oracles as an instructor ;
his eye glistens iiiith holy ardour and ptthos,
while words of marvellous iN>wer, thrillmg the
hearts of his audience with new solace and
attachment, proceed from his Iii)s. The "Acts
of the Aixwtles" deals in facts without em-
bellishment, and miracles without exaggera-
tion, and portrays with graphic case and
fidelity the toil and travel of the earliest mis-
sionary cuteri)rise. Ilius the New Testament
has histories of varied form and aim ; four
narratives of tlie life and actions of the same
individual, contemplated in different points of
view — as the realization of ancient i)rophccy —
as the untiring beneficent wonder-worker-- as
the Redeemer of mankind in its variuuH func-
tions, and as the comiiawtionate Son of God — a
type of i)crfect humanity— an incamatitm of
truth, and love, and 8ymi>athy — one who,
uniting hiA friends to himself in the myotic
bond of faith, ascends with them to the IxiH^m
of his Father and their Father, of his G(h1 and
their Crod.

"The gospel of peace" (Kom. x. 15), and

the word <»f rec<»uciliati<m" (2 Cor. v. 11»),
show the only way in which man can be at
peace with God through Jesus Chrint; and
iience the phrase, " the goHjwl of the grace of
God" (Acts XX. 24), or a declaration of GoiVs
free favour and goKxl-will towards those who
are utterly worthless and undeserving.

The four Cupels were written by different

meUj each of wnom was under the immediate

inspiration of God, and was led to ado])t a

style and arrangement suited to the puntose

3UG

<(

GOZ

he had in vkw. Whien it is '^'^"■■^tM whtA
an endless variety of ^lAoe% pHTwni, ad
incidents are introdnced into the noea mr-
ratives, and what a variety of ex^reanoni an
reported, on the aocuracr of which, vod titt
circumstances under whicii they were epoko,
so much of their force depends; when we con-
sider, moreover, the'bhnncter and ednratinn
of the writers, and the peonUar diaadvantifH
of their situation, we^ shall be ready to admit
the extraordinary claims of these booing andts
allow that the immaterial discrepnnciss wbii^
they present confirm rather thnn invalidate
those claims. There is no piroof that tibiy
copied the one from tfae^ other, or took sU of
them from a common written aonroe. Undv
the first suimosition— that they took fina
one anothei^-now can the diacrepancki W
accounted for? Nor is the second suppudtwn
necessary, for the similarities in the ^ynopliesl
Gospels are found chiefly in the reports of tki
sayings of Christ and thoee ro>ixiid about km
Would not such an original Grospel as Mink
and others have contended for n*ve bea of
the highest authority T Bat no one ever rdat
to it. The Gospels are independent nairativea
Many spurious gospels were in early cireulstiaa
(See JoHH. Luu, MABK, BIatthxw.)

GOURD (Jon. iv. 6)— « climbing vine d
quick growtn, allied to the fatnily of tbt
cuaimber, melon, squash, ftc. Its fruit ii
found in a hard ligneous shell, of which drink-
ing cuiM and other ^ household utensils tn
formed. It was cultivated frtun the eaiUeik
times in Asia and Africa. The pulp is eatsbkj
and the lower classes in Egypt and ArsUaboii
it in vinegar, or make it into a sort of puddisft
by filling the shell with rice and meat Is •
wild state some species were probably poiioa-
ous (2 Ki iv. 3841). (See Elibha.)

The gourd of Jonah was probably the rkuwi
communit, or paima Christi, which grows veCT
rapidly, and snoots out very harge teavesL u
is the castor oil plant The description of it—
" son of the night it was, and as a son of tbt
night it died**— does not compel us to believs
that it grew in a single night, but, by a strong
orientid figure, that it was of rapid growth.

j Nor are we bound to take the expression, **«b
the morrow," as strictly importing "the veiy
next day,** since the word Las reference to
much more distant time (Kxoit xiiL 5; DeoL

, vi. 20; Josh. iv. C). It might be simply takes
as "afterwards.** Its uresont name, cintam
(pronouncing the c hard like k), is oufficieotfy
near the kikiun of Jonah.

GOVEKNOR (Matt xxvii. 2). After Jwka
became a province of the ll^mian em]iin^
governors or prociiratttrs were appointed sua
sent thither fn)m Homo. This was the office
held by Pontius Pilate at the time of oar
Saviour's crucitixion. Sometimes the wofd
governor is used as a general title for ruter
(Gen. xlii 6). (See Feast, Pilatk.)

GOZAN (1 Chr. v. 2t))— a river which pnh-
ably rises in Media, to the vicinity of wfaidi
the captive Israelites were transp<irted (2 Kl
xvii 6). This river is identified by some witk

6RA

the Eizzil Ozan, which flows mto the Caroian
Sea. There was also a province (and pernaps
a city of the same name, Isa. xzrvii 12), now
called OauMnitis, lying between the Caspian
Sea and the monntuns which separate Media
from Assyria— the country watered by the
Khabour. (See Habob.)

GRACE (1 Tim. I 2). In its theological
use this word denotes the free favour of God,
bestowed upon men without any merit or daim
on their part, and sometimes divine influence
and its insults upon the heart. The plan bv
which this grace is bestowed consistently with
the divine attributes is called " the eoepel of
the grace of Grod " (Acts xx. 24). " Grace for
grace " means, in all likelihood, grace in corre-
spondence {dirrl) to grace. Every grace in
Christ has a correspondent miniature copy of
itself in the hearts of believers.

GRAFF (Rom. zi 17). To graff or graft is
to insert a shoot or bua of one tree into the
branch of another; the stock of the latter is
usnally inferior, the Kraft valuable. The sap
of the natural tree, Deing conveyed into the
graft, is, by a peculiar process, changed into
the natural sap of the graft ; and hence the
f rait of the gralt will be of its own kind, and
the fruit of tiie natural tree of another kind.
The force and beauty of the ajpostle's figure in
the passage above dted are sufficiently obvious.
The G^itiles w^re a wild plant, but Grod
bad engrafted them on the good ouve, having
previously broken off its own branches. But
IB it not natural for God to take these same
broken-off scions that claim native alliance
-with the stock, and which are not, like the
Gentiles, of foreign extraction, and reinstate
them?

GRAIN. (See Barley, Corn, Wheat.)
GRAPES (Gen. xUx. 11)— the fruit of the
▼ine. When fully ripe and dried, they are
called raisiju (1 Sam. xxv. 18; xxx. 12; 2 Sam.
xvi.1; IChr. xii40).

The soil and climate of Judea were well
stiited to the growth of the vine, and it was
among the principal productions of the country.
Particular districts of Judea were famed for
the excellency of their grapes — as Engtdi, and
the vales of Eshcol and Sorek, The word Sorek
is not only the name of a region, but also
signifies the noblest variety of the vine and its
clusters^ which there abounded. This ^npe
was white, with delicious juice, and with seeds
so small and soft as to be almost imperceptible.
In Persia the best raisins are made of this
grape, and it is of this that the celebrated Kiah-
mm wine of Schiraz is made. Very fine
ffrapes were in old times, as at present, pro-
duced on mount Lebanon and Helbon. (See
Helbon.) Travellers agree in relating that
Palestine, even in its present state of subjuga-
tion to the Mussulmans, who are forbidden to
use wine, pjroduces clusters of 12 pounds weight
each, the single grapes of which are as large as
plums. They tell us that the clusters of Judea,
a few miles westward from Jerusalem, are
larger than any in Europe, and that they have
often seen them of such size that it was mipoB-

GRA

nble for a single man to cany one of them
uninjured for any distance. It is pleasing to
find this corroboration of the scriptural account
(Num. xiii 23). (See Eshcol.) The grapes
of the Holy Land, with the exception of the
Sorek above mentioned, are mostly red or black.
Hence the juice is culed "the blood of the
grape,'* translated in our version "red wine"
(Isa. xxviL 2).

The vines of the East attain a very great
size, reaching the tops of the highest trees, and
are sometimes much thicker in the trunk than
a man's body. (See Drink, Flaoons, Vines,
ViNBYABDS, Wine, Winefbess.)

In the East at the present day the first pro-
duce of the vineyard is the ^en grajM (Num.
vi 4).. It is used for its veriuice, to ^ve a tart
taste to all articles of food that need it, and for
making refreshing drinks. The manner of
using it is various— either by putting the fresh
^reen grapes into the food ; or by during them
m the sun, and putting them ui> in bags
like raisins; or by jxressing out the iuice, par-
tially evaporating it in the sun, and carefully
preserving it in bottles; or lastly, after having
thoroughly dried the green grape, it is ground
to powder in a TniW, and the powder bottled.
These various preparations give thus a fresh
tart vej^etable juice for all seasons of the year
in cookm^ meat and vegetables for the table :
and in regions where they are never accustomed
to see a lemon, the^r supply the place of lemon-
ade. The fresh ripe grape, in the regions
where it is cultivated, may be had from three
to five months in succession (Lev. xxvi 6).
owing to the difference of vmes, soil, ana
climate of a particular district. During these
months, and indeed for many following months,
combined with bread, it is the main reliance of
the people for food to eat ; for theirs is a ** land
of bread and vineyards" (2 Ki xviii 32).
Grax)e8 are not sola in the interior towns at
two or three shillings a pound^ but at the
astonishingly low price of a farthing and half-
penny a pound ; and even in Constantinople,
with all the causes of deamess, the common
sorts of grapes can be had for about a penny a
pound. They are so innocuous that in generad
one may eat of them with greater freedom
than any other kind of fruit, even to satiety.
It is not to be wondered at that so luscious a
fruit, which can be obtained at a cheaper rate
than potatoes by the poor in Ireland, ^ould
form m some districts, with oil and bread, the
chief nourishment of the people, and that the
^ine should be extensively cultivated for the
sake of its sohd fruit merely. Fresh grapes
are hung up in dry places in the shatle, and
preserved on the cluster, for the purpose of
being eaten in winter : so that, in this man-
ner, the time of fresn grapes is protracted
for at least two months longer.

Raisins, — In the villages the grapes are hung
in clusters on the side of the houses, or are
strewed on blankets on the tope of the houses
to dry, and thus they prolong the fruits of the
vintage for the months when the hung grapes
are gone. Of their use for all kinds of cakes in

GRA

cookery, as ab*o ior an accompaniment to brea<l,
we ne«>u not H]»eak, tliou^b it should be keut in
mind, to aid in uur ebtimate of the value ot the
whole Kibtherin^ from the vine, when ased in
the form of the solid fruit. (See BiUiotheca
SeurOf v., i>p. 286, 287.) In these numerous
forms do the orientals i>re)iare the solid fruit
of the vine; and iK.*rtiap8 more grai)es are
macle uste of in this way than in the manu-
facture of wine. Kev. E. Smith writcii in
reference to SjTia: — *'Wine is not the most
imjMrtaut, but rather the least so, of all the
objects for which the vine is cultivated ; ** and
af^ain, Hi>eaking of Bhamdun, **the wine muile
is an item of no consideration." Dr. Kobinson
says, **No wine is made fn»m the verv extt^n-
sive vineyards of Hebron, except a little by
theJei^Tt."

The Jews were expresbly rec^uired b^ their
law not to i^'ather the grai^es until the vme woa
Uiree years oM (Lev. xix. 2.'}), and to leave
some on the vines and on the {,nround (liev. xix.
10), and it was the privilege of the {HMir and
dei)endent to gather these for their owa use.
They were not allowe<l to take any away,
however (Deut. xxiiL 24). The graiies thus
left were called ** the gleaiiiiign ; ^ and as they
hung, here and there one, on the vineH, or
scattered on the .trrt>und, they were strikii^^dy
emblematical of the d<'iKii>ulation of a city (»r
country' (Isa. xviL <»; xxiv. 13; Jur. \i, 1»;
xlix. 1); ()bad. 5).

The i>r<>verb tf» whicli reference is inaile in
Jer. xxxi. 29 is explained in the whole of
Ezck. xviiL Tlie Jews complained tliat they
HiiiTere<l lH;cauKo of the initiiiity of their fathers.
The prophet shows them tneir error nnd <Udu-
sion, and triumphuiitly viudicntt^ tlie divine
l>n)ceetlinpi. So in Isji. v. 2, Wore <:iteil,
the trewiMh nation is reprt'Hented to us under
the figure of a vineyard favourably planted,
and cultivated with the utmost skill and
labour, while every }>rei»aration hiw bi*en nuule
for the vintage, but the husbandman's hoi)eH
are blaatetl; for instea«l of a full cnip of
genuine fruit, he finds u^xm the vineo a
bitter, ]M)isonous, wild fruit, entirely unfit for
use. A more striking iUuBtration of tlie
jwrverseness and ingratitude of the Israeliteri
cannot Ik' conceived.

d

made between kucIi herlw as are used by man,
as grain and vegetablen, an<l such as are uticu
cbiefly by cattle (1*8. civ. 14).

The quick growth anil t<>ndeme8d of this
species of vegetation fuminh several of the
most striking illustrations of the Scri])tureH.
Iliere is a melancholy imtlioa in the description
of the jNudmist (Ps. xc 5, <>; xcii. 7; ciii. 15,
16: Isa. xL 6-8; iL 12: Jas. i. 10; 1 Pet. i. 24).

Nothing can exceed in beauty and ai>]>ro-
Tiriateness the gradation of images employed
by the nrophet. ** They were as the grass of
the field, and as the green herb, as the grass on
the house-tops, and as corn blasted before it be
grown up" (2 KL ziz. 26) Here w« have the
308

GRE

weaknen and tendemeu of the first thooU of
any green herb, the frailty oi the ^w apirM of
grass that aometimea spring np in thevegctdilB
mould or shallow earth npon the hooae-tom or
the withered bhide of ooni hlMtud beiore it
rises into a stalk.

The dry stalks of herba were often lued, as
faggots are now, for the purpose of betting
ovens (Matt vi 30; xiiL 30; Luke zii. 28)i
(See Coal, Dcno, Fuel.)

GK^VSSHOPPER (EccL xii. 5)->«i imeet
of the locust species, often mentioned in the
sacred writings. The word rendered pnut-
hopper in the above cited panage ia mioered
locust in 2 Chr. viL 13. Graaahopperi were
allowable food under the Jewiah law fLer. xL
22). Their timidity ia proverbial (Joo xxziz.
20). They are often found in great mnltitiides
(hence the figurative langoage, Jndg. tl 5:
x-ii. 12; Jer. zlvi Si), and they prove dettanw'
tive to vegetation, especially in its early ifaisei
(Amos vii 1).

Inhere is a i>eculiar allusion in Nah. liL 17 to
a common habit of this insect. Whenbenun^ied
with the cold they assemble in vast nnmben
uiKm the hedges or other ahmbbeiy : and sodi
is their multitude, that the places they oocnpj
are darkened, and resemble the encampnig
gntund of a great army. As soon, however,
as thev are revived by tne warmth of the fim,
thev fiy awav no one knows whither.

l^he gnu»Hhopper is used to illnatrate ooo*
]mrative inKignincance (Num. -xiiL 33; Iml xL
22) ; and in Uie ^masage from BcdeaiaBtes, fint
cited, reference us i>robably made to that degree
of weakness and infirmity in old age wmdi
niaki'^H the weight or even the chirping of a

Hill)

GKAVEN IMAGE (Exod. xz. 4). (See
Idolatry.)

GREAT SEA (Num. xxxiv. 6) is the same
^dth tlio Mediterranean, and constitntea that
lar^' mass of waters between Europe, Aflik
anil Africa, which receives its name (mMtoid)
from its {Mistition, and has its only oommmiica*
tiou with the ocean by the straits of Gibraltar.
It is alM> culled the ** utmost sea** (Joel ii. 3U)t
and the ** hinder sea" (Zech. xiv. 8), and wai
the western boundary of the promised land.

GREAVES. (See Akmour.)

GREECE (Zech. ix. 13), or GRECIA (Dan.
viii. 21), was kno^n to the Hebrews hj the
name of J a ran (L<a. Ixvi. 19; Ezck. xxviL 13,
ID). As uue<l in the New Testament, it man
generally C4ini])rehen<ls Greece proper, Icoia,
auil AKia Minor. In the time of Alexander
tlie (i reeks were masters of Egrp^ Syria,
and the countries and provinces befvond tlie
Euxihrati'H; and hence the name Greek becsaie
somewhat indefinite, and was applied by tiie
Jews to all Gentiles who were subject to
Grecian power. Indeed, the word (Tredt fM
to the Jews synonymous with OtfdOt QiaA.
vii 26) ; so that the world was divided bjtiMB
between Jews and Greeks. All that were not
Jews were Greeks (Acts xx, 21; Bom i 16; 1

GRE

Cor. i 22, 24); and to Greeks all eke were
barbarians. "Greece^** as meaning Achaia
(oomp. 1 Thess. i 7^, u opposed to Macedonia
in Acts xz. 2. The New Testament was
written orinnally in Greek. The invasion and
oonqnest of the eastern nations by Alexander
the Great, which took place about three cen-
turies before the Christian era, led to a general
use of the Greek language : and it is probable
that a book designed for the worl(L as it then
was and was likely to be. would find more
renders in that language tnan in any other.
The prevailing language of our Saviour and his
apostles, and probably of the people of Judea,
-was Syriac, though the oommercuJ intercourse
of the Jews made them familiar with the
Greek; indeed, it was as prevalent as the
mother toiu^e. The Greek spoken in Pales-
tine, and tound in the New Testament, was
the Greek of Alexandria, learned by conversa-
tion and from the Septuagint, modified by
being made the vehicle of Hebrew thoughts.
The mob in Jerusalem understood Greek, and
-were prepared to hear a Greek oration from
Paul; but when they heard him use Hebrew
or Syro-Chaldaic, naturally, as the historian
testifies, "they kept the more silence." The
term Grecian, in many portions of the Acts,
does not signify natives of Greece, but Hellen-
ists— Jews who used the Greek language. To
them are opposed the Hebrews — Jews bom in
Palestine, and using the Aramaic. The con-
trast in reference to nation is Jews and Greeks;
but in reference to lam^uage in the same nation,
it is Hebrew and Hellenist. (See Aohaia,
Barbarian, Corinth).

GREET. (See Salutation.)

GREYHOUND (Prov. xxx. 31). The mo-
tion of the animal known in modem times by
this name is both graceful and fleet. It is by
zoany supposed that the original words refer to
dome entirely different animal, as the horse, or
leopard, or zebra. Others take it to be a
wrestier girded for combat. The Hebrew
words meauj " one girt about the loins,'* as the
margin has it.

Grind (Job xxxl lO). This expression here
denotes not only the lowest menial service, but
also that the person of the patriarch's wife might
be at the disposal of anotner, as female slaves
in the East are at the present day. (See Mill. )

HAB

GRINDERS (EccL zii 3). The *'ffrinder8
ceasing because they are few.** in Solomon's
allegorical exhibition of the dedine oi life, is
supposed to represent the loss of the teeth, or
theur failure to perform their office in masticat-
ing or jnrinding one's food.

G^RKZLED (Gen. xxxi 10; Zech. vi 8, 6)
— connected with the German flrew— gray, ana
was ori^;inally^ spelled ffrided. Black and white
intermingled in small spots.

GROVE ( Judg. iiL 7). The word rendered
** grove " in Gen. xxi 33 means a tree, as it is
rendered in the margin. The other term,
aaherah, is translated " grove,** but may mean
some form of idoL The sacred tree is a pro-
minent Assyrian sjrmboL The idolatrous
heathen worshipped their gods on the tops of
hills and mountains, and in groves of trees
(Deut xiL 2, 3: Hos. iv. 13). The use of
ffroves as places tor religious worship seems to
have been very early : and the selection of such
scenes originated probably either in a desire to
make the service more agreeable to the wor-
shippers, or more invitihff to the gods : or be-
cause the gloom of the forest is calculated to
excite awe; or because the concealment of
odious rites and impurities was more effectual :
or because it was supposed that the spixits of
the departed often hovered over the place
where their bodies are buried ; and as it was
veiy common to bury under trees (Gen. xxxv.
8: 1 Sam. xxxL 13), the erection of idtars or
places of devotion to their spirits, or to other
spirits, good or evil, in or near such trees, wad
very natural Hence it became common to
plant groves (Deut. xvi 21) with a view to
idolatrous worship; and as these were con-
stantiy furnished with the images of the gods,
the terms grove and idol became to some
extent convertible (2 Ki xxiii 6). (See AsH-

TAROTH )

GUAItD-CHAMBER (1 Ki xiv. 28)— the
apartment occupied by the king's guard.

GUEST. (See Feast.)

GUEST-CHAMBER. (See CHAireER.)

GUR, ooiNO UP op(2 Ki. ix. 27)— was a place
on the road from Esdraelon to the modem
Jenln.

GUR-BAAL— dfpcff ingr of Baal (2 Chr. xxvi.
7) — an Arabian district, rendered in the Sep-
tuagint, Petra.

H

HABAKKUK — one who emtfracts — one of
the twelve minor prophets, of whose birth we
know neither the time nor place. Jewish tra-
ditions as to his birthplace, history, and death
are not worth repetition. He lived probably
in the reign of Joeiah, and was of course con-
temporary with Jeremiah ; and it is ^^enerally
supposed he remained in Judea, and died there.

It we knew more of his career, we mi^ht find
a new point and beauty in many of his allu-
sions ; but he lives in his prophecy, nor shall
his memory perish — embalmed in a monument
of sanctified genius. The man has faded from

our view, but the rapt minstrel yet utters his
wild, glowing periooiB. The Greek translators
needed not, by their pedantic alteration, to make
his name more sonorous, changing it into
Ambakoum. It is picturesque, like his own
oracles.

Prophecy of. is the thirty-fifth in the order
of the books ot the Old Testament. It was
uttered about 600 years before Christ, and
relates chiefly to the invasion of Judea by tiie
Chaldeans, uie overthrow of the Babylonish
empire, and the final deliverance of Gk>d*8
faithful people. Some passages of this prophecy

309

HAB

are not surpMsed in Bublimity and simiilicity
of style, nor in the strength and fervour of
piety which they exprees. The prophet tiegins
Dy lamenting the wars which should oome on
his country, and which he was doomed to wit-
ness. He shrinks from the bloody and appal-
lizig Bi>ectacle. '*^Vhy dost thon show me
iniquitjr, and cause me to behold grievance?
for spoiling and violence are before me, and
there are wat raise up strife and contention "
(ch. i 3|. Yet, at God's command, he utters
the terrible threatening of the Chaldean inva-
sion,— of the awful inx^oad of that "bitter and
hasty nation." whose squadrons of cavalry were
swift as the ieoimrd and ferocious as the even-
ing wolf, the resistless impulse of whose attack
should shatter and dash in lueces the faint
resistance of a doomed and cowardly people.
But such judgements were the result of no
common iniauity— no ordinary un)vocati()n.
The sins of tne i>eople are then described by
the prophet in all their blackness and agi^^va-
tion. They were trespasses against God and
against their own felicity — pride that was in-
satiable— sensuality that was shameless— covet-
ousness that was cruel in its exactions— and
impiety which forgot that there was a God in
the heavens, or a ikw of God upon the earth.
The third and concluding chapter of Habak-
kuk's oracles contains his famous ode, wUicli,
for the boldness and rapiiUty of its flights, the
sublimity and ^rasp of its coniH^ptions, the
magnificence of its imagery, and the music and
melody of its rhythm, stands uusurpassuil in tlie
whole compass of Hebrew |KH;try. There is
nothing nobler in Isaiah, more during in Ezekiel,
or more gorgeous in the latter sections of .fob.

Tlie dciiication A^ith which the pro]>hi'cy
closes — viz., ** To the chief singer on my
stringed instruments "—has reference solelv to
the ode or prayer which constitutes the third
chapter. The word ncffinath {stringed inMru-
ments) signifies an instrument that was jilayod
by friction or pulsation (as violins, harj^H* &c.),
in contradistinction from wind instniiiients*
and the comixmtion was directed, as several of
tibe psalms are (Ps. iv., vi., liv., IxL, Ixvii.,
IxxvL, titU)t to the leader of some i>articular
department of the temple music.

HABERGEON. (See Armour.)

HABOR (2 KL xvii. G), or the river Onzan
— one of the places to which Tiglath-pilesor
first transx)orteil a i^art. and Shalmanezer after-
wards the whole, of the ten tril)es of Isny.'l.
Habor or Chabor is the river called Chaboms
b^ Ptolemy, and now the Khabour, a large
tnbutary of the Euphrates.

HACHILAH, HILL OP (1 Sam. xxiii. 10)-a
stronghold at the southern extremity of the
wilderness of Judea, where David concealed
himself from his persecutors.

HAD AD — 8un (1 Ki xi. 14)— a common
name of the royal family of Edom. When
David conquered that country (2 8am. viii. 14),
and cut off its male population, certain of the
king's household escaped the general massacre,
and fled, taking wiUi them Hiidad, then a little
child. After a time they went into Egypt,
310

HAG

, and young Hadad was nreaented to tiie knu;
I and probably his royal descent was aav
known. The king reoei^ed huooL with bchI
favour, and in proceH of time he mainied thi
queen's sister, and the familifie were aftenraidi
on terms of the closest intinuicy. AffeerDaviifi
death, Hadad requested Phaiaoh to let him
return to Edam. And this he probaUydidt
as we find him mentioned as HjKduid tliefidoBh
ite, and the adversary of Soloiiioii (1 KL xL
14-22). Other kings of Edom of the anw
name are mentionea— one in I Clir. i 0^ sad
another in Gen. xxxv. 25; also m eon cf IA>
mael. Gen. zxv. 15.

HADADEZER (2 Sam. tIu. 3), or WATV.
AREZER (2 Sam. x. 16; I Chr. XTiii.^-a
Syrian king with whom David had ssfCfil
contests. Iji ons of them he took 20,000 foot-
men and 700 horsemen of Hadadem'k aimj
prisoners, besides chariots of war. Onanollicr
occasi<m, when Hadadewr hnd foimed sa
alliance with a neighbouring pioTinoe, Darid
again defeated him, and took 22,000 of Ui
arm V prisoners. Among the apoib weve goU
shields, and a great quantt^of braes or eonis.
Some years afterwards. Hadadexer and tbct
other Syrian princes formed an aHiiM* to
assist the Ammonites against DaWd; but the
whole SjTian army was defeated on the CMt
bank of the Jordan, by the Israelites, under
the command of Joab. Between 40^000 sad
50^000 of the enemy were killed, including their
prmciftal general ^ and they thenceforth bscsi
tributary to David, (1 Chr. xix.)

HADADRLMMON (Zech. ii 11). nm
comparing this passage with 2 Chr. zzzy. 23^
we infer that Hadadrimmon was a dty or
village in the valley of Megiddo, near WmA
kiii^ Jo«dah was mortally wounded in battle
against the Egyptians. The site has not beea
identi6ed.

HADASSAH-m.vW/e. (See Eothbl)

HADID (Ezra iL 33)-a town orTiUageBHr
Ij(x1, or Lydda. Acamling to Van develde.
it is represented by a viUage on the brow of s
hill to the east of tliat city, and is ■fall irrfWI
el- Hadithoh. It is not the Adida of JoeepkiM^
mentioned in his Antiouities^ xxii., 6L 5; but
it is apiMurently the place of the same — ■>*
referred to in his Wart, ix., L

HADORAM. (SeeADORAM.)

HADRACH, LAXi> of (Zech. ix. 1)— a &•
trict in the vicinity of Damascua.

llAiJt AR— gtmnpfr (Gen. xvL 1) — an Egyp-
tian woman who lived in the family of AhrwbsB
as a servant or bondwoman. Wtio Hagar wu
it is needless to inquire. Peiiiape the molt
pr(»bable tradition is, that she was one of th«
slaves given by the king of Egypt to Abfahsm.
Sandi being childless, propciecd to Abrahsm
that he should receive Hagar as his wife; sad
when Hagar found herself about to reoeiTetbe
blessing which was denied to her w>iTtw^ At
was very much elated, and treated Sank d»-
dainfuUy. Provoked by this conduct Svsh
used her with so great severity, that die vm
compelled to flee from the boaaa. She nadi
her way towards Egypt* her natiye oonnby, m

I

HAa

far M the wilderness of Shur ; and wMe resting
benelf near a fountain by the wayside, she was
informed by an ans^el that the child which she
was to have should be a son, and his name
should be lahmael : that he should be a wild
man, that he should be hostile to eyerybodj,
and everybody hostile to him, and yet tnat he
should dwell in the presence of his brethren,
And that his posterity should be innumerable.
The angel at the same time directed hOT to
return home and submit herself to her mis-
tress. This extraordinary interview happened
at a watering-place south of Judea, which was
hence called Beer-lahai-roi (meaning, "the
well of him that liveth and seeth me **).

When Ishmael was four years old, Grod re-
assured Abraham that the divine blessing
i^uld rest on the lad, and that he should be
the founder of a great nation. In process of
time Isaac was bom, Ishmael being then four-
teen years of age. At the age of two or three
years the child was weaneid, and Abraham
celebn^ed the event by a great feast, and on
that occasion Sarah saw Ishmael mocking or
making sport of her child, and immediately
requested Abraham to banim Ishmael and his
mother from their home. Abraham, who
seems to have been a stranger to the |)roud
and vengeful feelings of his wife, was grieved
at her request ; but, Deing divinely admonished
to comply, he rose up early in the morning,
and supplying Hagar with bread and a bottle
of water, sent her and her child away. She
found her way to the wilder;ness of Beersheba :
but her supply of water was exhausted, ana
she saw nothmg before her and her oxphan
boy but famine and death. The lad, fatigued
and hungry, lay down under a shrub, ana his
mother withdrew from him alittlewavand lifted
up her voice and wept. The cries oi the youth
also, in this hour of his suffering and distress,
came up before Grod. A fountain of water was
disclosed to Hagar, at which she supplied her
-wants and those of her son, and there also
received from Grod a promise that he would
make of Ishmael a great nation. The lad
grew up in the wilderness, became an archer,
and married an £g3rptian woman. (See Abra-
ham, Agab, Ishmael.) Hagar is tne type of
the Jewish economy in the Epistle to the
Galatians. (See Alleoobt, Ishmael.)

HAGARENES (Ps. IxxxiiL 6), or HA-
GARITES (1 Chr. v. 10, 20), are the de-
scendants of Hagar, and are of course the
same with the Ishmaelites or Arabians, dwell-
ing in the district called Hejer, and ma]^ be
the Agraei of Strabo. They are sometimes
joined with the Moabitee, as in the first pas-
sage above cited.

OAGGAI— one vho keeps holiday, Haggai
was a Hebrew prophet, and supposed to have
been bom during the captivity, to have re-
turned with Zerubbabel^ and to have flourished
nnder the reign of Danus Hystaspis. Little,
however, is Imown of him personally, but his
piety and inspiration have given mm im-
mortality (Hag. it 2).

Pbofhxct of, is the thirty-seventh in the

HAI

order of the books of the Old Testament. It
was uttered five hundred and twenty years
before Christ, and of course after the re-
turn of the Jews to their own land. It is
principally composed of keen reproof, and of
affectmg exhortations respecting the building
of the second temple, which they had aban-
doned for fourteen or fifteen years^ because of
the opposition and intrigue of their enemies :
and it also contains predictions of Christ ana
the universal establishment of his kin^om.
There are in this book four oracles distmctly
marked by the prophet himself, for he indicates
the period of their delivery. The first is
general in its nature, exhorting to the great
national enterprise— tiie re-construction ol the
sacred edifice. The second is more precise,
and contains a promise full of animating hope
and consolation. The third intimates that tne
work had been begun, and commits the nation
fuUy to the task; while the fourth contains
a bri^ reiteration of some previous oracles,
with a promise that the political changes
menaced should not reach the present governor
of Israel It is supposed that the glory of
the temple, which is predicted with preat
clearness (Hag. it 7-9), was to be occasioned
by the coming of Chnst; and, though Herod
made important alterations in it, still the
temple of Zerubbabel was always regarded as
the second temple, and Christ, the desire of
all nations, did appear and teach in it. It is
known, moreover, that the Jews expected the
true Messiah would appear in this temple,
even until it was destroyed b^ Vespasian;
and, to make their rejection of Jesus Christ
consistent, they forced themselves to believe
that a tMrd temple is to be erected, of which
their expected deliverer is to be the glory.

The st^le of H^gai is cahn, but neither
tame or lifeless. Tne thoughts are vivid^ and
the language lucid and energetic. The higher
bursts of poetry occur not. The prophet's
mind appears as if it had scarce recovered
from the languor of a long captivity, and as if
his harp yet drooped as when it hang on the
willows by the streams of BabeL But the
slighting opinions which many critics have
passed upon his st;^le are without foundation.
It was plain advice, gentle encouragement,
and not poetic rhapsody, that the nation needed
in the age of Haggai, and by his time, too, the
gloiT had departed from the language— its clas-
sical purity had been deeply taintedduring the
seventy years of its expatriation.

HAIL, or ALL HAIL. L (Luke i 28)
This word was used by way of salutation, and
imported a wish for the health and universal
prosperity of the individual addressed.

2. (Rev. viii. 7) A storm of hailstones was
one of the plagues of Egypt, and is described,
Exod. ix. 23, 32; Ps. Ixxviii 47; cv. 3i 33.
It was emploved for the destruction of Josnua's
enemies (*l osn. x. 11). Hence it is figuratively
used to represent terrible judgments (Isa^
xxviii 2 ; Rev. xvi 21).

HAIR fNum. vi 5). The Hebrews were
accustomea to cat the hair very much as we

311

HAL

do, except that the^ used » nuKxr or knife, and
not edaaozB (Lta. vii 20; Ezek. v. 1). In the
case of a vow or religious obligation to let it
STOW, as in the instance of the Nacarites, the
nair was left unshorn (Judg. xiiL 5). (See
Nazabites.) The precept, Ezek. xliv. 20,
required an avoidance of extremes ; so that the
Israelites should neither resemble the j>riest8
of the heathen gods, who shaved their hair
dose, nor yet the Nazarites, who did not cut
the hair at alL It was prohibited (Lev. xix.
27) to round the comers of the head — ^that is,
as it is generally understood, to shave off the
hair about the temples. Such a prohibition
was doubtless intended to prevent conform-
ity in this respect to the customs of sur-
rounding nations. In Osbum's Ancifnt Effppt
it is shown that many of the ancient nations of
Canaan shaved some J^uts of the head, but in
various proiMrtkms. The hair (especially black
or dark nair) was doubtless considered an orna-
ment, and it was anointed with aromatic oil,
particularly on festivals and other io^us occa-
sions (Ps. xxiii 5; xciL 10; EccL ix. 8), and
perhaps daily (Rutii iii 3), and decorated with
jewels and precious stones (1 Tim. ii. 9 : 1 Pet.
liL 3). The hair of Samson was braided into
■even locks. To the old gra^ hairs were a
"crown of gloiy;" pure white hair was a
symbol of the divinu majesty (Dan. viL 9; 1
Cor. xi. 14). (See Baldness.)

The hair is H]K)ken of by the ai>ostI<t as a
natural veil or covering to women, w^hich it is
a shame to ][>ut off (1 Cor. xi. ir>). It was
plaited or braided, as is the cuntom at thin day
among the AHiatic women. In I mlia the huir is
never cut off by the women, except as a sign
of widowhood. Tlie G! reeks were very fond
of long hair, wliile the Eg^^ptians, in ancient
times, shaved it away. According to Jose-
phus, the lifeguards of Solomon powdered
their locks with gold dust. The expensive
and wasteful decoration which eastern women
bestowed upon their hair is reprehended in
Scriuture. In 1 l^m. ii 9 the aiNwtle Paul
condemns "braided hair;" and the apostle
Peter conveys his cenbure of "plaitinu the
hair'* in 1 Pet. iii.. 3. llie j)ractice referreil
to— the tedious process of twisting and adorn-
ing hair that n.*aches to the heels— may be seen
in the Kast at the present day. It is to be
borne in mind, however, that while Paul con-
demns extravagant expenditure of time and
ornament, he also says that "long hair" is a
"glory" to a woman (1 C-or. xi. 15).

llie practice of Hhaving the hea<1 in token
of great affliction, bereavement, and humilia-
tion for sin, was common even as early as
Job*s day (Job L 20|. So that the exhortation
to cut off the hair is equivalent to an exhor-
tation to begin a course of dee]) mourning and
sorrow (Jer. vii. 29). A change in the colour
of the hair was one of the earliest indications
bf the leprosy ; and hence the removal of the
hair, as the seat of disease, was particularly
enjoined (IjOY. xiil 4, 10, 31, 32: xiv. 8, 9).

HALAH (2 KL xviL 6; xviiL ll)-a pro-
vince of Assyria, supposed by some to be the
312

HAM

nme with Calah (<3«n. x. IS) ; but the qpntini
cannot be satiafaotorily eetUBd. (See Calah.)

HALAK, TUi MODXT (Josh. xL 17)— wasthe
southern limit of Joahaars cwnqacetii, and naj
apply to a ranse of diffs to toe aoath of tbe
Dead Sea, which foim a brodik in the Ghor.

HALHUL ( JodL zv. S8>— a town of Jndak.
and a hiD to the north of Hebroa odDed by
the same name.

HALL. (See JuDaiODiT Hall.)

HALLELUJAH— prmw pe the Lord-%
formula which has aoquiTed the rignifioMBcv
of a common term. (See Allelula.)

HAM-Ao< (Gen. ix. 22)-« eon of KouL
He had four sons, one of whom wae the aa-
cestor of the Canaanitee. The cmpliei fi
Assyria and Egypt were founded by the de-
scendants of Ham; and the kingdooaeof ^ic^
Zidon, and Carthage were for agea the dohb-
ments of their commercial enteipriae and
prosperity. (SeeCAKAAX.) Africa mscnoaL
and Egypt in particular, are called " the had
of Ham** (Ps. IxxviiL 61; cv. 23: ctl 2D.
(See EoTPT, Nations.) In tiie IndiaB Pn-
ranas the story of Ham'a cointemptiioiiia oob-
duct to his faither, and the cnree which feU
upon him in consequence, are rdated vitk
little variation iA name or drcnmsteneea A
place called Ham is mentioned. Gen. ziv. 5,
which may be the same witli Ant-mon; and
the descendants of Ham are mentiuned ai
having once occupied the sonthem bonkr of
the province of I'anaan, aaidgned to the tribe
of Simeon (1 Chr. ^v. 40). (See Katiqus.)

HAM AN— AonouroMf (Esth.iiLl)— a wUM
and ambitious courtier, who became prine
minister of Ahasuerus, a Persian monin^
Because Mordecui, a Jew, in an faanUe
station at court, refused to pay him the
homage which his x^nde craved, jSanMB R*
solved on his destruction ; and to aooaonfiA
it, was willing to sacrifice the whole bo^^f^
Jews who were then scattered throanndt
the Persian dominions. He WQOiMtS£L\^

falsehood and intrigue, in obtaining a
for this cruel purpoM ; but the qaeen,throq^
the influence of Mordecai, waa promnfcsd tP
internose for their deliverance; and iTtian
ended his career on the very gibbet which kt
had caused to be prepared for the
of Mordecai (See Esther.)

HAMATH (Nirni. xiii. 21) (called "i
the (irreat." Amos vi. 2) waa a prcmnoe of
Syria, having a capital city of the same bib'
on the Orontes. It waa originally a rai*
dence of Canaanites (Gen. z. IS), aad if
fre<iuontly mentioned as the extreme liiiifc ^
the Holy I^and towarda the north QSiw^
xxxiv. 8; J wig. iii. 3). Toi was its Imvii
the dayn of David (2 Sam. viiL 9): bit ■
Hezekiah's reign (B. c. 753/ it feU mto tk
hands of the Assyrians (2 KL XTiL M; xnL
34; Isa. x. 9). It was called Kpqihaiiiaiv
some time, but has long ainoe reenmod, Ml
now retains^ its ancient name as Hamah ^
was the residence of the celebrated AlwIfrA
an Arabian prince and geognmher. iriMi ^
scribes it as one of the moat

HAM

Syria^ fully supplied with the means of arti-
ficial irrigation. The western part of its terri-
tory is the granarv of norUiem Syria.

By the phrase, ^' the entering in of Hamath"
( Jndg. iii 3 ; 2 KL ziy. 25), is meant the nar-
row pass leading from the land of Canaan into
Svria. which oomititutes the northern boundary
of Palestine.

HAMATH-ZOBAH. (See Zobah.)

HAMMATH (Josh. xiz. 35). The word
means hot baths, and they were near Tiberias.
It is supposed to be .the same with Hamoth-
dor (Josn. xxi. 32).

HAMMEDATHA (Esth. iii. 1)— Haman's
father. He is called tne Agagite; and Jose-
phus says he was a descendant from Amalek,
and probably of the family or stock of Agag.
If Agag was the oonmion name of their kings,
it is not improbable that an Amalekite would
be called an Agagite, as one of the people of
Agag. In one of the Apocryphal oooks
Haman is called a Macedonian by disposition
and birth.

HAMMER — a well-known instrument. It
represents four different Hebrew words.

UAMOR (See Dinah.)

HANANIAH. (See Abbdneqo.) Various
persons bore this favourite name, meaning the
** grace of Jehovah.** (See Jer. xxviiL 2.)

HANDBREADTH. (See Measubes.)

HANDICRAFT — a manual art (Acts
xviiL 3). (See Apothecary, Bake, Brick,
Carpenter, Cheese, Copper, Distaff,
Flax, Gold, Potter, Silver, Tbntmaker,

W^EAVER.)

HANDKERCHIEF. (See Burial,

C^LOTHES \

HANDS, LATINO ON OF (Heb. vi 2). Both
the hands of the high priest were laid on the
head of the scape-goat when the sins of the
people were publicly confessed. It was also a
ceremony by which persons were inducted into
sacred office, or were made the recipients of
divine gifts (Num. viiL 10 ; xxvii. 18 ; Acts vi
6; viiL 14-19; xiiL 3; xix. 1-6; 1 Tim. iv. 14).
•The various figurative uses of the word handf
by the sacred writers, are too obvious to require
explanation. For example, to fill the hand,
is to consecrate ; to give the hand, was to pled^
friendship ; to lift i^ was to swear; to wash it,
was to assert innocency ; to pour water on the
huids of another, was a token of servitude (2
Ki iii 11). The stretching out of Grod's hand
is the svmbol of his chastenings. Hand joined
to hana is the symbol of a confederacy. The
"hand ** of the Lord is often the phrase chosen
to describe inspiring impulse. The right hand,
in Hebrew geography, denotes the south,
and the left hand, the north ;— the Hebrew
supposed himself to face the east when he
spoke of the four (quarters of the world. The
ngbt hand of Grod is, — 1. The place of honour
(Ps. ex. 1). 2. Of power (Matt, xxvi 64). 3.
Of happiness (Ps. xvi 11).

HAJNDSTAVE8 (Eaek. xxxix. 9). These
were weapons of war, resembling javelina
They were cast with the hand.

HANES (Isa. XXX. 4) — supposed to be a

iftAN

royal dty south of Memphis. (See Taha-

PANES.)

HANG (Deut xxi 22). Hanging on a tree
or gibbet seems to have been a mark of infamy,
inmcted on the dead bodies of criminals, rather
than a punishment, as modem nations employ
it. It miplies that the offender is aociused of
Grod, and an abomination in his sight (Dent,
xxi 22, 23). Yet such a curse, deserved hr us
as transgressors of the divine law, Christ bore
for us in his own body (Acts v. 30; GiaL iii 13;
1 Pet ii 24). (See Cross.)

HANNAH, in Greek, Anna— praciottmeM.
Elkanah of ICamathaim-zophim of mount E-
phraim, a Levite, had two wives, Hannah and
Peninnah. Hannah was most beloved by her
husband; but she had no children. When
Elkanah and his family offered the sacrifices in
Shiloh, at the solenm feasts, year by year, he
gave to his wives and to his sons their several
portions ; but unto Hannah he g^ve a worthier
portion, for he loved her. This excited the
envy of Peninnah towards her more favoured
rival, whom she severely upbraided for her
barrenness^ so that the heart of Humah was
bitt^ withm her, and she could not eat, though
her husband assured her that his love was
better to her than ten sons. In the depth of
her despair she arose and poured out her soul
before the Lord, and vowed that if the Lord of
hosts would indeed look on her affliction, and
but give her a son. she would devote the child
to his service all tne days of his life. While
Hannah prayed, Eli, the high priest, observing
her lips move, but hearing not her voice, sup-
posed her to be filled with wine, and reproved
ner. But she, in meek submission, said.
" No, my lord, I am a woman of a sorrowful
spirit, and have poured out my soul before the
Lord." Then Eli answered, "Gro in peace:
the Lord grant thee thy petition.** Either
from the almost prophetic declaration of EH,
or from some inwara conviction that her prayer
would be granted, she arose, and her coun-
tenance was no more sad.

When the time was come that her son was
bom, she named him Samuel saying, '* Be-
cause I have asked him of the Lord.** When
the child waS about three years old, she
repaired unto the house of God in Shiloh,
and there presented him with an offering to
the Lord, that he might minister before the
Lord in his house for ever. This child of
prayer became a mighty one in Israel The
Lord again visited Hannah and blessed her
with three sons and two daughters. This
pious mother expressed her gratitude in an
exalted song which has its echo in the Mag-
nificat of the Virgin. (See Samuel.)

HANUN (2 Sam. x. 2)— a king of the Am-
monites. We are informed that David had
received tokens of kindness from Nahash, the
father and predecessor of Hanun. After the
death of Nahash, David sent messengers to
Hanun to comfort him, and to express his
respect for the memory of the deceased king.
But Hanim thought, or pretended to think,
that David sent them as spies; so he

nu

HAR

them and Rhaved off one half their beard*,
and cut off their garment in the middle, ana
in this condition sent them home. David
heard of their Kitoation, and nent to meet
them, with directiona to stay at Jericho until
their Wards were grown. TliiM ungenerous
c^mduct of Hanun wa» the occaHion of a long
war, in which multitudes of the Ammonites
and their allieii, Syrians and others, were
slain.

HARAX. 1. A Person (Gen. xi. 26).
Tlie sun of Terah, bn>ther of Abraham and the
father of I^ot.

2. A Place ((ten. xL 32) Kituated in the
north-caHt of Me.so]M>tamia, und between the
Euiihrates and tlie Chelior, whore I'erah died
and was buried (Acts xii 4) ; in M'hich ivuwage |
it is called (*harran. It mos also the reMidence
of I^ban, RolhK'ca's brother ((iien. xx\ii. 43;
xxviii. 10). It liad Ciunmercial intercourse
with Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 2.'*), and was Hubtlued
by the AH.H}Ti:iD armv (2 Ki. xix. 12; Iml
XXX vii. 12). It is tttill kno^n by its ancient
name, antl was the (^anhae of tlie Romans.
Dr. Reke, however, jibices it near Damascus;
but his argumentt«, though iilausilde, are not
concluBive.

HARE (Dent xiv. 7). Ilie hare, a com-
mtm animal in Syria, was declared unclean by
the Jewish law (Lev. xL 0). K-cause it divides 1
n(»t the h(M>f, thougli it chewH the cud. The
hare, indi>e<1. in not a niniin.iut animal, but
it has an ailiou of tlie ni(»uth (the whetting of
its incisor teeth) very siniihir in general a])-
iiearunee to chewing the c»nL Other nations
tx'sides the Jews ai)stained from eating the
hare. Ca-Hiir mentions that this animal was
not eaten by the ancient Dritish inhabitauti*.

HARLOT (Prov.xxix.3). Thi** term,though
generally a]>plied to an a))and(»ne<l woman, is
use<l figuratively by the sacnftl writers ti)
denote the wicked and unchaste conduct of the
Israelites in forsaking their cov<>nant witli God,
and giving thcnisclv(>8 up to idolatry and ini-
purit V ( 1 sa. i. 21 ). (See IIa h a b. )

HAIINKSS (1 Kl XX. 11). In this jiassage
and some others the word denotes annour. It
might be 8Uin»o.MtMl that the wjnvenience of
mtMlem travelling, known as luimess, was of
very rude constnictifm in tln^ time of Solomon ;
but it seems fritm jiaintings found in Eg>'i>tian
tombs, su|»iK^Ked t<» Ije upwards of 3,000 years
olfl, that ui general construction and us<; very
little change has been made. The ]>hrase,
**made ready his chariot" (Kxod. xiv. <J). liter-
ally means, in motlem phraseology, ** tackled,"
or **put to, hiss horses. '

Tliat bridles xiith bits were very early kno^Ti
as part of the harness of a horse is obvious
from Isa. xxxviL 21) and Jas. iii. 3. The wonl
hnrnciutcd (Exod. xiii. 18) does not mean *' bv
fives," but nrobably means fiunished, arrange<l,
armed, ana governed according to the estab-
lished usages and customs of caravans or
travelling companies.

HAROD, WELL OF (Judg. viL 1)— probably
the well AinjalCid — a fountain or watering-
place in Jezreel, near the foot of mount Gilboa
314

HAR

(1 Sam. xdz. 1), and near the nativw
two of David's valiant men (2 Sum. zxiii.

HAROSHETH (Jndg. iv. 2, 13, U,
city of Sisera^ the captain of Jabin*s boat, who
was defeated uy Deborah and Barak. It vaiiB
Naphtali, aftervrards Galilee of the GentOei,
not far hrom Haior. Thmnaon identifisi it
with a great mound called Harothieh, 8nnki
from Megiddo {Lcmd and BootL pi 4W).

HARP (Gen. iv. 21)— « moncal inatomncBt,
invented by Jubal, and need hw the Jewa wha
mirth and joy were ezpreasea (Gen. zxzi. ST;
Pt. IxxzL 2; czxxviL 1, 2; Iml xxiv. 8).
David was partictdarly akilful in the uae of it
(1 Sam. xvi! 16, 23). (See Psaltebt.) The
simplest form ojf the harp or lyre was this:
the bones of animals fonned the two sides and
the upjier connecting piece, and a tortaiise
shell was used for the foot. But probably ve
have no genuine figure of this ancient monaJ
intitrument extant. Another harp (pexhaiM
the same with the "psaltery** and "instru-
ment with ten strings,** Pa. xciL 3) waa made
in the form of the human ear.

The strings of the ancient harp were nAretcbed
over an ovsd sounding boaitl, and played with
a key. Sometimes it had only eight stringi,
and. as some suppose, was then called MkemiMUk
(1 rhr. XV. 21; Ps. vL, xiL, fitfeJ. It wii
light and ]>ortable, or it could nut be used, an
it iloubtless often was, in the act of duidn^
(Kxtxl. XV. 20; 1 Sam. xviii 6). The instru-
ment use<l by I)a\'id was more properly a Ipe,
and might have l)een played with the nana or
with a Key (1 Sam. x\'i 23). (See Mrsia)

U ARROW (1 Chr. xx. 3). The harrow wai
a rude im]>lemeiit of Jewish huabandry, bong,
as is generally supiMJsed, a mere plank or loR
of W(mh1, uiH)n which stones were heaped aaa
the lal)ourer sat, and which was drawn over
tlie ground by oxen, to break in |>ieoes the dodi
and level the surface (Isa. xxviii 24, 25): or
TM.Tha]>s one or more branches of trees might
be useil in the same way. We know, howew,
tluit an im]>lement of the kind was used for
S4)me imriKJses, which was wholly or in part«^
iron (2 Sam. xiL 31). (See Plough.)

HART (Ps. xlii. 1). Deer ia a general name
of a class of qimdrupeds, as the stag, fallow-
deer, rein-deer, elk, &c; but the i^"i™*l is
ni'ver mentione<l by this generic name in the
Rible.

llie fnUoW'dftr (1 Ki. iv. 23) waa a dean
animal by the Levitical law (Deut. xiv. 5). It
Ls supjx>sed to have resembled our red deer, or
hart, in si7A> and colour; whence the name of
faiiotc (i>ale red or i>ale yellow). Some hafs
supiHised the buffalo of miHlem times is in-
tendetl in the above iiassages. The hart is the
male ^tag, and is one <»f the moat graceful and
beautiful of all animals. It was clean by the
Levitical law (Deut. xii. 15; xiv. 5); and the
^ace and agility of its motions are iJloded to
in Hou^ ii. *J; Isa. xxxv. ix The stag loUs or

1»ants like the dog, and is soon exhausted hf
umger (tier. xiv. 5 ; Lam. i 6). The roe. or
roe-buck, is another name for tne hart; ana its
swiftness of foot and elegant fonn an oftoa

HAR
KUaded to iu the Bible. "And Aubdww u
light of foot M > wild roe" (2 8km. il 18).
Toe nie of the Scriptures is (rensnllT supposed
to be the gazelle of Ikter Idinea, winch a *W
foDDd cbieRy in Asia and Afno. It wh a
«laui umoal b; the LeviticiU law (Dent. xii.
10), and a favoorite of tbe chue (Fniv. i-i. 6 ;
loL. liii. 14). Many allustons occur to this
^>iim«.l Itg Bgihty and grace, and the beauty
of its eyes, arc famed in eontern poetry.

The hind is the female stag. She is amoller
snd weaker than her mate, the hart, and has
no horns. She ia sure and swift of foot, and
leaps fearlessly among the rocks oad precipices
(S Sam. uiL 34; Fs. iviii. 33: Hab. iil 19).

lately rendered, " Naphtali is a deer roaming
at large; he shootEth forth noble antlera."
The antlera or homs indicato the strength and
health of the stag; and the whole metaphor
expresses the increase of the tribe, and the
fertility of their portion in Judea.

HARVEST (Gen. viiL 23). Harvest !n Pales-
tine begins about the commencement of April
1. — ,_....■_ juQg. but in some parts of the

_, __ js lat^. Barley harvest pre-

Hied wheat horvesL The sickle was employed
io cut it down, and it was often thrashed and
winnowed in the open air. Gleanings and
comers were left tor the poor. The season
iras one of hard work, but of prevuling mirth-
folnesa ; the "joy of harveet was proverbial
The wheat was collected into grananea, but the
chaff was burned. Those who work in cutting
down the groin and binding the sheaves "fill"
vith the one "their hand," and the other
■'their boenm" (Ps. Cliil. 7). Tbe food of
borvestera in Ruth's time was parched ears

There seems to have been a customary sola.
totion among those who wrought in the harvest
fieU, and such as passed them, or come among
them. "Booi said onto tbe reapers, The Lord
be with yon. And they answered him. The
Lord blen thee" (Ruth iL 4). (See SuaoMB.)

HATE (Gen. uiv. 60), HATRED (Bad.
ii. 1), HATEnHi (Pa. xixn. 2). To hate ii
to abhor, to aboinmate, or to regard with a
rr-""" contniy to love (Jar. xliv. 4]. God'E

HAW

hatred is towordi all sinful thooghts and ways.
" -- - feeling of which all holy f«ings ore con-
in view of nn, and is wholly onlike the
hatred which is mentioDed in the Bcriptnce
rks of the flnh (QaL v. 20). To
means to love in a leea degree,
iour says that he who would
follow him must "hate" father and mother,
he means that even these dearest earthly friends
must be loved in a subordiaate decree ; and in
a sense the follower of Chnat is to hat«
life, or be willing to socrifioe it for the
1 servioe of the Redeemer. A carrfol
examination of the poeaoges and connection in
hioh these words oocur will best show their
ue force and meaning.

HAVRAS—axvt-land (Ewk xlviL 16, 18)
(in Greek, AuraTutiM) — a district of oonntry

, ,^ J —fat north

as Damascus. In modem times its limits have
been extended as far sooth as Boxrali, and the
whole tract is represented as Tolcsnio and
porpDB, with nomeroas remains of town^ vi^e-
tation tor the Arabs' pasturage, and very
fertUe plains. (See Porter's Fivt Yean in
Damaiau.)

HAVILAH, LASD or (Gen. it 11), where
the sacred historian uses the name which was
siti'mards applied to this land, and which was
probably derived &om Havilah, the son of
Cash (Gen. i. 7), whose descendants peopled
it. It is supposed by some to be the same
with Colchis, between the Black Sea and the
Caspian, A country of this name may have
lun between the Eutihrates and Tigris, towards
the Persian Gulf, wlere the Cbavilah of Uter
times is found. One of these provinces may
have been settled by Havilah, the descendant
of Jokton (Gen. I. 29). A third Havilah
is supposed to be intended in Gen. xkv. 18,
though that passage may ^so describe the vast
re^un lost mentioned, between the Persian
Gulf on the east, and Shur by the Red Sea on

The phrase, "from Haviltth unto Shur," in
Gen. iiv. 18 and 1 Sam. IV. 7, and many other
pBSsa^, seems to be used to den^nate the
oppueite extremes of Aralna, in which sense
Havilah may be r^arded as tlie eastern border
of the country inhabited by the Ishmoelites
and Araalekites.

HAVOTH-JAIR-eoWiu of Jair (Num.
xxKiL 41) — thejreneral name of thirty villages
in the land of (fileod, owned by the thirty sons
of Jair, one of the judgee of Israel (Judg. i. 2^].

HAWK (Job uiix. 26)— a fierce and rapa-
doos bird of the falcon tribe, unclean by the
Levitical law (Lev. xi. 18; Deut. xiv. 10), but
so sacred among the Greeks and Egyptians,
that to kill one, even unintentionally, was a
ispital crime. The allusion in the passage
£iit cited is to God's providential core of birds

J then

nth ii

determine the time and coarse of their flight
to reach a warmer clinLate. Moat of the raptor
Uids in Palestine are mlgratoir.

HAY

HAY (Prov. xxviL 25). We are not to
BUppoee that thiB word, as used in the Bible,
denotes dried gnm, as it doefl with uh. The
management of grow by the He1)re\^'H, as food
for cattle, was entirely different from onra. It
was cut (rreen, as it was wanted ; hence " mown
grass** (Fs. IxxiL 0). So in I^v. xxviL 25,
the word translated "hay" means the first
Bh(M)ts of the grass : and the whole passage
might better be renuered. *'The |:nraH8 apuear-
eth, and tlie green herb snoweth itxelf. ana the
plants of the mountains are gathure<L" And
m Isa. XV. 0 hay is put for graw, and grass is
put for the green herlx Tlie tenderness of
gnwH, the ra^iidity of its grovi'th, and the earlv
peritMl at which it is cut down and consumed.,
afford the sacred writers some striking ana
Iteautiful illustrations (I's. ciiL 15; Isa. xL 6;
Jas. L 11). (See Grass, Mowing.)

HAZAEh- -vision of Ood Jl KL xix. 15)—
an officer in the court of S>Tia, whom Elijah
was conmiandetl to anoint as successor to ]ion<
hadad, and at the same time to anoint Jehu to
be king of IsraeL Several years afterwanl^,
Benhadad, n.*siding at Damascus and being
taken sick, instructed Uazael to take a princely
present to the prophet EliHba, and consult him
as to the Ihsuo oi his sicknoKs. The prophet
informed Hazael that his royal master*H diseatte
would not prove mortal, but htill that he wuuld
not live; and he procee<led to predict the
elevation of Uazai.>l to tlio thmue of Syria, and
a series of the m<»Ht hon'i1>le cruelties of which
he woidd be guilty ttpw.anls the children of
IrtraeL Hazael exprestH^l tlie utmost abhor-
rv.'uce of such CDUiluct; but the very next day
he stifled Liuhadftd to death, took the tlirone,
and in process of time |KT]K*trate<l all the bar-
Ijarities that the proi>het had descril>eil (2 KL
X. :V2, ;«; xiL 17, 18; xiii. 3, 7, 2-J; 2 Chr.
xxiv. 2H).

HAZATJ, HAZER, or HAZOR-a w«.rd
meaning village, or an oiwn place nidely ft»r-
tified— is often found in the Old Testaineut,
belonging ejsi)ecially to the territory of .Ju«l:di
and SimeoiL (See Hazok.) Ihizar is ofU.>u
joined to other wortls— as namtw of jdacej*.

Haz.\ u- a n I ) a u - ril/af/r nf bca ntit (>• um. x xxi v.
4) — a i>lace on the southern Ixmndary of the
country, callt*d Adar in J«)sh. xv. X

H.VZAK-ENAN — rilhujt of fountain f (Xum.
xxxiv. 9)— t>n the north-ca8tem l)oundary, and
BU])i)osed by lN»rtiT to be a pla^'e l)etweeii
Damascus and Pabnyra.

Hazar-oaddaii— r//A/f/« of kids ir of fortune
(Josh. XV. 27) -- in the southern district of
Judah.

Haz-VR-HATTICon— rwjV^//r liffai/e (Ezek, xlvii.
16) — on the borders of the Uauruu. (See

HAITR.VN.)

HAZ-\RMAVETH~ri///if/rt of death (Gen. x. 2<»)
—the third son of Joktan. ITie wonl is yet
f<nmd in the Arabian name of Hadramaut
(See Palgrave*s Arabia,)

Hazab-shual— ri7^f/c of foxes (Josh. xv. 28)
— a idace usually mentioned along with Beer-
shelia.

Hazab-scsah— or plural, svHiH—riUaffe of

HEA

hor$€i (Josh. six. 5; 1 Chr. !▼. 81). Tlui plaoe,
which was siren to Simeon in the tonth, u bp4
identified, out its mention along with Beth-
marcabotn— Aotue of cAoriote— miggwfeB tiuk it
may have been one of the itationa or depAt
between Palestine and "Egyp^ by which tiiie
merchandise passing between the two oouBtaie*
wan transported.

HAZEL (Gen. zzz. 37). It is rappowd tiM
the almond tree ii intended in thii pamsf'.
The ori£[inal word ii lasceptible of thuTradei^
ing, or it may mean any tree tfant pn>diMW
nuti*.

KAZEBlM—viltapet. In Dent. iL 23 the

g'lrase rendered^ "tfafi Avime whidi dwelt in
azerim,*' should be, "the Avim w^hich dwelt
in vilhures.**

HA^EROTH— ri/faj7e» (Num. zi 35)-*
station in the desert, not yet fully identified,
though some find it in Hudhem, weit of the
gulf of Akaba.

HAZEZONTAMAR. (See Enoedl)

HAZOR (Josh. XL 10)— a capital city of the
Canaanites, where Jabin dwelt, and whidi wm
subdued and burnt hv Joahua (Josh, zi 1-13^
It wan, however, reDoilt. and governed by *
king of the same name, ^inioee army wm routed
by Barak (Jud^. iv. 2-16). It wms fortified br
Solomon (I Kl ix. 15); and in the genenl
invasion of the country by Tiglath-pile«er, itfeU
into his hands (2 Ki. xv. 29), and it« inhafaituto
were carried into Aanyria. It nuty be repie-
Hented by Tell-Khuraibeh. There u a renuok-
able pn>phecy respecting Hasor in Jer. i^'*
28-^^, and the connection shows it to havebeea
a place of ^at importance. Two towns of tiiis
name lay m the south of Judah. (See Tovs.)

HEAP. The word is a oontraction of the
particinle heaeed^ and signifies what is lifted nji
or exalted. Besides its ordinary meaning^ it
has various figurative acceptations in Scriptani
l^e crown was worn npon the head — it w
anointed with oil — or it was strewn with sdbei
in token of grief. Head means also diief, prin-
cipal, or ruler. Christ is Head of the chnrdu
man is head of the woman. "The hcad,^or
capital, *' of Syria is Damascus. ** (See Assa,
Baldnesh, OLOTHEa, Hair, Hands, Hobk.)

HEAL (EccL iiL 3), HEALING (MaL iv.
2), HEALTH (Gen. xliiL 28). To heal all
manner of sickness and diseases by the weed uf
his (mTi iwwer was the divine prerogative of
our Redeemer (Matt iv. 23), ana the power to
heal was among the gifts conferred on ms esriy
a]H)stle8 (1 Cor. xii. 2^). The various figontive
uKcs of tnese words are sufficiently explain«l
bv their connection.
'HEAP. (See Stone.)

HEART (Acts xvL 14);-the seat of tiie
affections, desires, and motives ; thoosh, ai it
is often emjdoyed by the sacred wnten, it
embracen all the powers and faculties of wan
as a moral, intellectual, and accountable heai
(Matt. XV. 19). ThuiL when God is sud to
shine into the nearts oi men, to give the H^
of the knowled^ of his ^ory in the fMe of
Jesus Christ (2 Cor. iv. 6), ^e tcnn is '

an enlarged sense, and the whole

used in

I

HEA

teaches hb that God causes the undentandiiigs
of men to be enlightened or informed by the
Holy Spirit in the knowledge of his srlory as it
in made known in Jesus Christ ; and that the
will and affections thus come under the influence
of spiritual knowledge^ and the soul is trans-
formed into the divine miage.

The prophet says. "The heart is deceitful
above all things, ima desperately wicked ; who
can know it?" (Jer. xvii 9.) And, as if in
reply to this emphatic question, €rod inmie-
diately decliures ms prerogative, " I the Lord
search the heart : I try the reins'* (v. 10).

HEARTH (Gen. xviii 6). On the hearth
the fire was kindled, and Dread required in
haste was rapidly cooked and fired upon it.
The floor being sufficiently heatecL was swept —
the fire being shoved to a side — tne bread was
laid upon it, and covered up with the glowing
ashes. (See Bake, Bread, Ovbstb.)

HEATH (Jer. xvii 6)— a plant peculiar to
wild and barren wastes. It is used in some
countries as fuel, and also to stuff beds and
thatch houses. Its place in the desert, in
parched and uncultivated ground, is alluded
to in the above passage, ana makes but a part
of the beautiful figure by which the opposite
conditions of the ri^^teous and wicked are
illustrated. But the Juniper may be the plant
intended (Jer. xvii. o-S), The same word is
used, Jer. xlviii. 6 ; and whether it denotes in
this passage the plant, or some blasted naked
tree, or an animal of the desert, the idea con-
veyed Ib the same — viz., that the Moabites
should seek the solitude of the desert to elude
the pursuit of their enemies. The Seventy
make it in this place the wild ass.

HEATHEN (Ps. ii 1). This term is appUed
by the sacred writers sometimes to unbeuevers
(Jer. X. 25), but generally in the same sense
with Gentiles. In modem times it denotes all
those who are without the knowledge of the
Gospel, and embraces three-fourths of the
human race. (See Gemtilb, Grkecb.)

HEAVEN — what is ?uaved up or high (Gren.
xlix. 25), and represents four different Hebrew
terms. The Jews seem to have considered the
region of the air. dew, clouds, and wind as the
first heaven (Job xxxv. 11) ; the place which
tlie heavenly bodies occupied as the second
heaven ; and the place where God. and Christ,
aiul angels dwell, as the third neaven, and
invisible to mortal eyes (2 Cor. xii 2, 4).

The opinion has always prevailed among
Jews ana Christians, Greeks and Romans, and
seems to be fully confirmed by the Scriptures
(Luke L 19), that there is a place in the uni-
verse where God^s presence is made manifest
bv some visible di^lay of his transcendent
glory in the presence of the holy company that
are admitted to dwell there. To such a place
Paul was admitted (2 Cor. xii 2), and thither
Jesus ascended (Luke xxiv. 51; Eph. iv. 10;
Heb. viii 1) ; and there he now sits upon his
throne (Heb. x. 12) as king of Zion, and there
he continually officiates as our advocate and
intercessor (Heb. ix. 15, 24-28) ; there is his
Father's house, in which are many mansions

HEB

prepared for Christ's friends and followers to
inhabit when the earthly house of this tabw-
nacle shall be dissolved; and there will be
gathered together, in one blessed indissoluble
society, all the redeemed of the Lord, out of
every kingdom, and people, and tongue, and
nation, whose endless and rapturous employ-
ment it will be to admire and adore the nches
of the divine grace and glory. No effects of
sin will be found in heaven. No curse is there,
and life immortal is the happy privilege of all
its population. The redeemed are clothed in
perrect holiness, and enjoy unending felidHy.
Jesus is there, tne object of corporeal vision —
gladdening the sight and filling the bosoms of
countless myriaos. They serve Grod— evei^
spirit reloices in obedience — ^the mind has on it
no cloud and the heart no stain ; and the body,
raised from the grave and etherealized by tne

Sower of Grod, feels no longer the menace of
isease or the weakness of age, the exhaustion
of effort or the pang of death. The gift of God
is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord.

The heaven of heavens (2 Chr. vi 18) is the
highest heaven, as the song of songs is the
most excellent song; the God of goos or the
Lord of lords, the greatest of gods or the
supreme of lords.

The third heaven (2 Cor. xii 2) is the same
as the highest heaven, and both are used to
express the idea of the highest exaltation and
glory (Luke ii 15) — that is, God dwells not
only in heaven, but above the heavens, in the
third or very highest heaven. The rabbins
and the Mohammedans make seven heavens.
(Comp. 2 Cor. xii 2; Eph. iv. 10; Heb. vii 26.)

Heaven, kingdom of. (See Kingdom.)

HEAVE OFFERING. (See Offering.)

HEBER (Judg. iv. 17-21) was of the family
of Jethro, and was distinguished as the husband
of Jael, who killed Sisera. Six persons of this
name are found in the Old Testament. (See
Ebeb, Hebrews.)

HEBREWS (Gen. xiv. 13). This term is
used to denote the people descended from
Abraham. The derivation of it is either from
Heber, one of the ancestors of Abraham^ or
from uie Hebrew word Eber, which signifies
from the other side. Abraham was named
Abraham haibri, Abraham the passenger, or
Abraham the emigrant, as he had emigrated
from Mesopotamia. The people who are known
by the name Hebrews came ** from the other
side," as we say of a foreigner that he is from
beyond seas: and hence tne Canaanites might
very naturally call them Hebrews, or people
from the other side. They were not called
Jews until a much later period of their history ;
and this name was deriined from Judah.^ Jew
is a corruption of JudahiUf one of the tribes of
Judah. Hebrew was the ordinary or political
name ; Israel was the internal or religious
designation.

In the present article we can give but a very
general outline of the history of this extra-
ordinary people.

1. Their Origin. — A man of wealth, wisdom,
and integrity was selected by God to be tho

317

HEB

father and founiier of the Hebrew nation, and
wau favoured with many viiiions and revela-
tions, jj^roniises and covenants, all tendin;^ to
show him the greatness and Mory of his pos-
terity. Among other things, ne was told that
his descendants should be very numerous, be
taken into peculiar relation by God to himself,
and should sulxlue and posseiw a most fertile
and beautiful country. (SeeABKAHAM.) About
200 ^ears after Abraham was appointed to this
distmctioii, we find J«j8«>ph, his great-grandson,
holding one of the princii>al oiliceri in the govem-
mmt of Egyi>t ; and by a train of remarkable
Pfovidencvs, his father Jacub, together with
nis eleven brethren, alHo became inhabitants of
that country. (See Euypt, Joseph, Moses.)

Up to this i)eriod they had live<l under a
X)atnarcha] form of government, Hr)me traces
of which remained thmugh succeeiling ages
(see Patkiakchh) ; but <luring tlieir eventful
journey fmm Eg>i)t God establirihed a govern-
ment f()r them, the elements <ir grand principles
of which are found in thn law of the ten com-
mandments, pnimidgated fnim mount Sinai
This ])erfect and admirable conntituticm or
code, embracing, as it did, all that iiertains
to the civil as well as the religious rights and
obligations of the ]>e<iple, was fonned by G<h1
himHolf, an<l by him administered, as eunihati-
cally lawgiver, judge, and king of Jurael;
and hence it w called a thrticrarit. This theo-
cratic form of government, under various
modifications, exiHte<I even to the c«)ining of
the Meiisiali. Tiie .Tcv/irth kin;^) wen* mere
vicen)VH, Ixmnd to govern by certain lawt*. and
fearfully punirtlietl for diM«ibedience. They
were raisca ui> and displncvd by th«; immediate
and fre^iuently visible direction of (iod (IIos.
xiiL 11), they were subject to his authority
(Deut xvii. 14-20), and the pmpheti in their
long and gh^rious succeKHion were apix>inU^>il to
maint:un the iutercourite K-tween (jI<m1 and liis
peculiar i>eo]>le, and to repn»ve and rebuke the
Icin^ of Judah and Isniel for all their rel Hellion
axamRt him. Hence it is ju!4t1y iuferretl that
the shockM and revolutionH in the Jewish
government, however it nii;;ht iiitemint or
minlify, never ile!rt,n»yed the theocrjt tic relation
subsisting l>etweon (.io<l and the seed «)f Altra-
liam, until the light of the glorioUH Gospel
arose, and solvation for all, Jews and Gentiles,
was T)roclainie<l through the bliM)d of Christ
(8ee Canaan. ) 1 )uring their earlier <>ccui>ttnev
of Canaan the hind was sidslivided ; each family
had its own allotted jtortion of the w^il and
territory. There were probably 15,000,000
acres in Caii;u'iu, and every Israelite able to
carry anus might have about 1!0 iicre.s set apart
tt) him OH his own posse.s>ioiL Quntwtrjv(h\rn^
or 4 acres, was the Roman ]ihratH*. for a rural
comi)eten('e in the best days of the commtm-
wealth, and at an earlier peril h1 only 2 acres
were given to the soldier. But the Hebrew
3'eonmnry had a more ample patrimony than
the l)oastcd liberality of llome could afford.

2. Their Relvmn, — It was evidently the

design of God that the Hebrews should be

.mtirely sejiarated and distinguished from ail

■^ ai8

other nationa, and to thii end tlieir rdigi«
and laws were moat wisely adapted; and,
besides this, the rites and oeremonies triudi
they were nxiuired to observe wa« of the HKHt
significant import, and perfectly fitted to
engage the attention of such a people. Tlien
was a body of men set apart, to whom was earn*
mitted all matters relatmg to religion and lav,
which, under this singular gDvemment, wen
one and the same thing. To these persona, «^
officiated as priests, judges, and a board ol
health, &c. , was allowt^ one-tenth of all the pn>-
duoe of the land. The Levites, as the saortd
tribe, had a portion of the lands assigned than,
with forty-eight cities, and thus formed a ooa-
necting hnk between the priests and the adti-
vators of the soil Commerce was neoesssri^
verjr limited, aS; by the very nature of dmr
institutions, all connection with other natioBS
and societies was in a great measure made
impracticable. And yet the feasts and festrnli
which were periodically celebrated, and imw
the most important of which the whole oatua
vras required to attend in a body, cffectnaDj
preserved their social character and habitL
(See Feahth.) This constitation and thsM
laws were given chiefly at or near mount Simi.
And thus, in the wastes of Arabia, and Iok
before any lawgiver arose of which the worn
has now any knowledge, a system of laws sad
a form of government were prescribed for the
children of Israel which has been the wonder
of succeeding ages, and has exerted a boundlm
influence on the minds and institutiona of aD
succeeding generations of mankind.

3. Their Political Hittory, —After forty yesn'
crmtinuance in the wilderness, during whidi
time every individual but two of the race thst
left £g>i>t had died, and given place to their
children, they were brought into the land of
Caniian. After the death of Joshua^ the
atlministration of the government was ooai-
mittetl to a body of men called "judgea"
This was a Hi)ecies of dictatorship ; and it woold
seem that tliese judges were apnointed oply
for extraonlinary occasions ana fur spedfie
pur^Ktses (Judg. iii. 8-10, 14, 15; vi. 3^36).
ITieir |»ower, however, was very great, (JlMl{^
viii.) Of these rulers there were m all fifteen
fmm Othniel to Samuel, in whose time the
government was changed. (See J it does.) When
the Hebrews hod fallen into idolatrous prac-
tices, (jrod suffered tlieir enemies to pr^ail
against them ; and as they come to be involTsd
in wars with the ncighlH>urine nations, they
felt the necessity of a military leader, or some
more efticient goveniment ; and they asked for
ii king. Saul was given tf> them in this rda-
ti«>n; but, though victorious in many battles,
he displeased Cio<1, and David, Uie son of
Jesse, was anc.iinterl to the throne in his nlace.
Under his reign Jerusalem was adomeoi anl
fortified, and made the se^t of government;
the empire was greatly extended, and the
f>rosj>ects of the nation were never mors
glorious. He wiis succeeded by his son Sc^
mon, whose reign forms the most sptendid
IMiriod of tlie Jewish histoiy. and it was di»*

HEB

tiognished bythe erection of the temple at
Jenisalem. His oostlV palace and magni-
ficent court could not be maintained without
heavy contributions from the people; and
xipon his death, and the saocession of ms son
luehoboam, they demanded some relief from
these heavy burdens. This being refused in a
very offensive manner, ten of the twelve tribes
revolted under Jeroboam, and were called the
*' kingdom of Israel'* Judah and Benjamin
adhered to Behoboam, and were called the
''kingdom of Judah.*' The subjects of the
kuigdom of Judah were probably called Jews
from this time till the Kingdom of Israel, as
such, was destroyed; and then the word Jews
became the common name for all the descen-
dants of Jacob. After a series of wars between
Judah and Israel, and between them and other
nations, for a period of two hundred and fiftv
years, the kingdom of Israel was at iengtn
subverted, the territory fell into the hands of
strangers, and the people of the ten revolted
tribes which composed it were carried captive
into Assyria, never as a body to return,
(2 Kings xvii) The kingdom m Judah. too,
soon after met a similar fate, her people Deing
carried into Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar.

Seventy long years of bondage passed away
before any reudf came to them : but Cyrus,
king of Persia, subdued Babylon, and per-
mitted the Jews, then in captivity, to return
to their country; but they went back with
not a few foreign customs and dogmas
with which they had become familiar in
the time of their exile. The lofty aspira-
tion, the simple piety, and pure morality of
their better aays, were not with them; the
subtle and self -righteous Pharisee, and worldly-
minded Sadducee, and a variety of other sects,
sprang up ; and error, corruption, and super-
stition prevailed in every form. 6ur informa-
tion concerning this period of Jewish history is
derived chiefly from Joeephus and the books of
the Maccabe^ (See Babylon, Persia.)

The kmgdom never reached its former
glory. While Nehemiah lived, indeed, the
nation continued to prosper; but soon after his
death the country ceased to be considered a
distinct portion of the Persian empire, and was
joined to the province of Syria. Tne direct
management oi civil affairs was committed to
the priests ; but these were appointed to their
high office by the Syrian governors. This was
diametrically opposed to the ordinances of the
Jewish state, and was most pernicious in its
results. The people, indeed^ remained faithful
to the Persian government till the close of its
existence, and were on this account permitted
to live at peace with their neighbours. But
the office of the high pri^ihood, being at the
disposal of the Syrian viceroys, now became
the object of worldly ambition, and was sought
after chiefly by those means which are most
efficacious with worldly rulers. Four high
priests — Jeshua, Joachim, Eliashib, and Joiada
— ^had held the sacred office, and been removed
by death from it, since the return from Babylon.
Johanan now succeeded his father, Joiaoa, in

HEB

the pontificate. But Joshua^ anoiher son of
Joiada, had received the i^pointm^it from
Bagoses, governor of Syria; and hence he
demanded the office from his brother. Johanan
refused, and slew Joshua in the inner court of
the temple^here he had made the cKffensive
demand. For this insult to his authority
Bagoses censured the Jews severely, upbraided
them with polluting the temple by an act oi
murder, and ixnposed a tax upon aU the lambs
offered m sacrifice, which was exacted till the
recall of Bagoses, about seven years afterwards.

Jaddua^ son of Johanan, the next hiffh priMtL
did much to advance and maintain tne uMlai
and social improvement of the people. In nis
time the Samaritans, who had lonsr o^en denied
access to the temple of Jerusalem, bmlt a
temple for themselves on mount Grerizim,
This increased the enmity whidi already
existed between the Jews and Samaritans, and
led to that entire alienation which was after-
wards displajred. Soon after this the Persian
S»vemment was overturned by Alexander the
reat, and Israel was brought under the sway
of the Macedonians. The high priest is said to
have won the favour of Alexanaer by showinjg
him the prophecies of Daniel conceminfi[ hia
rapid and extensive victories (Dan. viii 7; xi. 3) :
and hence the people of Judea were pexrnitted
to enjoy their peculiar national privilms, and
were freed from taxes every sevenw year.
But the Samaritans were compelled to retire
to Shechem^ between mount Ebal and Gerizim,
and Samana was re-peopled by a colony of
Macedonians.

After Alexander's death, his dominions being
divided among his four generals, the province
of Syria, embracing Palestine, fell to tne lot of
Laomedon. Judea, soon aft^ this, came into
the hands of Ptolemy Lagus, king of Egjrpt,
and many of the people were sent thither as
colonists, which accounts for the number of
Jews which afterwards abounded in Alex-
andria, Lybia, Cyrene, and other places.
Jaddua, tne high priest, was succeeded by
Onias, and he by Simon the Just, during the
reign of Ptolemy. Simon repaired and fortified
the city and temple, and is said to have also
completed the Old Testament canon, by adding
the writings of Ezra and Nehemiah, the books
of Chronicles and Esther, and the prophecies
of Malachi. Under the Egyptian kings the
Jews enjoyed prosperity tor a considerable
time. Tne days of Antiochus IV. are remark-
able as a period of dreadful calamities to the
Jewish people. Having taken offence at their
conduct in the dispute between Jason and his
brother Menelaus about the priesthood, he
came upon them with tremendous violence.
For three days the city of Jerusalem was nven
up to the rage of a brutal soldiery. Four
thousand of the people were slain, ana as many
moro sold into davery. Menelaus led the
impious king into tlie temple, whence he carried
off 1,800 talents of silver and gold; and, to
crown all, the roligious feelings of Israel wero
outraged, and the Grod of all tne earth insulted,
by the sacrifice of a large swine upon the altar

319

of burnt offering. Leaving Menelauit in the
2M>ntiHuate, AntiochuH £piphancs (the Ulattri-
out) returned to Antiuch.

About a year after thia he was compelled by
the BoBoanH to dettiat f n>m another attack upon
Kgypt, and took the op]x>rtunitv as ho returned
of venting his nn^e «)n the delenceles8 JewH.
Jerusalem wan afwiulted by Apollonius, the
leader of the Syrian army, on Sabbath, while
the inliabitantH were engt4;ed in divine worshi]).
Multitudes were slain, 10,000 were sent into
captivity, and the city was plundered, set on
firtty ana its walL* dcrttroyed. The services of
the temple were diKc<mtinued, the daily sacri-
iiccH ct>aMed, an<l the city of Jerusalem was
nearly left d«*s4)lato (R. c. 1G8). Subset^uently
the titatiie nf Jupiter Xenius was received by
the Suuiaritunr) into the temple on mount
lierizim ; ami the '*holv and beautiful house"
of Jehovah (m mount Moriah was dedicated to
Jupiter, and the sacred courts were deiiled
by the ima;;es and offerings of heathen idolatry.
'J'no ver>' reading of the law of GikI was pro-
hibitetl, and every copy of the sacred volume
demanded from the devoted ser\'ants of the
Most liigh. This edict was disobeyed, and
Antiochus inHieto<l on all recusants the
most cruel t^irtures and a^'onizing deaths to
which men cfiuld be subjectcil. But even in
these circumstances there wt>rti men of faith
who deiied the monster and his cruelties, and
died tnuniphuntly, in tlie asnuranco that God
would aven.Lfo his i>eo])Ie, and that speedily.

N<»r was it lone; till deliverance was brought
to tlie .suffering Hebrewn, by the hands of
Mattathios and his sons, geut^ally styled the
^ [accal KreH. They were < lei^cendants ( »f Aiin in,
by his son Eleuzar, and were at this time a
family of snine note and influence in their city,
2VI«Nlin. .Mattatliius refu-^iMl to apostatize at
tlie mandate of the king's c<immissioner; and
in a burst of \irtuous indignation, slew one of
his countr>'men who was alxmt to obey the
idohitrous commantL This was the turning
iHiint of Jewish misery. The standanl of re-
histance was raised, the sons* of Mattathias
and many of the^ ])eopIe gathered round it,
slew tlie commissioner and his attendants on
tlie siK)t, organized themselves and numbers
who daily joined them into a regular anny,
and ceaseil not their nobl<; patriotic exertions
till tludea had l>een f recti from the tyrant of
Syria, and their civil and religious lil)erties to
a great extent restored At the enrl of the
first year of the revolt Mattathias died, and
the command flevolved upon Judas, sumame<l
!Maccal)eus. The young leader, with his small
but resolute anny, routed the forces of Anti-
ochus in several engagements, slew thousands
of the Syrians, gained possession of the city
and temple of Jerusalem, purified them from
every vestige of heathenism, and restored the
daily sacrifice and the services of the temple,
after thcj had been interrupted for a period of
three yean. About this tmie Antiochus died
in Persia, and is said to have confessed that

* John, Simon, Jodat, Eleazar, and Jonathan.
S20

HKB

he was smitten by the hand of God for his
cruelties to the chosen people.

Judas Maocabens wms then reongniisd if
governor of Judea in the year 163 &a Tike
reign of the Asmoneaa* princes was bj no
means one of peace. The disloyalty of sobs
of their own coantiymen, the ambitimii in-
trigues of the Syrians, and the interfionBos
of neighbouring powers^ kept the natioQ ia
almost pterpetual tormoiL After Jndaa the
most distinguished of these prinoesi woeJona-
than and Simon, the brotherB of Judas, wlo
completed **the freedom of J'erosaleni,^ and
did much to strengthen and iznproT« the kii^
dom ; Jtthn Hyrcanus, eon of Aiw^ni^ wbo^ hj
a series of successful wars with the SyBsiii»
Samaritans, and Idnmeana, so enridied the
nation and confirmed his govenunent thst
the kingdom reached a degree of ijtosperily
unknown since the retom fratn "BtS^flim;
Alexander Jannaeus, against whom tibe natka
revolted, and kept up hostilitiea for nine jeui,
in which conflict 60,000 persona pexiahed: anl
Aristobulus, under wlumi, after various tksm*
tudes of nusfortune, Jerosalem was taken by
Pompcy, and the Jews made tribntaiy ts
Rome. Thus ended the Asmonean dynssfy,
after a subsistence of one hundred and twenfy-
six years, when it made way for the IdnmeM
]>rinces.

Hensl the Great, son of Antipater of Idnmes,
now aaiuired the kingdom through the infla-
ence of Mark Antony, and was the first Gentile
who filled the Jewish throne. The soeptie me
now about to depart from Jodah. Tne Inrtfa
of Messiah was at hand. Herod was ffrtaiVL
ambition, and, as the result of this, in jes^om,
cruelty, and prodigality. Eveiy one wao
could i>o68iblybe suspected of aspiring to tks
throne was put to death. He rebnut sad
adorned the temple at immense labour and
expense, and undertook and oom|deted msay
other public works. When the power dl
Antony declined in Rome, he sought sad
found favour with Octavius, the firat Gnsr
Augustus, and by his assistanoe enlarged the
bounds of his kingdom, till the whole coantry
from Dan to Beersheoa, and much heyond
Jonlan, was added to his dominions.

But the advent of a greater than Herod WM
at hand. In the thirty-second year of his rcaga
was Ix)m John the liaptist, the foKnamer
of the AFessiah^ who had been long" ejipected
by the ])ious Hebrews, and was neraed ay the
entire world ; and six months afterwards the
Saviour appeared in Bethldiem of Jadea»

The reign of Herod terminated in the fiiit
year of our Saviour's life^ and he divided Ui
kingdom by will among his three sons, Ardie-
laus, Antipas, and Plmip. In a lime moie
than forty years, however, this dynasty oeae
to an end, Judea sunk to a minor pwiviMce^
and thenceforward govemora were Mst firoB
Kome until the destruction of their onosho^
and beautiful city, JerusaleoL AH^ ttv
mournful event the Jews remaiaed snfajeefeto

* ARmonean, from AsmoDeoi^ the areat-cnuidtalhv
of Matiathiaa.

HEB

the Roman goyemment until Adrian became
emperor of Rome, a,d. 76, when they rebelled,
ana were entirely dispersed, and so remain to
thia day.

Literature of the Jeim, — ^Their inspired litera-
tnre is found in the Old Testament, and no
nation can boast of so sacred a treasure. Take
it as mere literature, it has no equal in tiie
simplicity of its prose and sublimity of its
poetry, the freshness of its descriptions, the
raciness of its annals, and the araour of its
devotion. It has claims far surpassing that of
civilized antiquity. It is the composition of
many writers of many ages and countries.
Some sections of it were composed in Arabia,
and others in the dungeons of Rome. Some
portions of it were written in the times of the
Pharaohs^ and others in the era of the Caesars.
It teUs of expeditions prior to those of Jason
and the Argonauts. It describes national ad-
ventures long before Achilles and Troy. Its
ethical system precedes Thales and Pythagoras.
Its muse was vocal before Orpheus or Hesiod.
Above all, it is the accredited revelation of the
true and merciful Jehovah, able to make " wise
unto salvation, by faith that is in Christ Jesus."
There is nothing about the Bible which is not
hallowed. Its structure, its style, the life of
its authors, — the contents of its history, the
figures and allusions of its poetry, the gorgeous
ficenes and visions of its prophecies, — the
examples it records, and the acts of glowing
devotion which it has narrated,— its gradual
formation into one canonical book, its wonder-
ful preservation in manuscripts, its early ver-
flioni) and modem translations, its various
editions and its first printed copies, — the re-
marks of good men on its reli^on, and of
learned men on its literature.— its reception
among barbarous tribes, and tne effect which
it has produced, — all that has been written
about it and upon it, collated texts, biblical
grammars, dictionaries and concordances, eru-
dite comments, practical remarks, pious reflec-
tions^—all is sacred, all is venerated by the
sanctified scholar; for it refines the heart as
well as delights the imagination. The Hebrew
language, too, cognate with the northern and
rougher Aramaic and the southern and more
polished Arabic, has a freshness, simplicity,
and energy about it which belong to few
modem tongues. It is all nature and fire —
pure in Moses, refined in David, but somewhat
tainted in the period of MalachL In antitiuity^,
it is the tongue of Adam; in sanctity, the
tongue of God.

Tne literature of the Hebrews, not contained
in Scripture, is of a very different character.
Some of it is learned, but much of it is onlv
laborious trifling. Many of the rabbis, sucn
as the Masorets, busied themselves with the
text of Scripture; others in the middle a^es
wrote {grammars, lexicons, and commentaries.
The principal schools of learning were at
llbenas and Babylon. The great repository of
Jewish learning is the Talmud. This conusts
of two parts, the Mishna and the Gremara, —
the one is the text, and the other the comment
T

HEB

upon it. The Mishna (which word means
ra>etUion) contains the oral law, or traditions
of the Jews, and was compiled by Rabbi
Judah the holy, about the middle of the second
century.

L The first part is entitled Zeraim (of
seeds), and treats of agriculture and the laws
relating to it.

2. The second is called Moed (of festivals),
and treats of the observance of the Sabbatn
and other holidays.

3. The third is called Nashim (of women),
and treats of the ceremonies of marriage and
divorce, and of other matters relative to the
intercourse between the sexes.

4. The fourth is called Nezikin (of damages),
and treats of the laws regulating the conduct
of men in civilized communities, and of the
punishment due to their infraction.

5. The fifth is called Kodashim (of things
holy)2and treats of offerings.

6. The sixth is called Tuioroth (of purifica-
tions), and treats of the mode in which persons
and things become unclean, and of the cere-
monies to be ol^erved in their purification.

The reasons for this order, as laid down by
Maimonides in his preface to the Talmud, are
as follows :— The work commences with the
laws respecting agriculture, because on this
depends the very existence of man, who with*
out food would not be able to serve the Lord.
These are succeeded by the laws relative to
festivals, because that is the order olraerved in
the Bible (Lev. xxv. 5, G). For the same
reason the part which treats of the rights of
women is made to precede the lavrs concerning
damages (see Exodl xxi 7, 12). The four first
Sedanm are thus made to include those
subjects which are chiefly treated of in the book
of Exodus, and the remaining two are occu-
pied iftdth the matter discuss^ in Leviticus.
The six parts of the Mishna are each divided
into treatises or books, these again into
chapters, and the latter into single decisions.

Nothing can appear more striking than the
effects produced upon the world at large by
the opmions and events which originated
among the Jewish jieople. A pastoral family,
neither so numerous, so warliice, nor so well
instructed in the arts of civilized life, as manv
others in the same quarter of the globe, grad-
ually increased into a powerful community,
became distinguished by a system of doctrines
and usages different from those of all the sur-
rounding tribes; retaining it, too, amid the
numerous changes of fortune to which they
were subjected, and finally impressing its
leading principles upon the most enlightened
nations of Asia and of Europe. At a remote
era Abraham crosses the Eutmrates, a solitary
traveller, not knowing whitner he went, but
obejdng a divine voice, which called him from
among idolaters to become the father of a new
people and of a purer faith, at a distance from
his native country. His grandson Jacob, a
"Syrian ready to perish, goes down into
Egypt witii a few individuals, where his de-
scendants, although evil entreated and afflicted,

321

HEB

becnmc a "nation, great, mighty, and iwjm-
louH,** and whence tneywero dclivere*! by tlie
special intfqxwition of Heaven. In prcwperity
and adverxity they are still the objectH of the
name vi;plant providence which lias reserved
them for a t^at pun k we to be acconi]>liHhed
in the latter days; wnilc the iHraelitos them-
Helvcfi, as if onscious that their election was to
be crowne<l with momentiniH refinltH, still ke])t
their thoii'^'ht« iixe<l on Palentino, aH the theatre
of their kI^OS '^^^ ^^'^ than as the ]>oMe8tfiou of
their trilK'H.

At one i)erirMl thoy an* in lx»iidaj,'o, the vic-
tim« <if a reU-ntless tyranny, ant I menaced with
comi)lete extirjiution ; but the h«']K* of eujoyin}?
the land i)romisetl to their fatln.'rs never ceawed
to animate their heart* ; for tlu'y tni'tted that
Go<i would surely visit them in the hou>e of
their affliction, and, in his a|>]Miinted time,
carry them into the inheritance of peace and
rest. At a later eiHKrh they are swejit away as
caiitives by the hands of idolatt^rs, who usi'd
all the motives which sitring from fear and
from interi'st to secure tfieir comi>liance with
a foreign worxhip; but, rejecting all such in-
ducements, they still continued a seitarate
peojile, steadily resi.sting the o]»eration ot those
cans&s which, in almast every other instance,
have been f<»und sufflcient to melt down a
van^iuished horde into the itopnlation and
habits of th'.'ir master*. ^\t Icngtli thev appear
as the instnmiontH of a tlis]ieiwition wliidi em-
braces the dearest intero-t.-* of all the si»n.H of
Adam; and which, in ha]ipi<'r circumstances
than ever fell to their own l«it, has alreatly
modified and lUTeatly exalted the character,
the institutions, and the i>rospectii of the most
impmved istrtion of uuuikiud in both hend-
spheres of the globe.

Connected with (liristinnitv, indeed, the
hiHt<»rr of the Hel»rews rises beh)re the reflect-
ing nund in a very singular |s»int of view ; for.
in ojipositiim to their own wishes, they laid
the foundation of a religion which has not
only sui)erse«led their ]i«'c\diar rites, but is
rapidly ailvancing towanls that universal ac-
ce]>tation whieh they were wont to antici]iato
in favour of their own aiu>i«:nt law. In sjutc
of them^elveja, they have been as the little
leaven which was «lestine«l to leaven the whole
Imnp ; and in iierforming this oflice, they have
proceeded witli nearly the same al»«ence of
intention and consciousness as the latent i)rin-
ciple of fennentation, to which the metaplun*
<|u«»ttMl lK*ars allusion ; they aimed at (.me thing,
and have accomiilisliefl another: but while we
com]>ai'c the lueans with the ends, whether in
their physical or moral relatif»ns, it must lie
admitted that we therein cxanune one of the
most remarkable events rc(;onled in the annals
of the human race. (See Can.van, Captivity,
Jew8, Tribe.)

Hebrew of tite Hebrewh (Phil iii. 5) haa
been mippoBed by some to denote that the
individual m> called had both a Hebrew father
and mother; but others take it to mean that
lie was a Hebrew both by nation and language

~rhich many of Abnluun's descendants were
922

not —or a Hebrew Jew peifutming worship in
the ori^nal Hebrew tomgae, and of ooone
more truly honourable in a Jew's ores thia
one bom out of Judea, and speaking toe Cricek
or any other than the Hebvew langnaga,

Hebrews, epistle to the. Thm is prob-
able evidence that this epistle was written bj-
I'aul about the year eOS, in the Greek ba-
^^uage, and that it was admased to the befier-
mgJewB of Palestine.

This important portion of the XewTestsoMBt
is designed to show the divine charaTtttr sad
offices of the Redeemer, the supetiotity of the
Gospel to the law^ and the true dtaga and
import of the Mosaic institutions ; the fortitads
and |)er8everance to which the Gospel pronusai
were calculated to excite the Hebrew eonvati^
and the course of life to which such ena-
gclical hopes and anticipationa ahoold Isei
It exhiliits the divine character of the Re-
deemer, establishes his infinite superiority ^
Moses as an apostle, and to the Aaronic funtf
as a priest. It contrasts the grandeoi; ^
efficacy, and the periietuity of new-coroHak
privileges, worship, and promises, with the
earthlincsfl, the feebleness, and the t**iypnitMy

attschfli
oouidcR-

tioiis derived from all that ie ntted to elevit*
ho])e and to give energy to godly fear. It ii
the key to the ritual ol Moees, which unlo^
its most intricate and myaterious, «fc«il appsr
ently trivfal, arrangements. It brings to rwr
the soul that animated the whole body of iti
ceremonitrs, and which j^ivea them all their
im]>ortauce ; and by the light it affoids, nut
enabkil to cuter into the <mrkest places of tins
extraordinary etlifice. to see the wisdom d
its pni])ortions, and the admirable silaptstr*
of all its parts to their design. It was calcokted
to rt*concile the Jew to the dertruction of kit
ti*mple, the loss of his priesthood, the abohtiat
of his socriticvs, the devastation of hisooiniti^»
and the extinction of Ids name; becaoie it
exhibits a nobhir temple, a better priesthood
a more perfect sacrifice, a heavenly inheritaDH^
and a more durable meiuoriaL

And tluTe is a regular method in this dabo*
rate com]M)sition. Its si)ecial purpose was t»
warn the believing Hebrews against apostuir.
To attach them still more to Christiani^, tot
a])06tle describes its sui^eriur glory:

1. Its author is higher than the ^«g*1*, sod
the angels were the loftiest beings reveskd it

I ScriiJtui-u. Jesus is the Son : they are but tht
servants, nay, his servants (Heb. L 6^ 13; 14)l
But it may be objected that Jesus was snt
su]M?rior to angels, f<'>r ho was a *«»w Ibt
reply of the ajiostlo is. ** Be it so; hebectmt
man, stooiie<l from his high estate, but Dowb0
is cr«)wniea with glory and honour."

2. The founder o! Christianity was \a^
than Moses. Moses was a servant ; Chikt ii
the Son, leading us to a nobler lest thsa ^
Hebrews enjoyed in Canaan.

3. Christ IS superior to Aaron, for hispriat'
hood is after the order of MelGhiaedea Ahv*

HEB

bad idiis of his own to atone for; GhriBthad
none. Aaron's priesthood offered worthless
animals, often, for thev had no moral efficacy;
Jesus presented himself on the altar, and but
once. One priest after another approached the
Jewish altar ; but Jesus, the one High Priest,
ever liveth, and hath not left the Holy place
into which he entered. Each section ot the
ei^stle is followed up b^r an appeal against
apostasy; and the sustaining faith of early
'worthies, honoured by a place in the record
ci Scripture, is rehearsed with multiplied
examples.

The epistle is anonymous, but the weight of
external evidence is in favour of PauL Other
authors have often been named, but the tone,
doctrine, and illustration, as well as the his-
torical testimony of the Church, had led the
majority to Paul as the inspired composer.
It IS ascribed to Paul in the early Svriac ver-
sion, and by Clement in the seoona century.
Oiigen records the strong traditional authority
in favour of PauL Eusebius declares that
foorteen epistles are clearly and decidedly
Paul's. Doubts, indeed, seem to have pre-
vailed in the western church ; but they arose
>from polemical reasons, which have no critical
weight. Some have ascribed it to Apollos— as
LiUUier, Bleek, and others; others — as Ter-
tullian and Wieseler— to Barnabas. As Origcn
said long ago, the thoughts are Paul's, but
the language is another's; and that other
appears from the style to be Luke, the apostle's
companion, who may have composed it under
the apostle's supermtendence. There is no
reason for supposing that the epistle was
written in Hebrew and afterwards translated

HEBRON (Num. xiiL 22)— so called after a
son of Caleb— w» one of the most ancient cities
of Judea, and was originally called Kirjath-
arba, or the city of Aroa, from its being the
residence of a famous giant of that name j J osh.
ziv. 15). Moses calls it Mamre (Gen. xxiii. 19;
XXXV. 27)* It was situated on an eminence less
than 20 miles south of Jerusalem, and nearly
100 from Nazareth (Luke L 39), and is still
known as the flourishing town of Habroun, or
Kl-khuhl— which means, *' the friend, "meaning
Abraham (2 Chr. xx. 7) — and is celebrated for
the manufacture of glass.

Hebron is one of the very oldest cities in the
'world. It was built seven years before Zoan
in Egypt (Num. xiii 22).

This frontier town of Palestine, and the
capital of the *' hill country," is built of square,
rough stones, the common limestone, of which
the mountains around it are composed. The
houses are usually not above two storeys high,
covered with flat roofs or domes formed ot
atone, and coated with plaster or cement.
Many are in a dilapidated state, and unin-
habited. There are gates, not only at the
entrance of the city, but in different parts of
the interior, which are closed at ni^ht to inter-
cept communication between the different dis-
tncts, and for the better preservation of order.

The mosque contains the tombs of Abraham,

HEL

Isaac, and Jacob, with their wives, Sarah,
Rebecca, and Leah. They are Imown, on
Scripture authority, to have been interred in
Hebron, "in the cave of the field of Maohpelah,
before Mamre, the same is Hebron" (Gen.
xxiii. 19). The cave was in the end ot the
*' field before Mamre, which is Hebron.** The
present dty stands on the slope of the hills, as
well as on the plain ; and the harem, or mosque,
which stands just at the termination of the
slope that rises beyond it, is in a position that
accords well with that of the cemetery — " in
the cave at the end of the field before Munre.**

Hebron is associated with some of the most
interesting passages of sacred history, llie
valley of Esncol (Num. xiiL 24, 25) is supposed
to have been in its vicinity — and the vale of
Hebron" was at one time the residence of
Jacob (OexL xxxvii 14). Abraham's abode
was also here (Gen. xUl 18), and his family
burying-place (Gen. xxiii 2, 3. 19; xxv. 10:
xlix. 29-33 ; 1. 12, 13). Upon the conquest of
Canaan, Hebron was assij^ed to Caleb as part
of his portion (Num. xiii 30-33; xiv. 5, 24:
Josh. xiv. 6-14), though it was finally a ci^ of
refuge, and among the possessions of the pnests
(Josh. XX. 7; xxi 11, 13). Hebron was tiie
residence of David imtil Jerusalem was made
the capital (2 Sam. ii. 1 ; v. 4, 9) : but we find it
among the cities of Judah at toe time of tiie
revolt (2 Chr. xi. 10). (For a visit made to the
mosque by the Prince of Wales, in 1862, see
Stanley's Lectures on the Jewish Church.)

HEDGE (Hos, il 6). TraveUers tell us
that such hedges as are mentioned in this pas-
sage are often found in eastern countries at
this day, and that they are especially useful as
defences against the incursions of the Arabs on
horseback. The hedge is sometimes figura-
tively used to denote protection (comp. Job i.
10: Ps. xxxiv. 7).

HEIFER (Hos. x. 11). The heifer was
used in sacrifice on a particular occasion (Num.
xix. 1-10; comp. Heo. ix. 13, 14), the manner
and design of which are fully stated in the
passage cited. The animal to be selected was
of red colour, and red was the symbol of sin.
It was then slain, its bodv burnt without the
camp, and the ashes mingled with water were
sprinkled on the people. This was an impres-
pve sin offering; and the apostle argues from
it to show the superior efficacy of the sacrifice
of Christ. (See Murder.)

The fi^rative allusions of the sacred writers
to the wildness, sportiveness, and indocility of
this animal, especially when well fed, are very
striking ( Jer. xlvi. 20 ; L 11 ; Hos. iv. 16). In
Isa. XV. 5 allusion is probably made to the
lowing of a heifer— a mournful sound that can
be heard at a great distance: so should the
lamentation of uie Moabites be in the day of
their visitation.

HEIR. (See Adoptiox, Concdbinb, Ik-

HBRITANCE. ^

HELBON fEzek. xxvii 18). This place
has been usually identified with a Syrian dty
of great opidence and antiquity, oelebratea
for its wines — ^Aleppo (or, as the Arabs »▼..

HEL

Alep or Halab). But Mr. Porter hw nuMle it
very probable th»t Helbon is a villa^^e of the
same name a few milen fn)m Daxnasctui, and
Htill famouB for the iinenetw of itH gra]je8.
{HandbiMk, p. 41)5).

HELI (I^nke iiL 23)— sapixMed by many
to^ l)e the father of Jomph, nusbfina of the
Virgin AfAry, and by uthen tnip]><>Me<l to be
the brother of Jacob, father of the Virj^in.
A third narty make JoMvph Mm-in-Uwof Hcli,
or hi» a(lopte<l Hon.

HELL (Deut. xxxiL 22). T\iU wonl ifi the
representative of tlie liobn'w nhttA and the
Greek hades, and of another (irevk word
which in als^o translated hell, but literally'
means **the valley of Hinnom** (2 Chr. xxxiiu
0), where the niOHt alxmiiuuble i<{olntrieM were

1>ractiHed; called ali*o *'T«)pheth" (2 Ki. xxiiL
0), frc»m toph (a drum), btt'auHO tliat instru-
ment was used there to drown the cries of
victims. H innom or Tophcth thus became a fit
eml>lem of hell.

Some innintain that hailes means neither the
PTAve nor tlic place of imnishment. but some
separate rej^<»n of incarcerat^^ii sjiirits. In the
Old T«!4taiiient sheol is useil sixty-six times,
if Fii rut's (.'tmrordmur be correct. The ohler
]ihiIoli))rists dfrivetl it from a rrxit sitnufvinj,'
to asl- "orcus rapax" {('atuffun, 2-2S). *The
mori" iiKMlerii on«*s, with more ]»ii>habiHty, de-
rive it from a r^Mit «i^'iiifyiii;; to Ik* ImHow.
It is, accnnliuiT to Fiinit, (M'sfiiiiis, iMitchcr,
Ewald, and ]\Taur<T, un «'tynion of tho same
family with the (iotliic halja, and the tiennan
hollo, the An^lo-Saxon hal, or halle, and the
EnKli^^h hell. Its p-nei'al Ki.Lniitit'atinii is the
fiTiive, or, ]>n»iKTly, the under worM, and wmie-
times it deiioteK the phu;e of wo. Our tran»«-
Intors have, in thirty iustimees, rendenil it
'*the tn^ve;" in three inst^inces they have
rendenKl it "the pit;" and in the rest, it is
transhitwl ;* hell."

It sik'nifies the ia*ave in the following' iilaeen,
ami they are but a specimen: (Jen. xlii. .'W:
** Ye shall brini; «lown my gniy hairs with
sorrow to (she<il) the >a*a^e." (iray hairs ^'o
not int>tlie world of s]»irits. (Jen. xliv. *2*X
31 : ** nie |L,Tay hairs of thy servant, our
father, with 8om)W to the grave.** 1 Sam. ii.
6; 1 Ki. ii. M: in the two last instances sheol
seems to mean the grave, into which the bUsidy
0(tr\ytwH of Joab and SJiimei should be cast.
Job xvii. IT): '* Tliey shall go down to the bars
of the pit (sheol), where our rest U)gether is in
the dust." The second clause explains the
first. It is pn)bable that our translators used
the word pit in a literal si-nse, as s\'non>nnous
with the grave. Ps. xlix. 14: "Like sheej)
tliev are laid in the grave (sheol)." And it is
adffed, "their beauty shall ci>iisuine in the
grave (sheol)." Ps. cxli. 7: '*Our l)ones are
Bcattercd at the month of the grave (sheol)."
Isa. xxxWiL 18: **'Vhe grave (shetd) cannot
praise thee."

Sheol sometimes means the place of punish-
ment^ as in Deut. xxxii 22 : a fire is kindled
in mme anger, whic^ shiUl bum down to the
est hell (sheol).'* Does it not point to the
324

HEL

place "where the fire is inevier gneiiGhed?*
PB.ix.17: " The wieked shall be tamed into
hell (sheol), and the nations that foigei God."
Will any one suppose thai this onmnrinstwn
is so pointless as to eootain no more than sa
assertion that the wicked sihall die! Pror.
xxiiL 14: "Thoo shalt beat him with ami
and shalt deliver his soul from hdl faheol).''
The chastisement of a perverse ohild Ittcpi
him from sin, and preserves him from fntnxe
punishment.

There are also many popular uses of sheol,
in which it is personified and its quatities sis
described. It u sheol — world of the dead— the
region of the Rephaim. "They are dead, ther
shall not live; tney are Re|^iaim** Cta^ zzn.
14). ''The earth shall cast out her Bephsim*
(Isa. xxvi. lit).

In the New Testament the use of the tcm
'* hatles " came from the Septuagiat* where it
in gen(Tal stands as the repreaentative of dieoL
A glance at Tronun*s ConeordatKe will dw,
however, a few variations, such as 2 Ssm. xxn.
6, where it is rendered "oeath.** Hie Sereatf
also eni]>loy hades as the Greek snhstitiite i
other Helirew tenns. It is used in Iss^ xiv. VK
in translating the phrase " stones of the pit,*
where the discourse is of those buried in caTci
and covered witli stones.

What, then, is the meaning of the foUofring
passa^'cs? -

Matt xi. 23 : " Thou, Capernanm, which vt
exalt<Ml unto heaven, shalt oe brought down to
hell (hades)." Did our Saviour mean to njr
that the i^rverse rejection of i.'hristiaa prin-
leg«*s would ex]tose men to ordinary death or
dei^arture to the world of shades? Or did be
not mean to menace them with the wrath cf
( J < k1 ? Hatles, says OLshausen, haA here the taa»
meaning as gehenna. The opinions of Grotiai,
Wetstein, Rosenmiiller, Kninoel. Stuart, sni
others, who supiKwe thi^ this porase has iH
origin in the h»tty situation of the town m i
hill, or that our Saviour merely thra^tesi
teiii|>oral calamities from the Roman invstto.
OTv not w<irth si>ecial n'futation.

Luke xvi. 23: '*In hell (hoAles) he lifted op
his eyes, Wing in ti>rment«i." What better
version could i>e given? Is not hades intbi*
pLice the same as the burning gehenna: **I as
tonneiited in this Hame."

But great attention is given to Ps. xvL VK
uith the (J reek quotations in Acts u. !f7. &c
A very little attention to the laws of UebRrv
grammar, and principles of Hebrew poeCty
:uid ])arallelism. \«'ill at once render fUam the
meaning of this prophecy. The uxtecnA
psalm undoubte<lly, refers to Messiah. Mmmiili
expresses perfect confidence in his Father.
Being assured of his o^n ability to fulfil hifl
commission, he was no less assured that tike
Father whom he sen'ed would raise him frooi
the dead, the law being satisfied and his vork
being concluded. ** My flesh also ahaU leit vl
hope," for

** Thoa wilt not abandon my soul to iAhniL
Nor permit thy Holy One to sse oonrapaoe-'

HEL

The two lines form what is usually termed
a paraUelism, the last hemistich echoing the
sentiment of the former. The words "m^
soul" mean myself. This mode of speech is
not confined to the oriental tongues, but may
be illustrated from the classics. Both Honier
and Pindar use similar forms of expression. It
is said of Ulysses by the former, "that he
chided his heart or himself — Kpddtnv.** The
latter makes the Olympic victor address
4flkov nTo/>, his beloved soul^himself. The
Hebrew and Arabic abound in similar in-
stances. Gesenius and Nordheimer illustrate
such usi^es at considerable length. Nouns of
this nature are used because the Hebrew has
no intensive or reflexive pronouns. Now, what
is meant by sheol? It is explained in the
second clause. It is the place where coirup-
tion is seen — the region of the dead. So the
apostles understood it Though Messiah was
to die, death's power over him was to be ver^
limited ; he was not to be abandoned to his
dark dominion; his body was to be so short
time in the grave as not to suffer the ordinary
process of decomposition.

In the precedmg remarks about sheol and
hades, we do not mean to afifirm that they are
the same with the Hebrew or Greek terms
usually translated grave or sepulchre. They
are more generic in signification. The usM^e
is somewhat the same as in our language. We
say, A man has gone to his grave : so said the
Jews. We do not say, A man has gone to hia
world of spirits, or Aw other world ;— neither do
the writers of Scripture. Sheol and hades do
not mean that narrow bed in which one corpse
is laid; but in this relation they signify tnat
region of darkness and insensibility in which
all the dead repose. One corpse is lowered
into its keber — alt of them lie in shetd.

Hades, then, sometimes means the grave,
or general receptacle of the dead ; sometimes
the place of punishment; and oftener that
condition which follows after death, and in
which the good and bad participate alike —
that condition in which spirit and body are se-
parate— a condition only temporary, K>r Jesus
at the last day is to brin^ it to a termination.
This condition is occasionally imaged as an
empire or underworld ; and hades, personified
as the king of this dim realm, is to be ** cast
into the lake of fire."

It is generally easy to see from the connec-
tion, in anv given case, in what sense the word
is used, llius, in Ps. ix. 17; Matt, xxiii
33 ; Mark ix. 43-48 ; 2 Pet. ii 4. the word hell
evidently denotes the place of tne future and
everlasting misery of the ungodly, consisting,
in part at least, in the eternal separation of the
soul from God, and from the presence of his
glory, and in the suffering of inconceivable
anguish and remorse for ever and ever. These
sufferings are described with all the force and
vividness which language or imagination can
supply.

Hell, gates op (Matt xvL 18)— « figur-
ative expression, denoting the power of widced
spirits or of death. (See Gate.)

HER

HELMET. (See Arm, Abm&)

HEM. (See Fbinoes.)

HEMAN. The best known of the name is
the '* singer'* (1 Chr. vi 33), and **the king's
seer in the matters of God,** (1 Chr. zxv.)
He was a Kohathite, and grandson of Samuel
the proi)het The Heman to whom Ps.
Ixxxviii is ascribed may have been a different
person of the family (k Zerah. (See Dasda,
jSthan.)

HEMLOCK (Hos. x. 4)— a well-known
bitter and poisonous herb. The word rendered
hemlock in the above passage, and in Amos vi.
12, is elsewhere rendered gall, or wormwoocL
The figurative use of it is explained by com-
paring the above passages with Deut xxix. 18 ;
Amos V. 7; Heb. xiL 15. The evils of per-
verted judgment resemble the springing up of
useless and poisonous plants where we look
for and expect valuable and nutritious vegeta-
tion. (See Gall.)

HEN*. Our Lord*s pathetic allusion to the
natural affection of this fowl ia known to every
reader of Scripture (Matt xxiii 37). Hens in
the East are kept in continual alarm, because
birds of prey are so plentiful, and so frequently
annoy them. Our Lord knew that the Soman
eagle was soon to appear and scare the terri-
fied brood at Jerusalem, and he therefore
wished to save and protect them both from
human cruelty and from divine indignation.

HENA (2 Ki xix. 13)— supiwaed to be the
same as Ana on the Euphrates, not far from
Sippara or Mosaib.

HERD. (See Cattle, Ox, Sheep.)

HERES. The phra8e,"City of Destruction**
(Isa. xix. 18), should probably be " City of
Heres," or *' tne sun," as in the margin. This
implies, however, a slight difference in the
Hebrew spelling. The city of the sun was
called in Greek Heliopolis.

HERESY (Acts xxiv. 14), HERETIC
(Tit iiL 10). These terms, as they are gen-
erally used by the sacred writers, imply no
judgment re9i)ecting the truth or error of
religious sentiments, but mean simply sects, or
a peculiar system of opinions ; so that when the
word sect is used, the word heresii would be
equally appropriate, as in Acts v. 17 ; xxiv. 5;
xxvi. 5 ; and xxviii 22. In the epistles, where
the word is usually emploved without reference
to any particular class by name, it imports
either differences which led to divisions in the
Christian Church — and which were greatly to
the reproach of the faith — or corruptions of
the true faith (1 Cor. xL 19) ; and it is in this
last sense that the term is commonly applied
at the present day.

HERMON— My p«iJfe (Deut iii. 8) — a
mountain branching off soutn-east from Anti-
Lebanon, and running between Damascus and
the Sea of Tiberias, called by the Sidonians
Sirion, and by the Amorite/r Shenir, and also
Si4m (Deut iii. 9 ; iv. 48|. It is not to be con-
founded with a mountam south of Tabor, to
which the same name has been sometimes
given. For the name Hermon was given to
this latter mountain only in post-bibliou times,

325

HER

and was the result of a detdre to reconcile such
])ai»ia^f8 as Ps. xlii. 6; Ixxxix. 12. The
real mount Hennon is now called Jcbel es-
Sheikh, ** the chief mountain," and is the
hij^hest of all the mountains of Ijcbanon—
pcrhafw 10,000 feet in height. In l{aumer*s
Contributions to BiUirnl (ioxjraphy it is placed
10,000 Parid feet aliove the level of the sea.
One traveller nays, — ** Whatever is lovely in
mountain, jiLiin, manth, and lake, is l)efore the
eye, and with stin'risin;,' distinctneiw. Old
.lel^el tfs-Sheikh, likt* a venerable Turk, with
IiIm head wrai>]H:d in a snowy turban, sits
yonder on his throne in the sky, survevinp with
imr>erturbable dignity the fair lands Ix'low;
and all around, east, west, north, south,
mountain meets mountain to ^uunl and gaze
ui>on the lovely vale of the liuleh. \Miat a
coustellation of venerable namesi— I^-lwinon
and Hennon. BaNlian and (iilead, M(kab and
Judaii, Samaria and Galilee! lliere, too, is
the v;uit i»lain t»f Cale-.S\Tia, UiJiH'r and
Lower, Ktudded with trees, ct>theil with 11(x*ks,
and dotted with Arab Utntx; and there the
channing llulch, with its hundred Ktreams,
glitt<^ring like wlver lace on rolx's of green,
and its thousand [xxds siuirkling in the morn-
ing sun.*' (See lUAL-d.vn.)

IIKIJOI) (Matt. ii. 1), miniamed the Great,
was the anei'.-tor of heveral «if the same name
mentioned in the New Testament. He wiis
governor of .ludea (then a iSomaii ]>rovinoe) iit
the time of our Saviuur'n birth. TlnMii;l» he was
cidled king, he was subjfi't tt» the Koni.in eiu-
jieror, and wjis distiu-cuislied for ravage cruelty.

V

M.rwiniM,

V

M*na<niM,
kiatkird m%h.

Afi«ti-bu|ii«.

_z

y — ^

H*r<-J Acrii>|«.
CAau sii. 1.;

AriicritHjU*,

Acr>|-t«-
(Acu ts*. IT.
vU ■■«•. *.)

Il'r'.il Aii'i|-«a- J.

Okikw.Xi.)

(lUrk

rh.iip.

%i. 17.)

(UkfktLM.)

V

A

ki. hiurtii liiu.

V

ArrMmm,
(M«u. II. M )

(Luka lu. L)

_ Hntrflaa,

HM«d AirtlfW Mora ■■irM4

(Mmu civ. 1.) M har uack

A Philips

326

The preceding table ahowi at » dance tlie
chief oonnecUona of this family, ao jar as thej
are mentioned in the lacred history.

In the thirtr-third year of the reign of Herod
the Great Onrist was bom in Bethlebem.
Fearing that this event might in some way
affect his interests, and notknowinf pnasdr
the age of the supposed pret^roder to hs
throne, and having attempted in vain to ascer-
tain the nrecise period of his birth, Herod
issued a decree, requiring the indiscriminsto
massacre of all the children of Bethlehem, of
two years old and under. This decree wii
executed. The murder of the infants in a
Jewish lillage is quite in keeping with the
character of the man who killed his own wife
and his two sons. Herod died a most dreadful
death at Jericho, distributing the govenimciit
of the i)rovince among his Uiree sons: Judca
to Arcnelaus; Galilee and Perea to Hend
Antij>as ; and Uie three upper districts east vi
tlie Jonlan (Batanea^ Auranitis, and Tracboh
itis) to Philip (Luke iii. 1).

Archelaus held the government abont «"»*
years, and was then banisheil for high crimes;
and Judea became completely subject to Borne,
and received its governors or procuraton
directlv from the emi)cror, and prokaMy f«r
limitetl perirMls. Pontius Pilate was in thif
office when John the Baptist appeared. The
other sons of Herod the Great remained in
IKissosition of their pravinccs as at the death
of their father. (See Agbippa, Abchelaus

JuHK THE BaITIST, JesUS CHRIST.)

HERODIANS (Matt xxiL Hi)— a Jewish
sect ( )r party originating pn>l3a] dy in a political

itartiality towards the Komau emperor and
leDKl his deputy. It is generally supposed
that the great Ixnly of tbe Jews, and esped*
ally the i'harisees, heLl that tlie law of Mcscf
(Deut. xvii. lo) forbade their subioctio& to a
foreign ix>wer; while Hen.xl and his party
(the HenKlians) reganUnl that law as for
bidding a voluntary subjection ; but if they
were nnluced to subjection ]>y force of ann%
they couKidored it lawfid to avow their sll^
giauce and ]>av tribute ; and they not only
l»aid it themselves, but urged others to pay it,
aii<l to submit cheerfully to Ili>me. Hence
the difficulty of the question proposed to
('hrist (Matt. xxii. 17). The Hero^ansalso
held that it was on the same principle lavfnl
t<i coin]dy li^ath the customs and adopt tha
rites of the comiuerin" nation. This i* pn>b-
ably the ** leaven of llenxl '* (Mark \-iii. 15).
Some have inferred, from a comparison of
Mark viii. 1;*) and Alatt. xvl 0, *^*\ Um
UenKlianrt were chiefly Sadducees.

HKKODIAS (Matt xiv. a)-the grand-
diiughter of Herod the Great, and sister cf
Hennl Agrippa. She fir»t married ha
uncle, Herod Thilip, and afterwards Herod
Antipas, another uncle, and that, too, doriiV
her nrst husbaud^s lifetime. For tl»« Uh
lawful and scandalous connection John tht
Bajitist faitlif ully reproved the parties ; sad
his fidelity cost Kim his life (Matt. xiv. 3-10^
(See John tius Baptut.)

HER

HEKON (Lev. xi 19)— an undeaB bird,
but of what species is quite uncertain. ^ The
original word seems to denote an irritable
bird— a goose or i>arrot. The Seventy make it
sand-piper, from another derivation; and the
Arabic and the Talmud regard it as some kind
of eagle.

HESHBON (Num. xxi. 25)-» royal city of
the Amorites. It was given first to Reuben
(Josh. ziiL 17)| then transferred to Gad (Josh.
xxL 39), and m the time of Isaiah and Jere-
miah recovered by the Moabites. to whom it
had before belooged (Isa. xv. 4 ; Jer. xlviii. 2).
It exists now under the name of Heskbdtif and
lies east of mount Nebo, about 20 miles from
the Jordan, at its mouth. Near it are wells
and ponds hewn out of the rock, referred
to in Song vii. 4.

HETH (Gen. x. 15) was the eldest son of
Canaan, and the ancestor of the Hittites. (See

HiTTITES.)

HEZEKIAK— strength of Jehovah (2 Chr.
xxix. 1)— a distinguished king of Judah, was
the son and successor of Ahaz. He was
twenty-five years of age when he came to the
throne, and ne immediately took measures to
break up the idolatrous customs into which
the people had fallen during the reign of
Ahaz ; to bring them back to the temple and
worship of their fathers, and to repair the
lo&ses and defeats they nad suffered. Early
in his reign the Assjnnians invaded the neigh-
bouring kingdom of Israel, and carried the
ten tnbes into bondage. Notwithstanding
this threatening position of affairs, Hezekiah,
not willing to acknowledge any subjection to
Assyria, refused to pay the tribute which had
b&en imposed and paid during the reign of his
father, in consequence of which the Assyrian
army, under Sennacherib, invaded his temtory.
This event happened in the fourteenth year of
Hezekiah's reign, and is described, with all the
interesting details, in Isa. xxxvi. 1-22. The
A8S3rrian army was so far reduced in a single
night by the immediate judgment of God as
to bo ooliged to make a precipitate retreat.
(See Sennachebib.) Soon after this signal
deliverance Hezekiah was seized with a severe
illness, perhaps to prevent him from being ex-
alted above measure, but the fatal termination
of which was averted in answer to his prayers.
Fifteen years longer were promised him ; and
the promise was confirmed by a miraculous
•ign. (See Dial.) His gratitude is expressed
in the most affecting language (Isa. xxxviiL
10-20) ; and yet we find him afterwards greatly
elated by a message of congratulation from
Baladan, king of Babylon, before whose am-
bassadors he made a vain and pompous dis-
play of his possessions. To punish this pride
and vanity, he was informed by a special
message m)m Grod that his wealth should, at
a future day, be tnmsported to Babylon, and
his own sons become servants in the palace of
her kin^. The latter years of his life were
passed m tranquillity, and he was succeeded
Dy his son Manasseh.

Hezekiah was a man of great virtue and

HIG

religion. The spirit of David animated him,
both in its piety and i>atriotism. He honoured
God and faithfully served his country, labour-
ing to purify and restore the temple worship,
and at the same time he planned and carried
out public works of national utility.

HIDDEKEL (Gen. ii 14; Dan. x. 4).
Universally acknowledged to be the Tigris,
which divided Assyria from Mesopotamia,
and its names of Dekel or Diglath are mani-
festly derived from the ancient one. It rises
about 15 miles from the source of the Eu-
phrates, and was anciently connected with it
by means of canals which irrigated and beau-
tified the intervening country.

HIEL — Cfod liveth. After Jericho had been
overthrown under Joshua, an awful curse was
pronounced upon the man who should attempt
to rebuild it (Josh, vi 26). In the degenerate
d&jB of AhaD did Hiel brave this old maledic-
tion, and commence and rebuild the fated city.
But ** God lived," as the transgressoi^s name
implied, lived to inflict the anathema which
Joshua nad long ago pronounced (1 Ki xvi 34).

HIERAPOLIS (CoL iv. 13) -a city of
Phiy^pa, in the nei^nbourhood of Colosse and
Laodicea, about 5 miles from the latter. It was
formerly famous for its hot baths and mineral
waters, described by ancient geographers. It
is supposed to have derived its name (which sig-
nifies holy city) from the multitude of temples
which it contained, the ruins of which are
still visible. It is now called Pambuk-kalesi,
or cotton castle, from the whiteness of the
rock on which it stands. Nothing but the
hot baths could have furnished a motive for
building a great citv on a spot so sterile.

HIGGAION — foimd three times in the
Psalms (Ps. ix. 16; xix. 15; xcii. 4) — signifies
meditation, and may call for extaraordinary
attention and reflection to the passage ; perhaps
like a iiS' or N.B. in modem writings.

HIGH PLACES (1 Sam. ix. 12) were places
upon hills and mountains, appropriated some-
times to the true service of God, but generally
to idolatrous worship. The most elevated
places seem to have been chosen from the
earliest period for the erection of altars (Gen.
xii 7, 8 ; xxii. 2 ; xxxi. 54). Before the temple
furnished a fixed place of worship, it seems to
have been considered proper to erect altars on
such places (Judg. vi. 25, 26; 1 Sam. ix. 12,
19, 25; 1 Chr. xvi 39; xxL 29). After the
temple was built, such places became an
abomination. They became so universally
the scene of idolatrous worship that the
sacred historian says of a particular king,
that he did that wluch was right, &c., *'yet
the high places were not taken away" (2 KL
XV. 35). Mountains or high places were held
sacred in all the eastern religions — spots above
the world, and midway from heaven to earth.

The hign places mentioned in Scripture are —
Gibeon (1 Ki iii 4), Amon (Num. xxi 28),
Baal (Num. xxii 41), Tophet (Jer. vii 31),
Baman (Ezek. xx. 29), Aven (Hos. x. 8). Such
high places were built by Solomon (1 Ki xi 7|,
Jeroboam (1 Ki xii 31), Jehoram (2 Chr. xxx.

327

11), Ahu (2 Chr. xm-ui. 25), Msluweh {2 Ki.
XIL 3; 2 C^hr. iiiiii. 3), iwuplii uf Judah (1
KL xW. 21), poiiln uf Imwl l2 Ki ivii. 9);
•nd were diHtniywl hy Akk, |>utimlly |2 Chr.
xiv. 3, S, with 3 Cbr. it. 17), JebiMbapbat (2
t'hr. xvu. 6), HEukinh (2 KI iviLi. 4; 2 Chr.
zxxi. I), JuaiKh (2 Ki. iiiii. 8j 2 Chr. xixjv.
3) : liut Dot rvniiiviil tiv Jvhuafh (2 Ki. xii. 3),
AmM)»h (2 Ki, liv. 4|, Aiariah (2 KL iv. 4),
uul JoUiam [3 Ki.

HKJH PRIEST

(U*-.

«L 10)

-tlir h...i.l

of the Jewiah urinithoud

All tllB

miUe dc

by liivin

mppoint-

the

Ji^dthB

fint-bora of the Ian

ily, ill

the H

ei to Uie

office of hiRh priMt Th

..nlinui

•e of con-

■ecntiKD WBB alike

for buU,, Ul^l

Urly deKribcd in K

ud.x

dv. TliB

wu minuta uiil ini

, uid typical uf tlj«

cb»ract*r uid w.irit

«f H

m wh<>£

thepfreat

HtfJ

cmtljAnd niasniticeQt tlian tliatuf theinfurinr
order of prirHlo, It ii dmcritwd, Kiod. ixiiil.
1-9. It uinHiMtMl of the tiibe and e|^iHl, the
Uttvr uf which waa iniIennoHt of aU, and wiu
curioiwly wnm^Lt with Kulit wire, and Uiie,
imri'le, and ncarlet thrvaiL Vi^m tiu^h >>lunil-
ilcr waH an r>uyi Htoiie. 'in earli i.f wliiiili were
enKiaved the naniei< i>f nix <-f thti tiibeH uf
ImaeL The LreMtiilatu wm fornxil with a
wrinucht ehun ut gtiul attae1i<il t» eauh c<imor.
IMUwii)! under the amut am) >n er the nhoulih-T,
•nd liBtluima it irrininnlTLnniuiiiii.n'itbthi-
four rowH <it jewel*. (See l)ltK.v>ri't,.iT£.) 'J'he
mitrt!, or heailHlmw, wm foruiwl i>f K yarda of
flDO hiien, in inrviilar foliUi, anri iiUH-riUil in
(runt, upon a plate of |nire icM, Ununysa
TO TKK J.iiKII. The frift|je, or heiu •>( the ndii-.
anil tlie bvllH MVjivndeil in>in it. were a dis-
titictive portion of the iKintitirtil uuiiuiitii.

" hiBli JjrieKt, ;>n the day of

iujf iinly uf i>hiin liuen, niUi a wub or cinilu.

HITf

iirvt-twin, mn diangardad in the latn

I of that diapanutiaii, aiKl tlie iund plac*

KimctJmw occupied fay the wont of mtn,

lag whom was Caimphaa. TIh higli pnM'i

DVMt aolemn, peculiar, and eielnnT* dnW wh

■-> officiate in the mnrt holy [ilaceantbapnl

ty of alimement. In Lev. zvi we )»*■ >

lit account of thia meet inliiiii»lin||. aenie^

and the im^n^ cvremoniee whiek ptcoiM

, -- - — ordiaar7 priafc

The hifh prieHt ia anpfueed to hare W u

ueifltant, to oecnpj fau place in cmc rf hii

incoiQjietcncT' troia nckneaa, defilcnMat. or

Dtherwiae (2 Ki iiv. IS; Jcr. liL U). Tk

offire of the hii;h priert waa dw loftiait enr

>^ <J — earth. No honour ooidd be (mM

thetirinccof the priasti, andb akst

oie into the boIieM of aO. HeatoodiD

. mruce, neanr tu him than «By amtd

durat venture, and |ileaded for loaeL H* vat

"days-man between heaven and ewtb'— tlie

■dnted tyiie of Gvd'a own Sod, who witk

own blood haa entered in tmoe into the hily

place, for he haa pawed Uinnigh the tnnii m

mtii the preaence of God for ua. (See HiBUini

--■IBTLE TO THE, PhIIHT, ScArs-OOAT.l

HIGHWAYS (Lev. xxn. 29). annetiiiiM
mply im.Fif (J-a. btiiiv. 6; ProT. ivi IT,
etaphurienUyl, mtana any public way la
bigh-niad, in dixtinFtinn frinn a priTate walk

r t>«.ti>nt'h. (See

y-K

Hence thcM were ndletl by the Jchh the
i.rieiit'a "wLili- uiiraieuta," 4c.; the t.imier,

nrmenti uf K(>I<I."

llie office uf the hi;{h pri'Wt vtn originally
Iwld for life; hut thia, •« well ua the i^t of
3Jt

HII.KIAH (2 Ki. xxiL 1)-tfae beat knon
of the name ; for >a hit;h pneiit in the niga -i
Jiwi^, lie waa cuncemtnl in the gnat Rfwm-
tiiin and the keepiiii^of the unrivaJlMl paamnr.
He fmind ah>i> ia tlie U'miJc what waa irotebly
tin- autit,Taph copy of the law of Moaea— mt

Biaed by many to nivan only the book ol
eiiteruDr>my— which, aaa compend, oouU bt
en.'ily rent tii the aaBomUeil iieonle.

HILL COUNTRY (Lube L St), Tbiittna
WBK aiiiilieil to the coiiutry in tie vidnitTU^
t<ithe»..uthof JeniNileni. '

HILL OF ZION (Pi., ii. 6) and HOLT
HILL (Pa ill 4) lH>tb rvfer to tlw emineuc
on which the temple of .Teniealem waa eiTctel
and in whioh (iuij vaa KnpjHwed to niuifHt

!■" J'kiii."™2.7 V^ZioN.)"'*""*'' "^
HILIA (SecMornTAiB, K'^K.i

HIX. (See MLtHI-BEH.) '

HIND. (See Ham.)

HINtJES. (SeeUwELLiSGS.)

HINNUM. Thia WOA a deep valley on t(«
aoiith-woKt of ■lenmalem. It ia aonMliDin
called Hrn-Uinnoni, son «l Hinnom, aad
wiiiietimeii (ie-Ilinniim, valley of >liiini«L X
HDiall Htrealii How* thniiigh it iotii the Kedm
It ia DHWe than half a mile ia length, av) i*
often .'Xl yonlii liriMuL It ia 20 fevt deep. I'
wan the acoue of fearful idulotmua craJ6»i
benoe the. I eu'a defiled it. aothat it becaMtlK
f^therin^-TiUce of all kinda of filth fnai t^
''- whioh fed firea for ever anioulderii«iBi"

k;

(»■

t ef tk

Tim

HIRAM, or HURAM. 1. (2 Sam. v. 11, 12)
A distingiiished king of Tyre. He was contem-
porary with David and Solomon, and on tenns
of the strictest political and personal friendriiip
with them. Under his reign the city of T3rre
became celebrated for its wealth and mag-
nificence; and the vast supplies he fumishM
to the kinsB of Israel show the greatness of his
rcsourcesjl Ki ix. 14; x. 22). (See Cabul^Ttbs. )

2. (1 EL viL 13) An eminent architect of
Tyre, who was employed by Solomon in the
erection of the temple.

HIRELING (Job tiL l)-7one who ia em-
ployed on hire for a limited time, as a day or
year. Bv the Levitical law such an one was to
be paid his waees dail]^ (Lev. xiz. 13). " He
is poor,'' says the lawgiver, "and setteth his
heart upon it" The circumstance that the
time is limited suggests the figurative lan-
guage in Job vii. 1 and xiv. 6: and the
little interest which would be felt by such
a temporary labourer, compared with that of
the shepherd or permanent Jkeeper of the flock,
furnishes a striking illustration in one of our
Lord's parabolic discourses (John x. 12, 13).
The hired servant will not risk his life for what
is not his own property.

HIS, HER. are invariably used instead of
"its," as the latter, in its proper sense^ does
not occur in our translation, not belongmg at
that period to the language.

HISS (1 Kl ix. 8). To hiss at one is an
expression of instdt and contempt (Jer. xix. 8 ;
Ezek. xxviL 36 ; Mic. vL 16) ; and to call any
one with a hiss denotes power and authority
over him (Isa. v. 26 ; vii 18 ; Zech. x. 8) — ^as if
it should be said, " He will come at my beck or
nod."

HITTITES (1 Ki xi 1)— the posterity of
Heth, the second son of Canaan. Their settle-
ments were in the southern part of Judea, near
Hebron (Gren. xxiii 3). Esau's two wives were
Hittites, and two Hittites are mentioned in
David's body-guard. They are also spoken of
as inhabiting the mountains of Judan (Num.
xiii. 29), andi^ain as in the neighbourhood of
Bethel (Judg. i 26). Probably they main-
tained a sort of independence (1 Ki x. 29; 2
Ki vii. 6); and they seem to have retained
their distinctive name to a late period (Ezra
ix. 1, 2). Hittites, as a powerful and warlike
race — not wholly, perhaps, children of Heth —
are often mentioned on the £gyptian monu-
ments. Reference is made to a strong band
of them on the Orontes; and they seem to
be called Khatti in the Assyrian inscriptions.

HIVITES (Gen. x. 17) -a horde of the
Canaanites, elsewhere called Avims (Deut. ii
*J:^). (See AviM, Hazerim.) In Jacob's time
they had possession of Shechem, and afterwards
they are found " under Hermon, in the land of
Mizpeh " (Josh. xi. 3), and in mount Lebanon
(Gen. xxxiv. 2 ; Josh. xi. 3, 19 ; Judg. iii. 3).

HOBAB (Num. x. 29-32)— the son of Jethro,
and brother-in-law of Moses ; but some identify
him with Jethro (see Judg. iv. 11). Moses
did not dudain human assistance, and he
selected Hobab to march with the tribes

HON

through the desert: "Thou mayest be to us
insteaa of eyes" (Num. x. 31).

HOBAH (Gen. xiv. 15)— a pUce north of
Damascus, where a hill is still shown to travd-
lers, bearing the same name, and alleged to
occupy the same site.

HOLY, HOLINESS (Exod. xv. 11 ; Lev.
xxvii 14). Holiness, or perfect freedom from
sin, and infinite purity, is one of the distinguish-
ing attributes of the divine nature (Isa. vi 3).
These words, which in their primitive meaning
imply a separation or setting apart to Qoa^
are sometimes used to denote the purity of the
angelic nature (Matt. xxv. 31), the comparative
freedom from sm which reeidts from tiie swocti-
fication of the human heart— as in tiie case of
prophets (Rev. xxii 6), wpostles (Rev. xviii.
20), ministers (Tit i. 8), Christians (Heb. iii
1)-— and the consecrated character of things
(Exod. XXX. 25; Lev. xvi 4) and places (2 Pet
1. 18). Holiness is not so much one grace as
the union and concentration of all— as all the
prismatic colours blended form pure Ught

HOLT GITir. (See Jibubalul)

HOLY DAY. (See rxA8T8.)_

HOLY GHOST, HOLY SPIRIT. (See
Spibit.)

HOLY LAND. (See Canaan.)

HOMEBORN SLAVE. (See Servant.)

HOMER. (See Measures.)

HONEY, HONEY-COMB (Ps. xix. 10).
Honey is not secreted by bees from the food
they eat, but is only collected by them from the
nectar of flowers, carried home to the hive, and
deposited in the comb. The abundance of
houcy in the land of Judea may be inferred from
a vanety of passages in the Bible, as well as from
the accounts of modem travellers. It was,
almost without metaphor, **a land flowing
with milk and honev'MExod. iii 8, 17). The
wild honey on which John the Baptist lived
was perhaps such as he could gather from
rocks and noUow trees.

The syrup obtained from dates and other
saccharine fruits is supposed to be sometimes
intended by the word honey — dibs (2 Chr. xxxi.
5). Robinson sa3r8. — **The finest granes are
dried as raisins ; and the rest being trodden and
pressed, the juice is boiled down to a synip,
which, under the name of diba (debesh, in He-
brew, signifying honey and e^rrup of grapes), is
much used by all classes, wherever vineyards
are found, as a condiment with their food.
It resembles thin molasses, but is more pleasant
to the taste." And we are told of a tree, ioxmd
in some parts of the East, upon the leaves and
twigs of which a sweet substance collects, and
is gathered and used by the Arabs, which at
first strongly resembles honey.

llie figurative allusions of the sacred writers
to honey and the honey-comb are striking and
beautiful (Ps. xix. 10; Prov. v. 3; xxvii 7).
Milk and honey were the chief dainties of the
earlier ages, as they are now of the Bedouins ;
and butter and honey are also mentioned
among articles of food (2 Sam. xvii. 29 ; Isa.
vii Id). In South Africa bees deposit their
honey on the surface of the cliffs of rocks,

329

nf til.'

nFllicnick. Tho travi>llrr niakGn _ _

in thin wax-cnverintc. ami, by a)iplyiii;{ Iiia
mouth to the B|H-rtiin.-, hucIm nut u tniii'li
honejr aa be wunU (I'eut. xxxii. 13). Ilioy
olni cimT tTti>M in tho Bonio iimnncr. Ibmuy
von nut dUdwuiI to bv ufFi-red with tauritict'S.
(8m Uec)

HOfll). [See Ci.nrnEH.)

HOXKST, OH in I'hil. iiL S. &c, nifan>> fnir,
bBcomin^f, or hunoiirnlilc, ax often a]^a in
RbatwiK'sre and iitlwr mnttinporary writer*.
lina tlie-wiinl " nnumnu'ly." in 1 <'or. lii. 'J3,
U in Wyi-liffu " imUi.n.iit.''

HOl'UKI. (8«-Kli.)

HOR (Sum. x\. 23, 25)-n ctlubriitwl
noiintain, 4,HU0 futrt ntvivo the Uediteiraniiin,
and 0,000 u1»vv the Unul Sea. It liea <m tlie
biinler i>f IiliiTiiea, alimt hsif-wny between tlie
Ueml !Sea and the Kvd Uta, where Aaron «':di
buried. (See Seiii.) Tt n now tidied Ji-IkI-
Neln-Har(in, Mimiit cif tho Prr>|ihtt. It riwi
up ID bleak grandeur far alii'vetlie nHiurmimn-
tainnof K^. Asniii's t-nub Li yiA sbciwn on
it! Kunimit.

"The view from the top of thin eililieo in very
eitonuTe in every directiun; but there in no
Ijart rif the lanii«a]>B which the eye wandcm
over with more rurionty and di<liebt than the
ctagH uf mnutit llor it«e1f. wliich stand up on
every side in the inoi<t ru^^^^ed and fanbuitic
fbrmn: MOuetiineB (trwigely piled one on the

other, and mmetiniea a* stnuiffelr jawiunE in

rli-ftHofafrit'htfuldegith."— IrltyaudMui^'

tfuunt Iicbanon ii aloo called moaat Sir
(Num. xxxiv. 7. t»).

MOUKIi. (SeeSiSAi.)

HUKIM3 (l)eut. iL 1, 22)— a gmenl nm
for dwellers in cavee, and perhapa the um
with the Horiten (Gen. liv. G), an ancient mi
jiowerful iieople who dwelt in mount S«!i
(Ueti. xxivL »)-;»). Such dwelUngi an fongd
in Petra. (See Cave, Phtra.)

HOKMAIl-rfrrtrtirtron (Judg. i. ]7}-.otI
in the sutith nf Canaan conquered by JeahiAi
This name may have been Bymlmlic; and ita
-' ' wai Zephath, auppowd by not

i>lder n , , ..,

to be r<iiind in Es-Sebata, 25 miles ■
west nf Ueereheha. But there it aim a joa
callul Ka-Sufa 40 miles tn the eut of it

UOliX (1 Sam. ii. 1, 10). Thii wordiiM-
ployed in the Old Testament ae, an emblaa d
power, honour, or ((lory (Deut. xxiiii. 17- Job
ivi. in : I.iike i. m). Hence it u fnmrii!
emiili<y«d in imiuhetic viidona, inittead <u kiw
and kmh-doma (I>an. viL aO-24). Horh rat
UKcd as vewK'bi for liiiujdi, edpetaallf lA ■i'

fierfuuies (1 Sam. xvi. 1 ; I KL L 30), and *1m
latntnni-bi (Jo«h. vi. 8, 1.1). Tbe horabAf
the chief defuncv Hnd strength of manj beuK
tu break or cut otT the bom uf a king orpMfk
is to abridce or destroy their pnww; and t>
raise or exalt the horn is to eatabliafa or inowM

HOR

prevailed. The chief of the ootmcil which
negotiated the treaty with William Penn
opened the business by placing on his own
head a crown with a horn in it, significant of
that supreme authority by which the covenants
of the treaty were made Binding.
Peculiar uses of the word occur in some pas-

have sewed saekcloth upon m]r skin, and defiled
my horn in the dust" (Job zvL 15). ** He also
exalteth the horn of his people*' (Ps. czlviii
14). " He hath raised up an nom of salvation
for us in the house of his servant David"
(Luke i 69). Some have supposed that in
those passages alludon is made to a hollow

silver horn, 4 or 5 inches in
diameter at the root, and
rising obliquely from the
forehead, which was worn
as an ornament by oriental
women^ warriors, and cUs-
tinguisned men. Such or-
naments are yet in general
use by women in the East,
and especially among the
Druses of mount Lebanon.
They are noticed by travel-
lers as worn also by Abjrssinian chiefs, and on
the military caps of sepoys of India.
Horns of the altar. (See Altab).
HORNET (Deut. vu. 20)— a very Urge,
strooj^, and bold species of tne wasp, remiurk-
ible tor their irritability, and for the severity
3f their sting. Hornets were employed as
instruments of the divine judgments u^n the
?nemies of Israel (Comp. Exod. xxiiL 28;
JoHh. xxiv. 12. ) Tribes in old times, as Aelian
tells us, fled from their habitations before

such plagues.
Cattle run mad
with distrac-
tion on the
hum of the
approaching
swarms, and
when tne hor-
net appears
among tnem,
they scamper
up and down
;ill they sink and die. Modem travellers make
dnailar assertions.

HORSE (Gen. xlix. 17). In the early
3eriods of the world the labouring beasts were
:hiefly oxen and asses, while horses, either
nounted or harnessed to chariots, were used
)y kings and warriors (Exod. xiv. 9, 23; Esth..
ri. 8). The horse was therefore esteemed an
inimal of g^at value; and we know that in
Sgypt it was given to Joseph by the people
n exchange for necessary sustenance. Egypt,
n ancient periods, was famous for its breed
>f horses. But the use of horses by the
Israelites was discouraged. "He shall not
Qultiply horses to himsdf , nor cause the people
o return to Egypt, to the end that he should

HOS

multiply horses'* (Deat xviL 16 ; -Tosh, zi 6).
The reason is again explained in Isa. zxzi 1^ 3.
The people would have been brought into mi-
mediate contact with Egypt (See Chariots.)
The hilly nature of the countryprevented any
extensive use of cavalry. In Solomon^s time,
however, horses were common among them,
and he probably imported them from Syria and
Egypt (1 KL iv. 26; X. 26, 29; 2 Chr. l 14-17;
ix. 25). Horses were consecrated to idol-goda
(2 KL xxiiL 11), and are often employed by the
prophets, under a description of their different
colours, to denote the character of future dis-
pensations. Zechariah depicts them as red.
Day, and white (Zech. L 8; vi. 2-6). Angelic

grotection is represented under the figure of
orses (2 KL iL 11 ; vL 15-17), because of the
characteristic strength, fleetness, and courage of
that animal. In Song L 9 the spouse compares
her lover to a comi)any of horses in Pharaoh's
chariots— a comparison which, to an oriental
imagination^ suggested ideas of stateUness,
beauty, and gallant demeanour. The finest
horses, of slender form and delicate limb, are
to be found in Arabia.

The hoof of the horse in rocky countries,
where smooth pathways are few, needs to be
hard. Isaiah thus says of the Assyrian invaders,
that their "horses* hoofs shall he counted like
flint.** Riding upon a horse is in ti^e East a
mark of digmty (EccL x. 7). The Hebrews
had various words signifying horses — denoting
respectively their strength, l£eir swiftness, their
haniessed preparation for riding, or for chariots
of war. And because they were not to multiply
these animals, when they took them as plunder
in war, they were to destroy them. "Thou
shalt hough their horses, and bum their chariots
with fire ** (Josh. xL 6). Job*s description of
the war horse ispicturesque and magmficent.

HORSE-LEECH. "The horseleech hath
two daughters." being thus named — " Give,give **
(Prov. XXX. 15). It is a wel] -known insect of the
water, resembling a womi, and remarkable for
its thirst for blood, which is never satisfied until
its body is completely filled. The fi^re in the
above passage may illustrate the insatiable crav-
ing of fust, avarice, and cruelty. The ingenious
learning of Bochiut has attempted to set aside
the ordinary meaning attached to the clause
quoted from Proverbs. But the ingenuity is
misplaced, and the learning misapphed. The
same kind of figure was a common one among
the ancients, and naturally suggests itself to
any one who knows the habits of this greedy
and voracious creature. Plautus and Cicero
both employ the figure of the horse-leech.

HOSANNA— «xv« now (Matt. xxL 9)— is
used either as a form of blessing or an ascrip-
tion of praise. Thus, when " Hosanna '* was
cried, in the passage just cited, it was as if the
people had shouted in joyful acclamations on
every side, " Lord, preserve this Son of David:
heap favours and blessings upon him, and
through him on us.** The same exclamation is
supposed to have been used in the procession
at tne feast of tabernacles.

HOSEA—«avin^— PROPHECY op ig supposed

331

HOS

to have been uttered alN>iit 700 or 800 yean
before ChriKt. T\m prophet was a son of
Beeri. and lived in Samaria ; and if we conHtnie
the title of the prophecy litt^rally (Hob. LI),
we Mhould infer tnat \\w *pn>phecy embraced a
period of at IcaHt eighty yean. Vrom Jero-
brMun*H death to Hezokia^'s acceiwion to the
tlirone are alM>ut nixty ycare; and HoAea*8
public miniHtr>' may tiave filled thii« period.
He ^tM c«>nt('inix>rHry with iHaiah, and may
have l»eeu pnHH.'Ue<l by Jool, Ji>nah, and Amod.
He w ploceil the fintt among the twelve min(»r
](rophetis proltably becaiiHe of the peculiarly
national character which belongB to hu
onicles.

Ilie ycirw of Ho?»»a'»« life were dark and
fori'lNKlinpr. The Wals <if tlie wrath of heaven
were about to lie ])«>un'd out on hw afXNitate
]MHiple. The nation HuffertHl under the eWls of
that schiem which wuh effecte<l by the craft of
him who hnH lioen bran<led with the indelible
stigma — "iIeroU)ftiii who made Inrael t4> sin."
Tlie obli^ationH of law had been relaxed, and
the claim H r>f reli^iin <liHre^nle<l ; liaal Iwcame
the rival of Jehovah, and in the dark rece8ses
of the ^)vert were practist.nl the impure and
niurdenniH rites of heathen deities; i>eace and
])rrMi)erity ha<l fle<l the kind, which was har-
a»»e(l by fon-i^ invasion and domeHtic broiL*;
nnj,''ht and iinirfli.T b«vaino the twin hentinels of
the throne: ullijiucc^ \v«*re fomie<l with other
iKitiitUrt. wliii-h br Miu'lit with them Koiliic'tionn
to p;i;,'anisiii ; caiitiN ity an<i insult were liea]>eil
iilMin Isrui-l by tn<* nncireuuiciHeil; the nation
w;w thon»n;;}jly <lebaseil, and but a f raft ion of
it!4]M»pidati<>ii ]iiaint:iine<i itss])irituala]le;^iancc
(2 Ki. xix. IS). 'VUv «h'ath of .Ien»lK»:un II.
wa** followed by an interrevrntim of ti'n years.
At the expiry of this ]n'riod his si>n /eehariah
asKunied tlie soven-iirnty, and was slain by
ShaUuni, after the short space of six mouths
(2 Ki. XV. 10). In four we».ks Shallum was
nssassinateil by Meuaheiii. The assassin,
duriu;; a tlisturbeil Trij.\\ of t^^n vears, Iwcame
tributary to tlie Assyrian l*id. llis successor,
IVkahiah, wore the cr«)wn luit tw«» years, wlicn
he was murdered by iN'kah. Tekah, after
Kwayiujc his bloiKlv wvptnt for twenty yifars,
met a similar fate m tlie conspiracy <»f Htishea.
Hoshea, th«.' last of the usnri>ers, after auotlier
interrej,aiuin of ei:^'ljt ycare, a'*cendc«l the
throne; and hi<« administration of nine years
cnd'tl in the overthrow of Iiis kin^'dom and the
expatriation of his peoj)le. **S«.) was Israel
can iid awav out of tlieir own land to Assyria
unto this day" (2 Ki. \vi\. IS, 2;i).

The prophecies of Hosra were direc.t«-Hl
especially a;^ainst the pci>ple whose sin had
brouj^ht upon it Mich dis;isters— Tirolonx'ed an-
archy and final captivity. Israel, «ir l']phnum,
is the people especially addressee!. Their
homicides and foniiciitions, their i>e.rjury and
theft, their idolatr>' and im]>iety, are censuiY^d
and satirized with a faithful severity. Judah
is sometimes, indeed, intnKluced, wame<l, and
ailmouished. ]3ut the ]>n>phet'8 mind was
intt-nsely interested in the destinies of his own
l)Cople. The natioDB around him are unheeded ;
'^2

HOS

his prophetic eye behold< the crisis appnsdung
his country, and weea its osntaiis ravmd, ito
tribes muraered or enslftTsd. No woii^r tiMt
his rebukes were so tarriUe, bis iseBsoei so
alanning, that his soul poiursd forth its itreiisth
in an ecstasy ol grief and affectioiL Invita-
tions, replete with tenderness and pathos, an
interspersed with hit warnings and expostnk-
tions. Now we are startleowith a TuioB of
the throne, at first ahzooded in daricnesi, sad
sendint? ff'rai lightnings, thnnden^ and Toaeei;
but wmle we gaie it beoomes enouded with a
rainbow, whicn gradually expands till it is kst
in that universal brilliancj wfaidi itself had
oriinnated (chs. xL, zivl.

The peculiar mode ot instruction wlucfa the

prophet details in the first and tfaird diapten

of his oracles has given rise to many disputed

theories. We refer to the oomniand ezpraiied

in ch. L 2— '*The Lofd said unto Uowa

Go. take unto thee a wife of wfaofedomi im

children of whoredomB»** Ac; chu iiL 1~

"Then said the Lord unto me. Go yet, low

a woman beloved of her friend, yet an adulter'

ess," kc What was the precise natoie of the

transactions here recorded? Were they itsl

events, the result of divine injnnctions litefsfly

understood and as literally fulfilled? or wen

these intimations to the proi>het only intended

to be pictorial inustrations of the ^lostaij

an<l s]nritual folly and unfaithfulness of Ii-

rael ? The former view — via. that the prophet

ac>tuaUy and literally entered into this import

connubial alliance— was advocated in aadcBft

times by (-yril, llieodoret, Basil, and Augsi-

tine; and has likewise been maintained by

Mercer, Grotius, Houbigant, Manger, Honley,

Stuck, and Pusey. Fanciful theories are w

rife on tliis subject Luther sujiposed the

pn)phet to perform a kind of drama in viev

of the people, giving his lawful wife sad

children these mj'stic^ api^ellations. Kes*-

cume tliinks that a wife of fornication mesni

merely an Israelite, a woman of apostate snd

adulten»us Israel Hengstenbei^ supposes the

jm^phet to relate actions which nappencd,

mdee<l, actually, but not outwardly, oooe,

with Maimoni/les [M<frek J^evoehim, part il).

ima^jrine it to I'C a nocturnal vision; whils

«>thers make it wholly an allegory, as the

( 'haldee Paraphrast, Jerome, Dmsins, Bauer,

K4»senmiiller, Kuinoel. and Lowth. Therieir

of Heii;;stenben;. anil such as have held bis

th(M)ry, is not materially diffraeut from the

htst to which we have referred. Both sgr«e

in condemnin;; the first ojnnion, which HonhT

so strenuously maintained HengstenheK, i^

i^rnat leii<j:th, and ^dth much force, has re&ed

tliis stnu)'.re h\^H>thesi8 (Christdctap), Besides

other ar]Lonuents resting on the impurity sad

> loathsoUKtness of the supposed nuptial oob-

trsM't, it may b<; argued a[gainst the eztensl

reality of the event, that it must have retinired

several years for ita completion, and that the

impressiveness of the symbol would ^txdatt

be weakened and obliterated. Other pn>-

ohetic transactions of a ■imili^i' nature muH

Le referred ta J erome {CowiMumL m UfcfaM

HOS

referred to Ezek. iv. 4. But it is not to be
supposed, as has sometimes been argued, that
the prophet was commanded to commit lomi-
cation. The divine injunction was to many
— "Scortum^ aliqms, ducere potest sine pec-
cato, scortan non item/* (Drusius, Com, in foe
in Critici Sacri^ torn, v.) Whichever way this
question may be solved ; whether these occur-
rences be r^arded as a real and external
transaction, or as a piece of spiritual scenery,
or only, as is most probable, an allegoriad
description, it is agreed on all hands that the
actions are typical ; that they are, as Jerome
calls them, iacramenta fuiurorum.

The peculiarities of Hosea*s style have been
often remarked. " His style," savs De Wette,
**is abrupt, unrounded, and ebullient; his
rhythm hard, leaping, and violent. The lan-

riage is peculiar ana difficult** (Einltihtng,
228). Lowth {PrtBlecL 21) speaks of him as
the most difficult and perplexed of the pro-
phets. Bishop Horsley nas remarked his
peculiar idioms — his change of person, ano-
malies of gender and number, and use of
the nominative absolute, (Work$f voL iii)
Eichom says (EinUitung, § 555) — "His dis-
course is like a garland woven of a multiplicity
of flowers: images are woven upon images,
comparison wound upon comparison, metaphor
strung upon metaphor. He plucks oue flower,
and throws it down, that he may directly
break off another. Like a bee he flies from
one flower-bed to another, that he may suck
his honey from the most varied blossoms. It
is a natural consequence that his figures some-
times form strings of X)earl9. Often is he prone
to approach to all^ory— often he sinks down
in oDscurity" (comp. chs. v. 9; vi 3; vii. 8;
xiii 3, 7, 8, 10).

The allufdons in Hosea to the Messiah are
not frequent ; and yet many of his prophecies
rest on the idea of a coming deliverer. He
took for granted the promise of a Hedeemer,
and delisted to portrav its blessed results.
Manv of his words and pnrases are taken from
the Fentateuch, or are oased on its language.
Hosea is several times referred to in the New
Testament.

HOSEN (Dan. viii. 21)— an old English
plural of hose. (See Clothes.)

HOSHEA. 1. (Deut. xxxil 44) The same
with Joshua.

2. (2 Ki XV. 30) The son of Elah, and the
nineteenth and last king of Israel. In the ninth
vear of his reign the Assyrian king, provoked
bv an attempt which Hoshea made to form an
alliance witn Egypt, and so throw off the
Aa»yrian yoke, marched against Samaria, and,
after a siege of three years, took it, and carried
the people away into Assyria. Such was the
melancholy end of the ten tribes of Israel as
a separate kingdom (2 KL xviL 1-6 ; Hos. xiiL
16; Mic. i.6).

HOSPITALITY. (See Stranger.)

HOSTAGES. In 2 Ki. xiv. 14, and in 2
Chr. XXV. 24, the words so rendered fully ex-
plain themselves. The Hebrew significantly
reads, children of pledget.

HUS

HOUGH (Josh. XL 6. 9)— to disable by
cutting the sinews of the nam ^mttring),

HOUR (Matt XXV. 13)— a division of time
known among us as the twenty-fourth part <^
a day. One of the earliest divisions of the
day was into morning, heat of the day,
mid-day, and evening; and the night, into
first, second, and third watch. The first use
of the word hour by the sacred writers occurs.
Dan. iii 6 ; but the length of the time denoted
by it was not a fixed period. The third, sixth,
and ninth hours of the day, counting from 6
A.M., were especially hours of prayer. The
hours varied /with the length of the day, as
they were measured from sunrise to smouBet.
The Egyptians had twelve hours both of the
day and of the night

HOUSE. (See Dwellings.) The word
house is also used to denote a family ((3ren. xiL
17 ; 1 Tim. v. 8)^ race or lineage (Luke iL 4),
and property (1 Ki xiiL 8).

House, in the New Testament as some sup-
pose, signifies the immediate famify of the
householder; while household includes all who
dwell under his roof.

House of the rolls (Ezra. vL 1), and

House, treasure (Ezra v. 17), are both
expressions supposed to relate to the same
apartment, and denote the public depository
of books. (See Achmetha, Media, Persia.)

HOUSETOP. (See D wbllcjos. )

HULDAH. (See College.)

HUMILITY (Prov. xv. 33) is the opposite
of pride, and one of the cardinal graces of the
renewed heart It consists in a man*s not
thinking of himself more highly than he ought
to think ; and is urged witb great force iipon
all who profess to be Christ*s disciples (1 Pet
V. 5). In this, as in all other respects, our
divine Saviour's life furnishes us with a perfect
example (Phil, ii 5-8) ; and the sacred Scrip-
tures abound with promises of grace and
favour to the humble, and threatenings of
sorrow and punishment to the proud.

HUNGER (Matt xii. ij, In Palestine
still, as in the davs of our Lord, the hungry
travellerplucks tne ears of com. Bobinsctn
sajrs — ** Tne wheat was now ripening, and we
had a beautiful illustration of Scrii)ture. Our
Arabs ' were an himgered,* and, going into the
fields, * they plucked the ears of com, and did
eat, rubbing tnem with their hands.* On beiug
qu^ioned, they said this was an old custom,
and no one would speak against it ; they were
supposed to be hungry, and it was allowed as
a charity. We saw tiiis afterwanls in re|)eated
instances."

HUR (Exod. xviL 10) was^ according to
Josephus, the husband of Minam, the son of
Caleb, and one of the cliief men of the Israel-
ites. Also one of the kings of Midian (Num«
xxxi. 8: Exod. xxiv. 14).

HUSBAND (Matt L 16)— a married man,
and, as some derive it, the house-band, or one
who connects the family and keeps it together.
A man betrothed, but not married, was called
a husband, as the espousab were considered
sacred and inviolable.

333

HUS
"The hiubanil is the head of the wife"
(Eph. V. Zi), ■aitfmnA a* he ii the h«d of
the boiuehcjil (thoii)(h ilie is utuciAtnl with
Idm), inil, u auch.he ia nntitleil tuthe reipect
andiffvctJonufaU. (tjveBin'EUrTH, Mahbiagk.)

the umuDil. It in among the uiiMt
•nil huniiureUIo .KKiiintioTu (Gen. ii. 20 ; lu.
xiviiL 34-'^). All tlie .live who were Dot
ciinwcrateil to ndiKioua olficeK wtre «(frioul-
tiirixta or i>hi-|>herrk The fiin-e and api>n<-
priatenesa of the fiBnnitive uses of this tuna
by the BHcml writ«n are aulliciently obriiiua
fnim Uieir cimnertiiin.

UVSHAI (2 Kam. xv. 32)— an Archite
(Jonh. iTi. 2). nnJ a ]iarticii1ar and faithful
Mniil i4 Daviil (■> Sua. xvL Iti).

HUSKS (Luke xv. l>i). The term refvn
fat the fniituf thr t*njl> trw. wliich in iMiDiiinD
in I'almtine, and ia naed fur food by the {KXir,
and for tim fattening of cattlu anil iwine. It
haa a dnrk ban! pnl ur ca|>«ule, aUiut It
inchaa ill lfii},'th, with aetAa lei^ht or ten) that
nttte in the cane crutly when iilinki'n, and
with a miiiK rcsemluint; that of a irtttlcrmiike.
Gaeli aeed iv aWt the mze of an orJinory drr
pea, not perfectly nnmil, lint flntt«neil ; hard.
and of a .hirk ttshliidi c.li.iir. The tante of
tlw pod is [KMr, but not eiitin-'ly diNii^t'oljlc ;
bviUit Hwevtiah, wniiuwIiBt niitritionii even in
It* dry fomi, luul imilialdy nineh mnv |ialat-
aide audjoH^irr for fnoil ia ib mrllvr or Kret-n
vtata The ahaiie is fliitlitly ciirvLtl, no that
the imil TeaenilihM a Mnall Imrn, ftuu wbidi in
(JnvkitiiiuuiieKuvniiitobeileriveiL 'Hkewhole
■■liow uf them cm thr tne, esiNiiuily at wane
■waHuiiH <if tbe yvar, wi>uMlii-tterMiin^Mt|>riilh
aiily ttw iili-a of bomH, bh if the tnv wrre full
ofthnn. }Iiithtlu-(invki»pcin«>aiiilth<!]Atia
(ifigtM dKnify Kl'ecinlly the fndtof thin canib
tree— a tree veiy common yet. not only in thr
I^evant, but alau In tW wnithem parti I'f
Kuroiic, ax ^4pain and Italy. Hie Syriac and
AtoIoc wiirda are »f the nanio tDi|Nirt. TliiB
fruit atill cnntinncH to be nned for the oaine
pUTiioiai^— the fecdin;! of iiwine. It i> ahio
called St. JoAuV Bftad, fnnn the opinion that
till- Itaiitiid ii*eA it in the wildtmLM.

lli:;iZAB (Nab. ii. 7)-»iii>i«>«e<l. an in the
Tart-umii, Iiv wimo to be tlie ciiieen of Nine-
veh wheu Xahum delivered Lin proiihecy;
otlicn tnkoitaiia conunon won! " that wbiub
waa c>ta1>lirlieil," an in the marrnn. Ilut it

!?x.„,

riVMEN/EUa (3 Tim. ii. 17). Tli
in mentioned once with Aloxanler and once
with Philt'tiis. He was proliably an early
deniur of tlie doctrine of a future corporeal
ri'Burrection, and woa given np to Satan 11
Tim. i. 20; conip. 1 Cor. v. 6). This error u
stated by the aixmUe thua — "Who oonccming
the truth have erred, laying that the nwurrec-
tion ii part almadr ; and overthrow the faith
of aama " (2 Tim. u. 18). They weta to have

HT3
Identjlied Iba rennwticn of the bodr^th tbt
regeneration of theioal— ««re tbe abcttan rf
an early and nnriona ipintnaliBn.

HYMN (Ibtt xxvL 30). Thii Hymn wh
the great Halld rang at the paaanvs, odb.
natins of Pa. cxiiL-ciriiL The hymn wii a
ucred compoaitian, the prinuuy porpoK d
which ia the aecription of piauK (3m

HYPOCRISY (Loke xii. 1). Tbe *ai.
ia ool; the Eoj^h iatai of k Girek torn
which originally denoted a atage-playep— nw
who aaaumoa a character Dot hi* own. Tliit
□dioQi lin ia oondemned again and again in
the New Testament. It may dcoeire nran.
bat it cannot impoM Qpon God. After all, it
ia eaaier to be than to seem. Then ia canitaEt
tail and terror in keeping np appeaianwi
when there ia no reality.

HYSSOP (Exod. xii. 22). The pnciae pkat
referred to under tbia appellation in Scriptni*
baa been disputed. Ilie Hebrew word art,
from its siinU«iity In k ' '

h ynaop, haa been generaDy
this ahrub. Tbe "^

aaveTa1>n.allerone«
and all tlie stalks
and branches tor-
minati-cl by erect
whorled siolufli of
aowers, of differ-
ent colnon in the
varietieii of the
iilant The leaves

amoll and a warm
pungent taste. It

JeruBuiem. The
hymnp Kas used
for sprinkling the
lK-o|.re with the
purifying water; and the apunge filled with

(Ji-hnxii. 211) WON put upon hraaop^ ButwM
the sUlk <if the plant commonly called hywf
loftg en.ingh for niich puiT)us«r Solonum, H u
ruconlisl, ijike of "the hyssop that spiingMk
out of the wall,"— language which wonld koh
to imply that at leaat one kind of hyssop bad
not ve^ tall etolka. Some identi^ it widi
the caper iilant. Such is tbe view of Dr.
lloylc: and the Arabic mune of the capiT

tlant— atuj>— aeemh only another form of tks
[ehrcw aob, Bocbait took it to be tn^
jiTam ; and his view is in accordanoe with tht
troditinnary opinions on the «nbject Sod
opjio^ito atatementfl show us that we eannat
yet aay with certainty of what qieciesofplHt
the hyssop wu. Its use in the iiiii iiisilil
law explains the clause, "Farge ma vitk
hynon, and I shall be clean : wa^ uul asd I
shall be whiter than snow " (Pa. Ii. 7).

I AM (Exo.I. iii. 14). (See JEnovAiT.)

IBLEAM (Judt,'. i. 27)— a town of Manassch,
close on " the going up to Gur" (2 Ki. ix. 27),
perhaps near the modem Joppa.

IBZAN (Judg. xii. 8) — a judge who suc-
ceeded Jephthah, had a very numerous family,
and was buried at Bethlehem in Zebulun.

ICE. (See Crystal.)

ICKABOD — where is the glorpt (1 Sam.
iv. 21, 22) — the son of Phinehas, and grandson
of Eli the high priest. He was born just after
his mother received the sad tidings that her
husband and father-in-law were dead, and the
ark of Grod taken by the Philistines. Such
was the effect of these tidings upon her, that she
died immediatcJ]^ upon the birth of her child,
giving him t^e sigmficant nune Ichabod.

ICONIUM (Acts xiiL 61)— the capital of
ancient Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, at the foot
of mount Taurus, now called Koniehf on the
great road between Ephesus and the western
coast. It was visited oy Paul and Barnabas,
who preached the Gospel there, and were so
persecuted in consequence of it as to be obliged
to leave the place (Acts xiv. 1-6). Iconium is
mentioned by several ancient historians.

IDDO—hia hand (2 Chr. ix. 29). In this
passage are mentions the vitiona of Iddo the
seer against Jeroboam, &c; and in 2 Chr.
xiL 15 is mentioned the book of Iddo the seer
concemin|^ genealogies : and again, it is said,
2 Chr. ziii 22^ that the rest of the acts of
Abijah, and his ways and his sayings, are
written in the ttory of the prophet iddo.
These expressions may all refer to one and the
same volume. Iddo was probably a prophet
and annalist of some distinction, and is sup-
posed by many, on the authority of Josephus,
to have been tne person who was slain by a
lion, as recorded 1 Ki xiii Several others
of the same name are mentioned as the
father, or rather grandfather, of Zechariah,
the leader of the second party of captives
from Babylon.

IDLE (Matt, xii 36). In this connection
it means pernicious, calumnious, but espedally
false words — ^words spoken not in sincerity —
words spoken against conviction. Such was
the sin against the Holy Ghost. (See Blas-
phemy )

EDOL (1 Ki XV. 13), IDOLATRY (Acts xvii
16). Whatever receives the worship which
is due only to (rod is an idoL In a figurative
sense the word denotes anything which draws
the afifections from God (Coi iii. 5) ; and in a
restricted sense it denotes the visible image or
figure to which religious worship is paid (Deut.
xxix. 17).

Idolatry consists— 1. In worshipping, as the
true Grod, some other person or thing besides
Jehovah; and, 2. Worshipping the true Qod
under some image, as the golden calf (Exod.
xxxii 4, 5).

When the worship of idols commenced is
uncertain. It was prevalent at a very early

period of the world. Tlie pai^ans worsliipjied
iiniv ersid nature; tlu; soul of the world; life and
reproduction under male and female foims ;
uu^eLs, demons, and the souls of departed men,
either separate and alone or in imion with
some star or other body. They worshipped
the heavens, and in them both particular
luminaries and constellations ; the atmosphere,
and in it the meteors and fowls of the air; the
earth, and in it beasts, birds, insects, plants,
groves, and hills, together with divers fossils,
and fire. They worshipped the water, and in it
the sea and rivers ; and in them fishes, serpents,
and insects, together with such creatures as
live in either element. They worshipped men,
both living and dead ; and in them the faculties
and endowments of the soul, as well as
the several accidents and conditions of life.
Nay, they worshipped the images of animals,
even the most nateful; such as serpents,
dragons, crocodiles, &c. ; and at last descended
so low as to pay a religious r^;ard to things
inanimate, herl» and plants, and the most
offensive vegetables. No wonder that the
commandment which touches this point should
so particularly specify the objects which should
not be represented in the form of graven
images (Exod. xx. 4).

Objects of physical glory, which the eye of
sense might look on as representatives of
divinity, seem to have been the first sharers
in man's homage. They were worshipped
originally as emblems of God; but soon, and
by a natural process of declension, they came
to be r^farded as actual gods. The Hebrew
idolaters said to the golden calf, ' * These be thy
gods— that brought thee out of "Eaypt ;" and
they named their superstitious revelry a feast
to Jehovah. Many motives seem to have re-
commended the old world to their selections
of objects of idolatrous worship. (See Aabon. )

Usefulness was the common, but it was not
the only quality that determined the object of
idolatry; for we find that whatever delighted
with its transcendent beauty, whatever af-
frighted with its malignant power, whatever
astonished with its imcommon greatness —
whatever, in short, was beautiful, hurtful, or
majestic — became a deity, as well as what
was profitable for its use. The sun, it was soon
perceived, had all these powers and properties
united in it : its beautnr was glorious to behold ;
its motion wonderful to consider; its heat
occasioned different effects, barrenness in some
places and fruitfulness in others; and the
unmense globe of its light appeared highly
exalted and riding in triumph as it were roimd
the world. The moon, it was seen, supplied
the absence of the sun bv night ; gave a friendly
light to the earth ; and, Desiues the great variety
of its phases, had a wonderful influence over
the sea and other humid bodies. The stars
were admired for their height and magnitude,
the order of their positions, and celerity of
their motions; and tne people were persuaded,

335

IDO
rithpT that some (wlextUl vigonr or other
dikuIhI in them, nr thmt thr ciuLi of tbdr
henna mil ],T™t men were tnuinUtcd into
them whvn tliry djw) ; and uTniD then and
uuiilar jinrHuniiiti'ina, thn Iwbevcd all »le«-
tial IxidieH to )w cleitiv*. Tho fnrcB of fire, the
wreiiity iif air, the uwifulDen of water, H well
a> thr ti-m^r and clnaitfuloeiiii of thunder and
liuhtDink'. Kavti nm to thr ciinMcntion 'if tha
Dii'tom am! eleninita The gea, iwelling with
it" Il^luJ miriacr, and mariii); with jta mighty
hillowB, wan Hiich an awful light, and the
earth, dr^Wkcl with all it*
■piiatn. flowent, and fniit'i,
■ud) a Lively nne, ■■ niin'it
well tira* forth . '

veneratii m. when f. -r sin lih
m-itiviw— vis., tht^ir iH-m
ticial, hurtful. <lelih'htfii
nr arttoniidjing nn>|iertieH-
llMUt^ liinlK, tiatUM, iDHVtl,

and evau ve^vtahks them-
•elvea, came ti> be ail-in-d.
Tie priile and ptnnp ^
the fcTi-at, am' '^ ' '

njilHtfl "t the _,

ranneil Ant the flatterj', and
then the wiiivhip lA king*
and iirinei-4 an kihIh ti|»n
nrtli. Sifii fauMHi ' -

while thpylii

death cainiiiiiinl. The |>re-

voilin!.' imtion of the niiiri> inimiirtality maile

th<'iii iuiwriiiir that thr <q>iritH i.f miith vieell-iit

tvraiDH eitlier fmtneilintrly aH-el»liil uji intii
Hivvn, ami urttlrd tlwrp in wnie
iirii or (itbn, (ir that Uiry hm-enil ^y ■
intlieair; vrhiiwe )iTiiulnu»ia*>ii9i- ^*y ..
ti<Ill^ atul by Rudiiii^' wniiK utatnu
(>r iiiuwi to ravuilihi, thiy miKht lie
|ii«vaili.il with to cotne down nnd
mlialiit it. Tim aiiL'nitiini of Alira-
hnm K-ymiil tlui Enjihiatui were
ididaten I.IiwIl xxiv. S).
AVhi'UuT th« ii]i;Ut(y o[ iniKP-

Wimiliiliiiriiriuatefl -_

EgyiA wa have no data fm
tu dettinuine; )nit wlierei
it* 'niidli, the ai-iiatlv I'aul had Ruf-
ticientty aronintiil for the gnninilii
rnnil ivtunnN of it, when he Kaya of
" Brcaiim that, whi-n they

1 God.

thinr iniasinoti'ini'. aiid their innlMi hi'art wax
duricPliKl. I'rufeiHnK themnclviti to be winr,
tliey became foolx, atid chsntfod the glory of
tlie uncomi|>tilile Uod intii on image made
like to cofniptible man, and to birda, and four-
(•■nted beunlii, and CTeeping thingi (Rom. L

a, 'm, 23).

The bestial wonhip of Egypt is an awful
~ ~ tho truth of the aportle'a lan-

Riirb iH the Htnnig tendency of depsn'
naturr to fall into tliiii an, that the laaeliM.
the ch.»«n iieoide of I Joil, were BUbjected W »
twufold nwtraiiit. Rn<l was their k^. mJ
hence iiicjlatry with thetn wan Dot only iBipMVi
but treason. The pudtive iirecspts and >ntM
]»umMhments with which the Jewish law nit
every ap]>r<>ach to idolatry, and the lipnl)
}>robbitiun of all iutercoutae with tbs Mob-
tmu* natiuna which surroiuidfd tban, dv*
plainly bow abominable tiw ain of idolafary '

IDO

in the sight of God : so that customs which
might excite or entice to idoUtrous practices,
ana which in any other view mi^ht seem per-
fectly innocent, were strictly forbidden, (Dent,
xii., xiil) Probably many peculiar provisions
of the Jewish law, which seem to us arbitrary
or trifling, may have originated in this very
drcuinstance. Notwithstanding all that was
done to guard them against it, the people of
Israel fell into some of the most cruel and
shocking practices of idolatry. Even the sac-
rifice of children, forbidden as it was under
the most severe and summary penalties (Lev.
XX. 2), was very common ; and Jeremiah and
Ezeklel both speak of it as a practice prevail-
ing in or near their time ( Jer. vii. 31 ; Ezek.
xia.21).

The rites of idolatry were often impure
and obscene in the highest degree. The pnests
and the gods were alike the slaves and the
patrons of the most scandalous and filthj
practices; and hence the word whoredom is
often used as synonsrmous with idolatry. In-
deed, the present state of the heathen world, as
it is represented by modem missionaries, who
have seen and heard with their own senses,
shows conclusively that debasement of mind,
utter alienation of the heart from everything
pure and holy, the grossest unmoraUties,
and the most bcentious practices, are insepar-
able from idolatry.

The idols mentioned in Scripture are, —
Adrammelech (2 Ki xvii. 31), Anammelech (2
KL xvii 31), Ashima (2 KL xviL 30). Ashtoreth
(Judg. iL 13; 1 Ki. xi 33), Baal (Judg. ii
11-13 ; vi 25), Baal-berith (Judfir. viii. 33 ; ix.
4, 46), Baal-peor (Num. xxv. 1-3), Baal-zebub
(2 Ki. i. 2, 16)j Baal-zephon (Exod. xiv. 2),
Bel (Jer. L 2 : ii. 44), Ghemosh (Num. xxi. 29 ;
1 KL xL 33). Ghiun (Amos v. 26), Dagon
(Judg. xvi 2o; 1 Sam. v. 1-3), Diana (Acts
xix. 24. 27), Huzzab (Nah. iL 7), Jupiter (Acts
xiv. 12), Mercury (Acts xiv. 12), Molech or
Milcom (Lev. xviii. 21 ; 1 KL xi 5. 33),
Merodach (Jer. L 2), Nergal (2 Ki xvii. 30),
Nebo (Isa. xlvi 1), Nibhaz and Tartak (2 KL
xvii 31). Nisroch (2 Ki. xix. 37), Oueen of
heaven (Jer. xliv. 17, 25), Remphan (Acts vii
43), Rimmon (2 Ki v. 18), Succoth-benoth (2
KL xvii 30), Tammuz (Ezek. viii 14). So pre-
valent was idolatry, and so multiform its
character, that the objects of idol-worahip re-
ceive a great variety oi contemptuous names, —
*Atzebh and *£tzebh, carved images (Ps. xlviii
5 : Jer. xxii 28) ; Aven, emptiness or vanity
(Isa. Ixvi 3) ; Bosheth, shame : Ghammanim,
probably images of the Sun-goa (2 Ghr. xxxiv.
7) • EliUm. vanities (Lev. xix. 4) ; Elim, false
B (Isa. Ivii 5) ; Emim, terrors (Jer. L 38) ;

rillulim, blocks (Ezek. xviii 12) ; Masdth,
hieroglvphed stone (Lev. xxvi 1); Miphlet-
seth, objects of fear (1 Ki xv. 13) ; Matzebah,
stature (1 Sam. vii 12) ; Nesec, molten image
(Isa. xli 29) ; Pesel, graven image (Isa. xL 19) ;
SemeL a ngnre or nkeness (2 Ghr. xxxiii 7,
15); Shikkutz, abomination (2 Ghr. xv. 8);
Teraphim, imsurai or household gods, like ^e
Latin penates (Zech. z. 2) ; Tselcm, likeness (1

IMP

Sam. vi 5) ; Tzerim, figures or representations
(Isa. xiv. 16), &;c.

Sometimes idol temples were the rexx)sitorie8
of treasure (Judg. ix. 4), and were protected
by a tower (Judg. ix. 46).

IDUMEA (SeeEDOM.)

IJE-ABARIM. (See Ababim.)

ILLYRICUM (Kom. xv. 19)— a province
north-west of Macedonia, lying along Uie
Adriatic Sea, having ItaJy and Germany on
the north, and Macedonia on the east. Its
southern portion was the Dalmatia which Titus
visited (2 Tim. iv. 10). Taking Jerusalem as
a centre, it will appear that Illjrricum was
nearly the extreme north-western province of
what was then no small part of the known
world. Perhaps Paul went into Illyricum;
but he speaks here only of having preached the
Gospel unto its borders.

IMAGE (Gen. i 26, 27). We are told that
God ** created man in his own image ; " and
Ghrist is said to be "the image of GkkI'* (GoL
i 15; Heb. i 3|. The term imports a com*
plete and exact likeness, like that which exists
between a seal and its impression, when the
original is perfectly preserved in the repra-
sentation. Man onmnally possessed the image
of God in knowlecge, puri^, and felicity.
The higher spiritual features of this imaj^ have
been ooliterated by the fall, but many features
yet distinguish fallen humanity, in intellect,
personality, dominion over the lower creatures,
and immortalitv (Gen. ix. 6 ; Jas. iii 9).
Ghrist enjoys all the glories of (jrod, and so is
the express image of the Father's person. The
word IS usually employed to denote an object
of idolatrous worship. (See Idol, Man.)

IMALAJOJEL (Isa. vii 14)— a Hebrew
word signifying *' God with u&** and used as
one of the distinctive titles ot the Messiah.
(See Ahaz, Ghbist.)

IMMORTAL, IMMORTALITY (1 Gor.
XV. 53 ; 1 Tim. i 17)— a state of being not
subject to death. It is one of the attributes
of the Supreme Being.

The bodies which we inhabit while in this
world are corruptible, exposed to sickness, pain,
and death ;^ but the soul can never die as
the body dies. Its very nature is immortaL
Many arguments for the immortalitv of the
soul might be adduced from Natural Tneology,
but they need the confirmatory evidence and
authori^ of Scripture. There is a sense in
which the state of bein^ on which the souls of
all men enter at death is immortal. But the
Scriptures speak of the future existence of the
righteous as a state of immortalibr or eternal
life, in distinction from the state of the wicked
(Matt. xxv. 46 ; Rom. ii 7) ; and it is obvious
that the phrase *' eternal death" might be em-
ployed to express forcibly the nature of that
punishment — that living death— to which the
wicked will be doomed in the world to come.
(See PAMNATioy, Eternal, Heaven, Hell.)

IMPUTE (Rom. v. 13). By comparing v,
18 of the epistle to Philemon with Rom. iv.
5-13, we shall see the force of this term. The
words translated '*pat that on mineaooou&t**

337

INC

in tbe fanner paiisaffe, and that which is
rendered by the words counted, impuU, and
%mputed, in the other, have a oommon origin
and meaniDg. The plain Christian sees and
feels the force of the expression ; and though he
ma^ be ignorant of technical distinctions, yet
while he believes on Omb that jiistifieth the
nngodly. he feels the blessedness of him to
whom the Lord will not impute sin. The
great principle involved is, that the sinner
who accepts Christ is delivered from the guilt,
power, and punishment of sin, and is clothed
with a righteousness which is not his own, but
the gift of God through Jesus Christ. His
sins are put to the account of another who
bore, ana another's righteoumeas is put to his
account by futh. Christ l)ore his guilt, and
he is saved bv Christ's merits. (See Justift.)

INC£NS£ (Ezod. xxx. 8) was a compound
of frankincense and other gums or spices ; the
materials and manufacture of which are par-
ticularly prescribed (Ezod. xzz. «34-36). (See
Frank INCENSE.) It was the business of the
priest to bum it morning and evening upon a
golden altar specially erected for this purpose,
and thence called the " altar of incense." The
prefMuration of it for common use was positively
toroidden ; neither could any other composi-
tion he offered as incense on this altar, nor
could this be offered by any but the priest.
(See Altar, Censer.)

INCHANTKRS, INCnANTMENTS
(Ezod. vii. 11 ; Deut. xviii. 10). Inchanters
were persons who ])reten(lcd to possess the
power of charming animalK, &c. Inc practice
of enchantment in allied to witchcraft and sor-
cery ; and both the practice and practisers are
decidedly condemned })y (Jod's law (Deut. xviii
9-12). It is unquestionably true that i>er8on8
have sometimes obtained a wonderful innuence,
particularly over serpents of the most deaiUy
species ; instances of which are often stated by
eastern travellers. (See Adijeb, Asp, Cuahm,
Divination.)

INDIA (Esth. i. 1 ; viii. 0). It is only
mentioned, and that generally, as the eastern
boundary of the doramioiis of Aha!«uerus, as
Ethiopia was the west<.>m. In thix place it
probaoly means the country of the river Indus
— ^the Punjaub. (See OPIIIR.)

INGATHERING, feast op. (See Feasts.)

INHERITANCE (Cen. xxxi. 14). In the
modem use of this word it denotes the estate
to which one succeeds on the death of the
present possessor, and who is hence called his
neir. In eastern countries, however, the jKir-
tions of children were often distributca to them
by the father during his lifetime. Among the
Hindoos, the fatlier is bound to make an equal
distribution of his property whenever his
children in a body apply for it. Hence the
Intimacy of the application which the pro-
digal son and his brother made, and which
resulted in the father's dividing unto them his
living (Luke. xv. 12).

The word inheritanee is also used, in a more
gjmenl sense, to denote property or participa-
tion. (CJomp. Ezek. XTxiil 24 with Acts vii. 5.)
338

INK

The lawB of inhentaaoeb hj tlie itaAutoi of
Moses, and the oidinaiy tenure of i^mieitj,
were veiy ample among the HebnwiL (Set
FiBOT-BOBir. BiBTHBiOHT.) Tood voajbt bs
mortgaged. Dot oonld not be alienated : tae od^
permanent ri^t to property wne hj heritage or
lineal succession. The ddeet aon had a dooUt
I)<)rtion. Femalei had not territorial po—
sion ; and if a man left no eons hit dan^ghtni
inherited, bat on condition of not maix^ag.
not merely oat of the tribe, bat eren oat oi
that family of the tribe to wnieh the deenmi
parent belonged. If a man had no chiUrai,
nis land paseed to dirtant rdatiTcs in the fol-
lowing order :—" If a man die, and have no no,
then ye shall caoaehis inheritance to naa oats
his daughter. And if he haTo no oang^tir,
then ye shall give hia inheritanoa onto Ui
brethren. Ana if he have no fanrtilmn, Aa
ve shall give his inherituioe unto Ua hAt^
orethren. And if hia father have no htattMi^
then ye shall gave his inheritanoa unto Uakfafr
man that is next to him of hia Innl^* (M^
XX vii. 8-11). Moveable property oaiw eoolili
willed away as the teetetor tbooglit nL

INIQUITY (Gen. xv. !({>— wSiSevcr hdoK
against the law of God. Sin ia the tem*
gression of the law: iniqaitj ia a oaotmpt cr
disregard of the law (Pa. li 2,9; ciiL 10). Tb
" bear the iniouity ot the congregation" (Lev.
X. 17) is to make that expiation or atoosBwat
which is an essential pre-reqoiaite to their for>
giveness (Isa. liiL 6).

INK, INKHORN (Jer. zxztL 18 ; EadL ii:
2). It is supposed that the oonumon ink of eu^f
ages was made of water and pnlTeriaed dtst-
coal, or the black of burnt ivory, with theaddi*
tion of some kind of gonu (Hner eubitaaofli
were doubtless used both for writing and oolaiv-
ing matter. The Romans naed a dark ponb
liquid which was obtained from a epeciei of U
for this purpose. The ink in commQn nss it
this day oos been known for aereral <wniiwii—
in European countries, and is ueuallj made of
nutgalln, vitriol, and gtim. Ancient ink ms
more caustic, and less liable to fade ordeety.
Chinese ink is of the same quality. The pn'
fessed writers or scribes carried with them, w
they do at the present day in eaotem cuuBtria^
the implements of their Dusiness ; and anOBg
these was an inkhomf thmat into the ginSeat
the side. (See Book.)

INN (Luke x. 34). In the earliest ages aa
inn was notliing more than the well or otiMf
convenient plo^ where the company of tn-
vcllcrs and their weary beasts repoaed for rest
and refreshment At a later period it was the
caravauKary— a very comf ortlesa, tempotaiy cB-
cli«ure. without rooms or doora. Aftemsfdi
the inn became wliat the caravanaarieaof Pass
are at the present day — a place where travdn
mav get lodging, food, and fueL This «*
perhans such an inn aa aocommodaied the poor
wounded nuin, in tbe beautiful story of thegoei
Samaritan, for the kind Samaritan paid fcr At
reception of the woonded traveller, and •!•
pledged himself to defray all neoeaaaiye
it was to the stable or oot-boilding of

INN

tun thkt Mary wu obliged to Tasort with ths
infut Saviour, bscanse the general enrolmeiit

. ,. lentik extenially, the appesmice of
k niure, fanned by strong aiid lofty w>Ua, witli
B high uid often h&ndBome gatenay, whioh

1, Erum which the; eat, t

»-bw, of b

enable than

coTTMponding ta Uioie in front o( tba wut-
ments, and lonned by the ode willa wUdi
"""■*"" "" bring allowed to pTOiset ba>

Butera Idd or OannUHrx

by a nmnber of distinct i«ce8seB, the back walli
of which coataindoon leading to the small cells
or rooms which afford to travelleTv the accom-
roodatiDn they require. Every apartment is
thus perfectly detached, consiiting of the nram
and the recess in front. In the latter the occu-
pant omally tits till the day has declined, and
there he often prefers to sleep at ni^ht. Besides
the«e private apartmente, there a usually in
the centre of one or man of the sides of^the
qnadnuigle a large and lofty hall, where the
principd: persons may meet for conversation or
entertainment. The floon of all these apait-
ments— the recesses, rooms, and halls— are
raised 2 or 3 feet above the level of the court
which they surround, upon a platform or bank
of earth faced with masonry. In the centre of
the court is a well or oistem, offering to the
traveUers that most essential of conveniencies
in a warm climate — pure water.

"Uany caravaDsaries are withont stables.
the cattle being accommodated in the open area
Bat the moat complete establishments have
Taiy excellent stable* incorered avenues which
extend bi-hind the ranges of apartments— that
is, between the back waUa of these ranges of
bnilding and the external wall of the khan; and
ths entrance to it is by a covered passage at one
of the comErs of the qnodrangle. The stable
i> on a level with the court, and consequently
below the level of the buildings by the height of
the platform on which they stand. Neverthe-
IsH, thin platform is allowed to project behind
into the stable, so as to form a bench, to whioh
tbe bocaea' heada are turned, and on whicli they

or others who have

charge of th« b«Mts: and
when persona find on ihmr
arrival tiiai tbe apa:-

nsual^ appropriated ti

vellers are alnad; occupied,
they are glad to find accom-
modation in the stable, p«i^
tioaUrlr irtien the nuhta aia
cold or the seaaon inclem«tit.''
The ancient or the existing
usages of Uie East snpply no
neater ^babQity than that
Uie Saviour of the world wal
bom in such a stablvas tiiis.
INSPIRATION (2 1^
lii. 16) is a supernatural divine
influence exerted upon the
human mind, t^ means of
which the individual is made
to know certainly, and to speak truly, what
could not have been so known in the or-
dinaiy exercise of the facultiee and without
any such influence. When this influence is aa
eiertfd as absolutely to exclude nncertaintj
and all miitore of error in a declaratiiin of doc-
trines or iaxtsu, it is called a plenary or full in-
spiration ; and the book written under such an
inf uence, though it may oontoin many thii^^
which the author might have known anjd
recorded by tbe use of bis natural faonlties, is
properly said to be on inspired book. Nor is it
necessary that the particular style and method
of the writer should be abandoned. God may
hare wise purpoBOS to answer in preserving
this, while he secures through its sgency So
infallible declaration of his will. So that style,
manner, ftc. may be of the author's own choice,
provided the facte stated and the doctrines
taught as of divine authority, are stated and
tansht under an immediate divine influence,
wiUDUt the possibility of error. And even if
it should appear that the c
now in the world have si
juries of time and the c

be detected, still, if the substance of the book —
if the grand system of truth or duty revealed —
is evidently, as a whole, the result of such
divine inBpiration, it is to be received, and may
be entirely credited, as an inspired book.

The process by which God has given us the
knowledge of his will is usually cslled inspira-
tion, and it is expressed by various figure* >&-■

1X3

Scripture. By revvlation a prophet received
knowledcre from G(xL and by inspiration he
imparted it to men. Now, if any of his own
thoughto were allowed to mingle with the oracle
he delivered, it was soiled in its purity and rob-
bed of its authority. How, in such a case, could
we distinguish between what is his own and
what is God s ? and if we could not make such a
distinction, then our faith and submission must
be weakened, if not destroyed. The message
must come to us as wholly God*s, without any
human admixture. It is human in its vehicle,
but all divine in its nature and substance.
Then, a^ain, as the pn»j)het (»r aiMwtle must
communicate to men divine truth as fully and
as clearly as he received it fn.>ni ( iixl, as he must
give it out to us as correctly as it was given in
to him, inspiration must lie verUd ; or, the
inspired man must be infallibly guided in his
selection of wonls,— ntit^ however, by any
mechanical dictation. ^V en* he left to chotise
his own words, he mi^'lit fail t«^ teU us precisely
the truths which (toil hod told to him. But
'* holy men of God sjudce as they were moved
by the Holy Ghent *" llie Bible does not
consist only of God's idea;*, but also of Goti's
words. Can we 8upi>ose tliat God would allow
his own thoughts to lie injured in beauty or
power by unsuitable language? *'His wonl,**
sayv tlic dying psidini^t, *' was in my t(»nguo."
*'Thus shalt thou h}K^ak unto the children of
Israel,'* was the chiuge tt) Moi*es. **Thu8
saith the Ijord," is a c«)mmon aiHmmtion.
'* It is written," is another ii«h1« of tleclaring
that language as well as ide^M have l)oeu GoiVs
Bi>ecial gift to men in the oracles of truth.
Words and thoiu?hts an^ no closely associated
that we cannot think but in won hi. To give
us thoughts is also to give us certain words ;
for in words they are c<mveyeiL llius *'all
Scrii)ture is given by inspiration of (irotL"*

Theoli^cai writers sneak of the iMpiration
of elevation by which tLe natural faculties are
endued with supernatural jMiwer. and rise to
those sublime conceptions of divine things
which their natural force could not attain ; and
also of the inspiration of suifiirMtion, by which
the truth is suggested directly to the mind by
the Spirit of God, and also the language in
which it is to be declared to others. Such was
the revelation to John in the Isle of Patmos.
All these various degrees or kinds of iiuqnration
are supposed to occur in our Scriptures, and
sometimes they are combined. But there is really
no need of resorting to such distinctions. Thev
are not scriptural, neither do they throw much
light on the subject to which they are applied.
(See Prophecy, Kevklation, Scrfptcre.)

INSTRUMENTS OF MUSIC. (See
Muflic.)

INTERCESSION, INTERCESSOR (Isa.
liiL 12; lix. 16). To intercede ior another is
to appear for him or interpose in his behalf,
and to plead for him (1 Tim. ii. 1). It usuaUy
implies guilt or obligation ; and the object of
the intercessor is to reoondle or aatidPy the
offended party, and procure the release and
pudon of the offender. It sometimes denotes
340

the reverse of this (Rom. zL 2)^ inwfaick^Lue
it is used of £lijah*s solanii rniimriistiiim ot^
sins and provocations of uicient Iirad.

The Spirit is said to "make intenMBoii for
ua** (Rom. viii 26). Tlua is to be imdealood
as referring to that pecniiar influence of tbt
Spirit upon the heart, by which it is tan^
and guided, and enabled to cherish and bnatfai
forth holy desires, which God will gradooklir
accept through toe complete and effected
mediation of I£m who ever liveth to make
intercession for ns. As to the fad of Chrirt)
intercession, see Rem. viiL 34 ; 1 Hm. iL 6; 1
John ii. 1 ; and the manner of it is iOnstatetL
HeK viL-x., in which chapters the cupUbom
intercession of Christ, and the sacrifice of him-
self as the ground of his intercession, are pic^
8ente<i to the mind as a most affecUns evidom
of the nature and effect of sin. Chnstfs inter
cession precludes that of any other^ whether
saint or seraph. (See Advooati, Buediatoi.)

INTERPRETATION (2 Pet L 90). Bnaw
were interpreted— that is, their MOMwwg was
made apiiarent ** Unknown tongnes" woe
interpreted — the sense of the foceiffn laiigiuia
was expounded in a dialect ft>»wil»**' to ttt
hearers. Every reader of the Bible who va-
derstands it, so far is an interpreter. No duty
is more incumbent on man than to inierpRt
aright the revealed will of God. We utc
now many auxiliaries in the interx»retatiaB of
Scripture. It gathers assistance fmm emy
Quarter. Philul«)^'y lends us aid in analynf
tne hinguage of Isaiah or Paul; arcfasQlcgJ
casts new light on customs of long-past yw%
and of countries very different in hahiti froB
our own. The traveller who ezdaimi ii
ecstasy, ** At length our feet stand within tin*
gates, O Jerusalem ! "—who familiariaes ns via
the scenery of the land flowing with milk ttd
honey ; with whom we dimb its wi«mtitMiia «
sail on its lakes, and j«)in in its song of vintage
—he who conveys us to the ruins of BebjioB
or the sepulchitss of Petra, the shores of^tfae
Red Sea or the valley and wonders of Ekn^
or sets us down amidst the thonder-^mtes
}x*2dcs of Ilorcb — gives us a new vision in lad-
ing Scripture, affords us a striking ooofinnatMa
of its truth, and discovers to us a snUiBntT
and emphai<is unknouoi before, both in A
historic sketches and prophetic «Ji«i*MyM The
researches of physical philosophy ezdte « is
studying the inspired annals ox creation to hd
yet more intensely that **the heavens deckit
the glory of God, and the firmam^kt dioweA
his handiwork.** The explorers of dasae
learning, who bring us 8ix>ils from the hesthea,
and illustrate with apt (juotations many dansfli
r)f Scripture, are nut without their nssw and srt
instrumental not onlv in preparing fod for Ite
altar and oil for the uunps, but in proinBg,}V
the contrast, the superior glory oftbe aviP*
volume. The mind that has been wdl Uah*^
to the task of translation from the odv tf^
8troi)he8 of the most intricate poets of &«<*
and Rome will feel itself the better fani^
by this previous discipline for m^g^wg is tht
most responsible of all human entefptiset-^

INT

giving to some ignorant and de^rsded people >
Tenion of the hntj oracles in their native
dialect, so that they may b« ablo to read in
thnr own tongne the wonderful works of God.
The HMD who tivvela in the East and notes ita
hmb* and flowerB^ Ha jewels and minerals, i1

loruii and nuuriuKS, its lanaM dii
idigions riteo— jieldi ua the means ef
■tatement and intereiting veiifioaldon. The
IftbraiouB didcs who spend their life in woie
novince of the an dipiomaliea, in debaiminiiw
e age of MSS. mat the texture on whii£

All Bcienoe pBya homiige to revelation. The
inspired book receives illastnition from every

UbUcaJs

nan study. The . . _

Dceia accelented by contributions
st encyclopKdia of recorded human

BiUe. It is plain, however, that we
lamiliariie our minds with the East, and be
able to fonn, as a groundwork, nome general
Idea of esistem Bcenes, cliniate, and coetiinies :
to imagine its vast deserte, trodden only t^
the camel's foot^and producing but the camels
food; to imagma toe deep-blue canopy of
heaven shining forth with the glorious light«
that gave their oftrliest worsbip to the simple
Aepherds watching their flocks by night in
the vast plains of Choldea; to imagine the
buniinB heats of day, all nature stilled in
lansuid rest; the evening hour, with its re-
freshing breeze, its purjue shadowings: the
fbit-rooled hnusee, crowded by a turboned
population ; the cine retumiiig to the ciW ;
xbt maidens fiUing their vessels at the welbi ;

the hnDriant foliage of a tropic clii — , — _

~~]ple life of the peasant tribes, with their

t of goat's hair, their loins girded,

I in flieir '■— " '-•' -- =— -''

BtUe t__. .
their staff ii

And, u

fine, all
meanii

™lhe^Hui

of the Word of

de^ndence on the divine SpL...

Spirit of God must be implored.

must a man be an expert philologist and
lof^dan; not only must he be versont in
the general characters and special idioms of
the sacred tonguea; not only must he have
that quality of mind which the Grecian critiCB
termed rd iipeXh (freedom from prspoasce-
non), and joined with it the native tact whidl
the same critics termed liipirla (that instino-
tivt sagacity which seizes at once on peonliar
■hades of thought and meaning) ; nototuymnat
be have a paychological oneness with the author
with whom for the lime he identifies himself,
in order to eliint the trun of bis reasontng, or
•ihiUt the cnrrent of his emotions ; not only
mnst these elements of preparation be enjoyed,
bnt the teaching of the Spirit of God, oi the
Anthor of revelation, of "»"■ who best knows

the maanlag of the phrsaMloBjr He hM em*
ployed, must be superadded. "His SBOiet
of the Lord is with them that tear Um."'
Moral qualities ate as indispeiMahle as
Not that theKUe is ah

■heohtc^

man most Know its langnags More he osn
be moved by its warnings or oonvinced by its
Invitations. But the nJnd must be oUnred to
anf study ere it can enjoy it. The mind that
possssHS no poetic sosceptiUIi^ caimot reliA
Homer or Milton; neitW wiU the intellsot
that has DO taste for eiact sdsnee, for dw
relations of bodies and numbers, iscdve any
fascination bom Euclid or Lmlace. Not that
iipect the Holy Spirit to imput

Those peculiar

divine Spirit may have to the spirit o{ man,
to enlighten and impress it, an beyond ths
range 5t human invcctigation. The S^rit of
truth nddes into all truth the heart whidh
place* itself under his guidanos, in ita pnqte>-
Eul endeavoun to undmitand the majiiW of
those revelations given by "holy men (tf God,
who spoke as they were moved by the Holy
Ghost," (See Souptdbk.)

IRONfProT.xiviilT). Some of the uses of
this well-known and moat valuable metal were
probably known at a very early period (Gen.
IV. 22). We find it mentioned as the material
for tools (Deut. ixviL S ; 2 KL vL SV^eapons
of war (I Sam. xviL T), furniture (Dent, lit
II), Implements of husbandry (2 Sam. xiL 31 ;
Jer. xiviiL 14), and chariots of war, (Josh.
xviL IG, Ac, &C.) By "northern iron" (Jer.
IV. 12), piDbably, is intended a spedea of iron
lufocture, remarkable for ita hard-

.turally supposed, from the connec-

tion, that by the expresmon, "a land whose
stones are iron " (Dent, viii 9), is intended an
abundance of iron ore j sj"' -• ui--

irUoc In HeHd.

■ in the description of ths lot of
"■" "■' ' e the reading

Asher (I _._ . ,.

might be, "Under thy shoes a
hraBB," as in the margin.

Iron has a number of figurative stgnificationB
in Scripture. It is the symbol of strength

3U

IBS

(Job xL 18), of afBiction (Pt. cviL 10), And of
obBtinacy (Isa. xlviiL 4). Its fumaoe ia the
emblem of slavery, and its fetters of captivity.

IB-SHEMESH— ciCy of the tun (Josh. xix.
41)~a dty of the Danites, perhaps the same as
Beth-shemesh. (See Beth-shehesh, Heres.)

ISAAC. The word Isaac literally means
" laujghter,** and to this sifi^nification particular
allusion is made in the following Scnitturcs: —
Gen. zvii. 17, 19 ; xzi. 6 ; xxvi 8. Tne person
named Isaac in sacred history was the son of
Abraham and Sarah, and was bom in Gerar,
within the boundaries of Philistia.

Isaac's early years are wrapt in obscurity.
The ^p«at trutlis of religion must have been
early instilled into his mind. Jehovah expected
such paternal fidelity from Abraham ; and on
this account seems to have given him Isaac,
and in him concentrated the must extensive
promises of temporal and spiritual prosperity
(€ren. xviL 17-19j. While yet very young, ho
was expressly mentioned as an ancestor of the
ooming Messiah (Gen. xxi. 12). Soon after this,
Abraham removed his family from the territories
of Abimelcch, kin^of Gorar, and sojourned for
a considerable period in a more northerly por-
tion of Philistiai While rcsidinf; in this region,
it pleased God to put the faith of Abranam
to a most severe trial in the command to offer
bis son. No record is given of the feelings of
Isaac on the momentous occAsion. Isaac re-
mained in his fatlier*s houro till his fortieth
year. During these years he was chiefly em-
ployed in sheiiherding the flocks of AbnUiam
among the rich pastures of Canaan. Abraham,
now feeling anxious to have bin son united in
marriage with some of liis own kindred in
preference to the daughters of Canaan, sent
nis oldest servant into Mesopotamia to select
a partner for him. This had become the more
necessary for him. because of his deep somtw
at the death of Sarah (Gen. xxiv. 07). llie
messenger, proceeding under the guidance of
the Almighty (Gen. xxiv. 7, &c), chose Ile-
bekah, granddaughter of Nahor, the bntthcr
of Abraham, and brought her away, with the
entire consent of herself and her relative, to be
united in marriage to his master's son. Ifuiac
ha^l gone out into the field at eveniiigtide t*.)
enjoy the pleasure and reap the profits of iiimis
meditation, when lleliekah and iier attendants
drew near. The maiden alighted from her
camel, and, veiling herself according to ori-
ential custom, came forth to meet her future
husband. The servant related what he ha<l
done, and introduced the strangers to his
youthful master. Bebekah was received with
tokens of respect and love, was led by Isaac
into the tent which his mother had occupied,
and forthvi-ith became his wife.

Before his death, Abraliam assignee! por-
tions to his other children, and sent them
away to a considerable distance eastward of
the residence of Sarah's son— doubtless that
he might be allowed to enjoy biB possessions
without molestation. Isaac was then made
heir of all that remained of Abraham's pro-
perty. When, in concert with his brother
342

ISA

Ishmael, he had oonsigiwd the lihei of fail
father to the cave of Madipelah, lie xemored
his dwelling to the vicinity of Lahai-roi, and
was there enriched with many Ueatdngi fram
Jehovah, in fulfilment of his sracioaa [■<Mnli>i
Isaac had reached his nztietn jrear before tilt
birth of his twosons. Eaaaand Jacob, gave toksa
of the fulfilment of the diviaa ptamiw. The
children were given him in answer to fervent
prater. Both were objects of endeannent to
their parents; bat Esan became the object of
his father's special love, and Jaoob became the
favourite of nis mother. Soon after this, tiit
land of Canaan was visited with a famine, nd
Isaac and his family were compelled to seek
refuge in Philistia. He was forbidden of tht
Ix>rd to go into Egypt, andenjonied to aojoan
there in the prospect of great fufeore piruepeti^.
God renewed to him the promises mikde ts
Abraham. So enoouza^ed, ne fixed hk abodi
at Gcrar, in the temtories of Abimeleeh.
Here the imtriarch was blessed with suprinac
success. All he did prospered. He grewtiD
he became very great m the pmnewiicsi of
flocks and herds and an extensive letinne of
servants.

Two events occurred in oonneotion with tUi
visit to Gerar, very similar to what bdUl
Abraham in an early part of his historr
(CTomp. Gen. xx. with xxvL 7-11 ; and xxi. B
with XXVL 26.) The incidents are related with
an air of simplicity and a distinct vnielj of
expression which forbid the supposition of
any designed coincidence. '*The men of tiis
place asked him of his wife ; and he said, Shs
IS my sister : for he feared to say. She is mf
wife" (Gen. xxvi. 7). As Isaac was gmhyof
duplicity in not at first calling Rebekah Ui
wife to Abimelech, his oondact deserves cca-
bure. It was a temporary concealment, tiQ
he found himself so situated as not to for
the divulgence of all the facts of the cssa
The other event was one of a kind wUeh
must have often arisen from the jamiici
of the envious and zealous partisans of tot
migratory leaders of these earlv times. Inac
in these circumstances deeniod it pmdent to
retire from Geror, and, de^iarting thenoe^ bi
settled at Beersheba.

The old ago of tliis jMitriarch was embittoid
bv K«)me severe domestic trials. His favonriti^
Ksau, became allied in marriage with two
families of Hittitcs, which proved very ds>
trosidng to the minds of both bis pannts.
With advancing years Isaac's sight aid to
failed him that he could not distingmah bit
sons f n>m each other. In these circumstanoat
by the expert cunning of Bebekah and Jaoi^
tne aged father was induced to confer tbi
bloRsing ujKtn Jacob which by right behxigBd
to the eldest son, and by this to oonvey to tbt
younger brother a title to inherit all that vai
peculiar in the family possessions and pnnpeela
Isaac was grieved when he found his mistakii^
and mourned with and for Esau. Jaoob hsa
been blessed, and nothing conld revane it
(See Bkpemtance.)

Bebekah, fearing the vengeance of Enn i>

ISA

the event of his f ather*8 deatii, prevailed with
Isaac to send Jacob to his kindred in Padan-
aram, to take himself a wife of the daughters
of Laban, his maternal uncle. On this occasion
the patriarch extended the blessing he had
pronounced u^n the head of Jacob. Pormerly
(see Gen. xxvii 28, 29) he had spoken only of
temporal thin^; but now the blessino^ of
Abraham was mvoked from Jehovah, ana, as
appears in Gen. xxviii. 13-15, was soon pro-
mised in all its extent. When Jacob returned
from Padan-aram, he found his venerable
father yet alive, residing in Manure, a grove
near Hebron, sacred as a spot where Abraham
had dwelt But the time of Isaac^s departure
at len^h arrived. At the age of an hundred
and eighty he " died, and was gathered xmto
his people.** His sons, Esau anaJacob. buried
him in the cave of Machpelah, where slept the
remains of Abraham ana Sarah his wife, and
where his own Bebekah lay mouldering in the
dust (Gen. xlix. 31). (See Hkbron.)

Isaac was a quiet and passive man. His
mind was retiring, and preferred the sweets of
lonely, tranauil meditation ; his disixMition was

Katie and kind y and all his habits seem to
ve accorded with the rustic simplicity and
limited desires of the pastoral life. Ambition
was unknown to this humble shepherd ; and in
him we see pre-eminent the milder and more
pleasing qualities of docility, submission, and
resignation.

ISAIAH— talvatum of Jehovah (2 Ki. xx. 1).
Very little is known of the personal history of
this eminent prophet. We know that he was
the son of Amoz, and the Jews say that Amoz
was the brother of Amaziah, kinjg of Judah.
Isaiah lived and prophesied in the "days of
Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah." The
history of these reigns is in 2 KL xv.-xx. ; 2
Chr. xxvi-xxxiL Some passag|8 of it are
nven by Isaiah, as in ch. viL , viiL , xxxvL -xxxix.
Uzziah reigned fifty-two years, Jotham and
Ahaz each sixteen, and Hezekiah twenty-nine.
Of course Isaiah did not live throughout the
whole of their reigns : but his ministry began
toward the end of tlzziah's reign, and was
continued till the accession of Manasseh.
Isaiah also wrote some historical books — such
as the life of king Uzziah (2 Chr. xxvi 22), and
a bio^p*aphy of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxxii 32).

Isaiah was nearly contemporary with Hosea,
Joel, Amos, and Micah; and tradition says
that he was one of the faithful who were
*'sawn asunder" (Heb. xi. 37), and that the
event happened about 698 years before Christ.
There is no evidence, however, as to the time
or manner of his death.

Pbopheoy of, is regarded as one of the most
elevated and sublime of all the prophetical
writings. Its reference to the advent, offices,
and kingdom of the Messiah are so numerous
and exact as to have obtained for its author
the title of the evangelical prophet : and the
name Isaiah ("the salvation of Jehovah")
indicates the same characteristic of this magnifi-
(sent book. The first thirty-nine chapters oi the
prophecy relate to fobjects and events uncon-

ISA

nected with each other, and embrace the period
during which the prophet was more activd.7
and openly employed as a minister. This first
portion of Isaiah has a continual reference to
surrounding nations, and describes the doom
which was ere long to fall upon them. They
had been the enemies of the Theocracy, and
their end is decreed, not with a vague and
variable foresight, but with minute and si>ecial
delineation. Each coimtnr is to feed its own
peculiar burden, and may learn its sin from its
punishment. Babylon. Moab, Efi^ypt, Damas-
cus, Elam, Tyre, and £dom, are singled out as
the victims of just and awful retribution. But
many glimpses of glory and salvation are in-
terspersed—many sKetches, mild and beautiful,
of the peace and prosperity of Messiah's reign.
The residue of the book relates chiefly to two
events,— the end of the Babylonidi captivi^,
as some suppose, and the coming of l£e
Messiah : the latter of which he seems to have
contemplated with a very distinct and exalted
conception, not only of the circumstances of its
commencement, but of its progress, glory, and
ultimate triumph.

The whole book may be said to consist of
five connected but distinguishable groups or
series of prophecies. The first group (chs.
L-xii.) contains Isaiah*s earliest prophedes,
arranged in two series, easily distinguished by
internal marks. The first six chapters have a
general character^ without certain reference to
any particular historical occasion, which ac-
counts for the endless difference of opinion as
to the precise date of their composition. The
remainmg six have reference to particular
occasions, which are not left to conjecture, but
distinctly stated. They embrace the principal
events under Ahaz, ana illustrate the relation
of the prophet to them. The sixth chapter,
though descriptive of what is sometimes callea
the prophet*s ordination, holds its proper place
as an addendum to the foregoing prophecies,
designed to justify their dominant tone of
threatening and reproof. The second group
(chs. xiiL-xxiii.) contains a series of prophecies
against certain foreign powers, showing tiie
relation of the heathen world to the Theocracy,
and followed by a sort of appendix (dia.
xxiv. -xxvii), summing up the foregoing pro-
phecies, and showing the results of their fmfil-
ment to the end of time. The remarkable
prophecy of ch. xxii. against an individual, in
the last part of the chapter, is accounted for
by the supposition that Judah is there con-
sidered as subject to a foreign, and probably a
heathen, influence— viz., that of Shebna. The
third group (chs. xxviiL-xxxiiL) contains pro-
phecies relating to a particular period of
Hezekiah*8 reign, with a more general prospec-
tive sequel (dis. xxxiv., xxxv.), as in tiie
second. These chapters vary in style, but the
imagery is striking, and the appeals are terse and
brief — thoughts that breatne, and words that
bum.** The fourth group (chs. xxxvi. -xxxix.)
describes in historical form the influence exerted
by the prophet at a later period of the roign of
Hezekiah. Begardingthisand the parallel part

343

ISA

of Second Kin^ as collateral derivatives from
a historical writing of Isaiahj Havemick is led
by the mention, in ch. xxxviL «%, of an event
which hapi>ened after the supposed death of
Isaiah, to ascribe that verse and Uie insertion
of these chapters to a somewhat later hand.
He maintains, however, that, so far from beins
inappropriate, they constitute a necessary link
between the third group and the fifth (chs.
xL-lxvi.), in which the whole result of his
prophetic ministrations to the end of time is
vividly depicted. (See Alexander on /said A,
Introductiun, p. 54.)

So vivid and sublime are the prophecies in
the second i>ortion of Isaiah, that some have
attenipte<l to set them down as belonging to a
later era— as comi)osed in times more recent
Uian thoHo of the son of Amoz. Such critics
plead their refined taste, their shrewd discern-
ment, and their erudite sagacity; but their
reluctance to acknowledge either prediction at
all, or at leant predictions of such luminous
beauty and exactness, opens the i>ath to select
among the inspired writings what is and what
is not authentic in their estimation. Isoiah^s
style in the latter chapters does differ from the
earlier, but ho does the theme; and may not a
writer's Rtyle vary with liis subject, or with his
age and exi>eriencc in cominwition ? The second
portion of niM oracle.s has tor its central image
the Ribylonirih cajjtivity and the return; but
this d(»es not iiitnly that the pr«)phet must have
lived in the uiicUt of th'.'do events, or that he
wrote only for coDtem]x»rarie8. ITic entii-e .
cum;nt of evidence, deeo and wide oh the ._
testimony of the JuwIhIi aim C'hriritian churche.^*,
is stn>ng fi>r the whole book of Inaiah an
given by inspiration of Goil, and by the one
i>n>]>het. An<l what a precious treanuit; it has
r)een to the C.-hurch ! It testifies luiforehand
**the HufTerings of Christ and the glory that
should follow," in language so clear and precise,
that the predicted deinls of the future apix^ar
as simple narrations of the past. The years of
intervening Hpa<'e are merged in the near and
overpowering lustre of the precious visions.
The birth of Jesus so wonderful, his life so
benevolent, his teaching so heavenly, and his
work so glorious ; his death so tiL*rrible in
itself and so amazing in its saving result ; the
rewanls of the servant, the merits of the sacri-
fice, the triumphs of the ctmcpieror, the i>ower
and prerogative of tlie iniiversal Governor, are
all i>ortrayed in a style of rich mohsly and
magnificence. The warm and glo\iing drainry
is worthy of the picture which it adonis anil
sets r>ff. Tlie language befits its theme : now
sonorous and lofty, and again calm and i)en-
sive; now echoing back the great thoughts
cfintaine<l in it, and again streaming with all
the gorgeous hues of an excited and inspired
imagination. All nature lay at Isaiah's C4^>m-
mand ; and he had but to say to any ima^e or
allusion, *'Come," and it came. Tliere is no
struggle with reluctant verbiage; all is easy,
and flowing in this prophetic gos])eL The'

atlendours of heaven, the oeauty of earth, and
le horrors of hell beneath, arc patent to his
344

ISH

use, and refme not their MTvioe. These ondes
must have been uttered "at sandty thnea,'*
and " in divers manners,** vet they form one
great whole, and may have been ooUected and
arranged by the seer himiielf. They were
delivered during a long life, aa the Sjurit moved
him and opportunity pretented itself. Whci
any vice started into promineno^ the prophet
rebuked it. When any form of irreligxon torn
into popularity, it met with withering denmh
dation. When the hope of the Church laa-
guished, an oracle of the pro|ihet revived it|
and pointed to the Son of Jesse— the ddld to
be bom. ^\llen the nation sunk into dei^oB*
dency at the prospect of a lone and dnsiy
captivity, Isaiah taught it to look forward to
other years, when it should be crowned widi
siuritual glory; and in delighted sntinpstioa
tne seer saluteil it thus — ** Arise, shine; far
thy light is come, and the gUny of the Lord it
risen nix>n thee" (Isa. Ix. 1). The book d
Isaiah will thus continue to minister fredi

style and musical periods

command amniration; while the spiritoalitT,
beauty, fer\-our, power, and truth of lus
oracles will be humbly and gratefully fdt aad
adoreil.

ISHBOSHETH (2 Sam. ii. 8), son and pk-
cessor of Saul, was persuaded by Abner to go
ui> to Mahanaim and assume the sovenmieot,
wiiile David reigned at Hebron (2 Sam. u. II):
and a majority of the nation of Israel, guided
hy tlie law of natural succession, acknowledged
him as king. A severo liattle soon after o^
curred at Gibeon, between the army of David,
under Joab. and the army of Ishboeneth, under
Abner, in which the latter were utterly defestod.
The hoi)es of Ishbosheth were all out extin-
guished. Soon after this Ishbosheth offended
Abner, so that he forsook his interest, sad
became the ally of David ; and at lau|th
Ishlxwheth was assassinated at noonday, vfib
he lay on his bed. Thus ended the brief
(IjTiastv of Saul (2 Sam. iv. 5-7).

ISHI (IIos.iL 16) signifying mjr kutbmdt
and BAALI, in the same jiassage, ngnifyiiig
mtj Lord, are figuratively used to denote the
contrast between tlie affections and relatiaM
of Israel towards Ciixl at two different periodi
of their history. The latter having been used
in idol worship, the very name was to beoone
obsolete (Hos. ii. 17).

ISHMAEL (Gen. xvi. 11) — the son of
Abraham by Hagar. Previous to his buth.
his mother, l>eing ill-treated by Sarsh, flea
from the house, and wliile in tne wildensM
was informed by an angel what would be tlie
character of her unborn child, and that hif
I»o8terity wouM be innumerable. As AbrshsB
supposed that the promises of God respsctiiig
his seed were to be fulfiUed in Talnw*!^ he
nurtured him with much care in the proV^
of his fancied destiny (Gren. x\'ii. 18). Wha
Isaac was weaned, Ishmael was about ■ercB'
teen ^ears of age, and having offended Smah
by his treatment of her child, she insisted thit

ISH

both he and his mother Haffar shotild be
banished from the family. Hagar probably
made up her mind to return to her kmdred in
Egypt : but when she had reached the wilder-
ness ot Beersheba, her stock of water was
exhausted, and the lad, overcome with fatigue
and thirst, sank down, apparently to die.
God appeared for their deliyerance, directed
Hagar to a fountain of water, and renewed
his promise to make of him a great nation.
They remained in the wilderness, and he sus-
tained himself and his mother by hunting
(Gen. xxi 13-20). At length he married an
Ilgyptian woman; and so rapidly did his
progeny multiply, that in a few years after-
wards they are spoken of as a trading nation
(Gen. zxxvii. 25).

The prophecy that he should be a wild man,
or literally a "wild ass man," or as wild as an
ass, has been wonderfully verified in the
histoi^ of the Arabs, who are a branch of his
posterity. They are universally known as
robbers; and all who pass tmrough their
coimtrv do it in caravans, and wiui arms.
Thej nave never been diiven from their
territory, but have maintained their independ-
rence and peculiarity of manners and customs
np to the present day, though they have lived
in the midst of influences and events, and have
been themselves instrumental in their occur-
rence, by which the relations of all the other
kinfi^doms of the earth have been essentially
moaified, if not completely subverted. Their
character changes not. Time has no influence
over them, their temper, or pursuits.

Another Ishmael was son of Nethaniah of
the seed roytd ( Jer. zli 1). He fled at the last
fdege of Jerusalem to the east of the Jordan,
but returned and assassinated Credaliah, the
governor at Mizpah, and a few days after
entrapped and muraered a band of eighty
migrims, and threw their bodies into a well
Ue then carried off the daughters of king
Zedekiah, who had been left in Jerusalem,
and great booty. The booty was re-captured,
but himself escax>ed.

ISHMAELITES ((Jen. xxxvii 25)— the
descendants of IshmaeL The company of
IshmaelitM to whom Joseph was sold are
elsewhere called Midianites (Gen. zxxvii 28).
Probably they were Ishmaehtes who dwelt in
Midian. It is evident, however, that the two
names were sometimes applied to the same
people (Judg. viii. 22, 24), though we know
the descendimts of Midian were not Ishmael-
ites, for Midian was a son of Abraham by
Keturah.

ISLANDS, ISLES. &c. (Isa. xlii 12).
These words, as used in our version, import
either— (1.) A settlement or colony, as dis-
tinguished from uninhabited country, or from
■eas and rivers (as in Gen. x. 5; Job zxii
30; Isa. xlii 15);— so at this day small
districts of cultivated and settled countnr,
surrounded by immense wastes, are, in tne
same sense, called islands; or, (2.) Goast or
country adjacent to water or maritmie places
(^ Isa. XX. 6; xxiii 2, 6 ; Ezek. zxvii 7) ;

ITA

or, (3.) Distant lands beyond the tea, or
places which were reached by sea, whether
coasts or islands, and espedallv the regions
west of Palestine, whetner islands or not

from the continent or main land.

IsLBS OF THB GEimLis, or Hkathbn (Gen.
x. 5; Zeph. ii 11), mean ffeneraJly the puts
of liurope most known to the ancient Asiatics,
and lying on the shores of the Mediterranean.

ISkAEL (Gen. xxxv. 10).— the surname
of Jacob, given to him hjr the an^l at
Mahanaim (Gen. xxxii 28; Hos. xii $). It
signifies **the prince that prevails with God,"
or one "who has seen Grod." The latter
meaning is so far justified, for the scene of
the mysterious occurrence is called Peniel,
OocTaface,

We find it used, however, for the whole
race of JaooVs posterity (1 C;or. x. 18) ; idso.
and particularly in the historical books ana
minor prophets, for the kingdom of the ten
tribes, as (ustinguished from J udah (2 Ki xiv.
12) ; and a^ain for all true believers (Isa. xlv.
17; Rom. ix. 6 ; xi 26). It is a sacred name.
Every believer is an Israel — a victorious
wrestler in prayer, and has $een " the glory of
Crod in the lace of his son Jesus Christ."

Israel, land of. (See Canaan.)

Israel, kingdoh of. (See Israelites.)

ISRAELITES (Josh, iii 17). This was
the usual name of the twelve trines, from the
time of their leaving Egypt tmtil the revolt
under Jeroboam, when the ten tribes consti-
tuted ''the kingdom of Israel," and the
remaining two tne "kingdom of Judah.**
(See Hebrews.)

ISSACHAR— mwtrd (Gen. xxx. 18)— was
the fifth son of Jacob and Leah. The pro-
phetical description of him, uttered by his
father, was graphic indeed. " Issachar is a
strong ass couching down between two bur-
dens" (Gen. xlix. 14, 15). This oracle was
fulfilled in the fact that tne posteritv of Issa-
char were a laborious people, and addicted to
rural emplo3rments — hardy, and patient to
bear the burdens both of labour and war
(Judg. V. 16; 1 Chr. vii 1-5).

Tribe of, had its portion in one of the most
fertile tracts of the country. It was a trian-
gular section on the Jordan, between Zebulun
and Ephraim, thus fulfilling the prediction
of his father in this respect (Gren. xlix. 14,
15). It was amazingly fertile, according to
Josephufl^ full of nurseries and pastures. It
had within it Tabor and the rich and fruitful
valley of Jezreei

ITALY (Acte xviii 2; xxvii 16; Heb.
Xlii 24) — tne country of which Rome was
the capital in the days of Christ and^ his
apostles. It stretches out into the Mediter-
ranean Sea, having the Adriatic on the north-
east) the Tuscan Sea on the south-west, and
France, Switzerland, and Germany on the
north. The history of Italv for long periods
is not only the history of Europe, but of the

ITA

world. The influenoe of Rome pAgaa and
Borne papal lias been felt in all ooontries and
in the yan^ institutions of society. (See RosuL )

ITALIAN BAND. (See Armies.)

ITHAMAR. (See Eleazar.)

ITUREA (LukeiiL 1). or JETUR a Chr.
i 31)— a province Iving to the south-east of
Hermon, and Iwunaed on the south hv Tra-
chnnitis, Jordan, and the Hauran. It was
overrun by a party of the Israelites in the
time of Jotham. king of Judah, and a vast
<iuantity of siN>il taken (1 Chr. v. 19, 22). It
is now called JedAr.

IVAH, or AVA (2 KL xviiL 34}-a city
mentioned in Rabehakeh's boastful tirade,
along with Hena and Sepharvaim ; by many

JAC

identified with the modem HU^ oa the
Euphratesu

rVORY a KL z. im-ciJlfld tooth la He-
brew—the substance of the tnkk of tiie ele-
phants It seems alio in ancieiit timea to haie
been obtained from the taika of the hippopot-
amus. That which ia bron^t ficom C^ykn ii
regarded as most valuable. It was among thi
merchandise of TVie {Eselc zzviL 15) and
Tarshish (1 KL x. 22). 8olomoii*8 throne wm
built of it (2 Chr. iz. 17, 21); and so lavidih
was it used m architecture of varions kSiids^ua
in cabinet woric, as to justify the esraresnoM
we find in Ps. zlv. 8; Amos iiL 15; ¥l 4;
and Ezek. xxviL 6. Man^ speciiiiens an
found amoog the Assyriaii ruiuk

JAARE-OREGIM (2 Sam. xxi. 19)-
father of Klhanan, who slew the brother of
(joliath, a statement at variance with 1 Chr.
XX. 5. The wonls ** the l)rother of" are not in
the original, and Oregim is not a proper name,
but means " weaver's),'" having been misplaced
out of the phrase, " the staff of whose s]>ear
was like a weaver's beam."

JAAZER, or JAZER (Num. xxxiL 1^)—
a town in or near Gilcad, on the east of the
Jordan. It firnt belonged to the Amorites.
It was the hea<l of wveral ** villairt's" (Num.
xxi. 32). Van »lo Vtlde jilaces it at Seir, be-
tween Gilead and Heshbou. (See Jazeil)

JABAL— *frfaTO ((Jen. iv. 20) -the son of
Iiamech, " and father of all who dwell in tents
and have cattle." He was the first who fol-
lowed the wandering nomad life, moving from
one range of pa8ture-gn>iindH to another, and
living in tents or p<irtahle hal>itations, easily

nin^ in a rocky channel, through a deep
ravmo alxnit GO miles westward to the Jordan,
seiiaratin^ the Aniontes from the Ammonites
(Num. XXL 24). Jacob croased it on his return
from Mesoitotumia (Gen. xxxii 22). It is now
called Zurka {blue river) ; and travellers si>eak
of cliffs on either side of 500 feet perpendicular
height, with a brea^lth, fn)m cliff to cliff, of
not more than 100 feet In some places the
stream is not more than 30 feet wide.

JABESH — rfr»/nf*r (1 Sam. xl 6), or
JABESH-GILEAD (Jmlg. xxL 8)- was situ-
ated at the fo(»t of mount Gilead. witliin the
territory of Manasseh, on a small orook which
is still called Yabet. In the days of the judges
this place was sacked by the Israelites, and
nearly all the inhabitants cut off, because they
refused their aid in a war upon the tribe of
Benjamin (Judg. xxi. 10). Afterwards it was
besieged by the Ammonites, who refused to
spare the citizens unless they would consent to
have their ri^ht eyes plucked out (1 Sam. xL 2).
Having obtained a suspension of hostilities for
a week, the;^ took advantage of the interval to
secure the aid of SauL who marched an anny
340

to their rescue, and surprised and defesfad tk
Ammonites ^th great slaugfatei^-* serrioe far
which the inhabitants of the citj evinced tfMir
gratitude (1 SanL xxxL 11, 12; 2 Sam. iL 81

JABIN-^ifwriMr. L (Josh. zL 1) Knffff
Haxor, a northeia district of GanaaiirjBs
attempted, by a formidable allianoe, to oppoi
the progress of Joshua^ He and his alUesvot
terribly defeated in a battle at Merom, the
city of Haxor was taken, and Jabin put t»
death.

2. (Ju^. iv. 2) Another king of the mm
name and place, who had ffreat wealth and
I>ower, and o])preflsed the children of Israel ffir
twenty years. His army- was defeated hr
Deborah and Barak, and Siserm, his prindpii
general, was assassinated.

JABNEEL (Josh. xv. 11), or JABNBH
(2 Chr. xxvL 6), was a city of the PhilistiBak
situated 12 miles south of JoppiL It mi
called Jamnia by the Greeks and l?TTini— i
and is now called Ytbna.

JACHIN-A« wiU etiablM (1 KL tiL SK
one of the pillars set up in the porch of tki
temple.

JACINTH (Rev. iz. 17)— « predons stHtf,
of a reddish-yellow or hyacinth ooloor, it-
sembling the amethyst.

JACOB (Gen. xxv. 26), son of Isaac ttl
Rebekah, and twin brother to £aau, reodvsd
his name— tuppfanfer— from a circumst&Bei
which occurred at his birth, (Gren. zzv.) Vfhm
these brothers grew up, Esau devoted hfaHdf
to hunting, and often Ratified his aged fate
with savoury meat which be prepared frooi tin
fruits of the chase. By this means he beemi
very mudi the favourite of Isaac ; while Jaeobi
who was a plain domestic mjui, mvtt itsia
and less given to impulse, was no 1ms tfct
favourite of his mother (Gen. zxv. 27). Irn^
apprehending that his end was drawing Mtfi
was desirous, before his departure, of f^
noimdng a solenm paternal benediction €■ Ifa
eldest son ; and he requested £san to go oak Ii
the field and take some venison, mm! makahiM
savoury meat, such as he loved, mwI bnn^ikti
him. that he might eat and Uees him beHoiehi
, died. Before this time JAodbhad^ for a 1

JAC

of pottage, purchased from Esan hu birthright,
which included the blessing now about to be

K'ven (Gen. xxv. 34). The quick-witted Re-
>kah immediately conceived a plan of securing
the blessing for her favourite. While Esau
was in the pursuit of venison in the field, she
induced Jacob to personate his brother, and to
carry to his father the dainty mess prepared by
herself from a tender kid ; and as Isaac's e^es
were so dim that he was unable to distinguish
between his sons by their appearance, alTthat
was necessary was to guard against detection.
in case he should be led to feel the hands ana
face of Jacob; for Esau being very hairy, and
Jacob smooth, it readily occurred to the Mter
that his father might resort to this method of
identifying him. Kebekah, therefore, covered
the neck and hands of Jacob with the skin of
the kid. Thus prepared, he ventured into his
father's presence, and oy means of a cruel
fraud obtained the blessing which was intended
for the first-bom. When Esau returned, the
deception was rendered manifest; but Isaac,
deeply distressed, and imx)ortunately and with
tears entreated by Esau, would not consent to
change anjrthiog which had gone out of his
mouth ; and Esau received, indeed, a benedic-
tion, but not that of the fiikt-borxL which was
already and irrevocably given to «laoob. (See
Isaac, Repentance. ) By this fraud and injury
the enmity of Esau to his brother was excited
to the highest degree (Gen. xxvii 41), and he
threatened to take awav his life as soon as his
father's funeral shoula be over. Rebekah,
hearing of these threats, persuaded Isaac to
send Jacob away to Haran, to her brother
Laban. until his brother's anger should subside.
Accortiingly, Jacob — ^by this time not far from
threescore years of age — having again received
his father's blessing, and a cluuge not to take
a wife of the daughters of Canaan, as Esau
had done, to the sore grief of his parents, set
off on his journey to Padan-aram (Gen. xxviii.
5). As he journeyed, he came to a certain
place, where he resolved to lodge; and taking
some stones of the place for a pillow, he lay
down to sleep. As he slept, €rod made known
to him, in a remarkable dream, that his poe-
teritv should be very numerous, that they
should one day possess the soil on which he
was then reposing, that he should be personally
protected and prospered, and that m him all
the families of the eartn should be blessed.
This place was afterwards called Bethel, (Gen.
xxviL, xxviii) (See Laddeb.)

When Jacob came near to the residence of
his mother's kindred, he saw in the field a
well, where there were three flocks of sheep,
and their shepherds with them : and on inquiry,
he found that they were of Haran, ana that
Kachel, the daughter of Laban, was then ap-
proaching. The meeting between Jacob and
the Toung and beautiful wepherdess, his oousin,
maoe an indelible impression on his heart Jacob
had not been long domesticated in the house of
lAban (for Nahor, though living, seems to have
been superannuated) when he made inroposals
to Laban to take fiachel in marriage, pro-

JAC

misinflr to serve seven years for her. But as
he had been guilty of a gross deception towards
his father, to the injury of his onW brother, he
himself now became tne dupe of a desiffmnff
and unjust relative. Instead of his bdoved
Rachel, Leah, her elder sister, was given to
him deceptivdy; and when he remonstrated
with his iather-in-law, he was told that the
custom of the country required that the oldest
should be disposed of in marriage before a
younffer sister ; but it was proposed that, if he
woula serve as much longer, he shoula still
have RacheL It is not to be understood that
he did not receive her until the seven yean
were ended ; a careful attention to the history
will show tnat he must have received Rachel
immediately, and served for her afterv^eads.
With each of his daughters lAban ^ve a
maicL both of whom oecame the wives of
Jacob, of the secondary or inferior kind, (Gren.
xxix.)

From an these there were bom to Jacob,
while he sojourned in Mesopotamia, eleven
sons and one daughter. Of these, Joseph oidy
was the son of Rachel; Beniamin^ her other
son, having been bom near Bethlenem (Gren.
XXXV. 18). Avarice seems to have been the
ruling paadon with Laban; for the gratifica-
tion of which he seemed to be willing to sacrifice
even the comfort of his own children, and to
take every advantage of a near kinsman and
son-in-law. Continually he seems to have been
stud^ring and contriving some scheme by which
he might obtain the services of Jacob for less
than their value ; but the providence of Grod
prevented him from eventually injuring his
servant, with whom he had entered into cove-
nant at Bethel. Whatever plan of wa^es
Laban would fix on, the Lord overruled it for
the benefit of Jacob (Gren. xxx. 26-43). But at
length he resolved to return to his own cotmtry.
from which he had been so long an exile; ana
lest his father-in-law should hinder his purpose,
he communicated his design to his own family,
but took the opportunity, when Labui was
absent, to set ofif with his wives and children,
and all his cattle^ and all his goods, to go to
Isaac, his father, m the land ox Canaan, who
still continued to live, beyond his own and the
hopes of all his friends. This imi>ortant step,
however, was not taken without the direction
of his covenant-keeping Grod. On the third
day after Jacob's oeparture. Laban received
intelligence of his flight, ana he imme(^tely
pursued after him with a company of men,
and on the seventh day overtook him in the
mount Gilead. There can be no doubt that
Laban's intentions were hostile^ but on the
night preceding his coming up with Jaoob^ he
received an aomonition m)m the Lord, m a
dream, not to attempt an3rthing agiunst him.
After a warm expostulation on both sides, they
agreed to part m peace; and accordingly a
solemn covenant was entered into between
them, as a sign of which they piled up a heap
of stones, on which they ate together m token
of friendship, and agreeably to a custom pre-
valent in many ancient nations. The mount

347

JAC

on which this tnoBaction occuzred received iti
name—" Gilead*'— from the heap of iitonea set
up for this witness (Gen. xxxL 47, 48). (See

GrLEAD.)

Soon after Jacob was relieyed from all fear
of Laban, and had the nleasing prospect of
8i)ee<lily oominff to the end of his ioumey, new
fean and troubles arose. The danger which
now threatened him was indeed appalling;
his brother Ksau was on his way to meet him,
accompanied by 400 men. No other than a
hostile attack could bo meditated, as he sup-
posed, when he saw his offemled brother
approach with such an army, a^nst a com-
|>any of heljtless women and children. In this
extremity tJacob had no other resource but to
look to heavon for help. Ever since G<k1 had
revealed himself to liim at Bethel, he had made
Him his confidence and refuge in all his
troubles. Now, thereffire, he cried to him in
his distress (Gen. xxxii. 0, 12). Having thus
committed his cause by fervent ])rayer to the
Almighty, he did not think it unnecessary to
make use of the most probable moans to avert
the threatening c\il; and therefore he sent
messengers to meet his brother with a valuable

J>resent from his flocks and herds, in 8e])ajate
Iroves. In that night Jacob took his two
wives, and his two women ser\'antfl, and his
eleven s<m», and i)asscd ov»:'r tlie fonl Jablx»k ;
and having sent tiiein over t\m stream, together
with all his ])roportv, he remained alone on the
iiI>pof*ite side. Ami here u very (rxtraonlinary
scene iKJcurretl, wliich is recorded ut length.
Gen. xxxii. 24-.'>0 ; and on this (K-casion
Joa^b's name was changed to Israel. The
angel of the covenant ai)])e:ired in the form of
a man, and with him «rac(»b uTestUnl all the
night, 'i'lie sinew of his thigh withered on
bi'ing t^)iicheil by the finger of his mysterious
antagonist. The scene was symbolic of ear-
nest and Huccesi'ful i)rayer, and was in unison
with tlie feelings ana i)ro<<i)ects of the patriarch
at a period when ho was aeei>ly dispirited, and
oT)presHeil by melancholy foretxKlings ana im-
pleosont memories.

Esau now u^»iiroached, but not as an enemy.
There was revive<l in his lx>s<»m a strong feel-
ing of fraternal affection ; so tliat, when he
saw Jacob, he ran to meet him, and embraced
him. and they wej>t. Esau then inquired
kindly crmcerning his brother's family, who
came fom-ard successively and i>aia their
rcBiMJcts to him : and he woid<l have declined
receiving the present which had been sent
foni'ard to him, but Jacob insisted on his
acceptance of it, and he took it. After this
interview Esau returned to mount Seir, and
Jacob journeyed to Succoth, where he made
booths lor his cattle : f mm which circumstance
the ^»lace received its name, as the word gurrotk
signifies booths. But ho seems only to have
sojourned here for a short time : probably to
give rest to the women and children, ana to
the flocks and herds, which had now been
driven a long distance without much cessation.
But his journey was not terminated until he
came to Shalem, a city of Shechem, which ia I
348

. JAC

in the land of CanMn, where lie booght a
parcel of sround of the chfldren of Hvaor fcr
a hundred pieces of money, and erected then
an altar, and called it JEZ-^loAe-JshMl, that u,
Ood,theOodofIsrad^{GtaLXxxnL) (SeeSw-

COTH.)

But although Jacob eeema to have intended
this as his place of permanent rendence. yet
events occurred which rendered it expeaiat
for him to remoye to another iMttt oC tlie
country, (Gen. xxziy.) (See Dikab.) He
was greatly grieved at the cmel and treach-
erous contfuct of his sona in the affair d
Dinah^ and foresaw that it would render hn
and his family odious to all the jieople in the
neighbourhood, so as to expose him to be iliiB
with all his house. The same inyiaible power,
however, which preseryed him from the
hostility of Lal'»an and hie brother, now abo
shicldea him from the resentment of the
Canaanites. so that they were not intenrnpted
nor pursued in their journey, for "the tonr
of God was upon tL^ cities that were rotOMl
about them, and they did not puxsne after the
sons of Jacob." During this journey Jacob
purged his house from idolatiT, and purified
them by some ceremony^ which has conuDoalv
been suppc^sed to have been by washing theff
IkxHcs m water; for they were oonuDanded
**to be clean, uid change their garmenfti*
(Gen. XXXV. 2).

He now arrived at Bethel, where, in coa-
fonuity unth vows and the divine sanctioD, he
Imilt an altar, which he caUcil El-Bethel, " the
God of Bethel *' Here ahto GUxi appeared unto
Jacob again, and blessed him, and. under die
name of God Almighty, renewed tne pnsmie
respecting the multiTmcation of his seed, sad
the possession of the land of Canaan.

But his domestic troubles were far fron
being ende<i He was now called to endure s
bereavement of the most afflicting kind wliick
could have befallen him. Having completed
his pilgrimage to Bethel, he was on his way to
Enhratah, and had ci>me near to the plaoe,
when Bachael died, soon after giving birth to
a second son, whom, with her expiring brealli,
slie named Benoni ; but his father ouled lam
Benjamin. After the burial of his wife, Jacob
continued his journey until he came to a plsoe
beyond the tower of Edar. where he spread Mi
tent, an<l fixed his abode ; but domestic trooblet
were still allotted to him ; for while rendeat
here, his oldest son, Reuben, acted in amsaner
so base and dishonourable, that the feelingi of
liis father must have been deeply wounded
(See Tower. ) At length, pursuing his way, be
came to Mamre, which had been tbe fayoonte
residence of Abraham, and from which Imc
was never absent for any oonsiderahle time
until the day of his death. This peaoeshk asd
pious patriarch was still alive, though at a fviT
advanced age ; but soon after Jacobs anjw
"he died, and was gathered unto his Vtopk,
being old and full of days," and fafi foai
Esau and Jacob buried lum in the cave of
Machpelah, where reposed the ashes of hie
father and his mother. Soon after HkoM, tbe

JAO

affecting scenes open in which Jo8ei>h took so
conspicuous a part, and which exhibit the still
heavier trials of Jacob and the wonderful
dealings of a covenant Grod towards him and
his house, (Gren. xxxvil. -xlv. ) These events led
to his removal to Egypt (Gen. xlvC), where, in
the land of Goshen, ne led a proi^rous and
tranquil life for seventeen vears ; and then, after
int)nouncing a remarkable prophetic blessing
on the infant children of Josepn (Gen. xlviiu
8-22), he died, aged one hundred and forty-seven
Yem; and, according to his dying request,
his remains were carried up, attended by the
chief officers and nobility of JESgypt, to Canaan,
and buried in the family vault at Machpelah
(G«n. L 13). (See Hebron, Machpelah.)

The life of Jacob was varied and eventful,
yet it has not the bold and striking scenes of
Abraham's history. Jacob's faith was not so
noble in its form. His mind was somewhat
pawive, and much influenced by circumstances.
His bad actions were the result of a facile
compliance with sinister advice, and his im-
hapDiness was prolonged in Laban*s household
by nis easy unresistmg acquiescence to his
external lot. He did not create new circum-
stances bv mental decision and enterprise, nor
successfully struggle to rise above the un-
toward difficulties pr hardships which pressed
upon him. But the fear of God dwelt within
hmi. He followed the leadings of providence
in all the momentous events of his career,
and was ever desirous of the favoiir of Him
who selected Abraham and who guarded Isaac.
Believers who confide in Grod are the " seed of
Jacob."

The terms Jacob and the teed or children of
Jacob are often applied to the body of true
believers generally (Deut. xxxiiL 10 ; Ps. xiv.
7 ; xxii ^ ; cv. 6 : cxxxv. 4 ; Isa. xiv. 1 : xliv.
2 ; Mic. viL 20).

Jacob's Well. (See Well op Jacob.)

JADDUA (Neh. xil 11), or JADDUS,
the son of Jonathan, high pnest of the Jews,
who officiated a considerable time after the
captivity, and the last hk^h priest mentioned
in the Old Testament. If he oe the same who
lived in the time of Alexander the Great, the
name must have been inserted after the period
of Nehemiah. Concerning him Josephus
relates this remaricable story :— That Alex-
ander havinfi^ sent to him for provisions for
his army wnile besieging Tyre, he excused
himself on the ground that he had taken an
oath of fidelity to Darius, king of Persia.
The impetuous conqueror was highly pro-
voked, and vowed vengeance against the Jews.
Accordingly, as soon as Tjrre was subdued, he
put his army in motion towards Jerusalem:
out before he reached the place, Jaddus ana
the other priests, clothed m their pontific^
robes, and a multitude of the principal j>eople,
all dressed in white garments, met hmi; on
which Alexander bowed Imnself to the ground,
and seemed to worship the high priest, which
conduct filled all his followers with amazements
And Parmenio, requesting an explanation of
this extraordinary behaviour, was informed

JAI

that before he left Macedonia he had seen in
a dream the appearance of the person now
before him, who promised him the empire of
the world, and that his adoration was not
addressed to the man, but to the Deity whose
sacred name he bore on his forehead. What-
ever truth there may be in this stox^, we know
that Alexander, instead of inffictmg punish-
ment on the Jews, granted them g^reat im-
munities, especially exemption from taxation
on every seventh or sabbatical year, and took
many of them into his own service ; and when
he built the city of Alexandria, in Bgypt, he
invited multitudes of this nation to settle
there ; and put them, in regard to jprivileges,
on a level with his own Macedonians. But
the legend is very doubtfuL

JABL (Judg. IV. 17)— the wife of Heber the
Kenite. After the defeat of Jabin's army by
Deborah and Barak, Sisera^ the general, fled
towards the tont of JaeL it was not nnusual
for the women to have a tont separate from
the men, as in Sarah's case (Gren. xxiv. 67)
and Leah's (Gen. xxxL 33). This was regarded
as aplace of security; for then, as now, among
the Arabs, a stranger would not venture into
the women's tent unasked. Jael invited him
in, and concealed him. Fatigued and thintv,
he asked for water, and she gave him mific
(see Buttbb). as some suppose, to produce sleep
the sooner (Judg. v. 25). After instructing
Jael to stand at the door of the tent, and to
deny that he was within, if any one should
inquire for him, he fell into a sotmd sleep.
She then took a tent-pin, and with a hammer
drove it through his temples into the ground.
Unnatural and horrid as this act seems, we
find that in the song of triumph which was
afterwards uttered by Deborah and Barak, the
tragical circumstances are minutely related,
anof Jael is called "blessed above women"
(Judg. V. 24-27) ; and we are to suppose that
she was employed, under divine direction, as
a mere instrument for accomplishing Grod's
purposes in the deliverance of Israel from
oppression.

JAH (Ps. IxviiL 4)— a contraction of the
word " Jehovah," and imports the attribute of
self-existence. It is part of the compound
words Adonijah (" God is my Lord") ana Hal-
lelujah ( ' ' Praise the Lord "). (See Jehovah. )

JAHAZ (Num. xxl 23), or JAHAZA
(Josh. xiiL 18), or JAHAZAH (Jer. xlviii.
&), or JAHZAH (1 Chr. vi 78)— a city on
the northern frontier of the Moabites, in the
vicinity of which Moses defeated the army of
Sihon, on his refusal to permit him to pass
tJirough it peaceably. It has not * been identi-
fied.

JAIB. L (Num. xxxiL 41) Asonof Manas-
seh, who dispossessed the Amorites and took
several small towns; hence called Havoth-jair
(Judg. X. 4).

2. (Judg. x. 3) A native of Gilead, and prob-
ably a descendant of the foregoing. For
twenty-two years he was a judge in Israel;
and he had thirty sons, all of whom, it is sup-
posed firam the language of the sacred historiaa

349

.TAT

!**fhey rode on thirty Ms-colts **), were depaty
ixdges, and rode from town to town admin-
utering juHtice. (See Havotii-jaib.) The
fact that they succeeded to the paternal inheri-
tance furnishes some evidence of their good
character and halnts.

JAIRUS (Mark v. 22)— an officer of the
Jewish church who aiii>liud to Christ to
re8t<jre to life his daughter, who was at the
point of death when he left home. He evinced
very stnmg faith— unwavering confidence in
the iM)wer of the Redeemer. Christ with his
diitciples went to the ruler's house, and his
dan)?hter was restored.

JAMES. 1. (Matt iv. 21) A son of ZcIhs-
dee and Salf>me, and brother of John the
Evangelist. His early occu]jation was that of
a fisherman. He was present at several of the
most interesting scenes in our Saviour*s life.
Along with John and Peter he witnessed the
transfiguration, was present at the resuscita-
tion of the daughter of Jairus, and was in the
onuxien during the hours of our Lord*s agony.
James possessed no little energy of character ;
was firm, decided, and uncuroiiromisin^; and
because jin all likelih(K)d) of nis pmmmence
mnd zeal m the new cause, he was put to death
by Hero<]. A.D. 42-44 (Acts xiL 2). ITius was
fulfilled the i>rediction of our Saviour (Luke
ixi. 10). Tlie earliest martvr among the
apostles full a victim t«> Jewish fenjcity. To
distinguish him from the following, he is often
named James *' the Elder/'

2. (Mark xv. 40) Actt^nling to some, a son
of Cleoj)has (or AlpheuK) and Mary, called,
either m n-ference to his years or stature,
James the Ixu^s, or more correctly, Jam(« the
Jjittle, and pntluibly intended in Gal. i. 19 by
tlie ** 1-K>rd'8 brotln*r." (See also Matt. xiiL
Co; Mark vL 3.) According to one theory he
was first cousin to our Saviour, f(»r his mother
was sister to Christ's mother (John xix. 2r>),
the tenn brother being often apj>lied to near
kindred (G<^n. xiii. H ; 2 Sam. i. 2<) ; Acts vii.
25, 20 ; ix. 17). Some have conjectured that
after Jo8ei)h's death Alphcus married his
widow, and their ofTiqtring was James the
IjCss, hence called the Lord*s brother^ but
there is no evidence to 8upi)ort the ojnnion.
(Wo refer the re.-vier to the article Bkutiier
for another exposition. See (^leopa8.)

At a latt3 period the bmthers of our T»rd
did not believe on him, and they could not
therefore be ranked am(»ng his aiK)8tIes. The
theory of natural brotherhood throws no shadow
over the f^lorios of Mary, ever blessed and pre-
eminent m honour. It d6es not in any way
lessen the dignity of her who was so "highly
favoured of the Lord" and ** blessed amtmg
womt-n." P'or thrnigh one may shrink fn»m
calling her t>eoTo<co«, Deipnra-^oxi imwar-
ranted epithet that draws after it veneration
and worsuip— yet her glories, which are with-
out parallel and beyond imagination, and
which are hers and hers alone, are never to be
▼eiled; for she was the elected mother of a
child whose Father was God—her son "the
only-begotten of the Father.** Through her
350

JAM

parthenio maternity the myiteiy of mfilerigi
was realised, "God maoifeet in fieeh : her off-
spring the normal Man, and the Redeemer of
a fallen race by His atoning blood— the Ma
of Sorrows and the Lora of all vori^
crowned wuh thoras, and now weaxinc en Hii
brow the diadem of imivexaal dominion, thi
object of praise to lamti^ to •"jp»i« and to the
universe ; for of that nmverae fie la the Heed,
in that very nature of whicfa, thitragb antl ia
Mary the mother-maid, he became a partaker.

One may hold this theory and hold also the
supreme divinity of the Lord Jesus Chrirt
with most perfect consistency. It does not
concern the cardinal doctrine of his divimty,
nor the equally precions doctrine of hb tnw
and sinless humanity. It impugns not lui
immaculate cnnceptinn or his aapematunl
birth, he being in a sense pecnliar to hisi-
self the seed of the woman, the duld of s
virgin— Immannel, " Ctod with na." It refea
only to possibilities after the ini*aniatinB
which do not in any way affect its dirinenBi
and reality. It leaves her first-bom in thi
solitary glory of the God-man. Jeans indeed
passed among the Jews as the ordinary sea ol
Joseph and Manr, yet this belief was veiy
erroneous ; but the ground of the error doei
not apply to this theory. The first chapter d
Matthew tells the mystery of the incamatioB,
and the event is at once taken out of the csts-
gory of all ordinary births ; but if Mary had
other children, no such wonder sorroonded
them, and no mistake could be made about
them. The Jewish mieoonoeption as to tiie
parentage of Jesus could not be made regardinf
subsequent members oi. his family, whose
birth neither enhances nor lessens the hoBoor
and the mystery of his primogeniture. It wis
a human nature whi^ he assumed; they
were persons bom into the world. Neither,
then, m the<ilogy nor in piety, in creed nor in
worship, can this obvious theory of nstoiil
relationship be chra^^ witib pemidoos eon-
seriuenccs. It is vain to aisk, VThjj if there
were births subseauent to that of Jesa% sre
they not recorded? The inspired namtive
keeps steadily to its one primary object anl
theme— the life of the blessed Saviour, fint-
bom son of Mary and the Son of God.

One objection against the natural interpie-
tation of '* Brother** is the repetition fA nsaei
in the family of Mary and in the company of
the apostles — James, Joses, Simon, and Jndai,
brothers, and two Jameses, tii^'o Simons, two
Judes, among the apostles. Or, identif^^
Clopas and Alphseus, there would be Jsmei
and Jc»ses as cousins; and if the ^laUm
'hiKwfiov (Luke vi. 16; Acts L 13) be lendend
" Jude, brother of James,** there would be two
sets of four brothers having the samensmea
It is not necessanr, however, to render the
Greek phrase by ** brother of James," and the
sons of Alphseus are only James and JosA
But surely the same names are fomid sDMSg
cousins every day, and would be more freqneit
in a country where a few favourite names sre
continually repeated. Then are in the Kev

JAM

Testament nine Simons, four Jades, four or
five Josephs; and in 'Joeephus there are
twenty-one Simons, seventeen named Joses,
and sixteen Judes** (Smith's DicL Bible
AfUiq, , art " Brother ").

A crowning objection i^fainst the view we
favonr is, that Jesus upon the cross conmiended
his mother to the care of the beloved disciple
— that is to say, if Mary had children, sons of
her own, her first-bom would not have handed
her over to a stranger. The objection has
never appeared to us to be of very great force :
for we know nothing of the circumstanceB ot
the brothers, and there may have been personal
and domestic reasons why they ooula not re-
oeive the beloved charve. They might not,
for a variety of reasons, oe able to give Mary
such a home as John could provide for her.
Aa we cannot tell, it is useless to argue.

We are ignorant also of their peculiar tem-
perament, and their want or their possession
of those elements of character which would
fit them to tend their aged and widowed
parent. EspedaUy do we know, however,
that up to a recent period they were unbe-
lievers m her divine first-bom ; and though He
who did not forget his mother in his dying
moments foreknew all that was to happen| stiU
their unbelief might disqualify them for giving
her the comfort and spiritual nursing which
she required to heal tne wounds inflicted by
that "sword** which was piercing her heart
as she contemplated the shame and agony of
the adored Sufferer on the cross. Every
attention was needed for his mother at that
very moment, and he seized that verv moment
to commend her to John, who haa been to
him more than a brother, and would on that
account be to her more than a son. John was
"standing by,'* and so was his mother; so
that perhaps his ministrations to her had
already commenced. The close vicinity of the
two persons whom he loved most on earth
suggested the words, ''Woman, behold thy
■on,** who will suppiv, as far as possible, my

flace ; " Son, behola thy mother :" be what
have been to her. "And from that hour
that disciple took her to his own home.** The
brothers might not be there, or miffht be
unfitted, as poor and imbelieving Galileans,
for doing vimat John did.— for immediate
obedience to such a commano.

James the IdtUe is mentioned with peculiar
distinction (Acts ziL 17; xv. 13; zxi 18;
1 Cor. XV. 7; Gai i 19; and ii 9, 12). He
resided at Jerusalem during the labours of the
apostles, and was present at the apostolic
council at Jerusalem, where he seems to have
presided, as he was the last to give his judg-
ment, in which all the other members of the
council accmiesced (Acts xv. L3-19). He was
put to deatn in the year 62 : and tradition savs
that he was thrown bv tne Jews from tne
battlements of the temple, and then despatched
with a fuller's club, while on his knees, and in
the act of praying tor his murderers.

Epistle of, was written by James the Less
(see preceding article) about the year 61 or 62L

JAP

It was not addressed to any ^aitioular church,
but to the whole Jewish nation — "the twelve
tribes scattered abroad** (ch. i 1), believers
and unbelievers (ch. iv. 1-10); and hence it
is called a general or catholic epistle. The
design of the epistle is — (L| To correct errors,
both in doctrine and practice, into which the
Jewish Christians had fallen, especially relating
to justification by faith : (2.) To animate their
hm>e, and strengthen their faith, in view of
afflictions felt and feared; and, (3.) To excite
the unbelieving Jews to repentuice towards
God and faith m the rejected Messiah. It is
remarkable that the name of our blessed Lord
occurs but twice in this epistle (c^ i 1 ; ii.
1), and that it is without tbie vusoal i4>ostolioal
salutation and benediction.

The style of this epistle resembles very mitdi
the pointed sententious mode of teac^iing em-
ployed by our Lord himself. It is liker the
sermon on the mount than any other portion
of the New Testaments Luther and others
have disparaged it because of a supposed hos-
tili^ in it to the ^^reat doctrine of justification
by faith. But this notion is a mistake. The
epistle of James was probably written earlier
than any of Paul's, for it makes no mention of
the great controversy about circumcision.
James does not contradict Paul— they teach
the same doctrine from different points a^
in different aspects. Justification is by faith,
but that faith has a sanctifying power. It
shows its genuineness and lue oy its fruits.
The faith which is without works and is dead
cannot^ from its very nature, be a justifying
faith. It is no faith at idl, and is unworthy^
the name. James looks on faith and its fruits
as one, as a living unity. Had the spirit of
this epistle been rightly understood, and the
character of its ethics duly appreciated, it had
never been viewed with doubt in earlier, or
with hostility in later times. James was the
Cato among the apostles, a lover and practiser
of an austere morality, and was, according to
tradition, a man much given to prayer. Tlus
spirit displays itself, too, in his composition
(v. 17).

JANNES and JAMBRES (2 Tim. iiL 8)
— two famous magicians of Egypt, who are
supposed to have used their art to deceive
Pharaoh (Exod. viL 9-13).
^ JANOHAH (Josh, xvi 6-7). This old phice
is probably represented by the village of JanfiLn,
about 12 miles south-east from NablCls.

JAPHETH— «rt«iwu)ii (Gen. v. 32)— one
of the sons of Noah (Gen. x. 2, 21). The pro-
phetic blessing pronounced on Japheth by his
father (Gen. ix. 27) was accompUshed to the
f uU extent of the promise. Besides all Europe
and the isles, and of course most of North
America, his posterity possessed Asia Minor,
Media, part of Armenia, and those vast re-

S'ons of the north inhabited formerly by the
;ythians and then by the Tartars. And
as to the otiier branch of the prophecy, '* He
(Grod) shall dwell in the tents of Sbem,^ it was
tulfilled when the divine presence was mani-
fested in the taberaade and temple: or if we

351

JAP

read. **He (Japhcth) Hholl dwell in the tenti
of Snem,'* it was fulfilled literally when the
Grcekii and Romans (descended from Japhetb)
Bubdued Judea. the inheritance of Shem ; ana
figuratively, when the descendants of Japheth

itne Gentui-s) received the gospel, which the
FewB, who were of the seed of SShem, rejected.
(See SnEV.)

Japheth appears in the early histories of
Greece under the name of Ja])etuB, as the
unceHt(»r of that nation.

JAPIIIA (Jorth. xix. 12) may be represented
by Yafa. 2 mikrt north of Xazareth.

JAPHO. (See JoPPA.)

JAUKB (lloji. V. 13)— the name, as some
supiKMc. uf a kin^ of Aiw>'riA ; but as it may
mean advcr.oary, it may be a tfymbolic api^ell*-
tKm of AHtNvria.

JAP.ML'TH (J(wh. XV. a"))- a mj-al city
near ]Iohn>n; i>erhai)S the nuKiem Yarmilk.

JASHKH, B(K>K OF (Jo^. X. 13), or botik of
the ui)right, or of songs- an old Hebrew an-
thokigy, out of which there is an extract in
Joifh. X. 13; and the bow song is also taken
from it (2 Sam. i. 18). Jashcr was apiiarently
a national collection, in the form ol l)allads,
amtiiining the record of great men and great
deeiK

JASOX~a Gre«k form of Jesus or Joshua
(Acts xvii. 5) —a ret»i(lrnt of HicKsnlonica, and
I)erhai>s a relative (»f Paul (Tioiii. ix. 3: comp.
xvi. 21). At any rate, l^aul ItNlgiHl ut his houne
when he vibiteil that city. I'he nixtRtle^s ])hiin
scriptural preaching a few Sabbatns ( Acts xviL
2j 3) reHuIt<;<l in the conversion of a great mul-
titude of the citizens, and in the excitement
and o])])oHition of tlie unljelieviu^r Jews, who
gathered a mob from among tne idle and
worthless of the place, and attacked Jason*s
house, in onler to seize the ai><)stle; but not
finding the man they sought, and still deter-
mine<l to vent their rage on s<.)mebody, they
lai<l violent hands on «Tason, and some fricnas
who were with him, and dragged them before
the i)olice, and cluvrged them with treason,
because tliey said that there is another king

i besides CiDsar), one Jesus (liuke xxiiL 2;
kihn xix. 12). However, as there was pmb-
ably no evidence to supix>rt the charge, they
gave some sort of security, either for their own
future api)carancc or gtxxi conduct, or for the
api>ejirauce of the aix>stle, and were then dis-
cbarced.

JASPER (Rev. iv. 3)— a precious stone,
usually regarded as of the quartz species.
It is obtained chiefly from Persia, the Indies,
Syria, &C., and is chiefly used for vases, watch-
seals, &c Its colours are beautifully varie-
Skted. and it is susceptible of a fine polish,
ut tiie jasper of Scripture was probably tiiie
diamond.

JATTIR (Josh. xv. 48)-a dty of Judah,
identified now with 'Attir, 10 miles aoath ox
Uebron.

JAY AN (Gen. x. 2)— the fourth wm of

Japheth, and the ancestor of the Grecians or

lonians. Hence the word Javmn, In the Old

Testament denotei Greece, or the Greeks

352

JEA

(Iia. IzvL 19). But the Ja^raa of Eidc zxvi
13 is periiape a place in Ai^aKia.

JAVELIN. (SeeABMs.)

JAZER (Josh. zzL SO), or JAAZEB (Nam.
xxL 32). (See Jaaibb.)

Sba of (Jer. xlviiL 32)— prdbftUy a lab
existing in ancient times near the citv of Jaw:

JEALOUSY (2 Cor. zL 2). Itismortfre-
(jnentl^r lued to denote m suspicion of oonjiciil
infidehtjT. It is sometimes oaed for anger cr
indignation (Fs. Izxix. 5 ; 1 Cor. x. 22), cr a
intense interest for the honour Mid |»jstwHy
of another (Zech. i 14; viii. 2).

When God is said to be a ** jealous God,"€r
to bo moved to "jealousy,** or when the stiS
stronger expression is used, " J^iovah, vkat
name is Jealous** (Ezod. xxxir, 14), we an to
understand this language as emplojred to iDiii-
trate rather than to represent tne emotiani of
the divine mind. The same causes opemti^
upon the human mind would produce idiat «t
call anger, jealousy, repentuioe, griel, 4c::
and therefore, when these emotions an sscribea
to the mind of God, this language is and be*
cause such emotions can be represented to m
by no other.

Thus God is represented as a husband, n-
lated to his church oy a marriage coTensuttiitt
binds her to be wholly for hun, and not far
another. The more sincere and constant tfce
love, the more sensitive is the heart to the
approach of a rival ; and the thought of nch
affection being alienated or corrupted filb
it with grief and indignation. So Uod vm-
mends the purity, the fervency, and tk
sincerity of lus love to his churchpy the muA
striking expressions of ** jealousy."

The various significatiumi of the woid ** jea-
lousy'* are denoted usually by its oouKCtaun.
It is one of the stnmgest pasiions of oor
nature (Prov. vi 34 ; Song viu. C).

The IMAGE OF JEALouftY (Ezek. ^iiiS, 5)-ths
same with '^Tammuz** in v. 14; or it mj
describe the jealousy of Jehovah. (See Ta>*
uuz.)

Jealousy OFFERisro (Num. v. 18). TTm
Jewish law contained a singular proviiwa k*
the trial of the crime of adultery. A man who
was jealous of his wife, without any aetsii
evidence of her infidelity, was nquixed to
bring her to the priest, with an off«nng: ai^
when they came to the presence of the Lard,
a part of the water of tne temple was tabs,
with certain ceremonies, and presented to thi
woman to drink, she at the same time lulfini
the offering in her hand. Befoxv dzinkiiv ^
water, the most bitter curses were imprsflitBd
upon her ; and if she was guilty, the water *w
to become the cause of tenible bodDy digawi

This imprecation-water, or water of eona^
is not unlike the ordeal <xt later ages ^sad vs
are told that amonf the savagea of Wartan
Africa the custom u to miUu the siapwilwl
wife drink poison ; in which case innooenoeow
be protected onlv by a miracle; but in the
administration of the Jewish law tfaoe m
nothing in the ceremony whidi ooaldhsiB thi
accusea penon, wifbont the dinet iaSgrnatt

JEB

of God in the infliction of a particular and
very peculiar disease ; and still the ceremonv
-WAS so solemn and imposing that a Jewisn
woman must have had the most unparalleled
effrontery to have gone through it without
betraying guilt, if it existed.

JEBUS (Judg. Tax. 10). The Jebusite is
mentioned among the descendants of Canaan
the son of Ham (Gren. x. 16) ; and there was a
warlike race called Jebusites inhabiting the
mountainous country around Jerusalem, and
keeping possession of it (Josh. xv. 63) imtil
it was wrested from them bv David, and made
the capital of Judea (1 Uhr, xL 4-8). (See
Jerusalem.) The Jebusites were probablj
permitted to remain on the territorjr after their
conquest (2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 24). It is supposed
they were dispossessed for a season bv Joshua
(Josh. X. 23, 40; xii. 10), and afterwards
r^^ained some districts, while the Israelites
possessed others (comp. Josh. xv. 63; 1 Sam.
xviL 54: 2 Sam. v. 6).

JECONIAH. (See Jehoiachih.)

JEDEDIAH. (See Solomon.)

JEDUTHUN (1 Chr. xvi 38)— an eminent
master of the temple music, identified by some
-with Ethan, to whom several of the psauns are
inscribed (see Ps. xxxix., IxiL, Ixxvu., &c.), as
perhaps to be sung by his choir. (See Ethan.)

JEGAR-S AHADTJTHA— fea/ of tesUmony
(Gen. xxxi. 47), (See Gilead.)

JEHOAHiiiZ — possession of Jehovah. 1.
(2 Ki. xiii. 1) Son and successor of Jehu, king of
Israel, whose reign was <lisastrous to tne king-
dom^ to such a aegree that his army was re-
duced to a mere nominal existence ; and the
kings of Syria, Hazael and Benhadad, are said
to nave destroyed them, and to have made
them "like the dust of the threshing-floor"
(2 Ki xiiL 7). Before his death, however,
he was brought to reflect and humble himself
before G^xi, on account of the calamities with
vrhich his subjects were visited ; and Grod was
pleased to raise up for them a deliverer in the
person of Joash, the son and successor of
Jehoahaz.

2. (2 Ki xxiii 30) Son and successor of
Josiah, king of Judah. He is called ShaUum,
1 Chr. iii 15; Jer. xxii 11. He was the
fourtii son, and, of course, not the rightful
heir to the crown; but ms father, being
mortally wounded in the battle of Megiddo,
the people immediately placed Jehoahaz on
the tnrone. This irregular step, taken without
consulting him, offended the king of Egypt;
and before he had reiened four montl^, he
managed to get Jehoahaz into his power at
Riblah, in Syria, whence he sent him, a
prisoner, loaded with chains, into Egypt, and
there he died (Jer. xxii 11, 12^; and his
brother, Jehoiakim, became king m his wtewd
(2 Ki xxiii 29-36).

3. (2 Chr. xxi 17) The same with Ahaziah
and Azariah (comp. 2 Chr. xxi 17 ; xxii 1, 6,
Q 9).

JEHOASH~;tre of Jehovah. (See Joash).
JEHOIACHIN— •eren^ of Jehovah (2 KL
xxiv. 8)- or CONIAH (Jer. xxii 24), on
2a

JAH

JECONIAH (1 CJhr. iii 17), or JECONIAS
(Matt. 1. 12)— son and successor of Jehoiakim,
king of Judah. It is mipposed by some that
when he was only eight years old he was
associated with his falser in the administration
of the ^vemment. This supposition is
adopted m order to reconcile tne apparent
inconsistency of 2 Ki xxiv. 8 and 2 C^.
xxxvi. 9; but it seems hardly necessary to
resort to such means to account for a very
natural error or omission of a transcriber,
especially in an immaterial chronological fact
of such remote date. The reign of Jehoiakim
terminated at the end of three months; at
which time the city of Jerusalem was be-
sieged by Nebuchadnezzar, the kin^ of Baby-
lon, in the eighth year of his reign (comp.
2 Ki xxiv. 12 and xxv. 1) ; and tiie king and
his family, and the principal part of the nation,
with the Toysil treasures and the temple furni-
ture, were carried away to Babylon. The
wickedness of this king is described in very
strong language by the prophet Jeremiah (Jer.
xxii 24-30). The expression, however, in Jer.
xxii 30 is not to be construed literally (1 Chr.
iii 17, 18 ; Matt, i 12). " Write Ais man
childless" might as well read, " He shall have
no successor or heir," or *' None of his seed
shall prosper."

JEHOIADA— <A<j Lord knows (2 Ki xi 4)
—a high priest of the Jews, and the husband
of Jehosheba. (See Athallah.) His admin-
istration was so auspicious to the civil and
religious interests of the nation (2 Ki xii ;
2 Chr. xxiii 16) that when he died, at the
advanced a^e of one hundred and thirty years,
he was buned in the royal sepulchres at Jeru-
salem (2 Chr. xxiv. 16).

JEHOIAKIM— f^c Lord confirms (2 Ki
xxiii 36) — eldest son of Josiah, and the brother
and successor of Jehoahaz, king of Judah.
His original name was Eliakim; but it was
changed by order of the king of Egypt (2 Ki
xxiii. 34), who put him on the throne. The
iniquity of his reign is strongly depicted by the
historian and prophet (2 Ki. xxiv. 4 ; 2 Chr.
xxxvi 8; Jer. xxii, xxvi, xx^vi); and his
end, as Jewish historians inform us, was in
strict accordance with the prediction concern-
ing him. For the first four years of his reign
Jehoiakim was subject to the king of Egypt,
and paid an enormous tribute. Then he
became tributary for three years to Nebu-
chadnezzar, king of Babylon (2 Ki. xxiv. 1),
who at first bound him with chains, to cany
him to Babylon (2 Chr. xxxvi 6; Dan. i 2),
but afterwards set him at liberty, and left him
at Jerusalem to rei^ as a tributary prince.
The whole time of his reign was eleven years.

The expression, Jer. xxxvi. 30, is not to be
taken stncUy ; and yet, as the reign of Jehoi-
achin was for only thirteen weeks, Jehoiakim
may be said to have been comparatively with-
out a successor. He scarcely sat down upon
the throne before he was deposed.^ The same
explanation applies to 2 Kl xxiii 34, where
Elmldm is saiQ to have succeeded his father
JofiifUi: whereas the reign of Jfihoahaz inter-

3Si

JKH

▼ened. Thin was so short, however, as not to
bo reckoned in the succesnion.
JEH( )XA1)AR (See RECHABina.)
JEHORAM, or JOKAM—Jf/ioi-aJi't ex-
altation (2 Ki. viiL 10, 21)— was the son and
Biiccessor of Jehoehaphat, king of Judah.
When he was thirtv-two ^ears of a;;e he was
a88ociatc<l with his father m the government of
the kingdom (2 Ki. viii. 17; 2Chr. xxi. 5). At
the end of four years his father died, and he
became sole king. One of tlie first acts of his
government was t*) put to death his six bnithers
and several of the chief men of the kingdom
(2 Chr. XXL 4). To punish him for tliis and
other abominations of his reign (2 Chr. xxi.
11-13), the >^l(»mites, who had long liven
subject to the thn>ne of Judah. revolted, and
securefl their independence (2 C*hr. xxi. 8-10).
One of his own cities also revolted, and alxmt
the same time he received a >iTiting from
Elijah, or as some 8up|K>8e, Elisha, a^hncmish-
ing him of the dreadfiil calamities which he
was }>ringing on himself by his wicked conduct
In due time these calamities came uikiu him
and his kingdom. Their territory was overrun
with enemies ; the king's iialace was pluiitlcred,
and the royal familv, except the yoimgcrit hou,
made ]>risoners. The kin;; liimsel'f was smitten
with a terrible and incurable disease, which
carried him t«) the grav(\ unlanicntiMl ; and ho
was burieil without n.iyul honours (2 Chr. xxi.
14-20).

.T EHOSTl AIMIAT - JthornlCa jmhmrnt
(1 Ki. XV. 24), or JOSATMIAT (Matt. L 8)
was the B<in ami sucoossor of Asa. kini; of
Judah. He is called " king of Israel," 2 (.'lir.
xxi. 2, ])ossibly l)ecause his kin^^Iom was a
part of the ancient kingilom of Israel, but

i»robably by mistake, Israel bein^' written for
Tudah. lie wiis a ])rince of <listin.ruis]ied
piety, ami his nign, which LtHted twenty-five
years, was powerful and ^roMj)en)UH. This
remarkable commendation is given Jelioslia-

{)hat by the sacred his^trian, tliat the nioro
lis riches and honour increase*!, tlie m<»re **his
heart was lifted u]> in the ways of the Lord"
(2 Chr. xvii. T), <>). ^Vmong (»ther evidences of
ilia piety and benevolence, we are t^)ld that he
cau8e<l the altars and places of idoLatry to Ite
destroye<l, a knowle<ii;e of tlio law to Ite
diffused throughout the kin^'doui, and tlie
])laces of judicial and ecclcMa-^tical authority
to bo filled by the ^^isest and be.st men of tlie
land (2 Chr. xvii. G-9; xix, 5-11). His sin in
forming a league with Ahab, contrary to the
counsel of Micaiah, against Kami»th-gilead
(2 Chr. xviii.)was severely censured ))yJehu
(2 Chr. xix. 2), and had nearly cost him liis
life (2 Chr. xviii. 31).

A few 3'ears afUTtliis the kingdom of Judah
was invaded by a confederacy of Edomites,
Moabites, and others, lliey collected their
forces at Engedi, and threatened to overthniw
the kingdom. Jehoshaphat proclaimed a fatt ;
and the people came from all parts of the
kingdom, men, women, and children, ut> to
Jerusalem ; and being assembled in one place,
the king himself mad^ supplication to God for

help in their extremity. His lemiricibli
prayer is recorded, 2 Chr. zz. 6-12 ; and whfls
he was yet speaking, his grayer was answensd,
and a certain and easy victory was promised.
On the following day the anny of Jnclak went
forth to meet the enemy^ preceded by a com-
pany of singers who j^raised the name of the
LonL The vast amies of his enemies were
panic-stricken, and fell into irrecoverable ean-
tusiim ; and instead of faunng their adversariea
turned their swords against each other, until
they were utteriy routed and overthrown; so
that Jehoshaphat and his men had no occasion
to engage in toe conflict. And snch abundanos
of spoil remained in the camp, that the men d
Juaah were employed three days in ooUectiiiz
it (2 (Jhr. XX. 14.27).

Still later in his life, Jehoshaphat connected
himself with Ahaziah, son and successor of
Ahab, kin^ of Israel, in a naval expeditioD;
but this alliance with a wicked king tnraed oat
disastrously, as had been predicted by Elienr,
tlie son of Dodavah; for while the fleet by
at Ezion-geber it was utterly destroyed by s
violent storm (2 Chr. xx. 35). fSee Ajiazub.)

Again he involved himself in an alliaim
with Jehoram, the second son of Ahab, and
also with the Eilomites, for the purpose of
invading the land of Moab ; but while they
attemptiKl to make their way through tM
wilderness, their water failed, and the w1k>1«
ann^' must have perished with thirst, had nA
a miraculous supply been granted in ansi»-er to
the prayers of Elisha, who accompanied the
army (2 Ki. iiL 6-20). Jehoshaphat left sevcs
sons, one of whom (Jehoram) succeeded hint

JEHosil^vrHAT, VALLEY OF (Joel iiL 2). Thii
valley was a narrow glen running north and
south between Jerusadem and the mount ti
i )lives, through which flows the brook Cediuii.
This valley is su])ixised to be meant by the
" kiuj?'s dale " (Gen. xiv. 17 : 2 Sam. xviii 18),
and its name to be derived either from the
burial of king Jehoshaphat, or from the crest
victory he obtaincil there over Uie Mouiitei
and their allies (2 Clu-. xx. 25). This vallef.
it is sup])o$ed by the Mohammeilana (from the
])asHage first al>ove citeii), will be the scene of
the final judgment. The better opinion u,
however, that the prophetic language in thii
connection refers to the emit of a judgment
and not to the j>!ace, the meaning of the wora
Jehoshaphat l>eing "judgment of Jehovah."
Tliere is no trace of anv such local name either
in the Bible or Josepnus; the imiform tenn
is Kidron; yet the unauthorized name hsi
iK'en strangely and firmly peri>etnated as a
geograithieal ai>x>ellation.

JEHOVAH (Exod. vi -3)— a title of the
Supremo Being indicative of the attribute d
8ELK-EXISTENCE. It is similar in import to the
title I AM (Exod. iii. 14), and denotes not aitf

self-existence, but perfect independence,
nity, and immutability. It is Uie significsiit
name of Him **who was, and is, and ie to
come." When the word Lord represents it io
our version it is printed in capitals^ All st-
tempts to assign the word a non-Hehnuo origiB

JEH

failed. In the Pentateuch it w 6od*8 per-
aud covenant name. The declaration in
L vi 3 refers nut to the mere name, but to
x)found significance. (See J ah, God.)
ROVAH-JiKER—the Lord will sec or vrovide
. xxiL 14)— the name given to the place, in
ion to the divine provision of anotner
m in the room of Isaac.
HOY AH-niBSi— the Lord my banner (Exod.
15)— the name given to the altar erected
emory of the signal victory gained over
lek. The Septuagint, from another read-
renders, *Hhi Lord my refuge,*^
UOYAH-SHALOM — the Lord is peace (Judg.
I) — the name of Gideon's altar, in allusion
e salutation of the angeL "Peace be imto

HOVAH-SHAMMAH— e^ Lord is tAerc— the
hetic or svmbolic name of the ideal city
ribed by Ezekiel (ch. xlviiL 35).
HOVAH-TSiDKmoj — the Lord our righteous-
f Jer. xxiii. 6).

ner and similar compounds are found in
lebrew Scriptures, but they are translated
le English version, with the Hebrew form
n the margin.

m.U—He that is. 1. (1 Ki. xvi 7) He was
ion of Hanani the seer, with whom Asa
30 much enraged as to cast him into prison
ir. xvi. 7-10). He was appointed to carry
ssage to Baasha from God, threatening to
upon him the most fearful judgments. He
afterwards employed on a similar errand
)hoahaphat (2 Chr. xix. 1, 2).

(1 Ki. xix. 16. Comp. 2 Ki. ix. 2) The
>f Niinshi, and grandson of Jehoshaphat :
selected by God to reign over Israel, ana
e the instrument of executing his judg-
ts on the house of Ahab (1 Ki, xix. 17 ; 2
JL 1-10). In executing this commission he
nenced with the reigning king, Joram, who
then lying ill at JezreeL Having been
laimed king by a few adherents who were

him at Ramoth-gilead, he proceeded to-
ts JezreeL Upon his approach within sight
tat place, Joram despatched two or three
engers to ascertain his design; and find-
hey did not return, he went out himself to
. him. It happened that thev met on the
nd of Naboth the Jezreelite (1 Ki. xxL 1-
and Jehu at once charged him with his
; iniquities, and immediately shot him dead
B chariot (comp. 1 Ki xxi. 19 and 2 Ki
5). Jehu rode on to Jezreel, and as he
passing in at the gate, the wicked JezebeL
Dad prepared herself for the occasion, ana
lookmg out at a window, said something
lusion to what had happened to Ahab.

called to two or three persons who were
e same window to throw her down, which

did; and as she struck the ground, her
I flew out upon the wall, and ui>on the
rs, and her body was actually trodden
r foot. Jehu's party then went into the
and dined; and tdter dinner he ordered
ttendants to go and bury the cursed wo-

as this respect might be due to a king's
hter; and when they came to the place,

JEP

nothing could be found of her but the skull,
the feet, and a part of the hands. The dom
had consumed the residue, in fulfilment of the
prophecy (1 Ki xxi 23; 2 Ki ix. 32-37).

Jehu then proceeded to exterminate the
family of Ahab. He addressed letters to those
who had the care of his sons (no less than seventy
in nimiber). and proposed to them to select
the fittest ot them, ana place him on the throne
of his father. This they declined to do (through
fear of Jehu), but promised to do anything else
that might oe required. Accordingly, Jehu
directed them to oring to him the heads of
Ahab's sons the next day at Jezreel; and
they were sent in two baskets. He directed
them to be emptied out in two heaps, at the
gate of the city^ and to remain there over night.
The next mormng he ordered a general slaugh-
ter of all Ahab's family and adherents in the
town of JezreeL He then set out for Samaria,
and meeting on his way a party of forty-two
persons, all the family of Anaziel (a branch <^
Ahab's house), he seized and slew tnem.

But the most revolting of these deeds of
blood remains to be told. When he arrived at
Samaria, and had cut off every branch of the
house of Ahab that he could find (2 Ki. x. 17),
he ordered a general convention ot all the wor-
shippers of Baal throughout the land, and made
every arrangement as if he would have one
united universal act of homage to the false god ;
and BO strict were his orders, that no worshipper
of Baal could absent himself but upon pam of
death. They assembled ; and we are told that
not a man was absent. Each of the worship-
pers was furnished with a peculiar dress, that
thev might be distinguished from all others;
and when the assembly was convened, Jehu
took pains to exclude every individual except
the worshippers of BaaL As soon as they
commenced their worship, Jehu appointed a
detachment of eighty men to go in among the
assembled idolaters, and put every one of them
to death; and, to insure the execution of his
orders, he ordained that, if a single worship-
per escaped, the life of him who suffered the
escape should be forfeited. But there was no
escape ; everjr individual was put to the sword ;
the miage of Baal was broken down and de-
stroyed ; and the temple was made the recep-
tacle of offal and filth, in contempt and abhor-
rence of the idolatry which had been practised
there ; and every trace of Baal's worship was
blotted out of IsraeL

This dreadful extermination of the house of
Ahab, and of the idolatrous worship which he
sanctioned, was in accordance with the divine
conmiancL and received the divine approba-
tion (2 Ki X. 30). Jehu himself, however,
was ambitious and tyrannical, and fell into
idolatrous practices (2 Ki. x. 31). His reign
lasted twent]^-eight years; and he was suc-
ceeded by his son Jehoahaz. Four other
persons^f this name are noted in Scripture.

JEPHTHAH— ife will open (Judg. xi 1)—
one of the judges of Israel, was the illegitimate
son of Gilead ; and this fact made him so odious
to the other children of the faxcdlq \2(Ai(* *>^<^'^

.TKP

banuJied him from the hr>ii8c, and he t^iok np
hii» residence in the land of 1\>1), a dintrict of
Syria not far fmin Ciilvad, and i>robably the
■ame u'ith iHh-tol) (2 Sam. x. H). Here, it m
Bii]>lM»<vd, he iNfcanie the heail ot a maraudin;:
party ; antl M'lien a war broke (uit between the
chihlrtMi of Isniel and the ^VinnioniteH, he
proliabl^ Kifnializetl himself for courage ami
enteri»nse. 'J'his h^l the Israelitesi it* Hoek hi.s
aid a!4 their commander-in-chief; and thon;^di
he objected at fin-it, on the f^iiiml (»f their ill
lua^'e of him, 3'et, uiMin their nolfmn covenant
to n*Knrd him U8 their leader, in ca^e thev
BiiccinNlod n;;:iinst the Anmntnitos, he t(M»K
comnianti of tlieir army. After FMime pre-
liminar\* nc;;otiatioa<< with the AmmoniU^, in
which tlie <iiiestion of the ri;^ht t<» tlie country
i8 diftcusse<l with j^Tcat ft>n'e ami in;,'enuity,
and findin;^' ever>' atti-mpt to conciliate them
al)ortive, t)i<' two aniiies met ; the .Vnjnionitet*
wen.? defeat!**! with jrivat loss of life, and their
c«>untrv scoiiri'ii by the Israelites.

On t)ie evi- of the luittle •rephthah ma*le a
vow, that if In* obtained the vit'tory, he w<iuld
ilevote to (iimI whatever hIiuuM coiur forth
from hirt house t<i mci>t him <in hiN return
home. This turned (»ut to be hin slaughter, an
only ehild, who welcinutil his return with
mu-jjc antl tlanein;;. .Frphthah wa** ia**'atly
uHlicte«l by thi.-* iK'cnrrmro; but his datii^hter
cheerfully cori'<«'nt»Ml t.4» tin* perfoniiaiu-e of hirf
vow, whirh t«Mik place at the expimtion of
two months; and the commemoration of the
event by the dau.v'hter?* «»f Ihratd was re«niire<l
by a pul»li»r ordinanci'.

Whi'ther .b-plitliali artually offered up his
dauudit«T for a l>uint olFeriiii,'. is a (iue.>ti<in of
pn.'at dilliculty. and continues to i)e much
dispute) I. Tliohe who !n:iint:iin the ne;,'ative
alle^fe. that by trandatini; the ILO.rew prefix
or. n'n«lered and in our version, all tlithcMlty
will be removed. II i^ vnw will then be road,
"dhall surely be tho Jjord's, 'ir 1 will olfer a
burnt olFerinjLr;'* an<l not unfreiiuently the'
wense requires that the Ifelirew should Ihj thus
rendere<l. Mon'over, when .Tejihthah nia<]e
this vow, he eould not have intendeil t*^ insult
the Tionl by prtimisinsr a nacritice atrainst
which Ho had expnrs.sed the utmost abhor-
rence (Lev. XX. *Ji"i; ]>eut xii. 31), e».j«ecially
as it iri reconled that the 8]iirit of the ]j<»rd
was uiKin liini when he uttt^red his vow.
SupixvHe a rlo;; ha4l conn; out of the house of
tiepnthah, can any one suppose that he would
have offered this unclean animal a-* a burnt
offerinj,' to the I^onl? Ami why then should
we supjMme that he would otter a human
Kicrilice, which woidd have been ho much
more al)ominablc; and, in all such caries, the
law allowed the right of redem]>tiun for a
amall sum of money. It is, moreover, ai^nied
that no mention is made of any blo<Mly sacri-
fice of the young woman, but merely that **he
did with h(?r accr>nling to Ids vow which he
ha<l voweil ;" and she knew no man;''
which last words seem tf) convey, not obscurely,
the idea that Jephthah devoted his dau^diter
^|lo the Lord, by oosMcratiiig her to a life of

JEP

celibacy. Why record the fact, that "»he
knew no man,** if ahe was instantly put fa)
death? why lay so mudi stress on her Ti^
ginity, and not on her tragical and nntimdj
end? Besides, it appears to us that Jephthu
must have contemplated the possilnlitr of s
human l)cing meettn^ him : he speaks of 6ome>
thing coming **out of the doors of his house"
to meet him— some one of his family and
domestics. He could not wilfully ]irupoie to
immolate such an individual coming to meet
him, esitecially as the "Spirit of theXord wm
n|>i>n him.** If we adimt this \-iew, then the
language emph>yed by Jephthah must be takes
in a ligurative sen.<ie. He used vivid language
in his^ excitement The phraseology he em-
ploys is often useil in a iijnirative sense. But
some sav, such virginity as that to which
Jephthah*8 daughter was devoted was not
allowed under the law. It is allowvd in the
law that a woman might take the vow of
a Xazarite. In Kxod. xxxviiL 8 we read,
*' And he made the laver of brass, and the foot
iif it of brass, of the hmking-g'UMwes <tf the
women assembling, which assembled at the
do<»r of the tabernacle of the conmeaticiL'*
1'he wonl rendered as^tnbledj ngufies to
en^'.iL'e in military service, or keep Ksnlir
watch and ward. This sacred sistenhood lud
given away their mirrors, the svmbol of femsle
xulornmfnt— had separated tnemsclvet £ran
the world We have reference to the aauM
comimny of consecrated females in 1 Sam. n.
2"J, ^*Now Eli was very ohl, and heard all
that his sons did unto all Israel; and how
they lay with the women that assembled at

Ai... .1 I. ..e 1.1 x..K.K_.— _i^ r^i-. A? _»•

— debauching —
sacred choir of female assistants. ITiere seem*
to Ik' a reference to the same institute in Luke
ii. •^. May there not be allusion to ettait
saiToil company of devoted women in this
Ktram;e langua.ue?~"And the persons wen
sixteen thousand, of which tho Cord s tribute
w:is thirty and two persons/^ that is, female
c'V])tives (Num. xxxi. 40). To such a chcMO
and consecruteil society Jephthah*8 daughter
nnght be set aytart ; and such was her invinf t
ami heroic devoteflness that the daughter* ci
Israel went yearly, not to lament, but with
Hong and j)raise, to celebrate tho daughter ci
Jephthah the (rileadite four days in the year.
Such a]>i)ears to us a plain and intelhgiU^
view of tiie i>assage.

And it should not be forgotten that, in
the Ki)istle to tho Hebrews (ch. xi.), Jeplrthah
is ;[^lace<l among the worthies who vcre
distmguishttd for their faith. Now can «e
supi>o8e that such a man would he guilty of
the crime of sacrificing his own daughter?
(Com}). Heb. xi. 32, with 2 Sam. xii. 9; 1 Ki.
xi. 5, 7. ) It is suggested whether the insertion
of Jephthah *s name m this rawsage is oondoiaTV
evidence of his piety. That he was di*-
tinguished for one kind of faith is evident;
but was it *' saving faith ?" (1 Cor. xiii. 2L)

Those, on the other hand, who leodve tbt

JER

common reading of this passage, reason in the
following manner :— That upon eveiy fair
principle of construction, it must be admitted
that «Jephthah*s vow was single, and that he
did actu^dly bind himself, by this solemn bond,
U) offer as a burnt offering to the Lord what-
ever should first come forth from his house to
meet ^^^ on his return. That the time in
which Jephthah lived was one of mea ignor-
ance and idolatry (Judg. x. 6); that a pious
man might have felt himself boimd by the
obligation of a vow, in making which he had
none but a pious intention; that the law of
redeeming devoted persons and things for
money did not apply to the case of such a vow ;
that Jephthah*8 excessive grief on seeing his
daughter come forth to meet him^ can only be
accounted for on the supposition that he
considered her devoted to death; that the
mourning for the daughter of Jephthah for
four days in the year, can be reconciled only
with the opinion that she w»a offered up as a
burnt offering; and that there is no law or
pre^Kient to authorize the opinion that to
devote her to perpetual celibacy was not an
offence to Grod of eqiud enormil^ with that of
sacrificing her as a burnt offering. Such
statements apx>ear to us without foundation,
as we have endeavoured to show in the pre-
ceding paragraph. The prost>ect of having no
heir was always a very aoleful one to a
Hebrew, and Jephthah had no other child.
There was a company of devoted females to
which his daughter might be attached, and
the daughters of Israel went, not to mourn,
but to give praise and presents to the wonder-
ful recluse. And it has been well remarked,
that if it was {perfectly clear that Jephthah
sacrificed his daughter, there is not the least
e\'idence that his conduct was sanctioned by
God. He was a superstitious and ill-instructed
man, and, like Samson, an instrument of
God^s power rather than an exami)le of his
grace.

The Ephraimites, who had not been invited
to take part in the war against the Ammon-
ites, quarrelled with Jephtnah, and in a battle
with the Gileadites were defeated; and the
latter, seizing the fords of Jordan, slew every
Cphraimite who attempted to escape by cross-
ing the river ; and the method emj^^oved to ascer-
tain whether they belonged to Epnraim was,
to cause them to pronounce the word " shibbo-
leth," which they sounded *' sibboleth ;" for
it seems that by this time a difference in the
manner of pronouncing at least one Hebrew
letter had arisen between the inhabitants
on the different sides of Jordan. On this
occasion 42,000 men of Ephraim were slain,
which was a just punishment for commencing
a war with so small a provocation, (Judg. xi,
xiij

JEREMIAH— «xa7/«d of Jehovah — or
JEREMY (Matt ii. 17), or JEREMIAS
(Matt. xvi. 14) — one of the chief of the Hebrew
inx)phet8, was the son of Hilkiah, and of the
sacerdotal race. (Comp. Jer. i 1 and Joeh.
xxi. 18). He was very young when he was

JER

called to the prop>hetic office, and on that
account declined it (Jer. i. 6) ; but God

promised him grace and strength sufficient
lor his work ; and for f ort^-two years he per-
sisted in this arduous service, with unwearied
diligence and fidelity, in the midst of the
severest trials and persecutions.

During all this time Jerusalem was in a
most distracted and deplorable condition, and
the prophet was calumniated, imprisoned, and
often in danger of death. But no ill treatment
or threatenings could deter him from denounc-
ing the judgments of God, which were coming
ui>on the nation and that devoted city. His
exhortation to the king and rulers was to
submit at once to the arms of Nebuchadnezzar,
for by that means they would preserve their
lives; but he assured them^ as a message
received from Grod, that their continued re-
sistance would have no other effect than to
bring certain and dreadful destruction upon
Jerusalem and on themselves. At this tune
Jerusalem swarmed with false prophets, who
contradicted the words of Jeremiah, and
flattered the king and his courtiers that God
would rescue them frova the impending danger;
and after the city was taken, and part of the
people carried away to Babylon, ^ese pro-
phets confidently predicted a speedy return.
On the other hand, Jeremiah sent word to the
captives that the time of their captivity would
be long, and that their best course was to build
houses and plant vineyards in the land to
which they were carried, and to pray for the

feace of the country in which they resided,
mleed, he expressly foretold that the ca;)ti-
vity would enaure for seventy years; which
duration, he intimated, was to make up for
the sabbaticalyears which they had neglected
to observe. He also foretold the deliverance
of the peodle, and their return to their own
country. Towards the close of his life he was
carried into Egypt against his will, by the
Jews who remained in Judea after the murder
of Gedaliah. On this occasion he was re-
(juested by Johanan and his followers to
inquire of the Lord whether they should flee
into Egypt. In answer, after accusing them
of hyiwcrisy, he warned them, in the most
solemn manner, from the liord, not to go down
to Egypt; but they disregarded the command-
ment of God, and went, and took Jeremiah
■ forcibly along with them, where, in all proba-
bility, ne died, some think, as a martyr. For
the reference to Jeremiah in Matt xxvii. 9,
see Zech. xi. 12, 13. A considerable portion of
Jeremiah's history is embodied in the book of
his prophecies.

Jeremiah, prophectof, is the twenty-fourth
book of the Old Testament, and tlie ninth pro-
phetical book in chronolo^cal order. It em-
braces a period of u])ward8 ot fort^ years, be-
tween B.O. 628 and B.C. 586. Jeremiah entered
upon the office of a prophet in the thirteenth
year of the reign of Josiah (Jer. i. 2) : and his
prophecy relates to the ju(|gments tnat were
to come upon the people for their gross idolatry
and corruption; to therestoration whichawaited

357

JER

them whenever they would repent of their
sins, an<l forsake them; and to the future
glory which would arUe on the Church of God,
and on Kuch sm were steodfaHt in his 8er\'ico,
when the ** Desire of Nations ** should come,
and all flesh Hhould nee the salvation of God.

The just and natural order of this book is as
foUowH : —

1. The prophociui uttered in Josiah^s reign,
ch. i.-xiL

!L In JehoiakimX ch. xiii., xx., xxiL, xxiii,
XXXV., xxxvL, xlv.-xlviii., xlix. 1-33.

3. In ZetlekiuhX ch. xxi., xxiv., xx\'ii.,
xxxiv., xxxvii.-xxxix., xlix. 3i-3U; L, IL

4. In GtNlulluhX ch. xL-xliv.

Tliifl arnin^enient of the matter will make
the Inxik much more iuti'lli^Me to tlie reader.

Tlie fifty-»«ef(m«l t-liaptiT, which seems to
have been com pi led fmni the lattvr part of the
second lKN>k of KingR, wits ])rol)ably added to
the book by Ezni ; and seems de^iimed ])artly
as an iUuiitration of tlie accomidiKliment of
Jeremiali's prophecion reripecting Zedekiali, and
I)artly a-s nn IntrtMluction to the Ijamentati<»nti.

The style is not so lK.>autiful an<l comiuict as
that oi Isaiali. It is in general 84tft and easy,
and lH>ars uiKin it tlie murk and pn^ssure of
tlie time. The pn»phet's heart is full of
an^oiish, for his tiiin-K wen* thoi<e of calamity
and sorrow. Tlu- ruin <»f his country wiis at
hand, and lie lu-hcM it ^\ith a breaking heart.
liut his cyr, lilltd with tt-ars. jrl.ancos ever an«l
anon into tlur luturo. and bL-holds glory and i
prosjH'rity ilawiiinj: a;,'iiiii throu;;h the *' Ji<»rd
our i{ij,'ht«'imMir>y.'' Siin*i»w, h«\wev('r, was
his coiiiiiaiiion, uiul his usual laiiiriiat^e Ls that
of coHipluiut and laniontation -**()hthat my
head wen; wattTs, and mine eyes a fountain of
ti'ars, that I nii'_;ht wtrp day and nitfht for the
slain of the dau Jut of my people I"' (.ler. ix.
1.) His I'l'cvaleut tnuo is that of melancholy;
and he indul-^es in those tcn<iiT repetitious
which are natund to soitow. Th.' unjiandleled
fate of the Imly city is tol»l in lan^'uau'e of
imrivalle*! ]iatlii's. Some porti(»ns of his
writin^^s bear a remarkable similarity to some
of the otlu;r ]iro]ihrts. For exam]»le— .Ter.
Alviii. and Isa. xv.. xvi., concerninj^ M»*ab;
•ler. xlix. 7-17 and l)ba<I. verses 1-0, concerning
lilt 1< III I.

The wift aTi«l susceptible spirit of the prtiphet
W;is HO wnmglit on by the oracles of other bci-rs
that he insensilily repro^Iuced their imagery in
his (»wn compositions. Sonie.timeH ho repeats
whole passages from himself, as in the follow-
ing instances :— ( 'hap. viii. 10. w\q. (comp. vi.
13, M|q.), ix. S (coiup. V. l»), xi. 12, Bt]. (comp.
ii. t», XX. 12 (comp. ii. 20), xxii. 4 (comp.
xvii. 20), xxiii. 7, s<i. (comp. xvi. 14, sfj.),
xx\i. it (coui]). vii. 1-1), XXX. 23. sq. (comp.
xxiii. UK s<i.), X xxiii. 25, stj. (comp. xxxi. i<i>,
n({.)y xUii. 11 (comp. xv. 2J, xlvi. 28 (conip.

XXX. 11).

His mind was so deeply and sorrowftdly
im]irusMHl with certain scenes and events that
he dwells u]N)n them with all the tenacity of
fiverwhelming anguish. He is borne away by
his tgony, and yet, as Jerome says, though

JER

simple in his Uwgnage, ha is pfrafomid m tiw
majesty of his thoo^^ts.

Jeremiah, LAXEKTATioim of (tbA txMk
immediately succeeding the p^ophc^G7L an a
series of elegies written in view ol the dmdfal
calamities which the dtv of Jerusalem, and
the Jewish nation generaUy, were to soffa for
their continued rebellion against God; and
these events are described as if they wa«
actually accomplished. The L<amentatioiis of
Jeremiah have l>eon regarded by distii^Qiihsd
critics as the most perfect And regular f^e^MC
composition in the world. One would thmk
(as has been long ago remarked, and ^
remark has been often copied), that efoy
letter was \^Titten with a tear, and every wad
with the anguish of a broken hearty by one
who never breathed but in a sigh, nor qpokie
but in a groan.

An old tradition mentions Jeremiah as tke
author. It is contained in the beginning of
the first chapter of the Septuaoint verrioB,—
**And it came to pass alter that Israel mt
taken captive, and Jerusalem was laid waste.
that Jeremiah sat weeping, and lamented ^
lamentation over Jerusalem, and said ** . . .

The contents, spirit, tone, and languige of
the book agree with this tradition! The poet
has adoi)ted the alphabetic form, and mdk
cha])U*r is <livided mto twenty-two periodi,
to com>spond to the letters in the Uebiev
nlfdialHjt. The first four chapters are int^e
ft^nn of acro.<tics. In the first three chapten
each verse contains three linesk, and the initisl
letters are, with a slight variation, in the onkr
of the letters in the alpliabet. In tlie fooitb
clia]iter exK'h verse consists of four lines. Id
the third the alphal>et is repeated three timesi.

Jeremiah also litTote an elegy on the crood
king d(»siah (2 Chr. xxxv. 25) ; and some oaw
supi>osi'd that this elegy is our present Book
of Ijauiontations ; but, as we have remaiked.
they refer to other events — to T»^fc^w«M^l wd
l>ers4mal calamitv.

.lEKIClIO (.Sum. xxii. l)--one of the
oldest cities in the Htdy Land, was situated
in the tribe of Benjamin, about 20 mBtf
frvun Jerusalem and 3 from the river Jor
dan. Tliis, or some place in ils vidnitj, \»
called "the city of ]uum trees ;" (I>eut. xxxir.
.'{) : ]KThai>s from the abundant growth of tbc
Iialm tree in that neighbourhood. The word
Jericho may be from Jareachy, the mrK*n ; wd
the worship of the moon may have prevailed
there. Tins citv, which was next in sise tn
•Tenisalem, was beseiged and subilued by ihe
Israelites immeiliately after the passage of the
d (^rdan. The seige was conducted under tke
<livii)o diri'iction ; and, at a given siiznal, bf
the immediate inter])osition of mincolffB
]K)wer, the walls fell flat to the earth, prob^
ably destroying many lives, and thnywiae
the citizens mto univex^ consternation. IV
I Kraelites marched directly to the heart of tbe
city, and in obedience to toe express oonunsnd
of God, they put to death eveiy living cm*
ture, except Ilahab and her famuy, who wa«
rescued by the men sent as spisa fran tbe

JER

camp of Israel (Josh. ii. 1, 2), whom she had
concealed. The city itself was then set on fire,
everything in i^ except the vessels of gold,
silver, brass, and iron, which were previously
removed, was burnt to ashes^ and the veiy site
of it was cursed. (Comp. Josh, vi 26; 1 Ki
xvi. 34). (See Anathema, Hiel).

A city was rebuilt near this spot^ which is
afterwards mentioned (2 Sam. z. 5) as con-
taining a school of the prophets (2 Ki. ii. 5),
and as being the residence of Elisna (2 Ki. ii.
18), and Zaccheus (Luke xix. 1-10). The new
city may have been at the opening of the
Wady Kelt It was in the vicinity of this
place that a miraculous change was effected
bj Elisha in the taste of the waters of a par-
ticular spring, and that the two blind men
were miraculously restored by our Saviour
(Matt XX. 2d''M).

Under the Komans Jericho was a royal
residence, and Herod the Great died there.
It was more than once laid waste and rebuilt
after Herod's day ; and there is now a miser-
able hamlet called Biha or Rah situated on
the ruins of the ancient citv (or, as some think,
3 or 4 miles east of it), whicn a modem traveller
describes as a poor duty village of the Arabs,
and in the lowest state of moral degradation.
The road from Jerusalem to Jericho lies through
what is called the " wilderness of Jericho," and
ia described by modem travellers as the most
dangerous and forbidding about Palestine.
As latelv as 1842 an English traveller. Sir
Frederick Henniker, was attacked on this road
by the Arabs, with fire-arms, who left him
naked and severely wounded (Luke x. 30).

Jericho, plains op (Josh. iv. 13), denote
that tract of country lying between the city
and river Jordan, down to the Dead Sea.

JFjROBO AM-~peoj^e-incre€t8inff. 1. [1 KL
zi. 56) The son of Nebat, distinguished as
** the man who made Israel to sin." He was
evidently a bold and ambitious man, and held
under Solomon an office of trust and respon-
sibilitv ; and having received from the prophet
Ahijan a most singular intimation that the
kingdom of Solomon was to be divided, and that
he was to become the head of the ten tribes, he
perhaps made the fact known, or took some
means to bring about the event At any rate,
Solomon was alarmed, and took measures to
apprehend Jeroboam, who fled to Egypt, and
remained there till Solomon's deathu Reho-
boam, his soiu succeeded him ; and had already
made himselt so unpopular with ten of the
tribes that they had withdrawn from his
interest, and were found by Jeroboam on his
return ready to receive him as their king. He
fixed his residence at Shechem, which, with
other cites, he fortified for the furtherance of
hisplans.

Fearing that if the revolted tribes should go up
to the solemn national feasts at Jerusalem^ they
would be persuaded to return to their allegiance,
and forgetting his obligations to God and his
dependence on him (1 Ki xL 14-39), he caused
two golden calves, symbols of Egyptian wor-
ship, to be erecteo, one at Dan, ana the other

JER

at BetheL the extremities of his dominioiifl,
and caused a proclamation to be made, reauiring
the worship of these idols. The worsnip at
Dan remamed for a long period (1 Ki zii
26-33).

Jeroboam, having set up the idols, assembled
the people at the former place, to engage in
the solemn worship of them ; and to show his
zeal for the service, he officiated at the altar
himself. But while he was thus occupied, a
prophet from the land of Judah appeared in
the midst of the assembly, and in tne hearing
of all the people, uttered a prediction^ that a
man by the name of Josiah should anse and
destroy that altar, and should bum upon it the
bones of the priests; and to confirm his
authority, he gave this sign, that the altar
should immediately be broken in pieces, and
the ashes upon it be xx>ured out ; and it was
so. Jeroboam, greatly provoked by his bold
interference, put fortn nis hand to seize the
prophet, but m a moment it was stiffened, so
that he could not draw it in. Intimidated by
this miraculous iudgment, and convinced that
the man was indeed a prophet of the Lord, he
begged that he would intercede for him that
his arm might be restored; which was done
accordingly. Jeroboam, however, was not re-
formed by this divine message and double
miracle, but continued to cause Israel to sin,
in worsoipping the calves which he had set up.
His son was taken sick, and he instructed lus
wife to disguise herself and go to Ahijah, who
was now bund with age, ana consult him as to
the event of the disease. The prophet was
forewarned of her approach; and as soon
as he heard her footsteps, he called her by
name, and then recounted the sins of Jero-
boam, and predicted the disgrace, ruin, and
utter extirpation of his whole family, and also
the captivity and dispersion of the people of
Israel He also told ner that the child snould
die, and that the nation should mourn for him
as the only individual of the house of their
king who should come to a peaceful end ; and
also as one who, in the midst of all the idolatry
and wickedness of the times, had some pious
emotions, even in the house of Jeroboam. As
she entered the door of her house, the child
died (1 Ki. xiv. 17).

Jeroboam reigned in Israel twenty-two
yeara, and was succeeded by his son Nadab.
During his life there were almost unceasing
wars between him and the house of David,
but the numbers are exaggerated.

2. (2 Ki. xiv. 23-29) The son of Joash, and
great-grandson of Jehu, reigned forty-one
vears, and followed the former Jeroboam in
his idolatrous worship. The Lord, however,
by him, according to the predictions of Uie
prophet Jonah, raised the kingdom of the
ten tribes to its greatest splendour. All the
countries on the east of «Tordan he reduced.
It appears from the writings of Hosea and
Amos that idleness, effeminacy, pride, oppres-
sion, injustice, idolatry, and luxury greatly
prevailed in his reign (Amos ii 6-16; v. ; vi).
Nor was it long uter his death, before the

359

Ijonl, according to the ])re<liction8 of AmoA,
ciit uff his family witli the Bwortl, (2 Ki. xv. 10;
Hoik i. 1, &c.)
JEKlTB-BAAL-^rt Baal plead, (See

GlDEHN.)

JEKUSALEM is ritnatetl in 3r 46' aT
north latitude, and .T)' IS' :iO' east longitude
from Greenwich. ** Salem," the latter half
of the name, ftignifies '* peace;" hut of the
derivation of ** Jeru," the first imrt, a differ-
ence of o]»inion han existcil. Among many,
some have dcrive<l it from ** Jenish," 8ignif>'ing
"lxjrtHt?8Hi«)n ;" othen* fr«»m *'Jarah," signify-
ing ** foundation;** ami corres]N>nding with
these, the entire name hat* liei.'n taken tfi
mean, in the one ciUH% tlie ^^iMisseiwion of
peaci*;** in tlie other, the "dwelling <»f
peace," or it may mean, *' vimm of jpeace."
The Pttalmist (Ph. IxxvL 2) sjieaks of Jeni-
salem under the sinijde designation "Saleni,"
and T>artly fn.>m tlii^, a general l>elief huM
prevaileil that tliis city is the name as the
Salem ((ieii. xiv. 18-20) of Melchizetlek, who
went out and blessed Abraham wlien he wa.s
returning fn>m the slaughter of the kings.
Perhaps the Psalmist emjtloyed the name
Salem as a fN>etic abbreviatirtn, and the
identification of Salem with .Jerusalem lias not
been satisfactorily establishod.

Acconling to coninion l>elief, the first notice
of the site Ls prubaMy under th«: ai>pillation,
"the Ir.nd of MtH'iuli,*' t«» which Abraham
was divinely commandtHl to g<» for th»' pur]nise
of jtnwmting Jpaac ns a burnt otferiiij: on one
of its mountains (c<inii>. Ctcu. x.xii. with 2
Chr. iii. 1).

The site (»f .Ivrnsah'Ui. if thus connected with
tho hist^'ry of Abridiani, seems, fr»»m the in-
Kjiin-il histori.'in, to have been s»'fludeil ami
solitary, and there is no further notice of it in
the imtriarchal a;-'e. (.>n the entrance <»f tlie
trilM's to Cana'i]!, under .J«»rtliua, it is pi-esentr*!
to us at «»nce (JiJ^h. x.) as a royal city, and as
exercij*ing more tluin usual auUuirity. It is at
this IX lint that the hihtory of the city ctan-
mences- while it was in the ixissessinn of the
Jebusites (.Tosh. xv. OJi), ami by them named
Jebusor Jebusi (.Tosh, xviii. 2S; ,Jud;^'. xix. 10);
although by anticijiation it is also in the same
connection named Jernt<nl«-m.

In the first united must«T of the Canaanites
againbt Israel, Aflonlzedek, its king, was
leafier. The inmieiliate occasion w;m the
desertion of the <iib(x>nites frrmi the common
cause; ami to ]>unish them he suniniiaieil the
kin<;s of Hebron, nncl .fannuth, anil liSu'lii-^h,
and Eglon to the field with their annies (.Tosh.
X. l-.O). .Ifwhua with his chosen warriors
hastened U.\ the rescue of Gibeon. Tlie allio»l
army waj* entirely overthrown, the kings were
taken and put to death, and their cities were
cai)tured in succession, with the excej-tion of
Jerusalem. It does not api)ear that Joshua,
among all his con(|uesta, ever attempted tr)
assail it ; and the capture effecteil by the trilw
of Judah (Judg. i. 8) was either partial or only
temporary, llie stronghold, or what was
afterwards known as mount Zion, still oou-

JER

tinned in tlie hands of its former _
The Jebusites still dwelt among the chikireB
of Judah and Benjamin, on whose boundary-
line their city lay (Josh, x v. 63 ; Jodg: L 21).
JebuB continued to oe pointed to as a *' city of
the Htranger— that is, not of the children of
Israel ** (Judg. xix. 12) ; and apparently it
remained nnoer the same rule onwaxtl to the
da}*8 of the kings, through an inttfrvenia^
period of nearly 400 years.

When David had obtained nnduipoted
authority over the tribes, he resolved to remove
his court from Hebron to Jerusalem. Prom
political considerations he deemed it to be »
suitable place for the metropolis of Israel, or
it may be that he vras di\'ineiy directed to itw
the place that God had chosen for **his reit
and the ark of his Ktremrt^h." Ikying riege ta
the fortress so long held by the Jebusites, he
gained iiossession of it, and blotting out Uu
heathen name Jebus he added ^e new name.
"'Hie city of David." (2 Sam. v. 1-9: 1 Chr.
xi. 1-7). Thenceforth destined to be the scene
of nobler transactions, DaWd proceeded with
great vi|:our to repair, extend, and fortify the
city. He was recognized in his suvere'un
character by Hiram, king of Tyre; anil in
building his jalace he was furnished by that
]irince with materi:ils, and with Phoenician
workmen advanced in a knowledge of ait'lii-
tecture (2 Sam. v. 11).

Not relying uixm external glory and splen>
dour, he sought to found his throne on reh^i>u
2md |)it?ty. Assi^mbling the '* tboui&anils ^'i
IsraeV* he brought up to the ca]>ital the ark
of the covenant fn>m Xirjath-jearim, where it
had long been lo<»tetL Amid great rejtHcin^
he set it in a place preiiaretl, and pre.^ut^
iK'fon; it burnt offerings and i>eace o^erin^'s.
This was the first step in constituting Jeru-
salem the **H(»ly City** (2 Sam. \t. Mi'i.
J*riK.*ee'ling (»mvard in the same pious Ci>ui>^.
David lM*gan to entertain the design of builttio^*
in Jerufjialem a permanent dwolling-jilacf for
the ark (2 S.im. \ii. 2) ; and although forlndtieu
to btiild the temple hinieielf, he ditl not neglect
t') make vtr>' ain^de iireparatiousforthesacnNi
building, fontseeing that it Wiw to be the
strength of his kingilom and the glory of hi«
cajjital. He deilicated to it miicli gold and
silver, and other precious niateriaU ; while the
heaviest calamity that befell Israel during hU
reign was ovemiled for fiixing the precise «te
on moimt Moriah where it wa? to stand (1 Chr.
xxix. 1-5; xxi. 14-i^; 2 Chr. iii. 1).

Solomon followed in his fathers track. In
the fouilh ye^u* of his reign, having securc<I
the co-oj)eration of Hiram, king of TViv, he
began to build the temple on a s^vUe of extra*
onliiiary grandeur. He arlomed Jerusalem
with other magnificent buildings. He built a
Ittilace for himself which occupied thirteen
years, and another palace whicSi was called
** the house of the ceoar of I^ebanon,*' and also
another for his wife, the daughter of Pharaoh
(1 Ki. vii. 1-12). llie sceptre of Israel si^v
reached its highest pitch of prosperity. The
treasury was replenished with the tribute of

'^^'■■■flifllViri

f ^ {« '

ivi;^ Sihmii B
(lijfJtioTXB of forej^ lajida
ijiieace, "silver becamo an uttmea. and ceilitr
trcis u the B^canioreB." The city became
r^-iiiiwned fnr its commercial cDt«rpriiie, its
liiitiadless wealth, and the eplendour of its
court The wisdom of Solomon became famous
over the earth (2 Ohr. ix. 1-12, 20-27). But
the hifjhest glory of Jeniaalem, even the acme
of li« Hjilundour, was her rcli^uns service, her
limphets, her priests, her now perfected wor-
itiiip, ber solemn festivals, and her "Isjid
knoH-n in her palaces for a refuKe."

"The (jnhl, however, soon became dim."
The partilJoD of the kingdom on the accession
of liuhoboom was peculiarly calamitAus to
JenL-olem. The revolt of the ten tribes led to
a, new seat of govenunent, to rival altars at
Uan and Bethel^and to a spurious temple and
priesthood. " The city of Uaviil " became
tiienceturth the capital only of Judah and
*' little Benjamin," acd these tribes alone came
iip to her solemn convocation (t KL liL 25-31).
In the meantime Solomon had not long gone
down to tbe grave when a tide of irreli^on
and pnifli^'ocy fli>wed over the land (1 Ki. xiv.
■"■;4; 2 Chr. x\l 1). The tribes entered

that

tivity. Jtepeated defection wt

rei*ateil judjjments, and the ht

on the capital. In the reign of Kehoboam it
was cai>tured by Sbishak, king of Eoypt (2
Chr. xiL <J) : in the reign of Jeboram, by tbe
PhiUstinea and Arabiong (2 Chr. iiL 16, 17);

the temple nnd city were pillaged, and tha
spoils carried away. Endeavours fre(|uently
made to ertirpate idolatry were at the best but
partially sucdessfoL The high places were
often crowded whQe the temple of Jahovsh
was deserted ; and in tbe days of Ahaz, whild
"~ doors were shut up and its worship discon-
j were erected in
I (2 Chr. nviiL

M, KOJ.

Among the good kin^ of Judah, Hezekiah
gave the fairest promise, ia these ages, of
reclaiming the nation and introducing a better
era to the hnly city. At the verj commence,
ment of his reij^i, recalling the impiuus acta
of bis predecessor, he opened, repaired, and
cleansed the temtJe, reinstated the priests,
and revived the sacred service, (2 Chr. xxix.)
He proclaimed a passcver through Judah, and

Jerusalem

(2 Cbr. XXX. 11). The solemnity was attended
by a great revival of relicion- It seemed as if,
after the lapse of 260 years, the days of Solomon
had again returned to the " city of God ; " and

much iceal for the extiri^tion of idolatry.
Penitence and piety begsn greatly to prevail ;
and in token of the complacency with which
God regarded the national reformation, the
army of Sennacherib, that came up to he^ege
Jenisalem, was cut down by a destroying

£"'(1-

i.36).

^Bat this goodness was only as the " morning
cloud." Monasseh snccecding to the throne,
overturned all that his father Ead done (2 Chr.

JER

xxxiiL 3-7). Josiah miccecding next, exerted
himself for the reprcmion of idolatry, and was
the last of Judali's kiiii^A who ** did that which
was right in the flight of the Lord." His
succesHom again ojivned u]) uuew the flood-
^tes of inii^tiity, and filled up the ciip of
Jenisalum 8 sin. She now came down wonder-
fully, Ix^cuiise she rememlKTiil not her latter
end. After the death of Jo^iah, Kecho, king
of Egypt, entered the city with a victorious
army, ana imiNtsed an annual tribute upon the
people, but (lid not subject it to plunder (2
uhr. xxxvi. 3). A few years later it was taken
by Nebuchadnezzar, wlio ]ilundered the temple
and carried oif a part of the consecrated things,
but loft the buildings of the temple and city
uninjured (2 Chr. xxxvi. 10). Not l«»ng after
it was again captured by the army of Babylon,
and yet further de^ixiiled of itn treafiures, while
many of its l)cst subjects were carried into
captivity. At lei^h the final stroke was
inflicted. ^ Tlic king of Babvlon, cxasi)erated
at the faithlessness of Zc><lekiah, returned to
Jerus:dem ^-itli a numerous army, and laid
siege to it. The inhabitants were reduced to
the last extrtMuitv by famine. After an ob-
stinate defence, tfie city was taken, t)ie avails
were razed to the foundation, the nalaoes were
burned to the ground, the tem]uo was ran-
sacke<l, and all quarter was refused to the
peoi>le. Terrible was the acoon»p:mying cnr-
njiife. **They slew the young men with the
HWoid, in the lumso of their unnotuarj', and
had no Ci>ni]>a';Hion upon youn.!:; man or maiden,
ohl man, or him that Htooju-d f(^r atn*." {2 Chr.
xxxvi.) King Zed<kiah was seized in attempt-
ing to flee; and Wing canied i-efore his con-
quen>r, was d«Hinied to see his children put to
death, then to be deitrived of his cye.sight, ami
then Knind in «-liains and carried away ca])tive
to JUbylon Mer. xxxix. 4-7). Multitudes of
his subjec-ts that ha«l escapetl the HWord were
sharers of the same fate. This hea\'y ciilamity
took i»lace 4V\ years after the deilioation of the
t**mi^le, and r»s,s before the birth of Christ
(2 Chr. xxxvi. 17-20).

With a TKople less i>atriotic.Teni8alem would
now have Ixtn a blank. But it was not tlius
with her in the uiitlst of her widowho<Kl.
Sitting in her a*«hes, hIio was cherishe<l by her
chiMren with the fonflest regard. While the
weejnng pr«i|»het was lamenting at liome over
the city sitting fiolitary that had l.K'cn full of
pe(»i>le (Lam. i. 1), the cajitives on the banks
«»f the Eui)hrates wept when they romemlHircd
Zion, ana held the menioiy of Jerusalem as
their chief joy, (Ps, cxxxvii.) They were knit
to their now des* dated cai)ital by hope as well
as by memorv. Isai.'di liad foretohl that (\vru8
would piav to .Tenisaleni, **Thou shalt be built;
and to tiie tem]ile. Thy foundation shall \te
laid" (Tna. xliv. 28). Jeremiah had pnxlicted
that the captivity would labt seventy years
(.Ter. xxix, 10). ITie people cherished these
predictions with the fondest anticination ; and
at length the promised conqueror naving sub>
jugat^ Babylon, realized tneir hopes seventy
years after the captivity, which took place in
302

JEU

the reign of Jehcnaldm, and fifty-two after iht
destructitm of the city.

In the edict publiaoed hy Cyras the greiteit
encouragement was {[iven to the exiles to xetnn
to Jenisalein and biuld the temple (Kzrai lA),
While the ^^reat majority of the ca]itives de-
clined to quit the homea and posaesBJons tbcy
had gained in the land of their exile^ msny
welcomed with joy the proclamation. Upwaids
of 42,000, with Zerubbabel at their head, be-
sides servants, proceeded homewazds (Ena iL
64, 65). Along with them were returned ihs
consecrated Teeaels that had been carried away
from the temple <£zra L 7-11). The firrt
object souffht by the retnrain^ exil«B mi
Jerusalem lyin^ m ruins. The first spot in the
ruins was the site of the temple, and the fink
work to which they pnt their nand was ihs
erection of a temporary altar for burnt offeriogi
{KzTA ilL 2). Preparatory to the bnOding of
the temple, they provided Phoenician woii*
men and cedar trees from Lebanosi, as hsd
been done by Solomon. The laying of ihs
foundation was witnessed with Tety different
feelings by different classes of the people. To
the younger it was a season of jojr* which tbey
cxnreased by shouts of exultation; to tM
oilier, who could look back to the grntergkfy
of the former temple, it was a season oi sonow,
which they marked by weeping and lamenks-
tion (Kzra iiL 8-13). In proceeding with the
work, they were called to encounter violent
op]X)sition from the Samaritans^ whose over-
tures of co-o])cration had been wisely rejected.
They were first imi>eded and then entirely
intemii)ted in the prosecution of their under-
taking, by these adversaries of Judah (Ezzair.
4, 5, 21) ; and it was not till the reign of Dariiu,
and the twentieth year from the laying of ike
fituudation, that the edifice was completed
(Ezra vi. l.'{-2'2). Sixty years after the oon-
secration, Kzra retumeti with a new colony of
captives^ iK'aring with him an edict of Artax*
erxes, similar to that entrusted by Gyns to
ZerublialxiL Arrived in Jerusalem, "he de-
I>08ited in the tomjile valuable donatioDS of
silver and gold. For the maintenance of the
t<.'mple worship, he was investeii with the
power of making largo drafts up<3n the paUie
trcasur>'; and to encourage tne priests sad
Lcvites to settle in Jerusialein. he had tiie
power of exemitting them fn>niuie payment cf
custom and tribute (EzraviL 21-24; viu.24^).
But while the exertions of Ezra wwne attended
T\ith great benefit to the people, and with s
very manifest revival of religion (Kara ix., x.).
still the houses and inhabitants of Jerosalen
were few in number, and the walls were lyinc
level with the ground. Xehemiah resdbM
Jerusalem twelve or thirteen years after Ena
A man of c^msummato sagacity and bumiiv
patriotism, he bore with him a new rmhsiarfr*
Lis countrymen. Zembbabel and JSzrs had
been authorized to build the temple, and tske
charge of the temple service. Nehemiah wsf
commissioned to umld and forHiy the dly
(Neh. ii 1-8). Soon as this undertaking
was commenced, heathen enemiea again ea*

JER

deavoured to thwart them by insults, by
malicious insinuations, and by threatenings
of a hostile attack (Neh. ii 19; iv. 1-12;
vi. 6, 7). But, inspirited by Nehemiah,
they carried forward the work with ^at
energy; and. arranged in separate divisions,
they applied themselves to separate por-
tions of the wall. The labourers built with
their swords girded on, ready for the hostile
combat. The walls and fortifications thns
"reared in troublous times" were at length
happily finished (Neh. iii.; iv. 13, 23). The
city was thenceforth committed to a regular
^vemor and guard (Neh. vii. 1-3); to people
it, a draft was made by lot of a tenth part of
the rural population (Neh. vil 4; xi 1, 2).
The regular services of the temple were re-
established (Neh. xii.); and after the example
of Ezra, the heathen females who were married
to Israelites were put out of the city (Neh. xiiL
23, 31). Thus was Jerusalem a second time
waUed and fortified. It did not possess the
grandeur of the ancient city, but tne children
of the captivity were comforted by this, that
to that city would come **the desire of all
nations," and that he would " fill that house
with his glory." Here the curtain drops over
the Old Testament history of Jerusalem, about
430 B.a

In the silence of inspired historians for a
succession of ages, Josephus and other profane
authors mention some incidents respecting the
city which are worthy of record. The following
is related, and is not incredible in connection
with the city of God. In the victorious
career of Alexander the Great, after subju-
gating Tyre and Gaza, he set out with his army
to Jerusalem, (332 B.C.) The inhabitants were
thrown into the utmost consternation, and the
more so that they had previously refused
submission on the ground that they were bound
by oath to the Persian king. In this emergency,
Jaddua, the high priest, threw himseU and
his people on the protection of God. Divinely
dire«tea in a vision, he attired himself in his
pontifical robes, and accompanied by the
priests in their proper habits, and the people
m white garments, he set out to meet the
conqueror when he was api^roaching the city.
As soon as Alexander saw the procession he
was struck with profound awe, and hastening
forward, he bowed down and saluted the high
priest with veneration. He explained to lus
attendants that ere he entered on his conquests
he had seen in a dream that very person in
that very habit, and had received from him
the assurance tnat he would conquer Asia.
The city was in consequence spared, and
favoured with peculiar immunities.

After the death of Alexander, Ptolemy of
Egypt having reduced Syria under his sway,
marched upon Jerusalem, whose inhabitants
refused submission, and again for this reason
that they were pledged by oath to another
governor. The city being strongly fortifi^
might have held out against him. The inha-
bitants, however, reckoned it a desecration of
their law to labour on the Sabbath-day, or even

JER

to defend their lives. Ptolemy observed this,
and chose that day to^ make an assault^ ana
was admitted to the city without opposition.
Having become master of Jerusalem and
Judea, he carried many of the inhabitants
captive into Egypt, and appointed 30,000 to
military service. In the year 170 B.O. Anti-
ochus Epiphanes marched i^ainst Jerusalem,
for the purpose of taking revenge against the
Jews for disrespect shown toward him. Lay-
ing siege, and taking the city by force, he slew
in three days 40,000, and sold an equal number
as slaves to the neighbouring nations. He
forced his way into the temple, and even into
the holy of holies. To heignten the indignity,
he sacrificed a sow on the altar of burnt
offering. He next plundered the temple, and
carried off the altar of incense, the table for
the shewbread, the golden candlestick, and
other utensils, all of gold, to the value of 1,800
talents. Not satisfied with this, the same
monarch, two years after, sent his general,
Apollonius^till further to desolate and pillage
the city. The inhabitants were given up anew
to slaughter. The houses were sacked and
demolished; streets flowed with blood. The
sanctuarywas defiled with aU manner of pol-
lution. The worship of Jehovah was discon-
tinued, and the temple was consecrated to
Jupiter Olympius. Tnis disgusting profanity
ana persecution led to the revolt of the
Maccabees, who, 163 B.O., gained possession of
the city. JBy them it was repaired; the temple
purified, utensils provided for the sacred
service, and the worship of Jehovah was again
established. {Maccabees^ books i. and ii.) Jeru-
salem, under this patriotic family, attained
an independence unknown since the Baby-
lonish captivity, and again it began to oe
governed by its own princes.

In the year 63 B.C. Jerusalem fell before the
Roman arms. The people were at the time
torn asunder by internal divisions. One faction
admitted Pompey and his army into the city,
while another retired to the tem])lo and refused
to submit. A siege of the resisting faction
was the consequence. In the third month a
breach was made, and the temple was taken.
The army rushed in, and put 12,000 Jews to
the swordL Many of the priests were at the
time officiating at the altar, and. refusing to
leave their places, had their own blood mingled
with their sacrifices. It is noticeable that on
that very day when the people fell under
the Roman army^ they were keeping their
anniversary fast in commemoration of the
conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar.

Under the sway of the Romans Jerusalem
progressed in external greatness. Herod the
Great— he who was king of the Jews at the
birth of Christ (Matt. ii. 1) —cruel and licentious
in his disposition, was at the same time an
enthusiastic admirer of architecture, and sought
to immortalize his name bv the splendour of
his building. He erected for himself a palace
on mount Zion. Pandering to the pleasures
of his Roman patrons, he erected in tne city a
theatre and amphitheatre: and, on the other

363

hand, in onler to gain the aifections of the JewH,
he rebuilt the temple on a scale of extras tnlinarv
ma(fnificence. It waM that temple to whicn
the JcwH l<N)kc(l i^-ith so much vanity when
they Fcomfully arldreitseil JenuH— "Forty and
fix yean wa« thiH tcm)>U' in building. " During
the reign of Heroil-Al?rii)i>a— that lTor«Kl wlio
irtit James, the br«»thtT of John, t«> death — the
imildingg of tlie city were exten<lin>; on the
north l^vond the wallti, and to afford tliene a
<k'fence he foundetl a new wall to sumtund
Bezetha, M'hich, an Jose^tliiis imagined, had it
lieen completed acc«>rilnig to the orii^nal
detdgn, would have rendered the city entirely
imr>regnable.

It wa« while under the I^oman government
that the day of Jeru.-'nlenrH visitation came.
**Onc greater than Solouion" was there, often
mingling with ittt inhabit:int»<. Many of the
jilacert in and around the city were liallowetl in
connectii>n with the ministry of Jesus -tlie
temjdc, the ]>(>ol of Silt>am, the ]hm)1 of Reth-
ewUi, the bn^ik Keilron, the garden of Cieth-
Hcmane, the mount of Olive.s, and mount
Calvary. AVithin its walls hia pn»phetic
voice wan often raisnl, and in its streetd were
]>erfonne<l some of his most Htui^endous mir-
ach)s : but all to no i^iriHwe. In that age of
enonnous wi«:kedn«'Hs, iniquity reache<l its
highest m.iLniitu'le in Jerusalem. All orders
of the inhaliitants st'i'uwd «letennineil to make
religion nothing cl-e than grim.-K'e and «»sten-
tation. The ]>riest.H c^ inverted the sacred
tem]>lc into a marki.-t-i>l:u*e. the rabbis and
doirti»rs mu<le tln'ir devotions at the cttrners
of the streets. 1'he high iiriesth(»od was sohl
to the high«»st biildt-r, or conferred on somo
favourite of the ndiT. The entire jjeople
were tilled with spiritual pride and torn into
relis'itius factions. In iirofligaoy and ul»imdon-
lueiit it held a bad ]ire-c>minence abuve all
othrr cities of Israel, and, taking int* account
its ndigious privih-^^'es abov<* all other cities
of the world. lie whi> **was drsjiiscd and
rejected of luen" had his bitteiv-^t enemies
among the citiz<'ns of Junisalrm. Its .Ti'vvish
rulers plotted against his life; its high priest
contlcmned him af bla'^jthfuiy: its Koman
governor re<^i»nli-d against him the sentence of
death; it^ inhabitants raised tlii> infatuated
t^ry* '* Crucify him! crucify him I'' mu\ in his
death it b*;c:une the scene of the lOaekest
deed that ever stiiin^Ml this guilty earth,
•bi^rjihus, althouudi he had l»e«.n a (Hsciple
of Jesus, couhl not have j»emi»-d a pa»is;ige
more striking and applicable than that
which follows. *'l cannot forbear," says he,
"ileclaring my o^tinion, though the declara-
tion fills nut with great emotion, that hail
the ]{omans delayed to come against th<ise
wretches, the city would either have In'en
engidfetl by an earthquake, oveni'hebued
by a deluge, or destroyefl by fire from heaven,
for that generation was far more enormously
wicked than thoM who suffered these calam-
ities.*'— JoBcplius, Wars, book v., eh. xiii,
bvct. G.

From the commencement of the Roman
301

JER '

^ rule Jerusalem was frecpxently mil^lected to
! arrogance and cmelty, amin^ sametmiet from
I the t^-num^r of the governors and loinetiaHi
I from the insubordinAtion of the gorenedl
j llie destructioii under Htue was probsl^r
I the most terrible that was ever ezperiraMd
by any city under heaven. It was in the yeir
A.». 71, thirty-seven yean after the cmish
fixion of our Lord, that this Roman eenenli
with a numerous army, laid siece to me citj.
lie arrivetl and commenced bis opentkas
during the passover, and therefore while d»
city was imusually crowded. Famine soon
began to rage. Pestilence followed, and pro-
duced the most fearful havoc Hie altj,
after a desperate resistance, was taken; tte
streets flowed with blood: the lanes woe
chokeil up with the slain ; the city and tenmis
were wrapt in one conflagration, andui
buildings were razed to their foundations^ la
the c(.>unie of a few months myriads perished,
and the inrediction of our Lord was accun*
plished: ^*One stone shall not be Ivft upua
another that shall not Iw thrown down."

In the reign of Adrian the city was wt^
rebuilt under the name of .£liak Aitahmg
transformed into a pagan city, Helena^ the
mother of Constantino, overthrew its mtm-
ments of idolatry, and erected over the np-
p<ts(Kl site of the sepulchre of Christ a msg-
nificent churdi, which included as many of
the scenes of (»ur Saviour's sufferings as sopo^
stiti<m and tradition could conveniently crovd
into one spot (See Calvary.)

The emperor Julian, in the true spirit of si
apostati*. designing to give the lie to pruphecy,
assembled the Jews at Jerusalem, and «idssT-
oureil in vain to rebuild Uie temple. Accord-
ing to some narrators, in tlus attempt he iru
frustrated by an earthquake, and fiery onp-
tions from the earth, which totally destrorel
the work, consumed the materials which nad
iK'en collected, and killed a great number U
the workmen. (See Warburt^m's JuiiatL)

Jerusalem continued in the power ot the
eaxtem tau|K-rorM till the reign of the caifipb
Omar, the third in succession from Mohsn-
med, who reduced it under his subjectkw.
This Omar was afterwarrls assassinatsd ii
Jenisalem in G43. llie Saracens contimied
masters of Jenisalom till the year 1099, vhca
it was takt^n bv the crusaders under (todfrey
of I^millon. They founded a new kingdoo,
of which Jerusalem was the capital, and vl^
histeil eighty-eight years, unrier nine law-
At hist this kingdom was utterly ruined of
Sahulin ; and though the (.Christians once mon
obUiinetl ]N>sses8ion of the city, they vvre
again obliged to rc'linnuish it. In IS17 tbe
Saracens were expelled by the Turtci, wftfi
have ever since continued m itosaession of it
Seventeen tipies has Jerusalem been tiikei
and pillaged; millions of men have bsea
slaughter^ within its walls.

llie site of Jerusalem is an devaled po*
montory or tongue of land, which ia xti
highest point is 2,000 feet above the Medilff-
ranean, and is connected with a genenl tsUs*

JER

land on the north-west, but on all other aides
Rurroiinded and isolated by valleys of various
depth and breadth, beyond which rise hills,
some of them considerably above the level of
the isolated platform on which the city stands,
and which enclose it as a basin. Tins platform
is nearly three-quarters of a mile across, from
the brink of the eastern to that of the western
valley, and its extreme lei^th, as a promontory^
may DC reckoned, at nearly a mile and a-half:
but as the site is not physically circumscribea
on the north-west, it is difficult to fix the exact
length ; and buildmg might, in fact, be extended
almost indefinitely in that direction. It is also
divided from north to south by the valley of
the Tyropaeon, divided into two imequal
portions — the western or larger portion being
that on which stood the city proper. The site
itself is uneven, being marked by swells or
hills, which were anciently more distinguishable
than at present. Of tbese swells or hills the
southernmost and highest was mount Zion,
called "the city of David," and by Josephus,'
"the upi>er city." Ophel was the southern
continuation of the eastern hilL That on the
north-west was lower, and was called Acra,
which was covered by "the lower city." East
of Acra and north-east of Zion was toe mount
Moriah, on which the temple was eventually
built. To prepare it for the vast structure of
the temple, Solomon enclosed the mountain
by a stupendous wall of an average i)erpen-
dicular neight of 500 feet, filling up the
intervening space between the wall and the
mountain, so as to form a spacious and level
area for the temple and its extensive courts.
At the north-western angle of this area was a
magnificent tower^ which was called by Herod
thetowerofAntoma, in honour of Mark Antony.
There is another hill lyuig to the nortli of
Moriah which *is higher than Moriah, and
perhaps as high as Zion. This, CskH^ Bezetha,
was during the whole period covered by Scrip-
ture history beytmd the limits of the city, but
was, after the time of Christ^included within it
by the wall of Agrippa. The surface of the
elevated promontory which forms- the site of
Jerusalem has a general slope towards the east,
terminating on the brink of the valley of
Jehoshaphat.

The promontory which has thus been de-
scribed as the proper site of Jerusalem lies in
the fork of two valleys, one called the valley of
Jehoshai)hat and the other the valley of Gihon.
the continuation of which is the valley of
Hinnom. The valley of Jehoshaphat, traversed
by the Kedrrtn, bounds the site on the north
and east The valley of Gihon bounds the
site on the south-west, and then, bending
eastward, takes the name of Hinnom, and
forms the southern botmdary of the site, under
the mount Zion, opposite the south-east cor-
ner of which it unites with the valley of Jeho-
shaphat. The hills beyond these valleys bound
the view of the city. On the east is the mount
of Olives, separate only by the narrow valley
of Jehosnapnat. On tne south is the hill of
'* evil counsel," so called, rising directly from

JEK

the vale of Hinnom. On the west the groimd
rises gently, so that a traveller approaching in
that direction on the road from Jaffa (Joppa)
obtains, at the distance of two miles, a fine view
of the walb and domes of Jerusalem, with the
mount of Olives beyond. On the north a
bend of the ridge connected with the mount
of Olives bounds the prospect at the distance
of above a mile. Towards the soutli-west the
view is somewhat more open, stretching away
to the plain of Rephaim. These surrounding
ramparts supply a beautiful and consoling
simile to the Psalmist: "As the mountains
are round about Jerusalem, so is the Lord
round about his people" (Ps. cxxv. 2).

The gates mentioned in Scripture and
Josephus were— gate of Ephraim (2 Chr. xxv.
23) ; probably the same as tne gate of Benjamin
(Jer. XX. 2) ; if BO. it was 400 cubits from the
Comer gate (2 Chr. xxv. 23) ; gate of Joshua,
governor of the city (2 Ki. xxiii 8); gate
between the two walls (2 Ki. xxv. 4); gate
Handth, in our version. East gate (Jer. xix. 2) ;
^te Gennath {ffardens) is referred to by
Josephus (Jewish WarSf v. 4) ; gate Sur (2 Ki.
xi. 6), called also gate of Foundation (2 Chr.
xxiii. 6); gate of the Guard, or behind the
guard (2 Ki. xi 6, 19), callea the High gate
(2 Chr. xxiu. 20); gate ShallechethTl Chr.
xxvi. 16); Dung gate (Neh. ii. 13); East
gate (Neh. iii. 29) ; Essenes' gate is mentioned
by Josephus {Jeioish Wars. L 4); First gate
(Zecli. XIV. 10) ; Fish gate (1 Chr. xxxiii 14) ;
Fountain gate (Neh. xii. 37); Horse gate
(Neh. iii. 38); Miphkad (Neh. iii 31); Old
gate (Nell. xii. 39) ; Prison gate (Neh. xii 39);
Kavine gate, the ravine of Hinnom (2 Chr.
xxvi 9) ; Sheep gate (Neh. iii 1, 32) ; Water
gate (Neh. xii 37).

The fountains were— Gihon, 316 feet long,
219 broad, and 18 deep; Enrogel, 130 feet
deep ; pool of Hezekiah, to the north of Zion ;
King's pool, perhaps same as foimtain of the
Virjpn, from which there is a channel cut
in the rock to the pool of Siloah or Siloam,
which is 53 feet long, 18 feet broad, and 19
feet deep; and Bethesda. (See under these
names.) There was no spring, properly so
called, within the city. A large reservoir was
discovered in 1842. There is another covered
one close to the south entrance into the Haram;
and there is an extraordinary subterranean
cistern under the temple, 1?^ feet in area, 42
feet deep, and capable of holding 2,000,000 gsd-
lons of water. It was disco veredoy Dr. Barclay
a few years ago. Jerusalem was surrounded
in later times by three walls, and it could not
hold more on an average than 200,000 of popu-
lation. It had an area of more than 2,2oOJOOO
yards : according to Dr. Whi tty, 480 acres. But
some would give it a population only of 50^000
at the utmost, giving too few human beings
in proportion to the space ; for many fortified
cities were densely peopled. One person to
30 yards is said by some to be too small a pro-
portion, and yet m London each human being
has 200 yards. In that case the accounts of
Josephus must be gross exaggerations.

365

JER

Modem Jenualera, aa to general form, may
Iw called a ^uarCf or rather a rhomboid; the
north-east and wmth-west anf^^les are acute,
and the north-wc^t and wmth-eatft are obtuse.
The eant wall is nearly straight the whole
lengtlL On the north and south si<les the
wall makes a bend outwardly, and on the west
side it luaki'H an inward bend ; so that it would
not be very inaccurate to call the city a hepta-
g«m. There are likewise many little irregu-
larities in tho wall.

Xear the lH;nd on the west 8irle is Jaffa gate,
called also the gate i)f Bethlehem, and tlie
Pil^m's gate, and hah el Khalil (the gate of
the Belovc^d, i>., Abraham). On the south side
is the gate of Zion, adled alsn tho gate of
DaviiL On the east siile, near the i>ool of
Bethesda, is the gat« of Stephen, called like-
wise the Sheep gate, and the gate of the
Virgin Mary. On the north side is Damascus
gate. Tliese four are tlie principal gates c»f
the city, and are always o]>en from morning
till sunset. There are two uther small gatt*s
which are ownwl only rKx^iHiunally. One is
on the s«>uth side, a little west of nifmnt
Moriah. Maumlrell calls it the Dung gate.
The other, which Maimdrell calls Heroil's gate,
is on the west side, and goes out from iiczetha.
On the eu^t side of Mnriah is a seventh gate,
or ratlier a phiie w1i«t«' then; wiis »»ne when
the Cliristians i»oHMo>se»l the city ; for it is now
com]>K'ti'ly Wiilled up. Maundrell calls this
the ( I olden pitf.

Ilic measure of the city by juices gives the
following result : -

From the north-wost ('unjor, Pftoot*.

to Jaffa pu«' :><«)) -,.a «.« ♦ ii

to .'..Mth-\vo,t o..nirr. H:^r •*''* '^^"^ ''''*^-

U} y.Utn p.ito !;•"• \

t(>thoboIlllint)l•'^•>ul^Wllll.'.'!>'> ( . .

to tlio r):inKgatt' L'l » ( '*

to tho "outli-eai'ironKT,....!!.'*/

to tho CtolJon pat<» •^'•■.l\

to St. JSlepbonV pute •-'.:(». «M3 oant »'u\e.

to iiorthHiant comer :u;n^

to the bond i^H>i

to Dnnia'-cusKuti' I-'ki - 1,410 north side.

toiioriJi-woMtconiiT, t'd,\t)

Tlie t)tal is 4,'J7<) paces; and allowing 5
paces to a rod, tlii.s gives 8."»0 nids, or aUmt
2.J niilea, for tlie cireunifereiice of the city.
Maundrell nica8uri>fl the city, and judged "it
to be 2A miles in eircunifen;uce. Acconhng to
Joso])hti8, it was :W furlonj^s, or 4i| miles in
circuniftTrnee before Titus de.stn»yed it.
Mount Zion was then included; and the city
seems, fn>m his deKcrii>tion, to have exteiidt^l
farther n<irth than it does now. The wall of
the city is high, but not thick. From counting
the rows of stones, the height in different
^tlaces is PUi)p<wed to Ije 40, ri<), and iKThaiUg
M> feet For a little distance, near the n«»rtn-
east comer, there is a trench wiUiout the wall,
but now nearly filled up.

The .1 ews occupy a much smaller part of the
city than the lurks and Aral)s. llie Ar-
menians live in and around their convent on
mount Zion; the Greeks and Catholics liavo
their convents and houses in the north-west I
30G

10 K)uth Bido.

JER

ride of the city. The Turks and Arabt cocnpy
Bezetha and all the eastern part of the dty,
and have scattered dwellings m every onarter.
The Jews live in the dust, between Zjoo and
MoriaL Thewholeareaof the ancient Jewish
temple on Moriah, which now encloses the
Mosque of Omar, is walled in, and none bat
Mussulmans are allowed to enter it on pain of
death, though this rule has been lately relaied
in some degree. In and near it are four
minarets. There are four others on Beaeths,
one on Acra, and one on Zion.

The Jews have a number of synasrognes, sll
connected together, in the quarter where they
live. (See Calvary.)

Jerusalem is included within the mshalir of
Damascus, and is governed by a deputj sp*
p< tinted from it.

Lieutenant Warren has now established,
by actual demonstratioii, that the south mil
o( the sacred endosura which contained tiw
torn] lie is buried for more than half its
lK*neath an accumulation of rubbish-
the ruins of the successive buildings wl
once crowned it; and that, if bared to its
foundation, the wall would present an un-
broken face of solid masonry of nearly 1.000
feet long, and for a large ^Ktrtion of that db-
tance more than 150 feet m height — in other
wonls, nearlv tlie length of the Cr\'Htal Palace,
and the height of the transent. The wall as it
stands, with less than half Uiat height emerg-
ing from the gnnmd, has always been regarded
as a man'eL No wonder that prophets and
)>saluiists should have rejoiced in the ^'waUs"
and *' bulwarks" of the temple, and that
Tacitus should have descTibed it as modo aniM
cotijftructu m . 1'he « piestion immediately occurs
— What does the lower part of the stnictnre
formed by this enormous wall contain, our
present knowledge being confined to the exist-
mg level of the ground?

Jlie Tyn>i)aK)n turns out, as opened by the
engineers, t«> be ver>' diifereut in form from
anything hitlierto suppi^scd — viz., tolenblv
flat for the greater i>art of its width, with
aTii]tle sp-ace for a ** lower city," and suddenly
descending ol(»se below the temple wall to s
narrow gully of great de])th. The well-knomi
arch <lihcovered hv Dr. llobins4>n, the coitre
of so many spt.«ulatii>ns, may thus piove to
have iK'en only a single o]x*ning to span this
gully, instead of the commencement of aloDg
bridge «»r viaduct llicse researches in Jeru-
salem are nearlv er|uivalent to the disooveiy of
a new city. Hitherto we have explored the
surface, or at most the vaults and cistens
ininiediatelv Udow it. We must now go far
deeper, and penetrate those mysteries whidt
the earth has ])re.«erved during centuries for
the advantage of our generation. InvestigatkiB
is proceeding at the pre.<«ent time.

JERUSALEM, NEW, is an exprenoa
employed metaphorically to represent the true
and spiritual church of God, as it is matond
under the Gospel and T)erf ected in the heavenly
world. It is new, as being in contrast with the
earthly Jerusalem, which is old. Hie one it

JES

said to be "that which now is,** or earthly.
because its constitution and laws are carnal
and elementary ; the other is said to be from
above, or heavenly, because its constitution
and laws are in their nature pure and spirituaL
The former is classed by the apostle (GaL iv.
25, 26) with Sinai ana Hagar, as being in
bondage with her children, while the latter,
which is from above, is tree. The earthly
Jerusalem presented free citizenship only to
the Jews,— that '* which is from above is the
mother of us all," Gentiles as well as Jews,
"for we are all one in Christ Jesus.** The
earthly was the city of God (Ps. xlviii. 8), but
it was made with hands, and only a figure of
the true. The heavenly is represented as
•* coming down from God out of heaven pre-
pared as a bride for her husband *' (Rev. xxi
2). Of this new Jerusalem John says he
''saw no temple therein,*? ^d he beheld not
only one nation, but " th^katwM of them that
are saved, walking in the light thereof** (Rev.
xxi. 22-24).

JESHURUN (Deut xxxiL 15)-a signifi-
cant name descriptive of the Israelitish com-
munity, and impl3dng either their general
uprightness or the peculiar manifestation of
God^ presence which they had enjoyed, and
which i^fgravated the guilt of their rebellion.
It is sometimes used as a term of fondness,
and may be rendered the beloved one, or the
object of God*s special delight, as Benjamin
was (pent, xxxiii. 12). It is synonymous
with Israel (Isa. xliv. 2).

JESSE (1 Chr. ii 13)— the son of Obed
and father of David. Hence he is called the
root of David and the ancestor of the Messiah
(Isa. xi. 1, 10). Christ describes himself as
"the root and the offspring of David*' (Rev.
V. 5 ; xxii. 16) — * * the root.** as it was only from
its pre-relation to Him tnat David*s dynasty
was raised to the throne (John i 3) ; and " the
offspring,** as he was bom of a woman, of a de-
scendant of the family of David (Matt. L 6-16).

JESUS, JESUS CHRIST. Those two
names are significant: the first — ^the proper or
historical name— is the later form of the
Hebrew word J oahuar— Jehovah Ais help; and
as the human name of the Redeemer it natur-
ally occurs oftenest in the Gospels, being found
there more than 600 times. On the other hand,
Christ, or rather " the Christ,** or Messiah —
the official designation— occurs in the Gospels
little more than forty times. The name Jesus,
by itself, is far less frequent in the Epistles,
where Christ occurs over 200 times. The form
Jesus Christ is often found ; and that of Christ,
not employed in tiie Groepels at all, is used
sixty-four times in the Epistles. Such changes
were naturaL Christ came in course of tmie
to be regarded as a proper name, and the dis-
ciples were called alter this, name at Antioch —
Christians.

Other nations placed their golden ag^e in a
rettiote past, but the Hebrews placed theirs
in the future — ^the period of their promised
Af eesiah. The promise of his coming was the
living centre of all thdr prophetic orades, and

JES

the hope of his advent cheered them amidst all
their national disasters. The place of his birth
had been foretold by Micah, and the period of
it might be calculated from Daniel (Mic v. 2 :
Dan. ix. 24). The nation was thus forewarned
that he was to be bom at Bethlehem — ^bom of
a virgin — bom before the second temple should
be destroyed, and before the sceptre of tribal
sovereignty should be removed from Judah —
and that he should verify the glorious name of
Immanuel, "Grod with us** (Isa. viL 14). It
was f oreannounced also that he should teach by
parables— that he should do mighty works—
that he should be serene, unambitious, and
without external power and equipage— that
the nation should reject him as not fulfilling
their carnal anticipations — that his death
should be a violent death, a tragedy, a mart3rr-
dom, and yet an atonement— that he should
rise from the grave, ascend to the throne of
universal sovereignty, and be the Head of a
religious dispensation which shall win its way
to universal ascendancy. These prophetic
deliverances were not understood in their
spiritual meaning by the chosen people, but
were, as time elapsed, misapplied to political
emancipation and civil supremacy ; so that
when he, so long expected and so lon^ prayed
for, "came to his own, his own received him
not.** But he came in " the fulness of time** —
the epoch set apart by God, and which may
well be called "the centre of infinities and the
conflux of eternities,** and an epoch also fitted,
above all other, for the descent of the Prince
of peace. Through the arms and policy of
Alexander the Great, Greek had become a
kind of universal tongue, and was thus pre-
pared as a vehicle for the diffusion of a uni-
versal religion. The Roman iwwer had broken
up the isolation and put an end to the mutual
wars of barbarous tnbes — had welded all civil-
ized nations into one ^at empire, so that the
heralds of the cross might go freely everywhere
on their errand of peace and love. Ihe old
superstitions were at the same time losing their
hold, men*s minds were unsettled, faith m the
popular religious was departing, and a way was
so far made for the new gosi)el of ^race and
purity, with its atoning Saviour and its Divine
opirit, its law of love and its immortal heaven
of perfection and song.

In Grod*s good time the angel Gabriel was
sent to a maiden of Nazareth, named Mary,
who had been betrothed to a caq)entcr, named
Joseph, both of the royal house of David.
The genealogies of Matthew and Luke both
apparently refer to Josei)h — the first being his
legal or formal, and the second his actual and
natural descent. The lineage of females does
not seem to have been preserved ; and according
to Jewish fashion, that of Josei)h is given ; but
the address of the angel plainly implies that
Mary was a daughter of the family of David.
It is difficult to harmonize both tables, that of
Matthew being constructed on some symbolic
principle, as it is made up of three times four-
teen generations, or six sevens— the mystio
number of perfection: so that in the next

361

JES

period— made up of nevon multiplied by itself,
and therefore a iK^ricMl of iiitviiHu Kvcreilneiw —
the Prince uf life, the lucaniution of love,
appeareil anioiu; men.

The words of the an^«:1ic annunciation and
the uui«!t faith df the Vir„an are ^'raud in their
fiimimcity, indicatinp: that •Tenutt should have
no iiuman fatht-r - tJiat he should be a sinlcNS
but true jMirtaker of humanity-- no ^od in dis-

Jniitie. but **a chihl bum, a K*m Kiveu"— tliat
le fliiould verify lii.s names of Jesus and
Saviour, not by a deliverance from national
thralilom, but fnim deeper s]>irittial bonda}?e —
and that, on tlie throne of his father David, as
his last un*e:it Son and Heir, he Hhiuild g^overn
the world, and win his Micred ]»eople back to
(io«L The *• Son of Dnvid** w;w a familiar
title of the Mesxiuh, and (tft^'U occurs in tlio
(rosi)els. .I«»sei)h was startled on discoverinjif
the ]>r(rp;iiancy of his betrothed bride, but a
warning an;^el dis|)elled his fears, antl **he
knew her not till slie had brouj^ht forth her
first-born son.^*

Now .Mary dwelt at Xazart.'th, nnd in all
ordinary human ]iri>b:ibility the birtli of the
child ina3' bo exju'cted in the place where tlie
mother has her usual residi-noe. iV.it ancient
pn>phccy, ixiintin^r t«) 1'iethleheni as the luital
Hi>ot, Ava.-* rea!izc<l ; fi«r "a decree went out from
l':i!s:ir An^'ii tus that nil the world kIiouM Ikj
taxed." This cen»*iis, thuu;:h couininndeil
under Iioman nde, wjls yet earrieil ("n in .Fudea
mrcorrlin;^ to«K-\\ ish cu.^t«>ni :tiid tlie old division
of tribes and lernt'»ry. So we are t«»ld (Luke
ii. li-it) tliJit "all went to be taxe<i, every one
into liis own city. And .Jose]»h al-<<» went np
frtjm (ialili'e, out of the city of Naz;ireth, into
tlndea. unto the city of David, whieli is called
)'(ethleheni ibei-^iuse he was of thi* house and
linea-^'e of DavitI), t^) be Lixetl with Mary his
esjionsed wife, l»ein;^ great with ehild.'' We
have not space t'» reconl tlie di'»]»utes alxmt
tile j,'ovemor."«hip of ('yreiiius. under whom the
taxiuj;; is saiil t«) have taken place. Sutlice it
to say that, acconling to Zuinpt'> di>ei>v«.'ry, it
is now nia<le hii^hly i)robable that (!yrenius
(Qiiirinus) was twice j,'oVfrnor of SjTia first,
l<»r four vtai-s about the time of ( 'hnstV birth ;
and a heeoiid time, at a Citn.^iderably later
1 ierii»d. (See C YUEN 1 1 s. )

Durin;; the Hojoum of .7osei>h and Mary at
Bethlehem for the ]>ur|)ose of enrolment, they
dwelt in the inn or caravansjirv, which is the
r^)mmon resort of travellers in tne K;ist. liut
for Mary, in s\ich a tumultuous al>ode, there
was n(» room ; auii in the i)orti>m of itset aiiail
for cattle f Jesus was bom.

"Wivjit ill h\H 5:w:iiMliught)jil!S
Aii.t in his niaii^cr Lii'I,
Till) hoiH* iiiitl ^lorj of (ill lands
is ronii^ t«i tho world'R iiiiL
No iH^iK'i'fiil liuine upon his cni<11e fonileil;
Gue.-its niilcly came luid went where Hlcpt the
ruyal ehfliL"

Tlie month and year of Christ'B birth are

uncertain. The common era, which is four

years too late, was fixed by the Abbr>t Diony-

Bius Exiimus in the sixth century, and it refers

308

JES

the nativity to the ymr of Rome 75k But
Herod died in the year of Rome 750, Mid Jesus
was certainly hcmi before Heiwi^s death.
Herod, we ore told, put to death two insur^
gents at the time of a lunar ecdipae, and thx.t
ecliiwe is calculated to have happened on the
niK'ht of the 12th or 13th of AUutsh, 730 r.c.
and by the 4th of the following April the hoan*
tyrant was dead ; so that some time before thii
|>eriod Jesus was In km. Herod was in Jeni-
salem when the Magi amved, and he son
after went to the hot baths at Jericho, wImv
he dieiL It is impossible to say at what time
the star appeared, or how long the SXagi took
for their journey from their own country t»
Bethlehem. It uas been sometimes supposed
that the star which heralded the Sanoor's
birth was a brilliant lisrht produced hf tht
ctmjunction of some of the great planets.
Jupiter and Saturn ^Hune into ooiijnnctio&
three times in 747, anflUn the spring of 748 r.c
Mars was addeiL But according to thehi^M
authorities at Greenwich, these celestial bodiet
never came nearer than double tiie apraient
diameter of the moon, so that they ooiud out
ap])ear to the eye as one star. Besides^ theie
astronomical plienomena cannot come up to the
full meaning t)f the words, ** I^o, the star,
which they saw in the east, went l^efore them,
till it came and stood over where the yoonj?
I child was " (Matt. ii. 0). At the same time;
I such ap)K.tarances woulil arrest the attention of
I .<>tar-}.'azi.>i-s ; anil it is remarkable that at that
)»eniKl dupiter and Saturn in oc»njunctioii
wimld rise in early summer before the «un:
and allowin;; five mimtlis for the travel of the
wise men, they wouhl be in the meridian and
over IVethlehem alxiut eijjrht o\*lock in tbr
evening. l*robably, therefore, the natavitr
t<Hik ]>hice in T'H), or in the precedim; year.

The fathei-s, Irena«us, Tertullian, Cfeii
and lilutk'bius, phice it in 751 <»r 752 U.C

There is no proltability tliat the natal montli
was Decenilier. It seoms t<> have been fixvt
kept on the day of the Kpiphany— the 6tfa of
Januarv, but the daj's were separated at the
Council of Nice, A.i). 325. The nativity has
been fixed at the rass<.n*er, at the Fea«t of
Tabernacles, or (and Usher has adopted the
laett oi)inion) at tlie Feast of £xpiati(^»n, cm xi»
loth of Tisri, ans\\ ering to tlie dose of our
SeptemlK^r. \\'liichever of these it may be,
it IS evident, from the ** shepherds abiding ia
the field," that it was not in tlie very heart ii
\*'inter. Sir Isaac Newtim has ingenioosly
acc«)untcd for the choice of the 25th of Decern*
Ikt, the wint^T solstice, by showing that the
festival of the Nativity and most others ver«
ori^'inally fixed at cardinal points of the year;
and haxin^' 1)een so lirrangeil by mathemataciaoi
at x>Ieasure, were afterwards adopted by the
C'hristians as they found tliem in their calendar
{ProphecUs of Daniel, c. ii, part 1). After

§iving a list of the Roman emperon till the
cath of Commodus^ A.D. 1(^ and statiitf is
what years of certaui emperors the Sa^ioar
was either boru. or baptizedL or cradfied,
Clemens Alcxaudrinus says, '* There are some

JES

who over curiously assigii not only the jear
but the day also of our Saviour'a nativity,
which they say was in the twenty-eighth Tear
of Augustus* on the 25th of Pachon (20tn of
May). And the followers of Basilidee obsenre
also the day of his baptism as a festival, spend-
ing the whole previous night in readiiu^ ; and
they say it was in the fifteenth year of Tiberius
Cssar, on the 15th of Tibi (10th of January);
but some say it was on the 11th (6th) of that
month. Among those who nicely calculate
the time of his passion, some say it was in the
sixteenth year of Tiberius Cesar, the 25th of
Phemenoth (22d of March); others say the
25th of Pharmuthi (2l8t of April) ; and others,
that it was on the 19th of Pharmuthi (15th of
April) that the Saviour suffered. Some of
them say that he was bom in Pharmuthi, the
24th or 25th day (April 20 or 21)." At all
events, the most improbable period is the
month of December, te that is the cold
season, and the nights tlren are too indemoit
for shepherds and flocks being in the open air.
The shepherds begin to camp out about the
vernal equinox, and it is more likely that this
time — ^the month of the nation's birth, celebrated
in the «tT^T"i»^1 passover, the season of returning
life to dead nature — was the period of the great
Benovator's birth.

The shepherds^ on hearing the wondrous
news, went to visit the child, in admiring faith
and numility; and they were succeeoed by
the Magi, who idso aid homage to Him
whom —

**In quiet ever, and in ehade.
Shepherd and sage may lind ;
They who have bowed ontaoght to nature's Rway,
And they who follow truth along her star-paved way."

The arrival at Jerusalem of the wise men
inqui.ing after the new-bom king alarmed
Herod; and under the mask of devotion he
bade them fi^ to Bethlehem, find out the child,
and bring nim word again, in order, said the
sanguinary hyi)ocrite, ''that I may go and
worahip lum.*^ On being di8ap]x>intcd, ne sent
out soloiers to make an indiscriminate massacre;
and hoping to include the divine infant bv
leaving himself a wide margin, "he slew all
the cmldren in Bethlehem, and in all the
coasts thereof, from two years old and under."
This deed is not mentioned by Josephus, for in
a hamlet such as Bethlehem there could not
be many children of that tender age ; but the
atrocity of the deed is in perfect harmony with
the life and character of nim whose rei^ was
one of blood ; who had put to death his wife
and sons ; who had, a short time before, burned
alive forty patriots, or malcontents, in his
capital, who, instigated by the harangue of
two teachers of the law. had pulled down a
golden eagle placed over tne gate of the temple ;
and who, before his det^ shut up the mag-
nates of the nation in the hippodrome, witn
orders to have them executea m his decease,
to secure that there should be mourning at it,
as there would be none for it. Macrobius also
gives » hon-mai oi Augustus, that he would
2b

JES

rather be Herod^s It than his t/lJc^-rather hk
sow than his son— giving us a elimpse into the
impression produced at Kome by tne tragedies
that cursed the palace of the Jewish king, and
perhaps referring also to the atrociouir innnti-
cide at Bethlehem.

The child Jesus had been circumcised and
presented in the temple before the flight into
Egypt; and his mother and Joseph, on their
return, went to their old abode at Kazareth.
Of the childhood and youth of Jesus nothing
is recorded, save a visit to Jerusalem when he
was twelve years of age, with the general
declaration, " And he went down with them,
and came to Nazareth, and was subject unto
them : but his mother kept all these sayings in
her heart And Jesus increased in wisdom
'and stature, and in favour with GU)d and man **
(Luke ii. 51, 62).

From the exclamation, " Is not this the
carpenter?" (Mark vi 3), it would seem that
Jesus, when ne ^w up, followed his father's
occupation, earning his bread by "the sweat
of his face," sanctiQdng and ennobling human
toil, and qualifying himself to sympathize with
the great mass of the human family, who must
labour in order to gain a daily subsistence.
This portion of our lxHrd*s life, passed over in
the canonical gospels, is fixed upon by the
apocry()hal gospels as the basis of abeura and
superstitious legends. We subjoin a brief
specimen, summarized from the so-called
(jrospel ot St. Thomas : — " AU fear him. One
daVf as he is pla3ring with other boys on the
roof of a house, one of the boys falls, and is
killed; the rest flee. Jesus, when charged
with the deed, calls the deaci body to life to
contradict the accusers. Another time he sees
a crowd round a young man, who has dropped
a hatchet on his foot, and is bleeding to death :
he heals him. His mother sends him, when
ears old, to fetch water; he breaks the

EiTf but brings the water in the folds of his
He goes with his father to sow, and
from a sin^e grain gathers in an hundred
homers, which he gives to the poor. Again,
when Joseph was making a bed for a rich man.
one piece proves too short ; Jesus lajrs hold oi
it, and stretches it to the right size. Joseph
sends him to a schoolmaster, who essajrs to
teach him his letters. Jesus says, as before.
* Explain to me the force of A, and I will
explain the force of B.* The master smites
him^ut is struck dead."

"The acceptable year of the Lord" had at
length arrived, and a second Elijah was raised
to prepare the people for their great Deliverer.
The chronology is thus fixed : " Now, in the
fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.
Pontius Pilate being governor of Judea, ana
Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother
Philip tetrarch of Iturea and of the region of
Trachonitis, and Lysanias the tetrarch of
Abilene, Annas and Caiaphas being the high
priests, the word of Grod came unto John, the
son of Zacharias, in Uie wilderness " (Luke iii

1*2).
The preaching of John the Baptist in »

369

JES

short time aronnod the nation. He came upon
them like a thunder-peal from the desert, for
it was a revival of that gnmd old prophetic
teaching which had been nilent for centuries
among them. Hia great theme was the
Mefwiali who luul cume^ but who had not yet
been publicly recognized. Some, indeed,
thought him to be the Christ, but he stead-
fastly denietl it. At the appointed time-
perhaps al)out 780 r.c— Jesus presented him-
self'for baptitim ; and, along with this formal
consecration, the Spirit descended like a dove
Qiwn him— a sj-niuol of his otih gracious
character and of the unearthly nature of that
kingdom which he was about to establish.
Then, as a solemn step of prc^ration, did he
submit to 1>e tempted of the aevil, for he had
come *'to destroy his works." A first appeal
to his ph^ical nature after forty dajrs* hunger
— to his pious trust in his Father, which was
edged by a quotation from Scripture — and to
the ambition stipiH>sed to dwell within him as
an expectant king— were each and all simply
and successfully repulsed. John next pointed
him out as " the Iiamb of God," and began to
gather followers about him. On going north
to Cana he performed his first miracle at the
marriage feast, and then went down to Caner-
naum, preparatory to a journey to Jerusalem
to keep the i)assover. At JeruiuUem he puri-
fied the tom])le, a imrtion ojf which had become
a scene of worhlly traflic, i>erformed several
wonderful works, and unfohiod the mystery of
the new birth to Nicodemus. lA^aving Jem*
salem, he seems to have gone to the remoto
XMrtion of the province, where many baptisms
were diHi>enHea hy his disciples, and great
results attended his labours. On iK'ing made
aware that the l^harisees hod heard of his
successes, he returned by the shortest routo
through Samaria into the ({iiieter roj^on of
CraUIee. On this journey, ci^'ht inoutlis after
the pasflover, he had the memorable interview
with the woman at the well of Jacotv His
resting-place waH C*ana, and he heald the son
of a nobleman of ('apemaum. Our J^)rd then
proceeded again to Jeru^lem, and healetl the
imiwtont man at the imk»1 of 15ethej«la — pn>b-
abfy at the fea^t of I'urim, held on the llH^h
March, u.c. 7S2, and on a HaM)ath day. With
this ends our ixtrd's first public niiiiiKtry in
Judea. He w a>« made the object of conA]>iracy;
and his time not beiiiir come, he Middenly
withdrew to Gulilt>e. But his spiritual and
authoritative teacliing was distasteful to men
of earthly and secular i)a8sionR, his ministry
was a short time after reieoti'd, and his life ]>ut
in peril at Nazaretli, by the enraKod and blinded
inhabitants, h<i that (*aiKtmaum became hence-
forth his resiirt in Galilee.

The early Judean iiiinirttry is recorded only
by the evangelist John : the synoptical GoH[>eIs
are filled with the (talilean visits, discourses,
and miracles. TliLs first Galilean ministry^ or
circuit lasted about a 3'ear. He went alH^ut
preaching and teaching, calling to him more
disciples, doing such astonishing miracles as
the miraculous draught of fishes, the ejection
370

JES

of devils, and the healing of all maoiwr of
disease among the people. The reoocd ol one
day*s work has been preserved to us, set dova
with the exactness <» a diaxy, both by Maik
(ch.L 21-34) and Luke (dL It. 31-41). iWday
IS the Sabbath. Jesus entered the irrnsgogw
and taught So momentous and thxifliiigwm
those words that the people were "amaaed.*
They had not been aocnstomed to sncli origia-
ality and mi^estv of addrsH. The pnseoBs
of Uie God-man had an irrefistiUe and wp'
terious chaim over one in tlie aswintMy,
the dark and malign spiiit that lorded it orcr
him could not shake on the holj influence aid,
darkly nresaging his own doom, he dindsd,
**Art thou come to destroy us?** wMb tht
confession is wrungfrom hun, *' I know thee
who thou art, the Holy One ol God!** TW
power of Christ was more than a match for hb
infernal craft and might ** Come out of Ub,*
said the Lord, in aim oonadonsneM of po««r;
and, loth to ouit his hold, and «»*v»*^ vlat
havoc he conla of his poor writhing victiB, hi
**tore him, and came out of him.** The seat
so awful and so novel, that the cnwd

was

criedj in surprise and perplexity, ** Whatting
is this? what new doctrine is tins?** TW
worship that had been so strangely ilift^iriH^
being over, Jesus left the gyoMgogatt, mL
along with James and John, one psir ol
brothers, entered the house ol SimoB 9ai
Andrew, another pair of brothers. But en hi
sat down to the mesl prepared for him, hi
restored Simon^s mother-in-law frata. a sevoi
fever; and she who had been in a bonng
sickness when he entered, now waited on Ibb
and the rest as they sat at table. The Sabhith
pniner having come to a close when the '*sn
set. crowds of diseased persons were hrowii
to liim from the town ana its vicinity. ** Iv
whole dt^ was gathered together at the
door." Every disease was oonquered, the
i^ild and restless demons were suodaed, nd
in their forced ejection were not alloiredti
si>eak.

At this period also Matthew was samnuDedL
and the disciples who had rubbed the can cf
com in their nands were vindicated ; the w^
mon on the mount ^"as delivered, the centorios^
ser\'ant healed, the son of the widow of Nail
raised from his bier, the storm on the lain vas
uelled, the fierce demoniac was disposMHd,
be thousands were fed by a miracuknu Imb-
quet, and many other miracles were wnoc^
and many parables delivered. In coDnectiiA
with the miracle of the loaves and fishes wai
spoken at Capernaum that long discoimets
\ ttie bread of life, the spirituality of the ooe-
eluding portion of whicii idiockeil so msiiy of
his followers, that tlie^ "went *^A, sod
walked no more with him.** John had hen

Sut to death. Herod Antipas wished to tef
esus, but he retired to the remoter vect—
the coasts of T>Te and Sidon— where heheski
the daughter of the eamest SyivphoiDOiB
woman. He is next foimd at DecapoS^
teaching and doing wonders; healing theoliDd
and dumb, and giving a second mininilotf

qu<
th(

fesat to the hungry crowds. Op[Mnti<ni,
onffinatiDg in Jerusalem, now croand bia path,
and be movea to Cesarea-FhilippL on the
oorthem fcootier, where Peter profeased Ms
faith in Ui Messinhship, and he began ta
Speak of hifl comis^ auff erings and death. The
brigfat scene of the tronsGguration followed —
that scene not being Tabor, so far to the lOQth,
bat one of tho heighta of Uennon, in the near
neighbnnrfaood — euccoeded on the following
day by the wondrous worli at the foot of the
hill on Uie wretched epileptic demoniac Oui-
Lord then eeenu to have gone to Capernaum,
hia heod-qitarteiB, where the tribuM moQey
was paid, aftor being so strangely provided.
The neit portion of oar Lords travels and
work is specially given by Luke in tie middle
of his GoajieL He jonmej-ed to Jerusolenn
throuKh Sainaria, preceded by messengeiB, and
prea<£ed during the feast of tabemacIeB. An
attempt was nuide to lujumd* on him ; and
when his capture w»a Acnaaed in the Sanhe-
drim, Nicodemna luneated that the law should
not be violated, whiX allowed a trial to pre-
cede a oondenmatian. Enmity became more
fierce, and hia enemies would have stoned him.
Some place at this point oE time the minion
of the aeventy, and Jemis returned to Jem-
•olem at the feast of dedication, which was
held about the 'Mil of Lecember, for " it was
winter"— the month Chialeu; andhe"walted
in Solomon's porch," as he unfolded the dig-
nity of his Sonship and his equality with the
Father. Fiercer antipathies were aroused, ,
and he withdrew beyond Jordan. Here, in
all probability, he delivered tbe parables re-
conled in Luke liv., iv., and xvi^ and from
this ^ace he is summoned to Bethany to
raise Lazarus from the dead. The profound
aensatioD caused by this greatest of miracles
deepened the hostility of tbe rulers, and the
wonder-worker removed to the city of Ephraim,
and extended his travels to the east of the
Jordan. Now commenced his lost journey
toward Jerusalem by Jericho, where be healed '
the blind man and tainted Zaccheus ; and he
urived at Bethany. Then followed tbe pn>- ,
cession, with its hosonnas— the duly teaching
in the temple — the nightly abode with the
loved family of Bethany— the challenge by
Herodions, Pharisees, and Sadducees — the last
great prophetic discourse — the concluding par-
ablea — the Last Supper, with ite wondrous
disconrse and more wondrooe prayra^ — the
agony of Getbsemane — the betrayal, the cap-
tare, and the triaL He wae first toied on a
dutfge of blasphemy, sustained by suborned
Kitness ; and against all equity he was found
guilty and sentenced to death. But aa a
Capitol sentence had to be ratified by the
Boman procurator, his enemies, shifting their
noimd, accused hm of treason ; and against
Klate's better convictions, and in spite of all
his efforts to release him, gained their end.
No time waa lost. He was led out to Calvary,
rtripped of his raiment, and cruinfied between
two robbers, to one of whom the august sufferer
promiaed an immediabi entomoe into pontdiMb

' Darkness for three hours oovared the land, tlw
veil of tbe temple was rent, and the rocka wers
ahatteied by an earthquake. During tbe eie-
cation there had been heard seven w<Bda of
tendemeaa Mtd myttn^. On beina nailed to
the aconned tree, ba bad offered the pTHcr,
"Fathsr, forgive them;" on feeling the thirrt
cauaed by feverad woonda, be cried, I thiiat :"
under the preaanre of hia agony, be oomplBine^
"My God, my God, why hut thou forMkeu
meT to the penitent thief he aud, "To.da7
tbou shalt be with me in paradise ; " by tM
utterance, " Woman, behold thj son," he made
provision fur the aged and widowed Virgin-

triumph ; and he breathed out his life in the
solemn farewell, " Father, into thy handa I
commend my spirit."

The resurrection took place at or before
early dawn on the first day of the week:
when there was an earthquake, and an angel
descended and rolled away the stone from tha
aepulchre and aat apon it, so that the keepen
became as dead men from terror. Eariy the
same morning the women who hod attended
on Jeaua— vis., Mary Magdidene, Mary tba
mother of Jam«a,Jo«nnLMl(ane,andotliBr»-~
went out with apioa to the aepulchre ill order
further to embalm the Iioid'a body. Thtj
inquire among themselves who ahonld remove
for them the stone which closed the sepnlchre.
On their arrival they find the stone already
taken away. Tbe Lord bad risen. The
women, knowing nothing of all that had taken
place, were amased ; they enter the tomb, and
nnd not the body of the Lon^ and are greatiy
perple:ced. At this tiuie Mary Magdalene,
mipressed with the idea that the body had
been stolen away, leaves the sepulchre and the
other women, and runs to the city to tell Peter
and John. The other women remain still in
(he tomb ; and immediately two angels appear,
who announce unto tbem that Jesus is risen
from the dead, and give them a chaige in hia
name for the aposties. They go out quickly
From the sepulchre, and proceed in haste to
the city to m^o this known to the disciplee.
On the way, according to the common reading
In Matthew, Jesus meets tbem, permits them
to embrace his feet, and renews the same
charge to the apostles. The women relate
these thinss to the disciples ; but their words
seem to them as idle talee, and they believe

Meantime Peter and John had ran to the
sepulchre, and entering it, had found it empty.
But the orderly arrangement of the grave-
clothes and of the napkin convinced John
that the body hod not been removed either by

'iqipsand Snlla Mary Usf^Uiaa.' Borne suppoH
itiat "flrsl" la ben used lo designate, noi the gorllesl
■ppeaiance or Christ alnolnteL;, bat the Ont or ihosa
imly whlcb Uuk salselsd lor reoord. But the atate-
menl appears to be absolute! and the wards in the
am cloDie d( Holt. QvULS, whlcb seam lo coatndlel
II, ore not femid In some at Ihs older USS., and
uppear to be not gBnulne.

violence or by frienil*; »nil the (ferm of fc

belief aprung up in his minil thM the Ijord
had rUm, The twn nitiimcd to the dty
Mu7 MfLgdAlene, nho bni] a^jain f'lUoweri
them to the aeimlchrp, nmainni xtunding ud
weeping before it; aiidliwkinK i" "he Mw twi-
aii|!«ls iittin^. Tiiminf; aruund, >hi
JeauR, vhii givn tu tier alwi > eulemn i
for his diicipleg.
These wi-re not the only »nposrance« of thi-
Heaeeniiitohiive ap]Kiu«d to
n the fulloKinK urdi

the Evai^'l _. _

found alone in the iliBc-ournca anrl (-jirtleB of
Paul: onlji liu rccorrlii the ni>|>vsrance of oui
LonI tu Jaoieit. The ftaj of tliv l.ord in tlu
WotW, after hie reHurrertiun, was iBiilnnt^i
for about fort]' dayii. Thla {K-rioiI, cniployeJ
by him in initouctini; the oimntliii ni> tii tn<"
future lahuun. in tlic onirw of his rario
intcrvicva vith thi'ni, ot leni.-tli nune

ili.-«.'i|.lw n full nud

,.. 0 Si'irit, una bii'"

wait at JernsJi'm till the |>

« of the Si'irit, and biilitini* tliem

fiUeil, he IlhI them an for an Ituthimv, anil
"Uftcd up hix hanile and McNifd tliem," and
in thia act of benediction hu waa "pnrtuil from
them and cnrrivd up iuto heaven." Ills u'lirk
bein^ over, be aBcimdvd to enjoy the reward.
Coming from heaven, he went baok to it in
glory. ThuB t«nuiiiate<l the eventful and
glonoua life of Je^uH of Naiireth.

The following ebiliorste taUe. from Robin.
■on'a Samonii, presents in a comtenaed fr

the place and periul of the

T S»™

's life.

PABT L
:: AlKmltliirlmaKlaluil/fairi.

Brtb (Sjohn Ihe Bsi.ii^l-JBfli.
Tba Itutb olJtmf—Ji'Mdmi.
An Ancal ipiiMI* lo the Shpph^nl
■~- "IreomeWon of Jenu anil bla

UlnculooB Dn u^Itt ol
Thalli-allaeorabemonliclD the STBacDRB-dtw-
The llrellnfiofFeiar'iWlfc'a Uottaer. •:

JrKir> wiib bis tHadplM goes troi

ibroDgliH-mt ^lalLloe.
Thp Ui^linjE of a Leper— ^tafflm
The Ilealltm .>f a Itninlr—CapfrmiMm
The Call ul liMtHiew-^tpmamm,

Our LanTi asvml n

i: Omip,

The Pool of rtpthrm

lUBRortbebBnnKn;
rhe'iwicipies nlcifk~Einiiof~Q[mln oi
lie Hoallnjf of Itio Wiihend Eaod od '

rnia irlthilnim 10 tha UODntaIn, v<i
TuTlte; Iba UnlUlmles f-" — "-■-

The jyrmoo on lbs Monnl—

inn of tba Viiow't'lii^H^^''
air<ia> in prlKia kdcU IMaclplae

QcflHtLona <if J#-UH on sppcallng to hla atgUf 'Af |

lanu. wtifa ttie Tmlre, makes a SeeondCb^*
Oallles. _.

rhe HMlioi or a Democlaa Hm BeritMi fi "■*'
asea blaapbeme^aWNfr.

riie Bcribea and Ptaarliee* nek a riei Ovl0"
reBecUoBB— OoMsi.

Ths tnis Dliclplei of Chrial hli

Ai ( Phirieoe's UbK

iha Ph.rlBMH Mid alL,-r.-u».u=.
Jmiii iliacuuncB In hii DUdplea uid Uu Ualutada—

The Hlnu^ter ef cerUln a>U1suig. Panble of th«

IVTvbl«''ot Ihe Soweci-Z^ d/ (Mda; nnr Captr-

P»r»bLB ot ibe T»rw. Othor Putbh*— y<ur Ci^Kr-

Jemu dlrecU lo ortm ttas L*ks. Inddnik. Ths

Tunpael lOaei—J^atttj aalOit.
Ttas two DemuDiua of jMla»-& £aiul(iri*> Zola

Ivri'iFw

Two Blind ilea bwlsd, uid m Dumb Bjdrlt i

A TbW arenlt la Oillleo, Tha Twb1.»

'ill Jenu K) b« JobD tha BAptJit, '
_B«ujy«ihetorob«ha*iloa— •oiitoiJ Aim.
TliaTwelTBntarn.u]ilJHn>ntln>villitlii.

IhaLakc fiialliouniidue ted— Caiwmiiiin!

aati vf Of Lab i^aalilt

Tbe lulling ol lAonu— Sribmy.

The Counsel of CiJaphu igalmt J«qua. Ha ratlrai

JvaB boymd jordun Is followM Ira MultltodeiL Tlw
HsiHng of Iho Infirm Woman on Ihe BablMIb—

Our Lord BOM teaching and JoarnaTlng tonrdi Jani-

•alem. lla li nrned i«i^it Hsred— Aru.
Our Lord dlnas with a dilaf FhuliM on tha BabballL

Our Lord jnitiaas bli Dlaclnlei tor

wuhenbandi. PhariulcVredilli
Tbe Daiigbt«T of a SjropliuBnldui >

—SiguM of Tyrr out Sidon.
A Deaf and Inunb Urn taealedi alio manr olhen.

Four Thouaand are fed — TheDaapoiu.
The Fhtrirfta and Sadduceai again require a Slfn—

.Vmr Uai/iaUl
The Diidplei csnttoned agaluHl Ibe T^aren ot the

Fhariae», &<i.—N. B. okW of On lati of aalilcL
A Blind llan healed— fidtoiida (juiiiu).
Patw and ttajett agalnpniteie their tallh io Chhit
I Dcftth and Baaurrectlen,

Ov Lord foretelli bin oi
and the Trl^ of h' '

The TransBEnnUan. '

iTollow

aubseqTient Dtncoona
m of Caarta-Flimppi.
m the DIuiplea oonld

oney mlracnlLiDely prOTlded — Captr^
intend who ahonld be gruiaBt, Jama

The BcianI J Inalracled and lant out— ftvamaiim.
Jenw gpea up to the FeMlTal of Tabernadea. H
Dual Deparinre from QaUln. Inoidanta In Samari
Tou Lepers i!l»»n»Bd—*»Biirtli.

IV ftrlical ii< rSiifmiuJa. midMtnlaiawiu m
■Hli' our ZonTj arrirai at BuJttmw, nx dtou
nmUtPiuaur.

Tmi: Mi mimAt, Ita ow •tni.
Jena at Ibe FeiUnl ot Tabemaolaa. HI* poUlc
The Womui bUcea tn Adnltei^— /niotfa.

than; all day* before ih

PART vn.

EntTT Inui Jenualem— Aejhaffjr;
. The OlMuuhig ol tha Temple

EBKllouaQueitioa

-~rinialim.

SETS'"" "•"

on ot DaTldfWw^olBB,

'amlnga agalnat

the BTtl Exampl

oftheSerlbi

■ and

d Fhaiiieea, Lamenlo-

The Wlriaw'i Mile— Jmaalrm

Certain Oreokii deal™ to aee J

Jeana. on uklng leave o( tbe Temnla. foreloll

> naicniuinesa. rtrableai
e TalenH— itDuil tf oUn^ A
373 *

JES

Rome* of tiie Jadgment Day— JVinmf vfOUfpm.

The Balere conspire. The Supper at Bethuiy. Treadi-

ery of Jiidwi->/^rH«a/fln; AiManw.
Pn^pftraflon for the Fueover— /2eMa»|r; JtnuaUm,

PABT vra.

Tkt Fburth Pui$09tr, our Lord't Paaim, and the actom-
pamping croii* untU thtekloftht Jarish Satbath.

Tim: Two daps.

The Pftaaorer He«L Contention among ihc Twelre^

Jenualem.
Jeeus wuhee the Feet of hie DUdpIen— /(rriMahm.
Jesua points oot the Traitor. Judas withdraws— Jcni-

talem.
Jesus foretells the Fall of Peter and the Dispersion of

the Twelve— JirriuKi/i-m.
The Lord's Supfter—Jfrutalem.
Jesus comfortA his DiHcipIeB. The Holy Spirit pro-

mlti»d—Jeru$aiem.
Christ the true Vine. His Disciples hated by the

yforld—Jenualnn.
Persecution foretold. Farther Promise of the Holy

Spirit Prsyer in the name of VhriHt—Jfrtualem.
Clmnt'B last Pirayer with his l)\tc\it\cn— Jenualem.
The Agony in OethBeman<»— J/<Hf nf of Otirtt.
Jesus betrayed and made FrimmeT—Uvunt ofOUm.
Jesus before Caiaphas. Peter thrice denies him—

Jtruaaltm,
Jesus before Caiaphas and the Sanhedrim. ITe de-
clares himKolf to be the Christ; is condemned and

mocked— ^<niMi/«^m.
•The Sanhedrim lead Jesus away to Pilate Jtnttaitm.
Jesus before Herod— J<nija/«m.
Pilate seeks to release Jerfua The Jews demand

Barabbas Jmualfm.
Pilate delivers up Jesus to death. He is scourged and

mocked— J«niM/<m.
Pilate again seeks to release Jesus— JSrruM/rm.
Jndss repents and hangs himHolf— y«rNjvi/i-f/t.
Jesus is led away to be vnnzitied—JeruniUm.
The Cruciflxion— Vfruwi/iwi.
The Jews mock at Jo^uh on the Cross. Ho commends

his Mother to John — JeruMtltm.
Darkness prevailH. Christ expires on the Cross —

Jtruaalftn.
The Veil of the Temple rent end Oraves opened.

Judgment of the Couturiun. The Women at the

Cross— y<ri»a/^i.
The taking d(.>wn from the Cross. The Burial— ^i^/'u-

m/ith.
The Watch at the Sepulchre— J<rti«7/(rm. .

PART IX.

Our Lor^t Resurreeiitm, his tidmtpient Appearances, €md

huAsfftuiorK

Time: Forty da^

The Homing of the Resurrection— Ji^riiMt/^n.

Visit of the Wt^mon to the Sepulchre. Mary Magdalene

returns — Jerusalem.
Vision of AngelM in iho Repulohre— JlwMjM/mi.
The Women return to the City. Jonus meets them—

Jentsalem,
Peter and John run to the Sepulchn*— /miwi/rm.
Our Lord is seen by Mary Magdalene at the Sepulchre

—Jerusalem.
Report of the Watch— JeniM/«m.
Our Lord is seen of I^ter; then by two Disciples on

the way to Emmaus— Jeriuo/^/n ; Emmaiu.
Jesus appears in the midnt of the Apostles, Thomas

being abf>ent— V(rruM/<fn.
Jesus appears in the miii><t of the Apostles, Thomas

being present— i/er«wiofrm.
The Apostles go sway into Galilee. Jesus shows h im-

self to seven of them at the Sea of Tiberias— 0'a/t7<v.
Jesus meets the Apostles and above Ave hundred

brethren on a Mountain in Galilee— (ra/i7er.
Our Lord is seen of James; then of all the Apostlee—

Jerusaiem.
The Aacenirion— ArtAaffff^ (Sec Chbist.)

374

JEB

JETHBO (Ezod. in. 1)— a priot or prinoe
of MiHiMi and fatfaer-m-l»w off Mom. He k
called <*Raerael'* (Nmn. z. 29) and «*Beiul"
(Exod. iL 18), and was probably knomi bj
eiUier name. It is highly probau^ too, that
he was a descendant of Abraham (Gen. zzr.
2); but what was the nature of bis office at
priest (or prince, aa some eay it ahonld be
renders), we know not. (See JSobail)

JEWELS (Gen. zut. 63). This tcra k
applied to ornaments made off the pndoos
metals, and used to adom tlie penoB. We
find tnem among the pfreaents whidi the
servants of Abraham made to BrfiAah and
her family when they sought her in mairiige
for Isaac (Isa. IxL 10). It is probable that
much skill was attained, at a Tcry eariy period,
in Uie manufacture of metal omamemfai, sodi
as chains, bracelets, ear-rings, Ac, (Norn.
50; Esek. zvL 12; Hos. ii. ik)

The word is figuratively uaed to denote i
thing peculiarly precious; as, the chosen]
of God (MaL iii 17), or wiadom (Plw.
J£\niY (Luke zxiii 5)— the no
Judea It occurs only onoe in the Old Tt
ment (Dan. v. 13).

JEWS (2 KL zvL 6). The word first ooetn
in this passage, and denotes the Jndesna, or
men of Judan, in contradistinctioii from ths
seceding ten tribes who retained the nameof
Israel The name Israelites was applied to Ihs
twelve tribes or descendants of Jaodb (IbmO
asabody; but after the separation of the tribci^
the above distinction obtained mitil the Bsby-
loniAh captivity, which terminated the ezistesoe
of the kingdom of Judah; and thencdfonrard,
until the present day, the descendants ol Jacob
are called Jews, and constitute one of the two
classes into which the whole human fandlrii
frct^ueDtly divided, viz., Jews and Gennlcs
(Rem. ii 9, 10). (See Hebbiwb.) Sineetba
overthrow of their government, and the fiasl
destruction of their diy^ the Jews have bea
set up on high as a visible, inoontrovciiifal^
and overwhelming evidence of the truth sin
faithfulness of Jehovah. The cruelties tiMf
have imdercone have been enormoaB; tlw
slavery to wnich they have been subieeted ii
increiuble. Jew is very often, in the Uoapel of
John, the general name given lor the opnoaesli
of Jesus. Their return to the rest ana privi-
leges of God*s T)eople will be as "life from tba
dead" (Rom. zi. 15, 25-28).

The number of J ews in the world has bea
variously estimated.

JEZEBEL (1 Ki ZVL 31)— the wife of Abslv
king of Israel— was the daughter ol a Zidoniw
king, and of course educated in the idolatsMi
practices of her native country. It is cfaaiigeii
uiM)n Ahab as a sin of the deepest die tbit be
should connect himself with such a wonia
She introiluced the worship of Baal and otbtf
idols, maintaining 400 idolatrcms priests at
her own expense, while Ahab mainta^ud4S0
more (1 KL zviiL 19). This wicked woona
once resolved on the eztermins^tion of all tbe
prophets of God. ObadialK who was a pM*
man, and principal officer of Ahab^s houwnnHi

JEZ

rescaed 100 of them at one time from her gnsPf
and supplied them vith bread and water whue
they were concealed in caves (1 KL xviii 3^ 4,
13). Soon after this, Elijah caused the 450

Sriests of Baal supported by Ahab to be put to
eath. For this proceeding Jezebel threatened
to take the life oi Elijah, but her purpose was
frustrated. Soon afterwards she planned and
perpetrated the murder of Naboth; and by
usin^ the king's name and authority with the
leading men of Jezreel, she secured their
oo-operation in the fli^rant crime (1 KL xxi
1-13). The doom of tnis impious woman was
predicted by Elijah, and was m due time visited
upon her to the very letter. (See Ahab, Jbhu. )

In Rev. ii. 20 there is an allusion to this
history; but whether the word Jezebel is there
used as the name of a person then living, and
resembling in character Jezebel of old| or
whether it is only used proverbially, as it is in
modem times, to denote a cunning, wicked,
deceitful, abandoned woman, is not certain.

JEZ&EELr—OiXjPs seed or sowing (Josh. xix.
18) — a royal city, now Zerin, within the bounds
of Bianasseh, in the valley of Jezreel, where the
tidings of Saul's death in the battle at GUboa
were first announced (2 Sam. iv. 4), and where
his son Ishbosheth reigned after ms father's
death (2 Sam. it 9). It is worthy of remark,
that the fountain in Jezreel (see Harod), where
the Israelites encamped before the battle of
Gilboa (1 Sam. zxix. 1), was the very spot
where the crusaders encamped in 1183, when
on the eve of a battle with Saladin. Ahab and
Joram resided at Jezreel (1 Ki xviiL 45; 2 Ki.
ix. 15); and Jezebel and Joram were slain
there by Jehu (2 Ej. ix. 24s}3). There was
also a city in southern Judah of this name
(Josh. XV. 56).

JXZREEL, VALLET OF (Josh. xvii. 16) — an
extensive valley (1 Sam. xxxi. 7), called by the
Grreeks ^wiro^n^stretching south and south-
west from mount Tabor and Nazareth, and re-
markable for its beauty and fertility. It was
the scene of many battles. Among them are one
between Deborah and Barak and Sisera, the
commander of the Syrians ( Judg. iv. 14), one
between Ahab and the Syrians (oomp. 1 Sam.
xxix. 1; 1 Ki XX. 26), another between Saul
and the Philistines (1 Sam. xxix. 1), and an-
other between Gideon and the Midianites
( Jud^. vi. 33).

This plain is comi^uted by modem travellers
to be at least 15 miles square. One of them
speaks of it as a chosen place for battles and
military operations in every age, from the
time of Barak to that of Bonaparte; Jews,
Gentiles, Egyptians, Saracens. Cfhristian cru-
saders, and antichristian Frencnmen, Persians,
Druses, Turks, and Arabs. Warriors out of
evenr nation which is under heaven have
pitched their tents upon the plains of Esdraelon,
and have beheld the various banners of their
nation wet with the dews of Tabor and Hermon.

The soil is extremely rich; and in every
direction are the most picturesque views — the
hills of Nazareth to the north; those of Sa-
maria to the goath; to the east the moontaina

JOA

of Tabor and Hermon; and Carmel to the
south-west The plain oi>ens about 3 miles
from Nazareth, on the way to Jerusalem.

JOAB—Jehovah-FcUher (2 Sam. ii 18)— was
one of three nephews of David, and the com-
mander-in-chief of his army (1 Chr. ii 16;
xi 6).^ He was evidently a valiant man, but
ambitious and revengefuL To revenge the
death of his brother Asahel, whom Abner had
killed in self-defence (2 Sam. ii 23). he treach-
erously assassinated una distinguisned general
(2 Sam. iii 27). He brought about a recon-
ciliation between Absalom and his father after
the murder of Amnon; but when Absalom
rebelled, Joab adhered to his master: and
under his generalship the troops of David,
though much inferior in number, obtained a
complete victonr over the army wmch had been
collected by this abandoned and infatuated
young man; and, contrary to the expiesB
orders of David, he put him to death witn his
own hand as he nung suspended frt>m the oak
tree (2 Sam. xviii 14). After this event David
promoted Amasa to be his general-in-chief , by
which Joab was deeply offended, secretlv
resolved on the death of nis cousin and rival,
and took the first opportunity of assassinating
him, as he had done Abner (2 Sam. xx. 10).
David, after this, seems to nave taken him
again into favour (2 Sam. xxiv. 2). When
David the king had become old, however, Joab
combined with Abiathar the priest and others
to set Adonijah on the throne, in defiance of
the will of David, who had, b;^ (uvine direction,
resolved to make Solomon long (1 Ki ii 28).
The plot was seasonably defeated, and Solomon
was proclaimed kin^ the same day. But Joab
now seemed to David so evidently an obiect of
the divine displeasure that he solemnly charged
Solomon to punish him for all his enormous
crimes, and especially for the murder of two
valiant men better than himself — ^Abner and
Amasa. Adonijah was the natural heir, but
Solomon was divinely pointed out to succeed.
Joab therefore preferred human custom to the
express revelations of the Theocracy — was
guilty of high treason against the divine King
of Israel Conscious that his life was forfeited,
he sought an asylum at the horns of the altar,
which position ne absolutely refused to relin-
quish^ and Benaiah, now advanced to be the
captam of the host, slew him by the altar,
agreeably to the command of tf^e young king.
He was buried in his own house, in the wilder-
ness (1 Ki. ii 5-34).

JOANNA (Luke viii 1) is mentioned as
the wife of Chuza, Herod's steward or head
servant. She may have been the subject of
some miraculous cure by Christ, whom she
followed, and to whom she ministered (Luke
xxiv. 10).

JOA^B— Jehovah-given— h (2 Ki xiii 1)
or JEHOASH (2 Ki xii 1)— was the son and
successor of Ahaziah, king of Judah. Jeho-
sheba (or " Jehoshabeath^" 2Chr. xxii. 11), the
wife of Jehoiada the high priest, his aunt,
preserved him from the murderous designs oi
Athaliah, his granchnother, when he was but a

375

JOA

year old, and kept him hid six Tean in a
chamber belon^ng to the temple. [See Atha-
UAH.) When he was se\'en yean of a^N
Jehoioila e?iti'red into a solemn covenant with
Axariah and otherM, to set up vounK J<»ash for
their 8oven.'i>ai, and dethrone tne wicked Atha-
liah. After pnf]>arinK matters in the kingiiom,
and bringing the Invites, ami such others as
they couTil trust, to Jenwalom, they crowne<l
him in the c<iurt i>f the temple with great
solemnity, (2 KL xL) Joash behaved himself
well while *Iehoiada the high priest live<l and
was his guide; but no sooner was this gtxxl man
removed than he began to listen to the a mnsels
of his wickeil courtiers. The worship of (lod
fell into neglect, and idolatry prevaile<l.
Zechariah the ] driest, son of Jehuiada, warned
him of his sin and tlanger ; but as a rewanl of
his fidelity he was, by order of 'roash, stoned to
death between the i torch and the altar. When
dying, he assure tneni that Go^i would avenge
his «leath (2 Chr. xxiv. 20-22), t(» which event
our Saviour is Kuppcwefl by some to refer (Matt.
zxiiL «ir>). Hazael invadetl the kingdom; but
Joash, with a lar^e sum of money, including
all the treasures and furniture of the temple
and palace, redeemi-d his capital fn>m plumler
(2 Ki. xii. 18). After suffering other mjuries
from the S^Tinnti, and after liemg loaded with
ignominy, he was murdered by his own ser-
vants, after a reign of forty-one years (2 Chr.
xxiv. 2427).

2. (2 Ki. xiii. 9.) Son and successor of
Jehoahaz, king of Tsraol, and grands4in of Johu,
was fur two ur three years nss«)ciati'd with his
father iu the ;,'« •viTnimnt; anil ho roigned ahme,
after his fatluT's druth, fourtoon year*, lie
was a wifkt'd prince, though he was successful
in thn-e r;iini»aigns against the Sj-riaus, and
rec<»vered the cities which they t* m »k from his
fathrr, acciirdiuir t«i the prediction of Klislia
(2 Ki. xiii. 15-lVi). lit* was also fii^nally
»ucce-«sful in a war with Aniaziah, king of
Judah {<vc AsfAZlAll), wnm afU'r the t«'rinin-
ation of wliiih he died (2 Ki. xiv. V2-h\).
Several other i)en*ons of the name occur in
Scripture.

JOli (Job i. 1)- a man of singidar piety
and m«)re singidar trials, who is mi]ti)om>d tit
have livfil in Llinnca :it a vrry early jx-riod
of the world. Somr have KUppoHcd that he
was tlie sanK' Antli .Fuhab (1 C'hr. i. 41), great
grandstin of Esau; but otliers place him before
Abrahanrs time.

Jon, BOOK < iF. Tlie can(»nical authority of the

IxMik of Job, as the history of a r<?al i)or»ir)nnge,

is am pi}' attt'-ited l)y inspin*d witnesses, 'i'ho

pn»i>het K/.ekii'l siw.-aks of three men, Xoah,

Daniel, and ilob, and the a^Kistle James refers

to the patience and resignation of tlic i>atrinrt^h

— *'Ye have ht^anl of the jiatience of Job."

W^ero the character and sufferings of .Fob

creations of the fancy, such appeals could not

bo ma<le to his existence or virtues »rither with

honesty or truth. Paul, t«M), recj»gnize<l tho

Ixmk of .Job as a genuine and authentic

ccimixmition of insj)ired authority, when ho

introduced a quotation from the fifth chapter,
.1—,. *

JOB

with the usual maI and fonmilft, "It is
written** (1 Car. iiL 19). The general onniaa
oi the churcdii has been in tmiaon with the
testimony of Scriptore.

Yet there have been crittca who have mm-
posed this portion of the sacred Tolnme to be
a fictitious tale, and have annied in ixwoat
of this Uieory from the peculiaritieB of iti
structure, its apparent artincialitjr, the poetiod
and measmred aodresses of its Tarious speakm
— wanting the easy negligence of famihar ooa-
vcrsation, and bearing s strikiiijg iiwrmhlinff
to those studied orations which heroei of
romance are often imagined to prDnoime& sad
which are to be regarded as s device <a the
author, for the porpose of displaying Ui
rhetorical skill. But if the^ book be pxtn. by
inspiration of Grod, then its asseitioiis sad
reasonings demand our faith, in whatever gvb
they may be clothed. The aiphnbetical raalnii
hise not their authority frooi the mechanial
formation of their staiuas, and tibongh tiie
mode of their stmcture mny not coirTM|wd
with our ideas of dignity and tasteu Nor do
we regard the speeches of Job and his fricndi
as preserved with verbal accuracy, but as sivin|
with the substance the distinctive moudi of
thought and phraseology. Does not anthatiB
history rest on a similar basis, though speeohw
of considerable length are often introduced vith
evident traces of embeUishment» not mos^
in such authors as Thucydides^ Livy* na
Josephus, who often adorn their pages witta
fictitious oration becoming the cucnmstsaeei
of its su]ipocic<l delivery, bat also in other
annalists noted for their simple and unambitioni
narration of facts and events? Xor, in eiti-
mating the style and character of the book
under our notice, must we neglect those •Oi'
centibilities of glowing excitement which sn
liMlged in an Oriental constitutioii, snd wUch
were so likely to be roused in their intenntT
by a scene so awful as the dwelling asa
appearance of the prostrate and dejeded
sufferer.

And the talc is soon rehearsed, being ixt
more simple than many which are current ia
Arabia, than even the Mekamat of Hariri, to
which it has K-eii so often compared. No plot
is Ktuilied, fi<^> as to command a thrilling evolu-

tion. .Job, a very rich emir of ldume%
tains a character worthy of his elevation ; yei|
through the agency of batan^ he experienoess
reverse of fortune, by a series of sudden and
singular disasters— his prr>perty destroyed, Ins
servants butchered, his family buriea in the
ruins of the festive hall, and himself agnmsed
with a loathsome distemi>er. In his soUtode.
and afHiction his friends come to 3rield him
solace and sA'miNithv; yet, in ignorance of Ui
character, tnev upbraid him tor some seoet
impiety, as the cause of (rod's visitatioai;
while the ]>iitriarch, conscious of his integri^«
denies in varied forms the unjust and cm
imputation. To terminate the contiovernr,
Jehovah apr)ears in the cloud, upholds toe
inn(x>ence of his servant, rebukes him for sooie
unwarranted expressions, condemns hiafriendik

JOB

and appoints Job as mediator to expiate their
^niilt by a suitable oblation. The wealth oi
Job in a short time is doubled, a numerous and
blooming progeny surround his hearth, and in
a good old age he is blessed with a peaceful
and happy dissolution.

In the first chapter of his " Introduction,"
Umbreit supposes the book to be a philosophical
romance, written in a spirit of contradiction to
the Mosaic system; and maintains, in the
second chapter, that it was composed by an
unknown author in the latter oays of the
Hebrew commonwealth, or rather during the
captivity. Had the book been composed
at so late a period and for such a purpose,
might we not have expected some allusion
to the national institute, or to the sacred
code, or to some epoch in the miraculous
history of Israel? The style, moreover, is
that of the earlier and not of the later
Hebrew: as a slight comparison of Job
with Zecnariah wiU at once aedde, and show
a difference as great as exists between the
terse Saxon of English authofs of the olden
time and the foreign and Latinized inversions
of writers of more modem date. Nor is
Umbreit singular in his opinion as to the late
composition of the book of Job; De Wette,
WarourtoUf and Le Olero are of a similar
mind, supposing the ui^eliest of all i>ersons,
Ezra, to be the author. Of all the sacred
penmen, Ezra is the most improbable, his style
being so plain and prosaic, and abounding with
Chaldaic idioms far remote from the classic
purity of the early writers of the Hebrew.
Accustomed to speak the language of Babylon
— nay, a considerable portion of his book Ming
written in that tongue — when he attempted to
write in the dialect of his fathers, nuniliar
words and phrases of Chaldee ori^ would
thrust themselves into his composition; not
unlike the Scotticisms which a century ago
crept into the English style of authors who
dwelt north of the Tweed. Umbreit and De
Wette tell us of Chaldseisms to be found in
Job; and yet these peculiarities which corre-
spond not with an uncorrupted Hebrew style,
so far hx>m being Aramaisms of a later age, are
rather Arabisms, and are proofs of the very
great antiquity of the book, and carry back its
composition to a remote era, when the chief
dialects of the East, especially Hebrew and
Arabic, had not diverged, or were only on the
point of divergence. Alluding to such words
and phrases, Gesenius says, ** There is in this
book much that is analogous to the Arabic
language, or that may be explained bv it.*'
Do not these analogies show, that instead of a
modem date, one of deep antiquity is to be
assigned to the book of Job — a period when
the alliance between Arabic and Hebrew was
dose, though on the eve of separation.

Others assign a date somewhat earlier to the
composition of the poem; Vaehingcr, Keil,
Schlottmann, and others, supposing Solomon
to have been the author, from observing a
similarity between Job ana the writingi of the
royal sage. Bosemniiller has shown uie doee

JOB

agreement of many forms of thought and
speech. Yet we can easily account for such
coincidences. Must not Solomon, in his deep
and varied researches, have studied the philo-
sophy of Job? and as he has often written on
kindred topics, may he not have been led to
the adoption of similar phraseology. Job being
the only book in which the daring themes on
which Solomon has descanted are pursued?
Such is our conclusion after a careful and
critical comparison of Job with the books of
Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. The similarities
of expression occur only in those paragraphs
which treat of subjects on which the
Idumean patriarch and his friends have
spoken.

A third class of critics suppose Moses to
have been the author of this disputed produc-
tion, and to have written it while he sojourned
in Midian, to console his brethren in Egypt
during the period of their slavery. The ail-
ments which we urged against the Esdime
authorship militate also a^inst this supposi-
tion, there beiiuf no allusion to any former
portion of their history from the call of Abra-
nai)i; and even where Job does refer to the
creation or the deluge, the mode of reference
is distinct from the Mosaic narration in style,
spirit, and quidity. A more probable ana
natural conclusion is that of Eichhom, that
the author lived prior to Moses, ana was
in all probability Job himself, — that Moses,
having found the book, revised it. with addi-
tions, and that on account of this revision
bv one so well qualified as Moses, it was
allowed by the Jews to form a portion of their
■Scriptures. *' This theory,'^ sasrs Magee,
** possesses this decided advantage, that it
solves all the phenomena." SufiBce it to say
in general, that Moses seaoos to have written
both the exordium and the conclusion, the
former ending with the repetition of the re-
markable phrase, *' In all this did not Job sin
witii his bps" — a phrase referring entirely to
the preceding conduct and sentiments of the
man of Grod, and intimating that afterwards,
through the frailty of his nature and force of
his sorrows, words of sin escaped from his
mouth. On this hjrpothesis we have the
Mosaic edition of Job, the most ancient literary
production in existence. Venerable for its
age, fascinating in its contents^ as well as
sacred from its canonical authority, its claims
on our regard are numerous and peculiar.
The proofs of a hoary antiquity; the varied
and magnificent conceptions and imagery,
natural as the spic^ gales and sunny hues of
eastern climes; the breathings of an ardent
piety, and enforcements of a rigid and exalted
morality, with which it abounds, cast around it
an entrancing lustre and interest.

The precise century of Job's existence may
not be known, yet no doubt can exist of its
patriarchid antiquity. No reference is made
to any sacerdotal order. Job beinff himself a

Et, as Noah and Abraham ; while there are
lent allusions to the most ancient form of
tary— the worship of the host of heaven:

377

JOB

the xnoet ancient moile of compnting wealth —
l>y cattle ; the most ancient mixlc of writinK—
graving with an **iron pen and lead in the
rock;" and the ** daughters received an in-
heritance among their brethren." Joh must
liave lived to a great age, mir\iving his trial
140 vearH, ami having had sons and daughters
settled in their own hounes when his woes
commenced. Ai^tronomicul calculationn have
been made to ])rove the time of his exintence.
The Chimak and Chfuil to which Job alludes
are supiXMed to l>e Taurus and Scoq)io, the
cartlinal constellations of spring and autunm
in his time, the ]irincii>al stars of which are
Aldebaran, the bnlPs eve, and Antares, the
BCoq)ion'H heart. Knowing the present longi-
tude of thexe hmiinaries, and calculating fmm
the ])recoKisi(>n of the e<iiiinoxes, Gt^iet and
Ducoutant in France, and lirinkley and Hales
in Britain, have attempted to fix the time of
Job— the latt«:r jiair of writers at alnrnt 184
years l>efore tlie birth of Abraham. But these
cnniitellati(»iis nniHt have l>een leaders for
several years, and can furnish no exact data
for precise c(»m]>utation. In Job's time the
motner language uf Asia seems not to have
been dividttd into the dialtirts of Hebrew,
Chaldee, Arabic, Syriac, and PlKcnician ; such
a division seems only coming into existence
alx>ut the time of the de|tarture of Jacob into
Kg>']>t. Job, then, nnint have lived at a
jtenofl still more early, |»erhai)s cotemi>orary
with Isaac.

The \xHtk of Job exhibits a complete ]^icture
of the ]iatriarchnl rcli^non— a relitn«.»n one in
spirit witli Christianity, an tlii> fundamental
doctrines of lH>tb are tin* sanie. Thus

1. The Jinn{7 of a Htni. Ah (.'n*at>r and
G<ivemnr, (cli. xxxviii.)

2. The Faff.- 'Jlie olfor of ])anl(»n [ire-sup-
poKes uiiilt, (ch. XV.)

3. Mrrrif. — njrough the mediimi of wicrifice
and iuterr»'R.<«ion, (ch. xlviii.)

4. Immortal it ij of the ioul and rcsurrcdion of
Vte fniflti (ch, xix. 2."»).

Jt»b expnvwly despairs again and again of
rest (HI eartli, them«ire the ajipearance and
deli\'nrance of the iS<*fl in the follow ing (lassage
must take place in another world :- -

*"1!3 <^I thnt my wonln woro in^JTibod, —

That llioy wore oupruvon on u Uiblot

24 AVith a Htvlu!< of irnn, uiul witti U'ud,

Furrowcif uiMiii tho rin'lcH for otmiity.
SS Yei I kuuw my Ili'iWmfir, ho livoth.
Aud tliu LA^T,* will lio uriM ud Uiv dust
(astliTM nf tlio jrravp; ;
2C And after thin my Hkiii hau been decompoHed
by dlHoane,
Evon from (without) my fl<»8h hboll T see Oml,
27 Whom I Hhall m'o t«» in»' (propitious).
And mino ovos Hhall behold bliu, and not

eHtraiigoiX —
ThuH ihft anloiit litHplnj?* of my breast
arc (will be) oomplot<;d.**

Perliaiv* no portion of the Holy Scriptures
has sufFere<l more by the m<xlem diviHion into
cha])tt;rs than Job. The following ammge-

378

• Bcv. L IL

JOE

ment of the book may be foand of lome use to
the student in preaerving the oonnectioii of the
subject : —

1. JoVs character and trials, cba. L-iii.

2. First series of oonvwsatioDS or oontzo-

venies, vir. : —

£liphKk*8 address, iy., t.

Job's answer, \i., viL

Bildad*s address, viiL

Job*s answer, iz., x.

Zoiihar*B address, zi

JoD*8 answer, ziL-ziv.
3w Second series of controveny : —

Eliphai*8 address, xsr.

Jolys answer, ztL, zviL

Bildad's address, zviii.

Job's answer, ziz.

Zonhar's address^ zx.

JoD*8 answe^ zzl
4. Third series of controveny:—

Eliphai*8 addieu^ zxiL

Jou 8 answer, zziiL, xxiv.

Bildad*8 address, zzv.

Job's answer, zxvi-zzzL

6. Elihu's four speeches to Joh, zzzS.-zzz?IL
G. Jehovah's first and seocmdaddrssB to Job^

xxz>'iii.-z]i

7. Humiliation of Job, Mid his ftr>*J |)nt>

perity, xlii.

The speeches of EUhn are sapposed bf
some to be of later origin than ttie rest d
the book, but there is no sure proof for the
opinion.

JOCHEBED (Ezod. tL 20)--tlie moCher d
Aaron, Moses, and Miriam — wwa the wife ud
atmt of Amram, and the daughter of Leri
(Num. xxvi. 51)).

J C )¥Aj—ichoft Cfod is JehcraA — ^pbofhict or,
is the twenty-ninth book of the Old Tmrtany^j
and the fifth of the ivophetic books in chrono-
lo^ncal order. It is simpoeed to have hea.
uttertnl in the rei^pi of Aiiaz, and the anthortB
have 1xM^n contemi>orary with Isaiah, betmn
n. c. 810 and 700. There being nothing muM
as t4) iierson or times in these prophedea fift
period of Joel's service hus, nowevo', iteco
viiriously computetL He seems to have b^
louf^ed to the kingdom of Judah. The book
contains a remarkable prediction <^ the effoMB
of the Holy Spirit -fulfilled on the dij of
Pentecost. The bunlen of the pruphccr of
Joel is the dreadful teni]Kiral judgments «mdi
were to come u|x>n the Jews, and whidi bi
fir^uratively describes as already present Is
view of these, the people are exhorted to n-
])ent and humble themselves before Ged, tbst
they nifty obtain fomveneas and find giace ii
tlie day of his merciful visitation.

The ])rophecyis short in compass, bntvigoreiB
in style. The oracle bc^ns with threattuBT
vet more fearful devastations than ax^iHiki
nod come u]>on the land — ^by on invara d
locusts --described in language of graphie sni
thrillinff power ; and the nation, in view of •»
fearful a calamity impniding. is exhorted to
iwnitence and prayer. The flight, number, TOf-
acity, and terrors of the locust are toncbcd tnA
inimitable verity and power. The imsgi"**^

JOH
at once realizes the scene, as it luts been aonu-
whtt looeely parftphrued : —

"ThdoeonlBfltrDa, ud ■Dong. Mid grim,

En eomu Uke ft vlDged ^ia» of drMid,
With till ihlddsd lack ud wmed biA
And li[g doable wloge lor tuair fliglit,
And hla keen nDWHryiBg iiPiiatlH.
Ha comH with fHDlne and fw ftloDCi-^
An umT m mULlon mlUloa ■troW;
Uks Edeo the Umd before their oai,
Butth^ le«Te 11 ■ deaoUte *ule behind.-

But the people are not vholly cast oS, and

Joel ii

wlien the Spirit, in copions and n-

h. and tender, too, aa Jeremiah.

" Mighty before the Lord " ia the Ungnage of
hia servant JoeL

JOHN THE BAPTIST (Matt iii l)-*pro-
^et, and the forerunner of oor Saviour— the
Eli» of the Hew Tertament He vae the ion
of Zachariaa,tfaeaged piie>t,and EliiabethlLuIie
L 13), and waa bom about eix months befora
Chiut His birth and work were predicted t^
iha aned Gabriel (Luke L 6-15), and by Isaiah
{l8*.iC3l.andMalachi(MaLiv.5). Hegrewup
in solitude; and when about tlilrty years of see,
b^an to preach in the wilderness of Judea, Mid
to call the people to repentance and ref oimation.
By divine direction, ho baptized with the bap-
tum of repentance all who came unto liim conf es-
" igtheii ■ ■

JOH

of Christ, Mthe fati^taeMof the momlngitir
is dinuned by the riamg of the snu ; yet he re-
joiced dncarely in the event, aayiiw. He mutt
mciease, but I most decrease.' The testimony
of John to the divine nature and offices of tlw

wMle he ma in ^prison was for their sakes, and
1-6). Tbept«aching
1 of a very ai '

u (Luka iii. 3); and many supposed
. ! might be ''tbe Christ" (John L 19-28).
His manner of life was solitajy and anstere;
for he seems to have shunned the habitations
of men, and to have subsitted on locusts and
"wild honey i while his dress

about his hiina. (SmHonkt,
naoreover, annoimced to the Jews the near ap-
pmach of the Ueasiah's kingdom, colled the
kingdom of heaven (Matt iiL S). Multitudes
flocked to hear him, and to be baptized o( him,
from every part of the land ; and among the
rest came Jeans of Nazareth, and applied for
baptism. John at first hesitated, on account
of the digni^ of the person and his own un-
worthinesa ; but when Jeaus told bim that it
was necessary, John acqoiesced ; and while
this Boleum cflremoay was in the conrsa of per-
formance, heaven was opened, and the Holy
Ghoet deaceoded on him in the likeness of a
dove, and a voice was heard from heaven,
•aying, "Thisia my beloved Son, in whom I am
weU pleased " (Matt iii. 17). By this, John
knew most certunly that Jeans of Nanreth
was the Messiah ; uid, indeed, before be sa«
this sign from heaven, he knew that the Lamb
of God who taketh away the sin of the world
waa preaenC, and pointed him out to his own
disciples, and aimounced to the people that he
wasmtheirmidst|Johni.2ei. Jobnwaaaman
of profound humility ; and although he foresaw
that his fame wonld be eclipsed by the coming

2»^. The

wMle he waa in prison

not for bis own (Matt -^ -

of John seems to have been ._j _— _„ —

and alarming kind, and to have produced _
lively impreaaion on the minds uf his hearers :
btit with most it was but temporary. Thay
rejoiced in hia light for a season. Among the
hearers of John wae Herod, the telrarcb of
Galilee. This wicked prince not only heard
birn, but heard him with delight, and reformed
hia conduct in many pointa in oonaeqaence of
hia solemn warnings (Mark vi. 20) ; but there
waa one aili which he would not relinquish.
He had pnt away his own wife, and had mar-
ried Herodias, the wife of his living brother
Ph^p. For Uiis iniquity John uuthfolly
reproved the tetrarcb, by which he was so
much offended that he would have killed the
preacher, had he not feared an inaurreotion of
the people; for all men held John to be a
prophet (Matt. liv. G). He went so far, how-
ever, as to shut him up in prison. The resent-
ment of Eerodiaa was still stronger and more
implacable towards the man who had dared to
reprove her sin. She therefore watched for
some opportunity to wreak her vengeance on
the atem reprover. And it waa not long before
an occasion such aa she desired offered itself;
for on Herod's birthday, kejit in the castle of
Machaerus, when all the pnncipal men of the
country were feasting witb him, the daughter
of Herodins came in, and danced so grac^uUy
before the company, that Herod waa charmed
beyond measure, and declared with an oath
that he wonld ^ve her whatever she asked.

jld give her what

„ he said, and reapcct for his company, ha
sent to Uie prison and caused John to be be-
headed ; and his head waa brought in a dish
and presented to the young dancer, who im-
mediately gave it to her mother. Thus ter-
minated the life of one concerning whom oar
Lord affirmed, that of those bom of women a
greater had not appeared (Matt iL 11). He
'eclared that he wi " "'" ' >- - i
e Scriptures — th
greauy resembled Elijao, anu wuu csiua lu uu
power and spirit John, indeed, in answer to
the questiona proposed by the deputation from
Jerusalem, asserted that he was not Elijah;
but this was spoken in relation to the opinion
entertained by the Scribes and Pharisees, that
Elijah would come in person. He was imbued
wiui the spirit and clad with the power oE
Mas, and resembled the ohl prophet not more

JOH

in hid uncouth exterior and mvitere deportment
than in the Ume of his ]>n)phccii*tt and iiitro-
]iidity nl LU comhict. llie awakening pnv
diu*ed by hiH awful addrcflsefl waH deep and
iinivenuu. The natii>n was rouHcnl from its
aiuithy ort if by a tliuntler-cLip from the desert
(Alatt. iii. 5). })ut these HcuKations were
Hhortlived ; and lie wlio was tlie Saviour's
herald ore he came, and hi.-* witness-lx-arer
after he had made hii* jmMic apiK'arance, was
the inartjT of hirt own hdelity. l^>ld and lofty
in character, yet mn-k and humlde in heart,
privile^oil above all who had 8iM)kfn of a
comin;; Savirmr for he introducod him to his
work- and )iim>H.*lf honoured in l>ein^ the sub-
ject of ]>n.'dlotion, tlie son of Z:u!haria)i was
struck down in the prime nf hiH life, and wit-
nes8e4l not the career of Plim whose way he
bad preiuin'il.

John m Haptihm (Act«» xix. .^), Baptism of
John (Matt. xxL 2r>), is in thiji ])aH8nge taken
for his whole niini.str>% iM'cauHe this was a
prominent branch of it. What the baptism of
John was is a subject of contro\'ersy. The
wonls of our Saviour, recunlwl in Matt, xxviii.
19, are the foundation of tliix ordinance as ad-
ministered in the ( 'hriiitian church ; yet various
opini(ins have been entertained reMi>ecting its
origin. Wliilst some maintain that it was
never practiHcd K'furo the mi.-Mitin of John,
others atKmi that wo otight to l'>ok for its
origin among the ancivnt coremi.inies of the
Jews. It may l)o remarked, that as the
baptism of (-hriHt differed from that of John,
at leoMt in the form of expregiHion, ho Inith
differeil jiorhaps Ktill nion* froiii th«j wa.'^liinLrs
which were called baptisms by tlu^ .lows.
John's liiiptJKm was i)friiai»s alliwl more t*-* the
M(»Haic washings than to the ( 'hristian institute.
He bUxuI on an istlimns connwtiiig I Kith econ-
omics, and himself was ii«-ither in tlie choir of
the prophets nor in the company of the
aiMWtles. Those whom lie bapti/od, on a ]>ro-
fession of thi*ir faith in the great article of the
Jewish crr-ed— the coming of the Mt^ssiah -
w^ere rc-baptized wht- n they were c^)nverte<l t«>
l^hri-jtianitv (Acts xix. 1-5). S<»mo maintain,
h(>w«!ver, tliat a ceremony ])rovailed at the
initiation of jfroselytiis into the Jewish church
which lM)re a striking resemblance to baptism,
and which might induce our Saviour to adopt
it. If ba]>tism ha*! been altogether unknown
to the Jews, say they, would they not have
contem i datei 1 Jt inn's i;ondi ict with that a^t* mish-
ment which novelty always excites? while
they wen» ho far from expressing any surjirise,
that they spoke of baptism as a familiar rite j
when they said to him, ** Why liaittizest thou :
then, if thou art neither Christ nor Elios?** I
(John i. 25.) But it is not difficult t*) trace
the source of their ideas alK»ut l»aptism; for
not only was Moses commanded to wiish Aaron
and his sons at their cimsHcmtion, but no
XKjrson who lia<l ccmtracttwl ceremonial im-
purity was admitted into the sanctuary till it
was remove<l by washing; and ho t)f funiiture,
&c. (Mark vii. 4.) The c<mduct of Christ in
the institution of the Supper ako corrcsi>ond8 i
380

JOH

to his conduct on this occaaian; for at the
Jews c<mcluded their panover by giving to
every i^enion a piece of bread and a cup of wine,
so Chnst, though he set aside, aa the nature ol
his office required, the ritea enjoined by Moms
in that ordinance which he had been tiiea
commemorating, yet retained the bread and asp
added by the Jewa.

JOHN THE EVANGELIST waa the mi
of Zebedee and Salome, and waa probably burn
at Bethsaiila, and was a companion of reter,
Andrew, and Philip^ho were aU of Bethsaida
(Matt iv. la, 21). His parents were nrobiUy
in comfortable circumatancea (Bfanc L v;
John xix. 27).

He was an adherent of John the Baptisk;
and when Christ came, he readily foUowvdhiiB.
>Vhen they first met he spent several bcnm
with him, and afterwards obeyed his call (Hstt.
iv. 20). It is supposed that John abode st
Jerusalem, and took care oi the mother of
Jesus until her decease, as that was the lart
request of his Lord and Master.

After the death of the apo«tle Panl, John
preached in Asia Minor, and was bamdied to
Fatmofl, in the /Bgean Seikwhere he wrole
the Revelation (Rev. i 9). He retoxned from
his exile, laboured in the Groapel at Ephem,
and died at the age of ninety, in the reign «
Trajan. Jerome tells us that when Jahn was
too infirm to convene oon«ctIy, he was om-
tinually repeating the wordL " little duUna,
love one another;** and when asked whvht
always repeated this sentence only, he reuiedl,
** Because it is the conmiandment of the Lord,
and if this is done it is enough.**

John was, in many res|>ect8, the most in*
teresting of the apostles in his personal diar
act«r. Among the earliest disciides ci ths
Ixtrd, he was distinguished not only by maib
of the ])eculiar regard and confidence of lus
^faster, but by a bold and nnwavering attadi-
ment t«) his cause, Antiquity atmbates to
him gn*at loveliness of temper and high perMoal
attractions— traits of character ^%ich, coO'
nected with his youth, his relationship to tbe
Redeemer, and his constancy of affectiao,
may well ac<x)unt for Ida being so modi
1 H^l( )vcd. We know that thoac sublime qualitisi
of love, meekness, and hiunility, whicn after
wanls distinguished him, were the froitt of
the Spirit, by which he waa regienezated sni
saui'titieil, and made peculiarly dear to tbe
Redeemer (John xiii. 23; xix. 26; xr. 2; xxi
7). John was of an ardent temperament^ u
appears by the f refluent display of zeal sod
devotednoss to the cause ue nad espoued
(Mark ix. 38; x. 35; Luke ix. 54: compi
Alatt. XX. 20). Sometimes he was impetaooi:
he was named a **son of thunder,** mvi on ow
occasion asked for lire to descend upon hit
Master^s antagonists ; but, on the other hsiuif
we find him foremost in action and fearleti is
danger. His character is finely contnurted
with that of his bold and forwaixl asBOGiat^
Petvr ; for while he who was counted a rock
shrunk away f n )m his inist and denied his Master,
the amiable John was firm and undaonted; nor

JOH

did he fonake Jesus even at the cross, but
stood by him, and amid all the violence and
dismay of that dreadful hour received his last
message, and bore witness to the minutest
events tnat occurred.

After the resurrection John was first, with
Peter, in announcing the GospeL His bold
and zealous conduct on this occasion is worthy
of admiration ; and to the end of his long lite
he was distinguished by the ardour and affection
with which he served his beloved Lord.

His age and his character closely resembled
those of Jesus. He was thoughtful and ardent,
his spiritual susceptibilities were keen, ana
his -vniole nature was elevated by the fervour
of a pious enthusiasm. He haa lain on his
Master's bosom, and caught and breathed a
kindred spirit.

John, gospel or is the fourth book of the
New Testament, it is supposed by many to
have been written about the year 78. It was
published in Ana. The particular design of it
18 expressed by the author to be, that those to
whom it was written "might believe that
Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; and that
believing they might have life through his
name" (ch. xx. 31). That is to say, the desi^
of the gospel is twofold: first, to induce its
leaders to oelieve that Jesus is the Christ —
that is, the divinely promised and appointed
Saviour; and secondly, that he is also the
** Son of God," divine in his nature as well as in
his commission. Thus the object of the fourth
gospel is to show that Jesus is a divine and
divmely appointed Redeemer. The whole of
its sections bear upon this point, and the
subjects and discourses of this book have special
relation to our Lord's character and offices,
and are evidently intended to establish his
nature, authority, and doctrines, as divine.
He probably had the other gospek before him,
or was familiar with their general contents.
This fact affords subetantiar evidence of the
genuineness of these writings, and also accounts
for the omission of many important occurrences
which are particularly stated by the other
evangelists.

There are brief hints in this work of John's,
that presuppose on the part of his readers an
acquaintance with the three preceding gospels.
For example, in ch. iii 24, it is said, — "For
John was not vet cast into prison," and there
is no other reference to his imprisonment or
his death. Now this parenthetical statement
looks like a reference to other and fuller
histories, where the reader mi^ht find the
desired information about the incarceration
and execution of the Baptist.

This gospel is divided into twenty-one
chapters; and among the leading subjects
are: — ^A plain declara^don of the Itedeemer's
Godhead (cha. i 1^; iv. 14; v. 17-23; x. 18,
30) : the nature and necessity of regeneration
and redemption (ch. iii 3-21) ; the security of
the people of God (ch. x.) ; the resurrection of
the dead (ch. xL); the descent of the H(dy
Spirit (ch. xvi) ; and the blessed reli^on of
Christ and his true disciples, (dL xviL)

JOH

This whole gospel abounds with the most
sublime and mysterious truths of our holy
religion, expressed with great simplicity, and
with the utmost zeal, affection, ana veneration
for the divine author and finisher of our faith.
The pathos of the book has often been noticed.
Truths are viewed in their subjective form —
that is, not as they are in themselves, or as
portions of a system, but as tiiey are felt to be
m the experience of believers. Salvation, with
John, is "life" — ^not a blessing to be received
merely, but as even now enioyed. Heart
speaks to heart in loving sympathy j— sanctified
emotion predominates in the writing of the
disciple of love : — ^the atmosphere of uie third
heaven is breathed from its pages— 4iallowed,
ennobling, divine.

John, epistles of, are three in number, and
make uie twenty-third, twenty-fourth, and
twenty-fifth books of the New Tesbunent. The
first has always been attributed to John, though
his name is neither prefixed nor subscribed.
It has been supposed to be introductory to,
or a kind of dedication of, the ^speL But the
date is very uncertain. It is addressed to
Christians generally, and might more properly
be called a discourse or treatise, though some
have thought it was designed particularly for
the church at Ephesus. The leading objects
of it are, to establish Christians in the faith of
those things to which the author and his fellow-
labourers had testified as eye-witnesses, to
instruct them in the mysteries of redeeming
love, and in the principles and duties which the
religion of Christ enjoins, and to furnish them
with certain signs, or criteria, by which to
determine the genuineness of their faith.

The clauses beginning with the words, **ui
heaven," in v. 7 of ch. v., and reaching to the
words, "in earth," and comprehending them,
in V. 8. are on all sides allowed to be spurious.
The MSS., versions, and Fathers are all
against them.

The second epistle is addressed to "the elect"
{excdleni, eminent, <{rc.) "lady" {or the emi-
nent Kwia)fOT the " ladv Eclecta," " and her
children." The elect laay is supposed to have
been some honourable woman distinguished
for piet]r, and well known in the churdies
as a disciple of Christ. Some, however, have
thought some particular church and its
members mi^ht be denoted. Those who adopt
the latter opinion apply the term to the church
at Jerusalem, and the term "elect sister" (r.
13) to the church at Ephesus. These conjec-
tures, however, have generally yielded to the
more natural conclusion that some eminently
hospitable and pious woman, and her sister, of
like spirit, are denoted. The title of elder,
which the author assumes, was probably one oi
honourable distinction in the primitive church,
and indicative of the apostle s office or of his
great age — ^then not far from one hundred years,
as it is supposed. The doubts of some m the
earl^ ages about its genuineness show the
caution exercised among the primitive churches
in receiving and authenticating the inspired
documents. The substance of this letter is an

381

JOH

exhortation to continual obedience, and an
admonition o^nxt deceivers, especially i^fainfit
a new form of error, that Christ was a man in
appearance only, and not in reality, and there-
fore his suffcrinfj^ and death were not a real
atonement.

llio third e])istlc, which is ofldressed to
Gains, or (.7aiuH. a private individual, and is
commendatory of his iiicty, was written abont
the same time with tne others. There are at
least five ])orson8 of this name mentioned in
the Scriptnr^ but nothing is now known of
their respective residence, nor of the other
persons to whom allusi< in is maile in the course
of this short letter. Nothing is known, either,
of the ]troud Diotreohes. whoso overbearing
character is censured by tne apostle.

JOHN (numameil or called also MARK,
Acts xiL 12) was a ne])hew or, some think, a
cousin of Barnabas (CoL iv. 10), and is often
mentioned as the comimnion of the aTHwtles
(Acts xii. 25; xv. :«; 2 Tim. iv. 11 ; Mdle. 24).
His mother was the "hlary at whoso house the
apostles and first Christians usually met (Acts
zii. 1210).

The same name -Marcus— is applied (1 Pet.
V. 13) to an individual who is called by that
apostle A{> ttjii (in the Lrml). It is doubtful
liy which i»f these iJersons the gospel (by Mark)
was written, if, iniu*ed, it was written by either.
Many mcHlem critics of deser\*e<i celebrity
consider all these ]UiS8a;:^>s as relating to one
and the same indiWdnal, and that to bo the
evangelist Mark. Another John of the family
of the high jiriest iH mentioned in AvU iv. 0.
The name corref*|>on<l.*« to the Hebrew Johanan
—"Jehovah's gift" (See Makk.)

JOKNEAM (Josh. xii. 22) \ins a city of
Zebnlun (Josh. xxL 'M). It was situatiMl south
of Ptolemais, near tlie bay, and is called of
Carmrf^ because it wan at the foot of that
mountain. The site is supixxsed to bo the
modem Tell-Kainion.

JOKTAN ((ien. x. 2r,)-father of the Jok-
tanites in the soutli of Arabia, who still call
their ancestor Kahtiln.

JOKTH KEL cnnquerni by Cod (2 Ki. xiv.
7) -the name given bv Amuziah to Sclah, or
the mo<lem Petra. (See Pktua.)

JON ADAH. (See Kkcha bites.)

JONAH- (/ore— one of the Hebrew pro-
phets. For an account of his life, sec the
following article.

JONAH, BOOK OP, ranks the fifth in onler
of the minor jirophets. Hie b«x)k of his jm)-
phecy gives us no information respecting the
iMiriod at which he flourished; but there can
ue little doubt that he is the ])erHon referred
to in 2 KL xiv. 2.\ llie Ieame<l men amongst
the Jews have supjKtsed him to be the son of
the widow of Sarepta, but this sni)poHition is
entirely gratuitous. Jouah was lx>m in Gath-
henher, in the trilw of Zebulun. He live<l
eitner before or during the reij^ai of Jeroboam
II., and foretold the enlar^'»;nient and jiros-
perity of the king(l(»m of Israel under that
monarch. In the Dook of Jonah we have an
account of the commission which the projihet
382

JON

received to proceed to Nineveh, and pruBOUBW
against it the impending iudgmenta <x JdionJi
— of his refusal to obey tne aivine oomxnaiid—
of the expedient to which he had lecumne in
order to get rid of the embaaBj with which he
was intrusted — and of the mixacnloiu inter-
position of Jehovah to check his wayvwd
dispontion. The third chapterpreseiits Jonah
in a more attractive light, oia peevishnoi
ami perversity seem overoome, and he obm
with alacrity the divine commaad. In tas
fourth chapter, however, his chancteriikie
petulance is again apparent. The ^vine for-
bearance towards Nmeveh *' displeased Jonah
exceedingly, and he was very angry.** His
attempt to nee from the presence^ the Lord
was an act so inconsiBtent witli the chancier
of a prophet, and so rash and foolidi in itsdt
that it can be accounted for only by paitiil
mental derangement, produced by the conffick
of varied and opposing infhiences in a nund
naturally gloomy and morose, llie historrof
Jonah is both interesting and wonderfiiL TIm
^nd distinguishing event of hia life is aston-
ishing in itself and strikingly peculiar even at
a miraculons occurrence. %at there is not Iks
8lig:hte8t intimation in the inspired vofaiDs
which would lead us to regard it aa eitiier an
allegory or a parable. Nay. our Lord alhidn
to it as a literal occurrence (Matt. ziL 40): sad
thus, too, the earlier Jews regarded it (Tolik
xiv. 4 : JoaepK., ix., 10, 2). The weight of tUi
evidence is ^[reatly increased from the fMi
that our Saviour on nmilar occasions, *Tin<*™f
to Old Testament event^ refers to real oocor
rences (John iiL 14; vL 48). Nor, judcii^
from the attempts which have been madejaoei
it seem possible to give a consistent ezplanatiaa
of the narrative in accordance with any other
hypothesis. Those who deny the reality of
the adventure have recourse to far-fetched
significations, fanciful conjectures, and Isboti*
ous critical efforts, in order that they may foroe
the words of the sacred text to utter a meaiuDf
in harmony with their nreconceived oraikn;
but their efforts are deaaed failitrea, and their
explanations cannot be entertained for a
moment by any one who believes in the
inspiration of the sacred record. The pmpoie
which Jehovah had in view was worthy ocUi
miraculous interference: and undoubtedly hs
su^>ematural interposition would haveabeae
iicial influence both on the prophet and Ui
countrymen, and on the inhabitants of Nineveh
The character of Jonah, too, is not beymd the
bounds of credibility. Fear of being reckcaal
a false prophet, a desire for the complete
destruction of that magnificent and hoetik
metroi)olis, a dread of l^n^ d^^aded by is-
tercourse with idolaters, mi^t so operate as *
temi^er naturally irascible, as to prodoce i
state of mind tne most averse to a cheflrfal
I>erformance of the embassy committed to hha
Some regard the whole l)ook as an allegait:
others supi)ose that it is a fiction intended tn
serve a moral purpose; while a third party
hold that it is neither tnie history nor mere
fiction, but legendary in its origin, iHiile it*

JON

design 18 instractive. There are others who^ not
seeming disposed to question the reality ox the
narrative, have nevertheless had recourse to
the most absurd and ridiculous hypotiieees in
order to remove what, to them, seem the diffi-
culties of the case. One supposes that Jonah,
when thrown into the sea, was taken up by a
vessel which had a large fish for its figure-hashd.
Another fancies that a dead whale haiypened
to be floating near the spot when the prophet
was thrown overboard, and that he found
shelter in its interior ! Charles Taylor, in his
Fragments, affixed to Calmet's Dictionary. Na
cxlv., imagines that the word rendered fish
should be translated Ufe-preierver/ He en-
deavours to support this new signification by
heathen mythology — evidence every way
worthy of so absurd a rendering. Ajnongst
those who deny the reality of the narrative,
much diversity of opinion exists as to the
desif^ it was intended to subserve. Some
thizik it was designed to show the Jews the
injustioe of that enmity which they cherished
towards other nations; others imagine the
narrative was intended to teach the Jews that
other nations, not so highly favoured in point
of privilm, surpassed them in devout submis-
■ion; and another maintains that the comfort
and encouragement of the prophets, in the
performance of difficult and nazardous duties,
was the object of the narrative. These hypo-
theses are all vague and fanciful, and do not
deserve special confutation. Striving to free
us from one difficulty, they involve us in others
still more perplexing.

The minMmlous means of Jonah's deliverance
has been made the theme of much profane and
absurd jesting. The language of the sacred
text is simply, **The Lord had prepared a
freat fish to swallow up Jonah.'* Here there
IS no mention of the species to which this sea
animal belonged. The word, too, translated
"whale" in the New Testament (Matt xiL 40)
is generally used of any large fish. Conse-
quently, ail objections drawn hx>m the fact
tnat tne whale is not foimd in the Mediter-
ranean, and from the straitness of its throat,
are entirely removed. Bishop Jebb, without
any good reason, supposes that Jonah foimd
an asylum, not in the stomach of the whale,
but in a cavity of its throat, which, as Captain
Scoresby asserts, is large enough to contain a
merchant ship's jolly-boat full of men. The
common opimon since the time of Bochart has
been, that the fish was of the shark species, or
sea-dog (Calmet's Diatertation on Jonah), In
some fishes of this kind human bodies have
been found entire; and it is an ascertained
fact, that the stomach has no power over sub-
stances indued with vitality. jBut though we
admit these facts, the miraculous character of
Jonah's preservation is not less apparent. No
one who ^jants the realitjr of the occurrence
can refrain from saying, "Is anything too
hard for the Lord?"

The prophet, having been set down in safety
in some portion of me Mediterranean coast,
obeyed with alacrity the second oommisBion.

JOP

His embassy had the desired effect. A general
fast was proclaimed, the king and his people
humbled themselves before God, and a respite
was jgranted. Jonah was displeased that his
denimciation was not carried into execution.
Leavinfif the city, he took up his station on a

rt whence he might see the threatened
truction take effect. A gourd prepared by
Grod afforded him shelter under its spreading
foliage; while its speedy growth and death,
and his attachment to it, were made use of by
Jehovah to convince his impatient and chafed
spirit that he erred in repining at the divine
forbearance. The gourd was probably the
Ridnus. (See GtOUBD.) No aiigument can be
brought against the credibility of the book of
Jonah from what is said regaraing Uie magni-
tude and population of the Asssrrian metrop^is.
(See NiKEVKH.) With the exception of the
prayer or thanksgiving in ch. iL, this book is a
simple narrative. The prayer expresses, in
peculiar and appropriate tangnage, the feelings
of a pious Hebrew, preserved anid succoured
in circumstances of extreme hasard. Mosul in
the East, and Gath-hepher in PalestincL are
both mentioned as the places in whicn he
found a grave ; while Epiphanius sa^ he went
to Tyre, and was buried in that aty in the
tomb of Cenezaeus, one of the judges of IsraeL

JONATHAN (1 Sam. xiv. 1) was the son
of SauL and distinguished for piety and valour.
He and his armour-bearer, being encouraged
by an intimation from Goo, attacked a Philis-
tine garrison, slew twenty men, and put tiie
garrison to flight. Having in ignorance vio-
lated a decree of his father, tnat no man
should stop, on pain of death, in the pursuit
of the enemy, to taste of food, the people
interposed and saved him from the p^enalty
whicn Saul was ready to inffict (1 Sam. xiv.
37-45). After David's defeat of the giant.
Jonathan became acquainted with him; and
their friendship for each other was so remark-
able as to be minutely described by tiie sacred
historian (1 Sam. xviii. 1-4; xix. 2). The
opportunity to show their friendship for each
other was greatly extended bythe bitter and
relentless hostili^ of Saul to David, (1 Sam.
xix.; XX.. &C.) Jonathan fell, with his father
and two Drothen. in the battle of Gilboa. The
lamentation of David for his friend (2 Sam. i.
17-27) is justly regarded as inimitably pathetic
and oeaudful; and his treatment of Mephi-
bosheth, Jonathan's son, shows Hie sincerity
and strength of his affection for the father, (2
Sam. ix.) Various other persons of the same
name are mentioned in Scripture.

JOPPA (Greek, 2 Chr. ii. 16), or JAPHO
{Hebrew, Josh. xix. 46), or JAFFA or YAFFA,
as it is now called, is one of the oldest towns
of Asia, situated on a sandy promontory,

Sfcting out from the eastern coast of the
editerranean, between Ceesarea and Gaza,
and 37 miles north-west of Jerusalem. Three
of its sides are washed by the sea. It was, and
still is, the principal seaport of the land of
Judea, and ox course of great commercial im-
portance (2 Chr. ii 16; Ezraiii 7; Jonahl 3);

383

JOR

but its h&rbonr ifl bad, and ships ffenerally
anchor a mile fnim the town. SvveraTintercst-
in}< incidents in Peter^s life occurred here,
(Actsix., X.) It WAS aim a pnimineol nlace
in tiie history of tlie cruHa>lerH, and m tlie
Kgyj^itian cami>aijni of Bonatiarte. llie nuHk-m
city IS surrounilc<i by a wall 12 or 14 feet hij^h,
and contains 4,000 inhabitants, c-hieflv Turks
and Arabs, and iHtrhaiis 000 nominal C^nristians
(Acts ix. 43).

JOKAM— Ai//A (2 Ki. viiL lfi)-<)r JEHO-
KAM (2 Ki. iii. 1)— snccessor of Ahaziah, king
of Israel, was the second son of Ahab. Thou^'h
he ]mt away the worshij) of Baal, he was stdl
a very wicked king (2 Ki iii. 3). After the
death of Aluib, the king of Moab refused to
pay the nunual tribute to tlie king of Itjimel
which he h.vl been accustomed to luiy; and
Joram detennined for this cause to Hiige war
with him. He secured the aid of Jehosliajihat,
king (»f Judah. and they went u]) through
Edom, whoHe king also jiiine<l the exi>edition.
After seven days* march, they found them-
selves likely to 1»e cut off by a se\'erc dnmght.
In this extremity they bes4mght the helji of
Klisha, the pn)]>het, who had followed the
army (proliahly under a dl\ine influence).
I'ilisna at first referred him t4> the ginls of
Ahab his father, and his mother Jezeind, for
succour; but finally, for the sake of Jehosha-
I)hat^ he cons<.>nUHl to inteqiose for their relief,
and iMiue<l a command fn>m Gixl to make the
valley full of ditches, lliis was done; and
then, without wind or rain, at a imrticular
liour of the next morning, water came, not
fruui the Hprin.ijM into which they dug, but
from Edoni, and HUpplitMl the army ami the
country with an abuudauce of water (2 Ki. iii.
20: conii>. Kxod. xviL 5, <>). Ilu' Moabites
had in tiie meantime assembled their f« trees,
ami were ready f«>r Kittle <in the Kirder of
their land, when tln-y saw tlie streams of water
at a distance, ap])an>ntly rt>d as blo«Ml. This
a]>i>earance might ha\ e iK'en JK'casionetl by the
reflection of the sun's ray?*, or jierhaps by the
soil thrfiUgli which the water flowe<l. At any
rat<% the Moabites fiatt<n.'d themsulves that
the army of Isniel and its allies had fallen out
by the way, and liad fought a desperate battle
among tln'inselvfti. Kncrmraged by this con-
jeeture, they hastened to fall on them; btit
when they came t«) the camp of Israel, they
were met" ]>y the full strvnirth of the alliell
army, and were defeated with grejit slaughter.
The king of Moab tried to the utmttst to
rally his forces, but did not succeeil ; and his
kingdom was aimjdetely desolated by tlie
enemy. Joram w:is at last woundcnl at the
siege of Ilamoth-gilea4l, and lay ill at Je/.reul.
lichu being sent thither as an iiiHtniment of
GckI's vengeance uiM>n the wicke«l house of
Ahab, Joram went out to meet him. and was
shot dead in his chariot, and his isMly was
thrown out into the field of Nalxith, the Jez-
rcH.'litt^ according to the predictitm (1 Ki. xxL
18-210.

JORDAN— /(rrji/./fojri«f7. L River (Jrwh. i
11), sometimes called mmply THE KIVER
384

JOB

(Gen. zzxi. 21). was the one gnat riTcr d
Judea. Its remotest soaroe is the foontsiB st
Hasbeiya, which bubbles up from the bottaa
of a shiulowish pool 12 miles north of TeU-d-
KAdy. The little streamlet, which is incnssed
by various other sprinss trom the s&ope d
Antilibanus, has first s flow of aboat 3 miki
tlirough a beautiful vaUey, then for 6 or 7 it
rushes through a daric defile* and loses xtoeU is
a marsh. The length of the manh isnot dutt
of 10 miles, and the termination of the still !&•
creasing volume of waters is in the lake HdUl
Its other sources are at Paninm. the present
BAnifia. On the north-east sideM thii yiBagt
is one source which issoea firam a spaeioai
cavern under a wall of rock at the base of
the eastern monntain. The stream flom c^
on the north and west of the village, and join
another at the distanoe of an hour and aJnlf
in the plain below. There is another souree
at Tell-el-Kftdy, lying in the plain aboot
hour off HfiniAs, where there aie two sprii

one very large— the laigest in Sjrria. accowB^g
to Porter ; the united waters immediately fbnn
a stream 12 or 15 yards across, wfaidi nnbai
raiudljr over a stony bed into a lower pkoL
l^is rivei\ which the inhabitants r^aid at
the true tfordan, forms a junction with thiA
from BAniAs, and the united stream is wd
then to keep along near the eastern hills qoili
down to the Waters of Merom.

The fountains at TcOl-el-KAdy direetij eone^
spond to the source whic^ Jose^ras speaks of
as the ** other source** of the Jordan, cslkd
also Dan, where stood the city I>an, uaaaHf
Laish. The same city, Dan, is placed 17
Kuscbius and Jerome at 4 Roman miles fron
Paneas, towards Tyre, corresponding weU to
the present distance of the sonroea TIm
river issuing from this source, Jooephns n|i»
wa.s called ** the Ijcsser Jordan,** obvioadyiB
distimrtion from the somewhat longer strous
from Paneas, into which it flows. A diort
distance south of Merom is a stone bridges
callinl the bridge of the sons of Jaoofag is
allusion to Qen. rxxiL 10.

After running about 12 miles from likt
Merom (Huloh), the Jordan passes throBg^
tlie midKt of the sea of Tilienas, •tjA theoov
onward to the Dead Sea, into which it empciea
It was long thought that it continued in
course to the Red Sea, throiu^ the TsUm
of mount Seir, until it was decked ^us
convulsions attending the overthrow of »)daa
and Gomorrah, and Uie filling np of the valkf
with sand, Ac. Modem research has foUj
disi>roved this old hypothesis. The Dead Sci
is greatly hiwer tnim the Bed Sea and tiK
Meiliterranean. The streams of the dflOt
south of Akaba flow norUiward to the Desd
Sea. llie whole course of the xiver is o(B*

Suted at 200 miles, but in a direct line it
oes not exceed 00 or 100 miles. Its disBsd
from (Tennesaret has twenty-seven rspidi is
it ; for (xennesaret is 653 feet b^ow the levd
of the Mediterranean, but that of the Desd
Sea 1,31() feet. The oidinaiv breadth of the
Jordan, opposite Jezicho, ana near wlisft the

JOR

Israelites are snpposed to have Grossed, is said
by travellers to be 60 feet, about 6 or 7 feet
deep, and with a current bo strong as to be
refdsted with ereat difficulty. It nas, how-
ever, two bauKs on each side. The first, or
inner one. is that of the river in its natural
state : ana the second, or outer one, about the
eightn of a mile distant, is its bank when it
overflows. This overflowing is occasioned
by tiie meltizifir of the snow on Lebanon and
Hermon, in MaQch and April which was the
time of the Jewish harvest (Josh. ilL 15; 1
Cbr. zii. 15). It was at this season, when the
Jordan was at its height, that tne passage
of the Israelites took place; and hence the
miracle on that occasion was the more stu-
pendous. At the point of their passage the
pilgrims now collect for the purpose of bath-
ing. The annual procession for this purpose
takes place soon after Easter. Multitudes of
pilgrims, under the protection of the governor
ofJerusalem and his guards, visit this spot,
plunge into the stream, and, taking a bottle oi
water with them, return to Jerusalem. For
this privilege each pilgrimpays a tax to
the Turkish govenmient. Where the Jordan
leaves the sea of Tiberias (near the ruins of
Tarichea) it is 120 feet across, but f ordable hy
horses; and its course for several miles is
through a deep, rich valley, shaded with thick
groves, which, from its beiEkuty and fertility, is
called "the i)ride of Jordan" (Zech. xL 3).
The Jordan is said to be the only river of
Judea that continues to flow the year round.
The space between the natural baoik and the
freshet mark is marshy, and abounds with
tall grass, reeds, willows, and shrulm, affording
hiding-]9laces for wild beasts; whence they
were dnven by the rising of the waters (called
**the swelHng of Jordan," Jer. xlix. 19; L 44),
to seek food. Hence the allusion of Jeremiah
above cited. There were several fording
places in the river, one of which (** the fords
of Jordan") was seized by Ehud to intercept
the Moabites ( Judg. iii 28). (See Fords.)

The valley of the Jordan is from 4 to 6 (and
some say 10) miles wide, and the average
breadth of the current, as given by different
travellers, varies from 60 to 100 feet. It is,
however, very rapid^and rolls a vast body of
fresh water into tne Dead Sea.

The waters of the Jordan are turbid, but
when drawn off become clear and bright,
pleasant to the taste, and remarkable for the
length of time during which they will retain
their freshness. (See Merom.)

2. Jordan, the plain op (2 Chr. iv. 17),
or the REGION round about Jordan (Matt.
iii. 5), or the plain south of Ginneroth
(Josh, xi 2), or aimplv the plain (2 KL xxv.
4), is, stnctly speaking, so much -of the
country as borders on the Jordan, between
Tiberias and the Dead Sea. The modem
name of the lower portion of this valley is El
OhCr.^ The first of the above names was
sometimes applied to the whole extent of
country watered by the Jordan, from the foot
of Lebiknon to the wilderness of Paran.
2c

JOS

For t^ most part, this place is a barroi
waste, hot and unwholesome, inhabited only
by Begins, and by them merely in the cold
seaiip. The low bed of the nver and tht
abseSoe of inundation and of tributaay streams
combine to leave the greater portion of the
Ghdr a solitary desert. Such it is described
in antiquity, and such we find it at the present
day. Josephus speaks of the Jordan as flow-
ing "through a desert;" and of this plain as
in summer scorched by heat, insalubrious, and
watered by no stream except the Jordan. . . .
In the northern part of the Ghdr, according to
Burckhardt, the great number of rivmets
which descend from the mountains on both
sides, and form numerous pools of stagnant
wat^, produce in many places a pleasmg
verdure and a luxuriant growth of wila
herbage and grass ; but the greater part of the
ground is a parched desert. So, too, in the
southern port, where similar rivulets or foun-
tains exist, as around Jericho, there is an
exuberant fertility: but these seldom reach
the Jordan, and nave no effect upon the
middle of the Ghdr. Nor are the mountains
on each side less rugged and desolate than
they have been described along the Dead Sea.
The western cliffs overhang tne valley at an
elevation of 1,000 or 1,200 feet; while the
eastern mountains are indeed at first less lofty
and precipitous, but rise, farther back, into
ranges from 2,000 to 2,500 feet in height.
(See Arabah.)

JOSEPH— flkWifion. 1. (Gen. xxx. 24) Son
of Jacob and Rachel, was bom in Mesopotamia,
A.M. 2256. He and his brother Beniamin were
the children of JacoVs old age ; ana his fond-
ness for Joseph particularly seems to have
been the source of much of nis trouble. His
brethren envied him ; and he, presuming on his
being his father's favourite, carried tales home
to the aged Jacob against the other members
of the family. When Joseph was about
seventeen years of age he gave offence by
this talebeuing to his neartless brethren, and
was cruellv sold by them to a^ company of
trading Isnmaelite& who carried him into
Eg^rpt, where he became the property of
Potiphar, captain of the royal guard. Per-
ceiving that the young man had extraordinary
wisdom and punty of character, and that his
presence brought with it a blessing upon the
whole household, Potiphar at once aavanced
Joseph to the highest trust In this situation
he was falsely charged by Potiphar's wife with
the grossest offence, and was for this cause
cast mto prison. Here again he won the con-
fidence of all around him by his upright and
amiable conduct, and was intrustea with the
principal care of the other prisoners.

Among those confined with Joseph were two
persons who had held the offices of butler and
Daker in the king's household, and who for
some offence agamst the king were cast into
prison. These two men had each a remarkable
dream, which Joseph interpreted to mean that
the butler should oe restored to his place in
the courts and the baker should be nanged.

385

JOS

And the event wm according to tliu inter-
pretation. Two yean after this, Pharaoh had
a significant dream ; and after tr^rincr in vain
to obtain an interpretation of it froni the
mafficians and wise men of Earypt* the butler
told him of Josei^h, and related what had
taken phice in prison. JoBeph waa imme-
diately sent for; and after hearing the dream,
interpreted it to signify the anproach of a
■even years* famine immediately succeeding
the same i^riod of plenty, and, at the some
time, he recommondcHl U> the king the a])]x»int-
ment of a suitable i>er8on to make provision
for the season of want, by laying up one-fifth
of the annual prodnce of the land during the
season of plenty. Tlie suggestion was adopted,
and Joseith was forth^dth apixiinted to this
imix)rtant and rcs])on8ible post, and so l)ecame,
at thirty years of age, second ouly to tlie king
in digiutv anil authority. He also married
tile daughter of one of the inriests of Kg}*pt,
and had two children, Manassoh and Ephraim.
When the seven yearn of famine came, it
spread distress thniugh all the countries around

Egypt, in which no pro\'ision ha<l been made ;
and among them was the land of Canaan,
where Joseph's father and brethren still lived.
It was soon knovin abroad that pronsions
were to l)e had in Kgyiit, and ten of Jacob's
sons wi'nt d(»wn thither to obtain a supply,
leaving Jk'iijaniin at home, as his father feared
some niixcliicf might befall him if ho should go
with them.

The s<»nH of Jacob, on their arrival, w<?nt in
before Joseiih and made known their errand.
Instead of receivinj^ the exiH^cti'd onler, they
were charged with being spies, and with having
crime thither for an evil jturiHW. This they
denied, <leclaring briefly the history of the
family and the honcHty of their puq>o8c. After
a series of exi)eilientH, which were designed to
awaken their couHcienccs and lead them to
repent of their sin. Joneph di^)cIosed himself to
his brethren, and immiMiiately made the most
liberal arrangements fi»r the removal of his
aged faUier and the whole family to Kgy]>t,
and their comfortable settlement in a province
Ir^ themselves.

Joseph's iidlitical foresight and integrity
were displayed wlien, in the sixth year of the
famine, the Egy])tians were obliged to sell
their lands, and even themselves, to pay for
the com they bou^dit ((jlen. xlvii. 1-22). This
changH in the holding i'>f land was a s|>ecies of
feudal institute which Joseph intriMluced. Ilie
land held in freehold became the i)roperty of
tiie king; and the testimony of protane writers
to this state of things is remarkable. Ilertxlutus,
repeating Egyptian tradition, afiinns that
Sesostris Iiad divide<l the whole Luid among
the i)eople, giving to each i>erson a sqiuirc
portion of e<pial extent, ana collecting from
each an annual rent, by the aggregate of which
rents he made up his revenue. If at any time
the flooding of the Nile carried awa3'a [)art of the
land of any one, he was to make a representa-
tion thereof to the government, when it would be
officially surveyed, and the rent assessed upon
386

JOS

that only which remauied. Diodoms ttatss
that all the land in Egypt was the popcrty of
the kings, the priests, or the mihtuj; and
this statement agrees with what we fnithcr
from the records. Aooarding to HetMotuk
"the real estate of the military order diflfend
from that of the j>eMaiit, since it was free of
rent ; but otherwise ii bdonged to the la'ape, sad
was given by them in fee to the •oldieEy.'* So
that, while the priests held their luds in
right as a privilege of their order, the soUiecf'
possession differed not essentially from that d
the peasantry, except in that the rent wu

Kid in militarpr service instead of nrodnoa
erodotuB notices also the £act, tbat tiie
priestly caste were not dependent for their
maintenance upon their own property.

At the death of Jacob, seventeen yean ifter
his removal to Egsrpt, Joseph was iireicnt,
and received the patnarcVs prophetic bleiriiig
(Gen. xlix. 22-96). His treatment of hb
brethren after their father died illiistnitei kii
kindness and generosity (Gen. L 15-21). Thi
whole story is told in affcMctinff simnlicity sad
pathos. The eye of the resMter glistens wxdi
the starting tear as he nrooee£. Josq^i
generous nature wins for nim a rea^T admin'
tion.

Fiftj-four years passed away, and he sbesdf
saw his posterity to the third and foortii gcs-
eration. When, at the m^ of 110 yean, ba
died, he left it in charge with his countiyiBai
to take his Ix^nes, or iub mommy, with thdi
when they should leave Egypt — an event d
which he doubtless had divine mtimatioiL He
had perfect faith that they should leave Egrpt*
and ne wished not his bones to lie in tlwltfa
of :^he stranger and oiipressor. (See Ectr;
Hedbewh, Jacob.)

2. JosEFH OF Arivathxa (Matt zxviL 57.
59)— a W(>althy dtizen, probably rendiiig in
the vicinity of Jerusalem, and a man of enunaC
wisdom and piety (Mark xv. 43; Luke xni.
51). He was a disciple of Christ, thou^ kt
did not appear openly an such (John six. 38).

It is saiii that the Jews, as a mark of igno'
miny, did not allow the bodies of those ezecated
as malefactors to be deposited in the toDbs^f
their fathers, except the flesh had been pR*
viously consumed. It was to prevent this w
of the body of Christ that Joseph so eeity
asked leave to remove it and place it in bi
own t4)mb. Thus he fulfilled the piobbecj.
*' And he made his grave with the wiSmoI sbd
with the rich in his death *' (Isa. liii 9L

a (Matt L 18) The husband of Bbiy. Or
mother of Christ, was by occupation a otf-

1)enter (Matt xiii 55). at whidi trade «»*
lave supposed our Lord himself labouied util
he entered on his public ministry (Mazk ti ^
(See Carpeot^r.)

Joseph is called a "just nuui " (Matt L tk
which, in this connection, may imply ha kw*
ness and tenderness, as well as his intepi^t
which is its usual import He waa infoia"
l^ an angel that Maiy was to be the awch*
of the promiBed Messiah, and had ai'i"^"imii'^
her to Bethlehem to be reg^gtond moeomi^

JOS

the law of the country, when Chriit was bom.
When the babe was forty days old, Joseph
and his wife went with him to Jerusalem, m
obeervanoe of the law of Moses; and when
about returning home to Bethlehem, he was
divinely admonished to ao into Egypt, for
Herod the king was resolved to d^troy the
in£uit Redeemer, if he could get him into his
power. After the death of Herod they set out
a^^ain for home; but, apprehensive that the
long's successor, Archelaus, might be equally
cruel, they thought it safer to go into Galilee ;
and they took up their abode at Nazareth.
When Jesus was twelve years of age, Joseph
and Mary took him with them when they
went up to Jerusalem to celebrate the feast of
the i>a88over; and after that we find nothing
more of Joseph in the sacred history. It is
ffenendly supposed he died before Ohnst began
nis public nmustry, as he is not mentioned
with Msjy. and as Christ commended her to
the care ot one of the disciples (John xix.
25-27).

The apocryphal gospels are full of legends
about Joseph, afSrming that when he married
the Virgin he was a widower with several
<duldren, who are called '* ^e Lord's brethren "
in the canonical gospels. (See Bbotheb,
Clbopas, James.)

Joseph Babsabas JudTUS (Acts i 23)— one
of the two men the early church voted on to
fill the vacant apostleship, — different from
Joses (Acts iv. 36), and Judas Barsabas (Acts
XV. 22).

JOSES (Mark xv. 40)— one of the brothers
of Jesus. (See Brother, James.)

JOSHUA— Jehovah tavea. 1. (Josh. i. 1)
Was the son of Nun, and is called the ** minister
of Moses " fExod. xxiv. 13), from the fact that
he assisted nim in the execution of his office.
The original name was Oshea (Num. xiii. 8),
and he is also called Hoshea (Deut. xxxiL 44).
Joriiua is a contraction of Jehoshua (Num.
ziiL 16) ; and Jeshua, or Jesus, is the Greek
mode ot writinjg^ Joshua, as in Acts vii. 45 and
in Heb. iv. 8, in which passages the Hebrew
word Joshua ought to nave been retained.
Joshua is introduced to us at the time the
loraelites were about to contend with the
Amalekites at Rephidim. He was appointed
by Moses to command the forces of Irarael on
that occasion (Exod. xvii. 9). He was then
dbout forty-fourvears of a^, though considered
a young man (Exod. xxxiiL 11). In prospect
of the death of Moses, Joshua was set apart to
succeed him as the leader and deliverer of
God's chosen people (Num. xxvii 16-18:
Deut. xxxi 7-14 ; xxxiv. 9) ; and at the age ot
eighty-four he passed over the Jordan at the
head of the hosts of Israel, and entered the
land of proimse. Then commenced a series of
wars with the Canaanites, in which Joshua
and the people of Israel were merely the
instruments of God's righteous judgments on
these wicked nations, the cup of whose iniquity
was now completely full, and whose impious
and abominable deeds loudly cried to heaven
for divine vengeance. Jericho, the city nearest

JOS

to them| and the one first attacked, was anb-
dued without a contest. It was expressly
forbidden to the Israelites to touch the spoil of
this!|U^, for it was utterly devoted to destruo-
tion, wiui all its wealth. But Achan coveted
and took part of the spoil, and concealed it in
his tent. In consequence of this act Uie host
of Israel were unsuccessful in their first attempt
on Ai, and great distress and discouragement
seized the whole multitude, and even Jodiua
lay all nieht uix>n the groimd in mourning
and supplication; for now the Israelites,
being once repulsed with loss, appeared no
longer to be mvindble (Josh. vii. 6). The
crime of Achan was mrought to bght b^
recourse to the lot, and he and all his
family suffered an exemplary pumshment.
(See Achan.)

The Gibeonites, who lived near, fearing
that destruction was at hand, made use of a
stratagem to preserve their lives and their city.
They sent messengers to Jo^ua, who were to
pretend that they came from a very remote
people ; and to confirm their stor^r, they ^owed
that their bread was mouldy, their wine bottles
of skin old and patched, and their shoes and
Gnuments very much worn. On this occasion
Joshua neglected to apply to the Lord for
direction; and, deceivea oy the false appear-
ances above mentioned, entered into a solemn
league vrith the Gibeonites, which, although
obtained by fraud, he did not think it expedient
to break. The other cities of Canaan, witii
their kings, now entered into a formidable
combination utterly to destroy the Gibeonites,
because they had made x>eace with Joshua;
and a mighty armj, led on by manv kings,
was actually drawing near to Gibean, when
they, in all haste, sent messengers to Joshua
to come instantly to their relief. He did not
delay to comply, and marched all night as
well as da^, and immediately attacked and
defeated this mighty army; and the day not
being sufficient for the pursuit and destruc-
tion of the Canaanites, Joshua commanded
the sun and moon to stand still, which they
did for the period of one whole day, by
which means ne was able utterly to destroy
those whom God had devoted to death, ( Jodi.
ix.,x.) (See Sun.)

Joshua was employed about sixteen years in
the conquest of Canaan; after which tne men
of war belonging to the tribes of Gad, Keuben.
and the half -tribe of Manasseh were permittea
to return to their families, and to the inherit-
ance which Moses had nven them on the other
side of Jordan, where tae land of the Amorites
had been, at their own request, assigned to
them, (Josh, xxii) Of those who came out of
Egypt in adult age, not one survived to enter
Canaan but Joshua and Caleb, according to
the word of the Lord.

When the war was terminated, Joshua lived
in retirement and peace, in a poss^on which
the children of Israel asngned nim in Timnath-
serah, of mount Ephraim (Josh. xix. 50).
When he found that nis end was approaching,
he assembled the Israelites, rehearaed to them

387

JOS

the history of the providence of God towards
them, and finally put it to them to choose that
day wheUier or not thev would serve the Lord,
lirnfessing hU own full purpose to continue in
the service of God as long as he lived (Josh.
xxiv. 15). J«i<(hua died at the a^ of 110 years
(Josh. xxiv. 'Jl>), having been a* witness of more
oi the wonderfiU works of <4od than any man
who ever lived, except, i>crhaps, his comiianion
Caleb.

The character of Joshua is i)re-eminently
that of inti'grity and ])atri«»ti(aii. Hicre was
no KelHsh tini'v in his nature,— all was free,
generouH, ana lofty. N«) fiuling of his is
reci»r(leil in S(Tij»turc. His heart and life
were given to his c<)untry*8 welfare and the
service of Jeliovnh. Though he was a military
dictator, lie never abused his ]>ower. His
conquests were in ChhYh name, and in ful-
filmeut of God's promi><e to the chosen
people.

2. (Zech. vi. 11.) He was the high priest of
the Jews when they retuminl from Babylon.
He u^i^tetl Zenibba1>el in rebuildin;;^ the
temple (Kzi-a v. 1, 2; Hag. i 1; ii. 4).
Zeciiariiih kaw him repreik^nted as standing
bef<jre the Ij4»rd in iilthy garments, and Satan
standing at his right liand to accuse and resist
him ; but an angel rebuked tlie devil, and
arrayed •r<ishna in oilier raiment (Zech. iii.
1-4). Not lonu' after, Zechariah wan directeil
to nmku a golden crown for him (Zech. vi.
10-14).

JosiiTA, BOOK OF, ifi the sixth in the arrange-
ment of the IxMiks oi the lUd Trhtameut. It
is H hi>torv of the Israelites under the K<>veni-
ment <»f Joslnuv, the successor of Moses. It
is Bup])ose(l t«) have In^en written by duslnia
(except the last iivc verses), and it rec(»nls the
acc<iiii])lishuient«if G<Nrs]irwniiso8tohis])eoj>lo,
and his judginenU uiniu the idolatrous iiati(»us
of Canaan. The coutiuent <»f the ])rouli^ed
land is relat(*d (chs. i.-xi.); tho diviMon of it
among the tribes is given in this l)«»om!wlay
]iiN)k (chs. xii.-xxii.); and the counsels and
death of .r»>shu;i, (olis. xxiii., xxiv.) Clauses
occMirring here au<l there have also been added
by a later hand. There is no reason, however,
to di»ubt the genuineness of the l)ook. Its
minuti-ness of l(»c:d deUiils shows that its author
was evidently an eye-witness of the events
rea»rded by him— one who could also say,
gvortim pitrs ma<jimfui.

It has l)cen remarked th<it the book of
Joshtui bears tho same relation to the Penta-
teuch—or five books of Moses — as the Acts of
the Ajxjstles bears to the four gospels, I'ho
Pentateuch contains a history of the acts of the
great Jewish legiulatiim imder the innnediate
authority and direction of God, and tho laws
on whicn his ancient church should be estab-
lished ; and the b<M>k of Joshua shows us the
end of tliese laws, and how the church was
established in Canaan. The anali^ between
this and the relation of Acts to the gospels
is sufficienUy obvious.

llie book of Joshua records the completion
of the i)romiso which God had long before
388

JOS

mudi^ to Abrah«iiL|Hid was written vrSAk
ayowed pforpoae. E^eiy Tcne bida na exdaim,
"This is the Loid*8 dcniiff"— "He hath beea
mindful of ua— he will uiesa ua." It ii ths
proof of God*8 fidelity; for hia promiie to the
childless patriarch waa, *'I willgive thee tUi
land." The st^le is aimple and onpiKteDdii]^
It refers aa witnessea to symbolic namei, to
public monuments, and aoch well-knova
writings as the book of Jaaher, of which the
passage (cb. x. 12-14) respecting the sfcudias
still of the son and moon, aeema to be a qnotip
tion. (See Jasheb.)

JOSIAH-VeAoraA*a «re (2 KL xzi 24)'4hs
son and sucoessor xA Amoi^ Idn^ of Jndih,
began to reign when he was bat eight yean of
age, and was remarkable for his integixty and
piety. He gradually aboliahed the idolatrooi
customs of his predecesson (2 Chr. xxxxv. %
and in the eighteenth year of Ida reign begn
a thorough repair of tho temple. In tht
progress of this work HUkiah t£e lugh prieit
found a copy of the law of Moaea--a lara
treasure in those days of degeneracy tad
corruption, when God and hia institntMBi
were forsaken and contemned on every ode.
Josiah himself was but imperfectly aoquainled
with its contents until thev were read to \m
by one of his officers; and then he was otct
whelnutl with grief to find how far they and
their fathers had deiiarted from the right war.
(See H I LKI A.H. ) He, however, humblea hisue^
l>ef<»re God, and received t^e moat preciota
])romises «if the divine favour (2 Chr. zhit.
2('i-2S). He then assembled the people, aad
]>ublished tlie law in their hearing; aad
they all united with the king in a soksin
vow of obedience. After thia he ntterlr
destn)ywl every vestige of idolatry, hw
images and temples, and then, by diviw
conunand, causea the feast of the pasdonr
to be celebrate<l with unusual lolemnitT («
Chr. XXXV. ;M8).

This ])ious king seems to liave been aoccncvT
to his own premature dcaUi ; for the king n
Eg>'i»t, wh(» was marching with a great txmy
:u gainst tho king of Assyria, assured him thtt
he entertained no hostile design against him or
his kingdom, and entreated him not to infte^
fere with him in his contest with the Idn; ^
Assyria; and, to influence Joeiah, Kecboj*^
tended to have rcceiveil a drnimunicatioa n«a
heaven, by which the king of Judah was ex-
pressly forbidden to meddle with lii™ in la
expedition. But Josiah, tbinlring it dangercoi
to })ermit a large army to march thzoosfa ^
territories, or, more pn>bably, being in uip*
with the king of Assyria, he could not ««-
sistently comply with the demand of the ksB?
of Kg>i)t ; and even if he wished to remaiB
entirely neutral in the wrar, he could not aDov
one of the contentling partiea a free paM^
through his territory without focfeitiiig bi
neutrality. \Vhateyer might have been Im

JOT

brought tu Jernaslem, where he di«d, and wm
biiri«d in one of the Kimlchne of hii fuhen.
No king, perhaps, was erer more deeeiredly i

... . lincerely

bswiiledbyliiBpeopli. _ _,

his death was the end of prosper-
ity to the kingdom of Jodah.
Jeremiah the prophet ws« great-
ly affected by it, and oompoBBd
an elegy on the occasion (2
Chr. xiiv. 25); and all those
sccngtomed to celebrate in aotig
the worth and achievements of
men of great eminence, both
men and women, mourned Josiah
for agea alter his death. In-
deed, the monming was mch
as to become proverbial (Zech.
xil 11). He WBB only thirty-
sine yean of age when he died.
(SeeNEOHO.)

JOT (Matt

(in Greelc, Iota)

name of the 1

original langua^

word CaMF. The accompanying ent, ahnring
the diapodtion and arrangement of Uie trtbea,
eipli^iu what is said nnder that article ; whieh

itter i

1 the

s used, and this letter in that
language is the least of all the
letters of the alphabet, being
shaped Dot unlike our comma.
1 proverbially oaed by

._.. _ ebr — '- -^-"- "--
least thin,
henoe the

idea that not the least require-
ment of the commandments of
God shall in any wise be dispensed with ;
tbey shall all stand to the very letter. (See
TrmA)

JOTS AM— pa-fedioaof JfhoToh. 1. (.Tudg.
it 5) The youngest son of Jerubboal,

""-•■>

«DIV1S.OZ.-CA«PO»«DS

a: 180.400.

i.

9

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s

il

».nu'.

■«.

11

f

1

i

P 5

3

S

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1

j.

■OOfSOI M

Gideon ; the only one who escaped fnn

>t Ophrah ; and this he did by a

oealing himself: (Sob Abf '

2. (2 Ki. IV. 32) The i

the

oealing himself: (See AbiKelECH.}

2. (2 Ei. IV. 32) The son and sncceasor of
Uiziah or Azariah, and Uie eleventh lung
of Judah. He actually rcdgned forty-one
years, being associated with his father for
twenty-live years before his death. His sole
wlmimstration of the government was only for
Biiteen years (comp. 2 Ki. iv. 30, 32, 33).
His eiample was boty; his reign was peaceful
»nd prosperous, and of course beneficial to the
kingSom (2 Chr. in-iL 2-6).
JOURNEYINGS OP Israel (Num. ix. 20).

gee WiLDEEHESa.) The habitation of the
ebrewB, in Egypt, was in Goshen, which is
■opposed to have extended from a point above
Cairo to the Mediterranean, indudmg the land
on both sidea of the eastern branch by which
the Nile discharged its waters; and bonnded
on the east by the wilderness, and
■■ -nouotains which semr

id Sea from those of tl

Their joQmerings commenced on the fifteenth
day of^ the nret month (aboat tha middle of
our April). Ills form and appearance of the
busts when encamped may be se«n under the

Their ,

miles north-west of Suez, to Succoth; <
last (as the name signifies bootta) was probably
□othu^ more than a convenient encampment.
The distance between these two placee is
estimated at 30 miles. Their course must
have been a little north of east, to pass round
the end of a mountiun which stood in their
way. From Sucooth to Etham, in tlie edge of
the wilderness, was a long march, the stages
being at least 60 miles apart ; but they were
flying from an enemy, and there was not one
sick or feeble among them, and their God bore
them as on eagles' wings; so that it is not
impossible that they passod over this distance
in twenty-four hours. The distance to the
Arabian Gnlf may^ however, have been 12 or
16 miles less, anciently, than at present, aa
there are clear indicatioos that the water has
receded about that distance. Now they re-
ceived an order from God to change their
course, and, instead of going eastward in the
wilderness, in a direct line, to tnm southward
and pass along the coast of the Red Sea,
keeping it on their left, and the mountains
already mentioned on their right. Pursuing
this route for about 32 miles from Etham,
which was formerly on the northern point of
the Aiabian Gulf, or 20 miles south of Suez,
now occupying the land at the end of one arm
of Uie Red 3i^ they anired at a place where
there seems to have been a gap or opening ia

JOU

the moimtaiiui towardfl Esypt, and a creek or
estuary which obstructed their further progroes
to the south. Here at Miicdol, over against
Baal Zephon, and near Pihahirotii, when
enclosed on every side but one, they were over-
taken by the chariots and horsemen of Pharaoh,
and must have been utterly destroved, had not
(rod miraculously interposed, and opene<l for
them a passage through the sea; and still the
Egyptian host would soon have overtaken
them; but they were overwhelmed by the
sudden reflux of the waters to their former
channel (See Ked Sea.)

Having cnnised the gulf, they went forward
into the ^vildemess, a journey of three days,
and came to Marah, whose bitter waters were
miraculously rendered sweet for their use.
Marah corresponds with the well now called
Ain-Awarah, whtme waters are bitter. The
next journey was to Elim, " where were twelve
wells of water, and threescore and ten palm
trees. ** This place, as Niel luhr and Rurckhardt
agree, is now called Wady GhurundeL There
is at this ]>lace now a copious spring, and
water may l)e obtaine<l anywhere around by
diginng for it; so that we nee<1 not exi»ectto
find the ])rcoise number of wells which existe<l
in the time of Moses. Hitherto their march
yr&a {parallel to the sea, and at no great
distance fnmi it; but n«)W tlie coast chnn^oH
from srmth-en>t t*) south, and tlie strai^^ht
course to Sinai leavus it more to the ri^^lit.
From Elim they journeyed thn>ui,'h Dophkah
and Alnnh to Roi>hi(lim, where waUT was first
obtained by smiting a n>ck with the roil of
Moses; an«l here the Israelites were first
attacked by their ini^ihieable ennmies, the
Anialekites (Extnl. xviu 3-8; 1 Sam. xv. 2).
Their next encampment was in the desert of
Sinai, where they remained eleven months,
having R|)ent between two and three months in
coming f n an Eg>'pt t« > this j »lace. 1 1 ere they re-
ceived the laws and institutions from Jehovah ;
and here the tabernacle was erected and C4m-
»iecrated, and the whole ceremonial service
enacted. On the twentieth day of the second
month of the secitnd year, the pillar of cloud
and fire an)He from tne tal)enia(;le, where it
had rested for some time, and by its course leil
them into the wilderness of Paran, called
** the great and t«!rrible wilderness" (N'um. x.
12). \VTien they came to Kibroth-hattaavah
they pp>voked (lod to destrf»y many of them
for tiieir inonlinate lusting, and for their
ungrateful rebellion (Num. xi. 3-1). This
place is also called Ta1>erah ; both names being
derive<l from the fearful destniction of the
people which occurrtMi here. From this i)lace,
where they remained long, they marched north-
ward through Hazeroth, Kithma, Kimmon-
])arez, Libnah, and Kadesh-bamea, whence
the spies were sent to explore the land. On
the rebellion of the people, occasioned by the
re|K>rt of the spies, they were ordered to get
them "into the wUdemess of the Ked S^"
(Num. xiv. 25). Now their march was retro-
grade, and they came into the same wilderness
of Paran which they had passed some time
aiK)

jotr

before, bat by a diflPennt nmte. How niiidi
time taey spent in the wildemesi befcte they
reached Eaon-ffeher, a port on the essten
arm of the Rea Sea, is unknown; but fiftees
stations are dutinctlj nameid. Probably thef
were sometimes stationary for a long period;
but in all their mardiings and restings, they
were under the direction ol the pillar of ckmd
and fire which went before them TXam. iz. 23).
For many days they encompassed mount Seir.
and then turned northward to the desert cl
Zin, and ioumeyed to mount Hor, when
Aaron died and was buried (N^un. zx. 20-S^
Being disappointed in obtaining a prmgr
throu^ the country of Edom, t&ey retnned
to Ezion-geber: and passed round the sonft
side of mount Seir. At length they arrived sk
the bnwk Zared, or Benthammed, in fte
thirty-eighth year after the time of thdr
leaving Kad^-barnea, uid the fortiett
from their departure from the land of Egjvt
Fn)m Zared they made one march across tw
Arnon to Dibon, the ruins of which place oe
still visible about 4 miles from the Anon.
Thence they proceeded by several stages to
the mountains of Abarim, on the east of JcnIiB,
which chain of mountains they crossed at
Pisgah, from the summit of whiui Moses wii
indulg«Kl ^ith a view of the land of Canaan.
which he was not permitted to enter; and
here also terminated his useful and laborieui
life. Descending from these mountains, thej
came to Beth-jesimoth and Abel-shittim.
where they encamped on the banks of tbe
Jordan, which river they crossed as they had
done the Red Sea — on drygrouncL

When the Israelites left £gypt the number <iC
males above twenty years m a^ was 60S,650;
and when they arrived in sight of Caoaaa
it was G01J.'«); so that the decrease of their
number during the forty vears* wandering in
the iftilderness was 1S30 ; out it is romaricaUe
that while some of the tribes greatly increased
in population, others lost hidf their origisal
number, which is not very easily accoantod
for by tne facts recorded in the sapred histoiy.
As all who were above twenty years oi age
when they left Kgjrpt perished in the wilderneit.
it is evident that when they entered CaaaiB
there was not a man in all Uie host aboTt
threescore, except Caleb and Jcvshua ; so that
all the men were effective, and fit for military
service. In resi)ect to the fact recorded (Dent
viii. 4 ; xxix. 5) concerning the dothee of the
Hebrews during their ioumeyings, it maybe
prr.)i)tir to say that the history does not aeoei^
sarily imply that the clothes which they had
on at the outset were miraculously pieserted,
or that they grew with the growth of tiiar
children and youth. They had sheen, and
goats, and cattle on their march; ana tiicT
understood the arts by which these auaak
were made subservient to their necessity sad
comfort. Thus they were enabled alwm ta
pntcure seasonably good and suflSdent doSung;
and were saved from all sufiTering fj^ meat
venience on this score. It is also worthy flf
remark that in these marchea the wnea

JOY

and children led the way, this arrangement
Becuring that the feebler portion of the host'
determined both the speed and length of the
miurch, and tiierefore could not be worn out or
fatigued by it. (See Gamp, Hsbrsws, Joshua,
Hoses.)

JOY (1 Sam. xviii. 6) — is an agreeable
affection of the soul, arising from the posses-
sion or pros]^ect of good (Ezra vL 16 : Esth.
viiL 16). It is reckoned among " the fruits of
the Spirit" (GaL v. 22), and is chiefly used by
the sacred writers, especially of the JNew Tes-
tament, to signify a religious emotion. The
joy wmch springs £rom a sense of pardoned
sin and a umon of the soul to Christ is pure
(Luke 3LV. 10), certain (John xvi 22), imspeak-
able (1 Pet. L 8), and eternal (Isa. Ixi. 7).
Were there more of this gladdening emotion
in the churches, there would be a propor-
tionate development of activity and power.
The church, refreshed and exhilaratea with
joy in the Holy Ghost, would go forth con-
quering and to conquer.

JUBAL (Gren. iv. 21) — the inventor of harp
and organ, of stringed and wind instruments
of music JSee Musical Instbuments.)

JXTBlLt^B— trumpet blast. (See Feasts.)

JJTDAH—Jehovah't praise (Gen. zxix. 36) —
the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, was bom in
MesojMtamia about a.m. 2249. The tribe of
wbidi he was the head and representative was
the most powerful of the twelve (Num. i. 27),
and had the first lot in the division of the
promised land.

The prophetic blessing which his ^ father
pronounced on him (Gren. zlix. 8-12) is very
remarkable. It describes the warlike char-
acter and gradually increasing strength of the
tribe (comp. Num. ii. 3 ; Josh. xiv. 11 ; xv. 1 ;
Judg. i 1, 2; 1 Chr. xiv. 17 : Ps. xviii. 40 ; Isa.
jcxix. 1, where Judah is called Ariel,^ " lion of
God ;" Rev. v. 5), the duration of its power
— viz., until the coming of Christ, when Judea
became a province of Rome (comp. Luke ii
1-7; John xviii. 31; Actsv.37), and the destruc-
tion of their city, A.D. 70, when the Christian
dispensation had become established (comp.
Matt. xxiv. 14 ; Acts ii. 8 ; Rom. x. 18) in tne
glory and triimiph of the Messiah.

JuDAH, TBIBE OF, took the southem section
of Canaan, extending across from the Jordan
to the Meaiterranean Sea, and northwardly to
the territory of Benjamin and Dan (Josh. xv).
This poweiTul tribe possessed a fine territory,
ample in its limits, rich and varied in its
reeources.

In the catalofinie of the cities of this tribe,
we have the uttermost cities," or those
nearest Edom on the south; "cities in the
valley," that is, in the lowlands, near the
coast; "cities in the mountains," that is, up
In the interior; and " cities in the wilderness,^'
or along the snore of the Dead Sea (Josh. xv.
21, 33, 48, 61).

Of the cities of Judah several continued in
the possession of the natives (as Ashdod, Oaza^
Askelon, and EkronY, or, if conquered, were
afterwuds recovered.

JIT)

JUDAH or JUDEA, land of. In kter
times Judea, or Jew-land, denoted the whole
of Canaan, as in Tacitus ; and we read of " tiie
coasts of Judea bevond Jordan" (Matt. xix. 1;
Mark x. 1). Probably it was the name of
the southern iirovince west of the Jordan.
(See Canaa^ Galilee, Hebbbws. Jews,
Samabia.) This cut represents medals struck

to commemorate the conquest of Judea*
Judsea. personified as a woman, sits weeping
beneatn the palm tree, so characteristic oi
the country.
Judah, kingdom of. (See Kings of Isbabl. )
Judah, mountains of (Josh. xx. 7)— in-
cluded so much of the mountainous chain as
extended from the borders of Benjamin south
to Edom, and east to the vallev of the Jordan.
This was formerly called "the mountain of
the Amorites" (Deut. i 20).

Judah, wildebness of (Matt. iiL 1), was a
wild, uneven region on boui sides of the Jor-
dan/extending on the west from Jeridio to
the Dead Sea. It is also called " the country
about Jordan" (Luke iiL 3). It is described
by travellers as abounding with caverns, and
amidst the rocks and mountains neither
shade, nor tree, nor herbage, nor even moss,
is foimd. It was called "the wilderness**
pre-eminently (Matt. iv. 1). (See Desebt,

JOURNETINOS.)

JUDAS ISCARIOT (Matt x. 4) was one
of the twelve chosen disciples of our Lord.
Nothing is certainly known of his birth-place
or parentage. The word Iscariot may signify
man of Carioth^ a town of Judah, or of Kartha,
a place in Gahlee. He is called " the son of
Simon" (John vi 71), whence some have
supposed he was the son of Simon the
Canaanite, another of the twelve. He is
almost uniformly mentioned with the in-
famous distinction of the man who betrayed
Christ. The principal fact rehbted of him by
the evangeUsts previously to the conmussion
of the dreadful crime into which he fell, was a
marked displeasure at Mary for expending
upon our Lord so much precious ointment,
which might have been sold for much, ana
given ifi tne poor. The truth, however, was,
that he cared not for the poor, but he held the
purse of the company ; and it this money had
been deposited with him for the poor, he
would have had it in his i>ower to apply it to
his own use, "He was a thief, ana nad the
bag, and bare what was put therein." The
wonl "bare,* may^ mean bare away. It is
intended to explain why Judas is branded
as a thief — to wit. he carried the common
stock of monev, ana was in the habit of pur-
loining it for his own aggrandizonent. The
reproof which he received from his Master on

301

JIT)

thirt occaiiK>n wm pril>aMy the immediate'
canae oS hht determinati'in tu betray him. The '
■acred history nr|mr!ient« him ua p >ing immc- |
diately, and agnrein^; with the chief rrirsts
and elilen tn deliver him int<i their oanda.
After this, howe\er, he had the inipudenee to
retom a^^in, and was }ireMnit at the lart
interview between Thrist and tlie other ills-
dplea. Here our Lord anm »iinc*^I, in the hear-
ing; of all, tlkat one of hi:» diMripIe:! would
betray him, ami jiointed out Judaif by a
aignincant actiiin, to John at leatft, ai« the
pemon— on which he rteeuiM to have left the
table in dispIeaKure, anil abni]>tly: inrhapH
before the I/^nfA Smi]ier waa ' imttitutetL
Bein^j: now fully un«lcr the i»ower of the de\-il,
he became the leailer of a Iiand of soldiers
sent to apprehend Jesiu. The impious man
knew where hiit Master would be that evening;
and he had the effnaitery t) intrude upon him
in hia hourn of devotion ; and had agree<1 to
make known the pn>per i>er8on to the iioldierB
by the wnial sign of friendship and love;
therefore, when he led the band into the
■etiueKtered g&nlen of Cicthsemane, he went
np to JeHUA and kimt-tl him. Haj'ing, ** Hail,
Manter !" and received from the meek Saviour
no other reproof than. **.Jui.laH, l)etra^'et(t thou
the Son of man witn a kiss?" Hw w.-rvice
wa8 now done, and he hai\ tlie xtiptiluteil price
of hiK ini<|uity in liis ]H>SM.*«»ion. It is pr«>b-
able, therefore, that he did n«)t uecomKiiiy the
Kijldiens bock to the chief priests and elders,
liut ari Koon as his mind liad opiMirtnnity for
reflection, remorse heiz(r<l u|hiii him; .ind,
covetous as he was, ho could no Inn-^'i-r In-ar
about with him the {irice of innocent bI<KKL.
Having learned that his Master wa8 con-
denm«-d, he retunievl to the temnle, ami find-
ing the jH.T^ons fr«»m whom he ha«l received
tlie money, he east it d«>wn, and, unable to Inar
tlie burden of his misery, he went and hangeil
himself.

S{»mc tlieories have Infen framed to lesj^en
the amount of the ^uilt <»f Judas, but we see
neither their use nor warrant— i)ri<le and avarice
led to his fall. They su)»iK>se that Judas, in
hiit imT»atieiK-e, only resorted to a stratagem io
force Jesus to duehire himself as kinj,'— as he
reammed tiiat if Jesus were put into tlie hands
of the Kouians, he would free himself bv iin
overt act of rebellion, and iiublicly avow him-
Helf monarch of the tiews; but that, se^'inir his
])lan fail, and his Master passively hubmit to
condemnation, ho w:ls seisuid with hon'or at
the failure of his rash project, and coimuittetl
Huicido. l^ut tiuch imnatienco did not nece.s-
Hitattsthe Helling of his blaster; and the taking
of the thirty ])ii.'ces of silver will scarcely
amount to tho siii of him of whom it is sxiid
(Matt. xxvi. 24), '* Woe unto that man by
whom the Son of man is Ix'trayed : it ha^l l>een
g<KHl for that man if he hail not been Ixirii."

We are told, in Acts i. 18, " that falling head-
long, he burst asunder in the midst, and all
bin l>owelH giwhcHl out.** The inuMages are not
irreamcilable with each other ; for it is evident
tliat a man might he hung, and that ho might

JXTD

fan. and that tlie puti of hk body mi^ bt
torn arander in toe fall; bat bow the effect
wa8 prodnoed wfaicb is docribed in Uie abort-
cited paaeage am be ooly matter of eoioectiireL
It may have been that ne bong l>iiw— M ant
a precipice, or from aame very elevated pod-
tion, and that bis body was mutilated in tfait
manner by tbe fall; or Ida bodv mi^it fw-
ably have remained nndiaoovercMi imu, bof
partially decayed, it bad, by ita omn wcigb^
fallen, and peeented this horrid qwctMk
To support the first of these pontioBs, it n^
be enough to say, that the spot whidi tafr
tion designates as the ''potter^s fi^* bs
been visited by travellen, who tell vm thst ii
the \icinity oC the field are trees oesr Ai
brink of huge cBffs, on which, if he htag hiB'
self and fell, he mnst have been dashed mmKM.

The fact that Jndas was with onr Slarioar
in public and private, and bad tbe ooaSdgBm
of the hand ol disciples, oonnected with Ui
strong testimony to His innocence nnder toA
extraordinary circumiitancxB, is altogeCher !■•
explicable upon any other rappositioa tba
that the McMiah was what he cuimed to be,
—the Son of God and the only Sarioor of
rinners. The proof^ of Christ's intcgxity.
derived from the raidde of Jndas, is beynu
db<T"ite. ** The uTath of man praises G<u."

JUDAS OF Galilee (Acts v. 37)— an bum-
gent agaiuHt the Roman sovemment, who
excited fhe Jevrs to reoiat the enrohnmt aai
taxati<m of the pei>)de as a province of Boma

JU1)£ (Jude i. 1) was brother of Jamei, or
pcrhai^s the son of James, as either supple-
ment is alli>wable. If an apostle prof^, be
id called Judas (Matt. xiiL 55 ; John xir. S;
Actd L 13) ; and elsewhere I^bbens (Mitt. x.
3), and lliaddeus. Lfebbeus and Thadden
arc 8}*nonym8 (Mark ill. 18). (See BsOTHB,
CLF.oi'Aa, James.)

JUDK. H the one Jnde be an apostie,
there ia another Jude, brother ol Jeans (Matt
xiii. 55), who may be the author of the eputk
(See Peter, epihtlks ok.)

Jude, epi8tle of, occupies the last pisoe
but one in the arrangement of the books of th«
New Testament. It was written, as msaj
have supixMied, about a.d. 65; but this is b;
no mean.s certain. It seems to have been in-
tended to guard believers against prevsiMB
errors, and to urge them to constancy in die
faith. This is done by a vivid cxhibitian of
tbe terrors of God's jud^rments npon tfw
wickeil, and by a recurrence to that jnMt
l)rinciple of our religion, dei^endence on Vhn^
alone to keep us from falling. It resembkia
v<ilcanic eruption — abrupt, fiery, and avfsL
The prophecy cited bv Jude from £nocli vaj
have Ix'on one handed down from time imme*
morial as a genuine oracle of the antedilnritf
patriarch. The same quotation is foond, is-
deeil, in the apocryphal book of £noch ; bst
the comoiler of that book may bare caltr
embodied it in his composition, to giTe it tt
air of antiquitv and veriaimilitndeL 1%t
Epistle of Jude nas oonsiderahle 1 1 1 iiiHinm
to 2 Tcter. (See Exocu.)

JUD

JUDE A. (See Judah. )

JUDGES (Acts xiil 20). This was the title
of a class of ma^pstrates among the Israelites.
They were appointed originally by Moses, at
the sncgestion of his father-in-law, to relieve
him of a part of the duties of the chi^
magistracy. The judges spoken of, however,
in Uie above-cited passage, and whose history is
given in the book of Judges, were a class of
men raised up in eztraoroinary emergencies,
and invested with extraordinary powers — such
as the archons of Athens and the dictators
of Rome. The Cartht^enian Suffetes are
similar, the Hebrew title being Shophetim,
(See Hebrews.) It was some emergencjr that
summoned them into action, and the nuMority
of them do not seem to have exercised rule
over the entire kingdom. We^ are told that
they were given to the Israelites about the
,space of 450 years, until Samuel the prophet.
A chronolo^cal difficulty has occurred to some
in the reading of this passage in Acts; but it
is sufficient for us that, if there is a difficul^,
Paul's statement is in accordance with the
received chronological tables of his day, as
Josephus conclusively shows.

List o/Judget emdprobable term ofieniee.

Tears.

OthnieL 40

Under Eglon, 18

Ehud, Ac. 80

Under the PhiliBtines, nnk.

Shamgar, tink.

Under Jabin, 20

Deborah and Barak, 40

Under Midian, 7

Qldeon, 40

Abimelech, 3

Tola, 23

Jair, 18

Under the Ammonites, 18

Jepbthah, 6

Ibzan, 7

Elon, 10

Abdon, 8

Under the Philistinea, 40

Samson, ) 2U

Eli, f 40

Under the FhiliatineB, 20

Samuel, aboat 12

Saul, the flrat king.

These judges referred to in the preceding
list are not to be confounded with the judges
appointed by Moses after the departure from
^jgyvt. ^ It was one of the provisions of
the Jewish constitution that judges or chief
magistrates should be appointed in every
city, whose qualifications and jurisdiction are
eomciently defined in Deut. xvi 18, and xvii
8-10. At an early period after they left
Egypt, a rank of judges was established, the
lowest of which was anpointed over ten men,
and probably amountea to 60.000; then those
of nfty. one hundred, ana one thousand
men; the final jurisdiction, in all cases of
difficulty, being reserved to Moses himself
(Exod. xviii 21-26). After they became
settled in their respective districts of the
promised land, this judiciary system under-
went considerable modification. Judges were
then api>ointed for the cities or chief towns;

JUD

but it does not appear how ther were appointed,
nor that there was a regular sucoession of
them.. The law to be administered being
most familiar to the Levites, and tiiey being,
b^ force of circumstances, more conversant
with such subjects, it came to pass that the
judicial office generally devolved on them.

Judges, book of, the seventh in the arrange-
ment of the books in the Old Testament, and
the seventh in chronological order. It derives
its name from its contents, for it gives the
history of the kingdom unaer fifteen judges^
extending from a short period after Joi^ua's
death, or about to the time of Saul^ an interval
of more than 450 years (Acts xiii. 20). The
book contains the annals of a troubled and dis-
ordered period. Joshua and his generation
had left the earthy and the next race, safely
located in Palestme, soon forgot God, his
mercy, and his wonders.

The contents of the book are as follows : —
Some general account is given of the conduct
of some of the tribes towards the Canaanites
after Joshua's decease. Some of them expelled
the aborigines, others only reduced them to
tribute. Here the author tells us how Grod
supematurally^ warned the people against
aU seductive intercourse with the idolatrous
Canaanites. These warnings were despised,
and ruin and punishment were the consequence.
But when the nation repented, God sent deliv-
erers. The si)irit and substance of tiie book
is given bv its inspired composer, Jud^. ii. 16-
19. In illustration of these great principles
of God*s government, the book shows that —

When the generation which had renewed
the covenant with Jehovah (Josh, xxiv.) had
died, the Hebrews became idolatrous, and
were consequently subjected during eight years
te the yoke of Cushan-rishathaim, king of
Mesopotamia. But upon their conversion to
Jehovah they were delivered by Othniel, and
had rest fortv years (ch. iii. 8-11). Upon the
renewal of tneir idolatry they fell under the
harder joke of the king of Moab, who, in
connection with the Ammonites and Aina-
lekites, oppressed for eighteen years the tribes
on the other side of Jordan, and the southern
tribes on this side. Ehud restored them to
freedom, and a peace of eighty years followed
(ch. iii 12-30).

After this the northern tribes, in consequence
of their wickedness, were distressed twenty
years by Jabin. Barak was called to deliver
them by the prophetess Deborah (ch. iv. 24).
and the victory was perpetuated in a triumphal
poem, (ch. v.j In the time of this servitude,
or rather before it, the Philistines were sub-
jected by Shamgar (chs. iii. 3 ; v. 6). A jpeace
of forty years' duration succeeded the victory
of Barak (ch. v. 31).

The Israelites were afterwards, on account
of their apostas^^ oppressed for seven years
by the nomade Mioianites, Amalekites, and
Eastern people (i. e., Arabians), who are called
fch. viii. 24) Ishmaelites. They were freed by
Gideon, and fort^ years of peace succeeded
(chs. vi 1 ; viii 33). Here is added the account

393

JITD

of the idolatrous Shechemites, who chose
Abimclech, a son of Gideon, for their king,
with the distresses which tney experience
from him (ch. ix. 1-57).

Tola, of the tribe ot Issachar, who ruled the
northern tribes twenty-three years, an<l Jair,
who was governor on the other side of Jordan
twenty-two years, are merely mentioned (ch. x.
1-5); i>erhai« because they protected the people
rather by Huita]>le preiiarati(>ns than by war-
like tmdertakinpi.

As the Israelites extended their idolatries,
and honoure<l alm«)8t all the gods of their
neighbours, tlie tribes on the other side of
Jonlan were oppressed during eighteen years
by the Anmionites, who also attackeif the
Bouthem trilxM on this side, which alreadyhad

Sowerful enemies in the l^hilistines. Their
eliverer was Jephthah, who^ after his success,
conouered the jealous Ephnumitcs, with a loss
on tneir side of 40,0U0 men. He governed six
years (chs. x. 6; xiL 7).

Ibzan of Bethlehem, who was governor seven
years, ai>i)eAr8 to have defended the southern
tril>es against the Pliilistines (ch. xii. 8-10).

Elon, of the tribe «)f Zebulun, ruled the
nortliem tribes teu years (cIl xiL 11).

Abdon, of Kphraini, exercistMl authority
eight years over the tril>e.s who were situated
in the middle <»f the country (ch. xiL 13-15).

llie funitliem triln-'a were oppres8e<l by the
Philistineti forty vears, wluch i»eriod, however,
inchides no doul>t the times of il)zan ancl
Samson.

nien f»»llow other accotmts of idulntn.nis
customs, eHpeciully in the family of Micali,
and wo have a n-corjl of an infununiH crime in
<.fi1)eah of Benjamin, with an ao(>ount (»f a
combined war of all the other tribes against
this canton, followed up by a detail of its
ruinous conse([uence8, and the means taken
to remedy the evils which such a civil war
had necessarily occasioneil. llie l)ook of
Judges shows (iod's c« mutant care of his peo])le
—his compassion and long-suffering — for the
chastenings inflicted on them were but bh^stfinirs
in disguise. Its history is a striking and
continued verification of the great Theocnitic
i)rinci)»le titt<'re<l in lat<T times by Isaiah.

If ye bo willing and olwKlient, ye shall eat
the good of the kind; but if ye refuse and
relx?!, ye shall be devoure<l with the swonl :
for the mouth of the lA)rd hath h|>oken it"
(Isa. i. ly, 20).

Amimg various opini(ms as to the authorship
of this old history, one is, that it was written
by Samuel the pr<»phet- the last of the judges.
But there are different matttrials worke<l uji in
the l)ook, and the compiler from the various
documents is unknown.

JUDGMENT, JUDGMENTS (Exod. vi. 0;
xii. 12j, ITiese are words of fretpieut occur-
rence m the sacred Scriptures, and the sense
of them is generally determined by the con-
nection. When Grod's judgments arc spoken
of, the term may denote either the secret
decisions of the Divine will (Ps. x. 5 ; xxxvi. 6),
or the declarations of God*s vriH revealed in

am

JUN

the Scriptnres (Exod. xzL 1; Beat. viL 12;
Neh. ix. 13), or the inflictioiis of pmudinMiit
on the wicked (Prov. xix. 29 ; Exek. xxv. 11).
JUDGMENT HALL, or PR JETORmM
(John xviii 28)— a nx>m or office in the pelaoe
of the Roman goyemor where cauaes wen
tried and justice administered. The Jews
declined to enter it when the^ were prosecotiiif
their murderous purpoee acmuut the Redeemer,
lest they should be defiled Iby an approximatire
to the person of a heathen (comp. Acts xxiil
35). It is rendered '* common hall ** in Ifatt
xxviL 27 and in Bfark xr. 16L

JUDOHEKT BEAT, THX (Katt ZXViL 19), WU

an elevated place in the hall of indgmeDt,
from which aentenoe was pronounced.

JUDGMERT, BBEASTPLATB OF. (See BBKAST-
PLATR.)

Jui>GSiENT OF Urim. (See Ubiic.)
JcDOMENT, DAY OF (Matt. X. 15)— that im-
portant day which is to terminate the mtteti
dispensation of grace, when time shall be w
more, and the etenial state of all men bt
unchangeably fixed. That such an event if
necessary to vindicate the justice of God (Lake
xvi 25), and that sach a day is appointedLii
abimdantly evident (EccL xi 9 ; ^Utt xiLX;
Acts xvil 31 ; 2 Thess. i. 7-10 ; HeK ix. 27; 1
Pet ii. 9; iii. 7; 1 John iv. 17). That Jesw
Christ vriVL officiate as Judge is also appsnort
Ho is qualified to be judge, for he is God; aaA
he has a ri^ht t4.> 1)e judge, for he is man. Hii
o^-n people welcome him as judge. Their
brother in their own nature is to pronomm
their destiny ; and they are looking for thst
bk'sse<l object of hope — >~iz-« the riorioei
a])|)earing of their great God and Saviov
Jesus Christ (Matt xxv. 31, 32; xxvi 64;
John V. 22; Acts xvil 31; Rom. ii. 16; SOv.
V. 10). lliat the judgment will be univoal.
appears from Eccl. xii. 14; John v. 2&, 9;
Rom. xiv. 10, 11; 2 Cor. v. 10; Rev. xx. Ii
13. That its decisions will be final and ine*
versible, admitting Uie righteous to the joy*^
(Christ's kingdom, and dooming the mdud to
outer darkness and eternal despair, appew
from the foregoing scriptures, and also dob
Matt xxv. U"Ut; 1 Cor. xv. 52-57; 1 ThoL
iv. 14-17 ; Heb. vL 2 ; 2 Pet. iiL 7. ThU paiod

raised and redemption is completed.
Even so, come, Jjord Jesus."

JULIUS (Acts xxvii. 1)— the captain flftk
Roman guanl to whom Festiis, governor d
Judea, committed Paul, to be conveyed tp
Rome. Julius amMrars to have had greit
regard f«)r Paul. He suffered him to land tf
Sidon, and to visit his friends there; andiB*
subse<iuvnt part of the voya^ he opposed tke
violence of the soldiers, directed *g«™^ ^
prisoners generally, in ozder to save tiie apoid*
(Acts xxvu, 43).

JUNIPER (Job XXX. 4)'->a well-knovii tm
of the cedar family. Ptobably by the mi^
rendered juniper in Job, is intended a ipMitf
of broom, which is still ooDunon in the docrti

JUTJ"

of Arabia. Ths Spaouh name of ttiia plant,
rrtama—a. name introdDced by the Ifuon — ii
Evidaotly the uune with tli« Hebrew noon,
nihem ; and in 1 Ki. lii. 4, where it is uid
that Elijah lay and slept under a jniiip«r tree,

lea med for food is veiy evident (2 KL
1*. Ml, 39; Amos vii. 14). The brcxau was
used for food in periods of icardty, aa die
paflsagfl from Job uDpllea,
JcKiPEB, Coals of. (See Abkohk.)
JUPITER or ZEDS (Acta liy. 12) — the
chief of the heathen goda, having power over
all the rest The people of Ljcaonia, when
thej saw the impotent man at Lystra in-
etaatly healed, were disposed to r^^ard the
kpontTes as gods in the likeness of men ; and
aa there was a tradition amang tbem tbat their

EoTincs was once visited by Jupiter and
ercury, they were inclined to regard this
as a repetition of the favour. So they called
Bamabua Jupt^r, aod Paul {who was the
chief speaker, and probably oE no am^ elo-
qtience) Mercurg. To cany the miperstitioa
Dot, the priest who was accustomed to sacrifice
to Jnpiter, the tutelar deity of the city, whose
imafte or temple was before ths gates, brought

the Qtnal sacrifieM, decked out for the altar,
and would have joined ths people in the
religious worahip of the apostles, had they not
been persuaded to desist by their solenm
warnings. (See DiANi.)

JUSTICE (Ps. Luiii. 14)— ens of the
perfectioDB of the Supreme Bcdng, denotinD
the infinite rightwmBneea of his natDf«, M
his law, of his goTcmment, and of all hii

. JUSTnrcATioN (job _

•at \ Kom. iv, 25). These terms involve one of
the fundamental principles of the Cliristian
faith. They stand opjxiBite to condemn and
amdaanalvm. In their evangelical use, they
denote that act of God's sovereign grace by
which he accepts and receives those who

'ay of b^ng pardoned, eicept by b^eviiig
nd tr""*^"" ■" *^'* T-"*^ .i.^di,> nv-w^m* if- »

Bcation bf /aitk._ For Bit a

... „ . ithod of saIvBti<m.

Luther brouglit it to view at Che Eeformatdon,
and declared it to be the "article of a standing
or falling church." Such a gratuitous Justin-
cation, or rightening of a sinner in his relation
to Grod. affords at the same time tbe moat
powerful motive to a holv life.

The expression, " Wisdom is justilied of her
children (Matt. li. 19), is supposed to mean,
either that the fruits or ofFspnng of wisdom
justify all her claims, or that the children of
God are taught and mclined by Divine grace
to justify all His ways.

JUTTAH (Josh. XV. 251 — a town in the
mouutaJnoua district of Judat). A village called
Yutta still remoinj. "The city of Judah"
(irdXit loiia), in the hill country, haa been sup-
posed by some to be this village (Luke L 39).

vCAB. (See Meabuhes.)

> (Josh. IV. 31). or JEKAB-

xicxiu \iiBa. id. 26), was a city in tbe north-
ern section of the mheritance of Judah. just
west of the southern extremity of the Dead
Sea. It was the birth-place of Benaiah
(2 Sam. ixiii. 20).

KADE8H— farfy (Num. liii, 26)— probably
the same with Kadesb-bamea (Num. xxxiv. 4),
origituJly called En-mishpat (Gen. liv, 7)—

aroyalcityof UieCanaanites; and the spies
wBt« sent there to explore the promised land.

It haa often been soppiwed that there was a
Bseond Kadeah, a place east of the above, in
the desert of Zin, from whence measengste
were sent tu ask of the Edumites permission
to pass through their territory, and from

whence, too, the Israelites went up on Moont
Hor to bur; Aaron. But all the requisites of
the history are folly met by supposing only una
Kadesh, which sometimes means a dty, and
sometimes a rtgion. The tribes were twice at
this place : first, when God sent them back to
wander forty years; and second, when the
king of Edom refused them permiadon to
march through his territories.

KADM0NITE9 (Gen. iv. 19)-people of
the East, much the same as the more modem
Bene-kedem, "children of tbe East"

KANAif (Josh. ivi. 8J—ariveror brook whidi
formed the boundary line between Ephraim
and Manasseh, and falls into the Mediterranean
a few miles south of Cesarea, It is now called
!faJir-d-Saiah; but Robinson irienlifieaitwith
the yahr-d-Auitli. There was also a town of
this name in the tribe of Aaher. (See CaKA.)

KYDAR—bfark (Gt-n. xxv. mj-a Bon of
Iffhmael, whncie dtttfcendants settled in the
southern part of Arabia. l*robably Kedar's
ptsterity were the most numcruiu and power-
ful of the family of Irthmael; whence the
whole of that c<»iintrv u Mimetimes called
Ke<lar (Isa. xxi. 10, 17; Ix. 7; Jer. xlix. 28);
and the iHhmaelites generally are called ** the
men of Keilar/'

KEDKSH (J«wh. xx. 7)-calle«l KadeMi by
Jewish hiiftorians — was idtiuited in Upper
Galik^, in the tribe of NaphtaU. It was the
residence of Barak, an<l one of the cities of
refuge, and is called K(Klesh-na]ihtali (Judg.
iv. G), to distinguish it from another place <if
the same name in the tribe of Judaii (Jash.
XV. 2.')). The village Kades in 4 miles north-
west of Mcrom. Another place of the same
name bel(mged to iMsachar.

KEDROX. (SeeKiDBOK.)

KEILAU (Josh. XV. 44)-a city in the low
country of Judah, represented by the mined
ate of Kela, not far from Hebron.

KENATH (Num. xxxiL 42)-a city of
Manasseh, east of .Ionian, the supposed ruins
of which are called Kahuat. It is situated on
a bro<jk uf the same name, and there are
indications of its ha\'ing been once a splendid
citv.

ICENITES (Gen. xv. 10)— were apnarently
a clan of Mldia H)K>ken of as dwelling in
the highlands of Judah, near the Ammonites
and MiMibitt's (Nuul xxiv. 21, 22). In the
time of 8aul, they were foun<] dwelling among
or near the Amiuekite:*. Jethn>, the father-
in-law of M«»HeH, wart of this nation (Judg.
L 10); and for his sake, and Wcuho they
showed kindness to Israel when they came
out of Eg>'j»t, the Kenites were saved fnau
the destniction which came upon the Amalck-
ites (1 Sam. xv. t»). (See ilEriiABiTEs.)

KENIZZITKS (Gen. xv. I'J; Num. xxxii.
12)— another tribe of e.arly times, of whom
nothing definite Ls known.

KETU HAH— i«ct»w. (S.'o Autiaham.)

KEY (.lud-. iii. 2r»). The keys of ancient
times were <.»f very inconvenient size, and
shaped not iinlikt; a reai)ing-hook. As they
were generally of wotnl, they must have IxfU
Homewhat bulky, or their strength would be
insufficient. In m<»re m(Klem times, in trans-
ferring the government of a city, the keys of
the gates are delivered as an euiLlem of autho-
rity (IJev. iiL 7).

Travellers among the Moors say that it is
common to see a man of auth(jrity marching
along with a large brass key on his shoulder.
One comer of a kerchief is tied to the circular
jmrt, and hangs down in fnmt ; and by this
the key is balanced as it rests on the shoulder.
This fact forcibly illustrates Isa. xxiL 22.

KID (Judg. xiv. 0)- -or the young of the

?roat— was among the luxuries of the ancients
(ien. xxvii. 9; xxxviii. 17; Judg. vi. ID; 1
8am. xvi. 20), and is yet esteemed a great
delicacy by eastern nations. Kids were among
the sacnficial offerings (Num. viL 11-87). (See
Goat, Milk.)

;$a6

KIN

] KIDROX-nuMWjf (1 Ki. U. S7>— or CED-

I RON (John xviii. l)-ft TaUey which wpmtn

, Jemaalem from toe mount of OUtm, and

; forms the eastera boundary of the andeBt

i and modem city. About nine monthi in tk*

I year the channel of thi« wadyia dzy. It is oi

an average 9 feet in width. When swoDeB bjr

the rains the current is deep and xapid. lie

evangelist John calls it by a Greek name iriiick

signifies a vinUr torrtmt. It empties into tht

Dead Sea. nmninff to it in a goiige of ezta-

ordinary depth and wildneas.

KIX£ (Gen. zlL 2)— is nsed by the aocd
writers as the pluial of cow. The woid ii
employed figuratively by the prophet oqd-
ceming the Israelites, to describe toe fethitnm,
idleness, and loxuiy which chaiacteriaed than.
Thev were like the fatUngs of Pashsn, fM&K
carelessly and securely in rich paatoret caljts
])repare them for the ahragfato' (Eaek. xxnL
1«).

KING (Gen. xiv. 18)— the title of a nihr.
It is applied in Scriptiire to the chief of s
tribe, or to the niler of a ain^^ town or dtr;
and, of course, we need not be Bunoissd slw»
number who were often defeatedin a ngb
campaignJJoeh. xii 24 ; Jndff. i. 7 ; 1 Ki xx.
1, 16). This fact also erplaina G^en. mvi
31 and Deut xxxiiL 5. The title is an^
to Jehovah and to oar blessed Savioar (1 Tla.
L 17; vL 15). The oeremonv of connalioa
iH described, 2 KL xi 12. (See Avoixi; Gioin,

UFBRKWBb)

KINGDOM (Luke xii 32). The pieebe
import of this term can usually be detcuuiarf
bv its connectioxL In the New Testament it
often denotes either the^ srnritaal rdgn of
(lirist over the hearts of inuividoalBL or orcr
his church collectivelv (John xviii 36$.

KiNODOSi OF God (l Cor. xv. 60), KURHM
OF Heavkn (Matt lii 2). 'Hiese expieain
and characteristic terms sometimes denote tkt
state of glorv beyond the grave (2 Pet i 11):
more ^nenuly they denote the Gospel fr
pensation under the government of the Mesnk,
m distinction from the typical kingdom of ^
Jevn (Matt iii. 2; xxi 43; xxv. 1; Lukes.
1), 11) ; and sometimes they signify the Goipd
exerting a reigning power over the hearts tt*!
minds of men (Luke xvii 21 ; John iii 3^ 3:
Rom. xiv. 17).

KINGS OP Israel and JrnAH. M«a
made provision for the establishment of tlw
monarchical form of government But it w
only t4.)leratcd— not expressly sanctiimed. lo
the sketch which he has given he has carefoIiT
guarded against the common and unimMl
abuses of royal power. The ordinary naii-
festations of the pomp and pageaatzr of
desi)4>tic grandeur were expressly and solensl;
forbidden, llie monarch must not be a
foreigner, who had other blood in his veitf ^
spoke another language : he must be one of
tnenirtelves. He was not to be the slave of >
harem, nor was he to amass gold. He tM
not t(> surround himself with cavafay, krt 1><
should come into polluting inteicooiic vit^
Egypt— famous for its breeds of horsea ^

KIN

lie was to spend his days and ni^ts in stadying
the Divine law (Deut. xvii 14-20).

Bo3ralty so circumscribed and disciplined
has seldom been seen. Its temptations are too
ix)werful for the majority of those who wear a
crown ; and the kinp^s of Israel fell before the
dazzling seduction. All the monarchs of the
ten bribes were apostates from God, apd must
have been intrants over the people ; while only
a few of the sovereigns ot Judah preserved
their allegiance to heaven, or walked in the
way of David. The realm was to be presided
over by an individual who was only Grod's
vicegerent; but the kings forgot tms high
function, and usurped that i>ower and authority
which Jehovah claimed as sole and supreme
Sovereign of the nation. Royalty did not
correspond with the normal idea of the Theo-
cracy. God*8 selection &om time to time of a
man as his servant and instrument in the
government of the tribes was more in accord-
ance with the spirit and principles of the
Hebrew constitution. So we find that He
interfered more than once with the natural
order of succession among the monarc^is —
transferred the crown frcHm Saul to David,
preferred Solomon to Adonijah, and set apart
Jehu, the son of NimshL

It was when SamuePs sons had lost the
respect of the nation that the people sought
a king; for they wished one to lead them
in war. Samuel portrayed before them the
conmion forms of Oriental despotism: but they
would not hear (1 Sam. viii. 10). That there
was impiety, too, in this demand for a change
of government, is evident from God's words to
Samuel, — "For they have not rejected thee,
but they have rejected me, that I should not
reifim over them " (I SanL viii 7). The mon-
archical form of government not beinp^ the
original one appointed by God, the nation is
promised by the prophets the restoration of
lis ancient regime:— * And I will restore thy
judges as at the first, and thy counsellors as at
the beginning" (Isa. i. 26). The Hebrew
kin^ received a ver^ lowly homage from their
subjects ; and on bemg installed, were anointed
and crowned (Ps. Ixxxix. 20).

The following is a catalogue of the successive
kings: —

Or THJB WHOLK NATIOlf.

Saul, 40veara.

DftTid, 40| —

Solomoii, 40 —

Behoboam, 1 —

Or JUDAH AL05B.

Behoboom,

Abijam,

Asa,

Jehoflhaphat,

Jehoram,

Ahariah,

JnUrrtgnum,

Joaah,

Amawah, ..•

Usdah, or Axariah,

Jotham, ,

Ahai; ,

HezaUah,

16 years.

3 —
41 —
26 —

4 —
1 —
6 —

40 —

29 —

63 —

16 —

16 —

39 —

66 —

KIX

. Reignmi

Amon, 3 years.

JoBiah, 81 —

J«^-^ {^ZL,.

JehoiaUm, llyeara.

•^«^»°««**°» ^*'m^tha

Zedeklah, llyears.

CaptMt^

Or ISBASL ALONB.

Jeroboam, 33yeani.

Nadab, a —

Baasha, 34 —

Elah, 2 —

Zfmrl, 7da78.

Omri, 12yeara.

Ahab. 22 —

Ahaaaah, 2 —

Jehoram, 12 —

Jehu, 28 —

Jehoahaa 17 —

Joash, or) ,.

Jehoaah,!" 1« —

Jeroboam XL, 41 —

z«**^ {w^

ShaUom, Imonth.

Menahexn, lOyeara.

Pekaiah, 3 —

Pekah, 80 —

InterrtifHum, 9 —

HoBhea, 9 —

Capfttft(y,

KINGS, B00K8 OF. This section of Jewish
history originally formed only one book in the
sacred, writings. The original unity of the
treatise has an important oearing both upon
the genuineness ana authenticity of the b(K>k;
and nence it is of some moment to notice that
Origen, Jerome, and Josephus unite in testify-
ing that the narrative was not at first separated
by the present arbitrary division. Still, too
much dependence cannot be placed upon Uiis
point, for the Jewish Scriptures were arranged
m many instances to correspond as nearly as
possible with the letters of the Hebrew alpha-
bet (See Ps. cxix.j designation of its parts.)
It was customary with the Jews to name the
sacred books from the word or words with
which thev commenced; and while this prac-
tice may nave p^ven rise to the designation,
"Kinra" (1 Ki. L 1). it is right to observe
that the title is well fitted to indicate the
character of these historic compositions. This
will be more apparent when it is remembered
that, in accorcumce with Oriental custom, and
especially in the theocratic constitution of the
Jewish state, the character and influence of
the sovereign were not only closely connected
with all the internal and external decisions
and movements of the nation, but also had a
powerful influence on the character and
prosperity of the whole community.

The annals given in these sacred registers
are necessarily brief; but they extend from
the close of David's reign till the common-
wealth was dissolved — a period of 427 years.
Solomon*s accession at his father^s death, his
reign over the entire kingdom, and the separa-
tion of the ten tribes from Judah and Benjamin
under Kehoboam, are recorded in the early

397

KIN

chapters. Then follow details of the condition
ana movements of the rival kin^oms, till
Israel was taken captive by the Afls>Tian
troops of Shalmauezer; and the hLfttoxy is
contmue<l and closed by a rei*ord of the **acts**
of Juilah and its kings, till the inx'asion of
Nebuchadnezzar and the beginning of the
captinty in I^bylon.

Succinct as is the hist<»r>' contained in these
books, there are w>me i>eculiarities in them
which should not be overlooked, and from
which not a little may be learned. There is
not here a simple biography of the various
kings that occupied the thrones of Judah and
Israel, nor is there a mere detail of national
movements an<l events, nnr even a tabular
register of ecclt^iastical affairs. The throne,
the state, and the church are all exhibited in
their mutual relations and lK>arings u]ion each
other. Kings and i)eople are held up to view
as eziiding and acting under the immeiliate
government of G(mI; an<l hence the character
of the ruler is always tested by the mode in
which he adheres to the laws of the Ahnighty,
and develoi)8 the moral excellences of the
people. The notice <}f his accession to royal
ufiBce is generally accompanic>d with an esti-
mate of his conduct, and the standani to which
he is likene<I or contrasted is either the charac-
ter of David, of his own father, or of Jeroboam
the son of >iebat, *'who made Israel to sin.**
All the x^>litical events whieli are roconled
are brought forward chiefly to exhibit the
influence of religion on national pnwperity;
and, in this way, to show how the Divine
King of iHrael obser\'ed tlie conduct of liis
stibpects, and rcwanled their fidolity. <»rav«'n.wd
their wickeilnetw with exi»r«'sjiionM of righteoUH
indignation. And the affairs of the cliurch
are all jK»rtrayed with the (K-sis/n of giving

i)roniinencc to the wime imiNirtiUit truth.
«loIatry in Israel was treason against their
king; religious defection was oj^n revolt; and
everv act of overt wcktftliiess was an act «>f
rebellion. Ifence there is a constant compar-
ing or contrasting of n>Iigious state and feeling
with thitse of former times, and csiM*cially are
the oracles of tnith continually elevated as the
perfect standard to which the thoughts and
actions of all should be confonneil. The
M<>Kiic pMniises and warnings are strikingly
voritie<l in the lM)oks of Kings. For this object
they were written, and to the maniferitati(»n of
this the author has made his whole narrative
conduce.

Hatl the lK>okfl of Kings Iwen merely an
ecclesiastical or iK.>liticaI rt»coril, they would
have lx>nie an aspi>ct altogether different from
that in which they now api»ear. In the one case,
the acts of the liierarchy, the services of the
Levites, viith their accc»mi>aniinent8 of mus<ic,
and other indications ot sacred sr^lemnitv,
would have occupie<l the chief place in tiie
narrative, as in Cnronicles ; and, on the otlier
hand, ha(l the design been simply political, the
enactment of laws, the edicts ot kings, the
movements of the populace, and the commercial
or warlike dealings with other nations, would
3Ub

have Appeared pre-eminent thMagboiit tiM
record. According as either view had baa
kept i>roimnent, the writer wooM have caJkd
attention to the temple or the palace, to the
high priest or the monaxch. the priesthood or
the court, the altar or the tnrofne, the tithes cr
the taxes, the tribes mm they met and vw*
■hipped **within the coorta of God's ovi
house,** or the various sectiaoa ol the people ti
i they idled their industriooa pursuits with eigar
devotedness— scnne to their farms^ and oUmd
to their merchandise. Bnt the mspired Urn-
torian ever kept in view his allq;iance to \m
Divine King, was careful still to acksowle4s>
the hand of Jehovah and reoognize his sgner
in everythinff^ and therefore he contiiiail^
nnites uie religious and political elementi m
an essential requisite to the histocy of a theo-
cracy. Thus the great organ <d theocntie
communication and authori^ stiD aroeui is
the foreground. The agencv, and mfliKBoe.
and movements of the propnets are delulM
by the sacred penman with an air of reTCTenee
w'bich is due only to the minirters or ambsf*
sadors of the grea^ King. The prophets inter-
fered in the succession of the monarchs; sod
even the division of the kingdom in the dagfi
of Rehobosm was not completed withoat tfacv
instrumentality. In times of dc^enenu^thej'
roused the people to a sense of duty, ana oftoi
withstood the wajya-ardness of the mot^tA.
They kefit their divine <xymmiai4on before tbeir
minds, and justly regarded themselves as Ae
keepers of Jeho\'ah*s rights ; and hence tiM7
maintained the balance of power in their <ffi
haniis, disposed at times of the royal office,
and, in cases of sudden emergency, ne^bded
usual forms of procedure, assumed an authority
never possessed by an ordinary subject^ exe>
cuted judgment, and commanded obedicBN
Arith a decision so peremptory and proniit
that opposition was vain, and frequentihr in*

KMwible. The jirerogative of their IXviie
iiig was sacred in their ejres ; and they wow
alike careful to protect it tTom the usurpstiai
of tjTantfl or the invasion of the democtsij;
and the interests of the people were likene
i^-atcheii over with similar scrupulositv, brt
any haughty monarch should forget his o*b
subordination, and subject " the chosen peo|ds,*
who were destitute of the usual protective! ol
i iK>]iular rights, to all the evils of despotie
< t>Tanny. The prie8tho<Kl was more intimstdT
connected with, and csi>ecially, in many is*
stances, more dependent on the crown, sad is
these circumstances it was dutiful in the pco'
phetic IxKly to maintain its position, and displif
and exert its rightful authori^ as an emba^f
fn>m the Lord of hosts.

llie int<.*rference of the prophets in mMaa
of highest moment occupies a prominent pbtt
in the narrative. Nathan took part in tibe
dedication of Solomon to the throne (1 Ki i>
45). Aliijah predicted the division of A*
kingdom, and encouraged •Teroboam to pome
the revolt (1 KL zi 2SM0). Sbemaiah cam-
manded the troo]^ of Rehoboam to sepsnt*
and retire to their homes (1 Ki ziL 2l-tt)>

KIX

Ahijah foret<tliI the approaching niin of Jero-
boam as pointedly as he had done his elevation
(1 Ki xiv. 7-16). Baasha, king of Israel, and
his posterity, were doomed to destmction by
the words of Jehn the prophet (1 KL xvi 1-4).
The striking words and deeds of Elijah make
hum the object of deepest interest during the
time of Ahab and Ahaziah ; and in this reuniy
too^ is foimd the prophecy of Micaiah (1 Ki
xxiL 8). Elisha occupies a peculiar pre-
eminence during many reigns. Isaiah, too, is
recognized as an instrument of destruction to
the king of Assyria (2 Ki zix. 20, &cj» and as
the prophet of evil to the house of Hezekiah,
(2 Ki XJL 16, &C.) And to these many other
instances might be added. The fulfilment of
pirevious prophecies is also noted with peculiar
care by tne sacred historian^ prefaced by the
conmion expression, '*accordmg to the word of
the Lord" (1 Ki xii 15; xv. 29; xvi 12;
2 Ki ix. 36; xxiii 15-18; xxiv. 2).

Much variety of opinion exists with reference
to the author of these records, and the period
of their composition. The treatise is evidently
a compilationfromsomemore extensive national
register; but whatever may have been its
character, the book before us has all the
appearance of being the production of one
writer. There is unity of style throughout;
and in what may be called the commonplaces
of the history, there is a uniformity of expression

Suite inconsistent with a plurality of authorship,
'or example : fidelity to Jehovah, allusion to
Mosaic enactment, the death of a monarch,
and such like events, are noted by forms ^
speech which are either similar or precisely
iaentical (oomp. 1 Ki xxii 43 with 2 Ki xiv.
3; 1 Ki xii 31 with 2 Ki xvii 32, aUuding
to Num. iii 10: and 1 Ki xi. 43 with 2 Ki.
Tiii. 13). Not a tew guesses have been hazarded
with reference to the original documents from
which the abstract before us was made. The
inspired historian frequentljr refers to the source
of nis information, styling it the books of the
chronicles of the kings of Judah or Israel
These are not the books named Chronicles in
our collection of sacred writings, but were in
all probability public annals of the leading
events in the national history, which were
recorded when they took place oy the scribes,
or other state officials. Similar official annals
seem to have existed in the Persian empire
CEith. vil; X.2).

It appears from 2 Chr. xx. 34; 1 Chr. xxix.
29, &C., that the seers themselves were at times
employed in recording the events of their period.
Id accordance with this, there are several
instances to be met with in the course of the
narrative which exhibit a fulness and simplicity
of description that betokens their extnu^ion
from some document i)enned by one who
testified what he had seen and heard (1 Ki xx.
10; 2 Ki. xii 15; xiv. 8). Even this circum-
stance is a foundation sufficiently sure on
which to rest the credibility of tiie books of
Kin^; and when to this we add the inspiration
of him who compiled the ixresent r^fister —
inspiration which protected from error, and

KIT.

guided to the selection of those facts which
were fitted to instruct the Church through
coming age»— we have abimdant reason to rely
upon the sacredstoryasasure word of testimony.

Viewing the book, then, as a compilation
from older documents, there can be little doubt
that the writer, who gave the narrative its
present shape, must have lived in a later age.
The history concludes with an acooimt of tne
hberation of Jehoiachim from his Babylonif^
confinement. This event happened about the
twenty-sixth year after the destruction of
Jerusalem. This guides to the highly probable
conclusion that die books of Kmgs were
composed in the reiffn of Evil-Merodach, the
son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar. Jewish
tradition ascribes the authorship of the treatise
to Jeremiah the prophet— a supposition which
is greatly strengthened by the similarity of
style and idiom which is traceable between the
Umguage of the books of Kings and that of
Jeremiah.

Difficulties of some importance will present
themselves occasionally to the attentive reader,
especially in connection with ages and dates:
but it must be remembered that the sacrea
text has come to our times only through the
hands of many transcribers, and that in nothing
are mistakes more liable to be committed than
in the transcription of Hebrew numerals. (See
Chbonicles.)

KIR (Isa. xxii 6; Amos ix. 7) — ^perhaps
the country north of Media and Assyria, lying
alonff the river Csmis, now Kur, between the
Black and Caspian seas. Some are inclined to
identify it with the modem Kurdistan. Thither
the Damascenes, conquered by Tiglath-pileser,
were sent into exile (2 Ki xvi 9; Amos i 5).
The geography, however, is quite uncertain.

KiB OF MOAB (Isa. XV. 1)— the bulwark or
principal fortress of Moab, called Kir-haresheth
(Isa. xvi 7), and Kir-haresh (Isa. xvi 11), and
Kir-heres (jer. xlviii 31). Kerek, or Karak
(the modem name of the same place), is foimd
south of the Dead Sea. Its ruins are stOl
discernible^

KIRJ ATHj KIRIAH, or KIEJAH, means
city (Josh, xviii. 28) — thus called also Kir-jath-
jesaim—cUyoftDoocig — Kirjath-baal, and Baalah
(Josh. XV. 9, 60 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 6) — was on or near
the boundary line between Judah and Benjamin,
and is therefore mentioned in the above passages
as a citnr of both tribes; though in Juog. xviii
12, and 2 Sam. vi 2, it is called "a city of
Judah." This was the native place of Unjah
the prophet (Jer. xxvi 20); and it was here
that the ark remained many years (1 Sam. vii
1, 2 ; 2 Sam. vi 2). It was also inhabited after
the exile (Ezra ii. 25). Robinson is disposed to
identify it with Kuryet-en Enab or Abu-goosh.

KIRTATHAIM, or KIRIATILmi—
double city (Josh, xiii 19)— one of the oldest
towns eastward of Jordan. It was once the
possession of the Emims, and was then called
Shaveh (or, "the plain of") Kiriathaim (Gen.
xiv. 5) : and is afterwards spoken of as a dty
of Moao (Jer. xlviii 23). Tnere was a town tit
this name in Naphtali (l Chr. vi 76).

399

Km

KIKJATH-ARBA. (See ITkhron.)

KIRJATHSEPHKR, KIIUATHSAN-
NAH. (See Deuir, Towx.)

KISHON (Judg. iv. 7, 13)-an "andcnt
river** (Jndg. v. 21) nsbig at tlie fuot of m«)nnt
Ta1)or« and winiling fMuith of that mountain
tfiroii^h the plain of Jezreel, about 30 miles,
to I'tolemaiM, wliere it falls into the Meiliter-
nuK'on. Tlie Hourctw of the Kishon have been
tnuHHl by Boine to a place named ]\a8 el Kinhon ;
but there HeemH no uoubt that, at least at certain
Heawmrt of the year, a stream coineH from Talx>r.
It iH calle<l **the watem of Mejfiddo" (Judg.
V. Ill), bei'auRC M«^»ldo wrw built u]>«»n iti
mai^in. It i:» famous for the battle Ix^tween
])arak and Si^era, and f(»r the deittruction of
BaaVtf ])ro]>hets (I Ki. xviii. 40). It U called
"the river I m -fore Jokue^iur* (Josh. xix. 11),
and it fonned the boim<.lary between Zebulun
and Itwachar.

KISS ((ten. xxvii. 2i)). A kii*8 was a mode
of Kolutation Kii,aiifyinj; reverence (I*». iL 12;
Prov. xxiv. 20), natunil atfei-tion ((Sen. xxxi.
ftTi; Luke xv. 20), and reIijL»'iouA attachment.
Tile lirrit (JhrifttiuiiH were enj(»ined ho to um it
(I^)m. xvi. 10; I nie.s.-*. y. 20). llie eai<tem
moile of h«>n«>urin;7 a vrriting fntm a sovereign
is bv kissing it, and then initting it to the
forefioad. Kis.-ing the idol was a mrt «^f
heathen worship : an<l so (lod tells the ]>ro-

i)het Klijah of 7,<KK) who liml not kissed
iaal (1 Ki. xix. IM); and when the objoctn
of their iilolatntus reganl weiv out of reach,
they were accustomed to kiss their hand in
token of adoration (.Job xxxi. 27). The beanl
among frieu<ls was sometiuu's kiss(>il as well
aH the mouth. The wouian in the (iospels
kisse<l our Lunl's foot (liUke vii. ."JS).

The exi)ri's-<iou in I*s. ii. 12 may n'fer to a
custrtm at tlie con matiou of kinirs. After tlie
cniwu ha<l been iuii)osod, and the king ha<l
t^iken his covenants, the nobh-s pledged their
allegianei' with the kiss of homage, or, as the
Jews call it, "the kiss of majesty" (1 Sam.
X. 1).

KlTK(Lev, xi. 14), rendered VULTI'llK
(Job xxviii. 7) a ru|>acious bird of the hawk
siHjcies, uncle.an by the ceremonial law. IJut
it cimnot be distinct Iv identified.

KNKADIXO-TliOUiiHS. (See Brkap.)

KNOi* (Mxod. XXV. Hi) a tufted top or

LAC

projection used in architecture for onmiMBt
The Knglinh word represents two differait
Hebrew termR.

KORAH (Num. xri 1) ^ras the gmt-
pnnmdson of Levi, and ooosin of HoMi nd
Aaron. Being jealous of the anthori^ of
Moses and Auon, he entered into a conqiin^
with Dathan, Abiram, and On. to pot tben
down ; and. asaociatixig with tnemselTflt SO
princes or leading men of the Levitei, tfcej
went to Moses and made known their gaef*
ance. Moses reasoned with them upon die
folly and presumption of their fiymj^F^
Dathan and Abiram made other charges, ind
! refused to respect the authority of Moml
Moses proposed to test the reasanaUsiHi of
their cominaint by reference to God himidf ;
and, after separating all the rest of the peode
from them, be said that if Korah sod u
I iKirtv should die a natural death, tiiea be
I wvtuid agree that he was not a true mesMupr
from God ; bnt if they should be destwiyefm
an extmordinary manner, which he partknhily
described, then it should be admitted tfairt
they had provoked God. The dreadfol erent
showed that the oonspirahws were in the
wrong ; for thev and aU that appertained to
I them were swallowed up aUve m a moBMSt
j by the earth, which opened to leceiTe tboi,
and at the same time a fire was lent aal
consumed the 250 princes, mm^yug whom ii»
bably was Korah (Num. xvi. 2, 35).

Korah, as a Levite, was jealuNU of tiv
family of Amrnm, of the honour they hid
attained, and the influence they exerae^i
The other conspirators belonged to the tAt
of Keulxin, who for various reasons did sol
enjoy the dignity and preference to wlucL
from their primogeniture, they might tinak
themselves entitled. So they conspiied tfr
gether; and at last they sank "deep in nxs
as in jniilt."

KOllAHITES, or sons of Korah (1 Chr. ix.
19-.'U)— a special family of singers Tvchv
]jsalms are dedicated to them.

KNIFE (Josh. v. 2). Such knives wei« oAa
made of flint or some kind of hard stone. Knins
of metal must have viao been in use. T^
were used in tlie preparation of sacrifices brtbe
priests. Some si'em to have been won Wk
for fighting and for cutting' food at mesISi

TiAPiAN (ften. xxviii. 2)— the brother of
I^ebekah, and the father of iJacob's wives,
Iiachel and lA'ah. His conduct towards his
kinsman J<ic(»b evinced an avaricious and over-
beariuff disposition. He j»Tos.-5ly deceived
Ja^N>b, and obtained from him fraudulently
Feven years' service, in addition to seven whieli
he had aj::ree<l to serve that he mi;;ht obtain
Laban's daughter, KacheL In other ways he
op])ressed and abused his nephew, nntwith-
BUuidiug his faithful and unremittetl service,
until he wjw c«^mj>elled to fliee. 1 «aban pursued
him, doubtless with hostile intentions ; but he
^ 400

received an intimation from God which chsqcei

. his course, and their differences wett s^oblr

: adjusted, llie inter\*iew between them m

' ])hice on what was afterwards known si modil

Gilead (or Oalcfd, " the heap of witnen'V*

name derived from the circumstsnce th^ *

: hea]> of stones was collected as a monQiiieDi<)r

^•itnesfl of their treaty. (See Jacob.)

LACHI8H (Josh z. 3)— a city c^ Jodab.

lying south of Jerusalein, and towards tbi

Horder of Simeon. It was one of the Csbmb-

itish cities A^hicli was subdued by JoiboSt bok

, it was afterwards rebuilt by Jeroboam (2 €3ii^

xL 9), and nutuned n vage by the AB^riaiu

— j^_ a 1 — :u T. j^ mppofled to.b^

11 miles Bouth-west
L 17; lii. 8; 2 Chr.
KiiL 9; Jer. miv. 7).

LADDER In Gan. xiviu. 12 it is sud
of Jacob, — "And he dreuned, and behold *.
Udder set up oa the nrth, and the top of R
reached to nesTen : and behold the aiweU of
Odd BBcendrng and deaconding- on it. Thii
Tiaian wu meant to impiea on Jacob's mind
at doctrine of God's minute and nni-
rondenoe, and inch an antmnce wm

by the fof^tive. The ladder reached

from heaven to euth, and connected th«n,
intimating that tlw world is imder the dose
bikI constant inspection and govonment of
God. Aiuels asoended and descended upon it
— • symbd of the trith tlMt thn are Ood'e
ministers among men. "Are ae^ not all
niniatering ^nla, sent forth to mmister for
them Tbo shall be bein of Miration T''(Eeb.
lit) lie Lord God himseH '" ' -

ud AotMtor. The ladder

uprond
led by t

Jl snprcme E
toafoorapp

LA.-HAIBOL ^^

UOSH, or LESbEH. (See Dak.)

LAKE (Luke t. 1). The principal lakes

memjoDed in the Bible are — liberiae ar Oen-

nenre^ the Salt or Dead Sea, and Merom.

(See these Artidea.) The place of Ensi

" ant ia called ''the Uke of fire" (Rev.

"the lake which biimetb,"ftc., {Rev.

xxL8.j (S^Hel!.)

LAMB (Exod. xiL 3)— the yonng of the
sheep, though the original tronl meani aim the
kid or young of the goat: and by the Jewish
law it IS expreeely provided that the saoifice
at the pasBnrer might be a lamb either of the
sheep or goat (Eiod. liL 6). Several peculiar
enactments are contained ~ """ ' —

. iiii.l9;LeT. zziLZT).
words are rendered lamb in the Kngliah
Version.

The prophet represents Christ as a " lamb
led to the slaughter " (laa, liiL 7) ; and the
e fignie is emidoyed by John when he
nwed the approach of Jeans to his oom-
is (John L 29, 38). It may denote the

ess and mtlenen ot t£e Me«Uh*s

character, but atul more sntreoly it dengnatea
Lt aacriSoe (or sin. Henoe the
"the Lamk" "the

' "tie blood of the

LamfaL"ftc, (Bev. v. 6; viL 9, 14, 17; lii 11:
nv. Lii ivii U; dL 23-27.)

LAMECH. L (Gen. t. 2S-Sa) The son of
Methnselab, and tiie father of Noah. He
died about five yean befai« the flood.

2. (Qen. iv. 18) A descendant of Cain, and
DotoiuQB as the peraon who introduced Pply-
«i^. The speech he made to his wive* (Gan.
IV. &^ 34) is sai^KMsd to have bem dengned

''AndTAinedmldilslDliEi wlvee,
Adah and ZUlsh- hear T« on Tcloe;
'WItee ol Lamech, hearken lo mv s
Hai* I slain ■ man, that I thosld b
Or ■ voDDg man. that I abould Iw b
Ir Oun ihonld be avenged eevenfoli

That is, U God hath gnarded Cun, the mnr-
derer, by a threat of dreadful punishment on
such as slay him, how much more will be guard
me, who am innocent of the blood of all men T
Others render the foqrth and fifth lines thos —

and sappose that Iduneoh had slain a man in
Belf^efBDce: that his wives were alarmed lest

life; and, to quiet th^ fean, be tells than
that, if he who took the life of Cain, a wflfnl
murderer, Hhonld suffer a sevenfolQ Danish-
ment, surely he who ihonld kill I^meoh, who

seventy«evenfold pmiidiment.

Others suppose the song to be snggeated by
the invention of the aword on the part of
Tubal Cain, his son, as if he saw in it a nsw
and powerful meanH of setf-defence.

Thie snatch of poetry is the most ancient on
record, and poasesses the vibrating rhythm of
the Hebrew puallelism.

LAMENTATIONS OF JEBEMIAH,
TBM BOOK or. The Hebrews were aocuitomeil
to compose lamentatioiu or moumfol songs on
the occurrence of private and pubUc calamities.
Snch was Darid's lament on the death of
Absalom and Jonathan. The ^[«phet Jere-
miah thug laments over the mm of the holy
dty and the temple, the dmtmction of the
state, and the calamitous condition and pros-
pects of his countrymen. In the original
language, the first four chapters of this book
are wntMn bo that every verse or conplet
b^[iDS with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet
in r^rolar order. The fint and second chapters
contun twenty-two veraes each, according to
the lettera of the alphabet. In these, and in
the fourth obqitar, the dty and church at Qo<fr
are pnaanted to as in personified form, and

y triplet b

a with a Heln«w letter in

— _-, i deeonbea

their state and prospectak The fifth chapter
contains the United pleadings and sopplications
of the whole people. The pecnUat mods of
verdfication above mentdmedwas deaistted, aa
A sappceed, to aMist the memiwy. Itieama
be the prevailiag iqa^on that this b0(dc
refers to event* p*«t,aitd has not a pr— "--■*-
character. (For a mora pMtienUr ai
the style, see JauMUB.)

LAM

LAMP (1 Sam. ill 3). The lights of the
East are of various kinds; not only oil, bat
pitch, naphtha, and wax are used to maintain
the flame. Sometimes strips of cotton cluth,
■oaked in these combnstfUe substances, suppl^
the place of lamps; and in some places it is
customary to cairy a pot of oil in one hand,
and a lamp full of oily rags in the other. The
form of Oriental lamps was fanciful and often
elegant, as appears from the following cutSb

occasioned no Rreat exi>eiMe in a country so
rich in oiU We are t4il(l that tbifi was con-
sideml ho indittpoDbable to the comfort of a
family that the ]>oi>n:fit ])eople wiiuld rather
deny thenisolveji f<HKl tlian ne^rlect it. The
** putting out of the lishf denoteil tie ruin
and extinction of the fxunily and the desertion
of the houK(>. This gives force to the w«>nl« in
Job xviiL 5, 6; xxi. 17; xxix. 3,—*- The light
of the wicked shall \te put out The li^lit Hhall
be dark in his taf)emacle. ami his candle shall
be put out with him. IIow oft in the candle
of the wicked put out ? ^ ( Jer. xxv. 10, 11 ;
Prov. XX. 20.) Als«> in Trov. xiiL 9,—** The
light of the riglitetiuH rejoiceth: but the lamp
of the wicked shall be put out:" an<l of the
prudent wife, *'her candle goeth not out by
night" (Prov. xxxi 18). For a description of
the magnificent lamptntand which burned in
the tabernacle, pce Cani>L£stick.

LAN(;K, or LANCET. (See ARMom.)
- LANDMARK (Prov. xxil 2S). It was the
manifest intention of Jehovah, in bringing his
I>eoj>le into Canaan, to make them a nation of
iM^culturists. For this iniquiso everv citizen
had allotted to him a piece of groun<l, which
he was to cultivate and leave to his descendant:^
This he could not entirely alienate ; for even if
sold, it rftumcd to him or Iti^ natural heirs at
the next jubilee.^ (Sec Jibilee.) He aUohad
a right to reclaim or riNleem Und thus sold
when he was in Htraitened circumstance;}, even
before the jubilee. I'he imi>ortance of pre-
Ber\ing accurately the boundaries of individual
or family iKtesessious is very obvious; and
hence the severe penalW threatened for their
removal (Deut ziz. 14; xxvii. 17; Prov.
xxiii 10).

Subsequently to the ordinances given by
402

LAO

Moses, the land WM ^vidcd I7 lot and
•orement among tlie tribea, *manSKmm^ uid
viduals of the nation, QBderJoahiiik For tint
irarpoae a oord or me— oring lino was nvd
(Ps. IxxviiL 65). Hub iim ■■iiiIhr Une is sfta
used in figoratiTO langnago, wlten the no-
vidential assignmwnt of inan*a lot oroonditiQi
is mentioned. "Hie lines an fallen mito me
in pleasant places * (Fk. xri. 6). (See Lixbl)

LANGUAGE (Gen. zL 1)L Adam smbn
to have been endaod with the power of speedi,
and furnished with a langoape at his cnatiM
which was sufficiently pconect and ccxii»
hensive fur all the porpoaea of his boi^ jBa
was endowed with a stodk: of Torahlna mnngli
to express jirnntdiatt ideaa and laiw iil wBBtiL
Man could not invent n langoaffa — the gift ■
divine. This prinutive tonsoam aupiioeed to
have been doaely allied to ttie Hebrew, as ve
see from the exinessive natnra of tikw nainfli
given to oar first parenta in the £xtA dupten
of Genesis. Such an old and aimple tansv
i^pears to have been the language of^ vhob
earth for nearly 2.000 yearBy or nntfl about a
oentniy after the flood. It waa then that thi
tower of Babel was erected; and, for the pn^
pose of oonfoonding that preaumptnooi enter
prise, God caused a oonfoaum of ui^jnagei^ w
that the various companies or tribes shoold bi
incapaUe of understanding each other, aadcf
course incapable of prosecuting their phaa
(See Babel.) The builden of the tower wvhaf
to form a groat central monarchy. God*s pha
was that men should ooloniae and fill ft*
various countries nnder heaven. No nofk
could be more effectual for the dispernoa of
mankind than the confusion of tongoes. It sk
once frustrated their impiooa deaigni^ nJ
caused a division and dispersion of them over
the face of the earth. The miracle of Penteeort
is the counterpart of the »nifmi>V ^ BsbcL
At Babel, by the confusion of lansniage, nM
were scattered abroad on the faoeof the caitii;
at Pentecost the cune was removed* and tbi
apostles were enabled to speak in the Tarini
tongues of the ancient world, and in them t»
preach a Gospel which has for its abject ti
reunite men into one vast brotherhood.

lliough there are so many tcmgnes in thi
world, comparative grammar has proved, asd
is yet proving, that there axe mutoal and ck*
affinities among all the great f^wiKf of Itt-

Ees. The researches of modem pi
r the old dreams and fictions ole
paiwed away) are thus yielding
testimony to the unity of our race and to tkc
truth of Scripture.

LANTERNS (John zviii 3)— probaUyKW
kind of covered torch.

LAODICEA (Rev. L n>— a d^ of Fhngit.
upon the river Lycus, in the valley of tke
Maeandcr, near Colosse, and about 40 ndhi
east of EphesuB. The curious and iiistfiiififfsl
ruins of this once proud and flonrishing d^
have been describea by various tnveHenL

There was a church here to which Paul Mi^
affectionate messages. He wished the Gobi-
sians to send the epistle they had nodnd

I

LAP
frtaa him to the Ludioaos (CoL iv. 13-lfl).
And it wM thia ohnrch which wm m ae-rmiy
reproved bjr Christ. Ita tomponl wealth wai
the maja ouaaaf it» apirituAl deolenmon (Bev.

iii. 14'22). Of ita rejectioD and abuidanment,
according to the inapired declantion in these
paaawea. tnvelten fiiniiih kbnnduit eridenoe.
LAPPETH (Judg. Tii H). We am told
<h>i t.li. umIbiti people are accurtomed to take
e hoUow of the hand, and that
th BUi^irisiDg agility. It is in-
iBiTHu uuK whan Gideon'i axmy came to the
water ude, Uioy diBok of it with the hand as
faat M they could, to be ready without delay
to follow Gideon ; while the thonsanda of
faint-hearted, that were sent away, either
■tooped down to drink, or, at all evenfai, drank
with BO much tardiness and ceremony as to
ihow that their hearts were not with Gideon
1 enterprise. The 300

m of alacrity and prompt-

afaowed themselves

ne«, and therefore

LAPWING (Lev. li. 19J-a very beautiful
bird, nnoloan by the Levitical law. The lap-
wing of tJie Bible ia supposed, however, to be
the iomot of modem days.

LASEA Thia town was Gnt identdGed by
a siachting party from Glaagow in 1^56. It
■ lies a few miles to the eaat of Fair Havens.
(See Cains.)

LATCHET. (3eaCLOTHK.)

LATTICE. (See DwlLLiHOH.)

LAUGH, LAUGHTER (Gen. imii. 13;
Pa. lii- S; cnvi. 2). These tertos are em-
ployed by the sacred writers to denote joy,
msnlt, mockery, saauraDce, admiration, Ac.
The meaning can usually be determined by the
oonnectinn. When they are used concerning
God, as in Prov. L 26, they si^y that he
despises or pays no regard to the person or
anbject.

LAYER (Eiod. III. 18)— a circular vessel
need in the tabernacle aervioe, and formed of
the polished braae which served for looldng-
^asaea (Eiod. riiviii 8), and which waa pco-
Mntad for the puipuee by the devoat women
who attended or served at the door of the
tabemacla. The larer stood between the altar
and the tabernacle, a tittle to the south, and
t^ priesta washed their hands in it before
they officiatsd, ^Hie laver in Solomon's temple

LAZ

waa a "sea of molten braas," vast in oie, and
rested on bases with figores of lions and oieu.
Figures taken from the ceremonial uses of th«
laver are used to rapreaect purity of heart.
(See Jrfhthah, Tkhple.)

LAW (Ps. HI. 7). This word haa varioos
significations. The psalmist uses it generally
to denote the whole will of God, which he had
published tor the government of the world
and the obedience of Om population. It ia
applied to the Mosaical institutions in dis-
'■—"— from the Gospel (Heb, x. MB], and
1 to the ritual portiooa of it, strictly
{Eph. iL 10). It denotes the ten
commandments given to the Israelites (Eiod.
IX.), confirmed by Christ (Matt. v. 17), and
opened and eiplamad in their oomprebenaioti
and spirituality by him and his apostles
throughont the Sew Testament (Luke X. 27;
Kom. iii. 30 ; Gal iiL 10, 13, 19-25).

The twm is also used to signify the five
books of Moses (Luka xiiv. 27, 44 ; Acts xiiL
15). Thia was what was read in the syna-
gccnes ; and a copy of it was deposited in the
ndeof tile arktopreaerveit from injury (Dent.
zxxL 26). (See Ahk or trb CuvKNaid.)

the (rospel; yet freed from the law ae
miQt of wnrlu, they are still bound to ii as a
nils of life. The law cannot give life : it
"has beau found to be onto death. It cannot
justify, for it is "weak through the fleeh;" ^
yet it is the only paramount rule of duty in all
ita commands and prohibitions. Holiness ia
entire conformity to the law of God.

The ceremonial or ritual law, which stood in
meats and drinks and carnal ordinances (Heb.
ix. 10), was abolished by the introduction of
the Gospel ; but the law, properly speaking, ia
eternal and unchangeable in ita obligatioaB and
sanctions. God's will binds the mightiert
creatures and the moat distant worlds. The
old law was fulfilled, rather than abrogated, by
the Gospel ; and obedience to it is made by the
Goapel the only evidence of justifying futh
(Matt V. 17, 18; Bom. iiL 2S; vi 15, 16^
Jas. iL 18, 26).

LAWYERS (Luke vii 30), or DOCTORS
OF THE LAW (Luke v. 17), were a class of
men who devotod themselves to the study and
interpretation of the Jewish law. They ai«
supposed to have^>een chained with tnuucrib-
ing the law, and, m many matances, with the
decision of questions arising under it; whence
they are called "scribes" (Ezra vii- S. II).
Many of them were members of the sanhedrim.
Their influence was great, and they are often
mentioned under the namv of scribes, in con-
nection with the chief prieets and elders.

LAZARUS, in Hebrew, ELEAZAR— (Jod-
hdp. 1. (John ri.l) Adtiienof Bethany.reaid.
ingwith his two sisters, in whose family Christ
waa a frequent guest He was raised from U>^^
giava by the power of Christ, in sight of 4^^
403 -^

LEA

citv of Jenisalem, in the uresence of the famfly
And a number of Jews, arter he had been dead
four days, lliis is <me of the most stupendous
and inture«tinijr miraclM which our divine
Saviour wruuKut, as it proved his complete
power over deaUi and the grave — a ptiwer
which wart afterwards so fully curroborated in
his own ponM*n. 80 inceni*ed were the Jews
at this mdiRputablo exhibition of Christ's
tKiwer, that tlu*^' sdUijht n«)t only to kill him,
liut Lazanw himsolf, becauiw, in consetiuence
of the miracle, so many bclievecL

The hiMtonr of this transaction, as given us
by the sacntfhiHtorian, 'u intenM.*ly interesting.
( m no occasion, i>erhapfl, were the sympathy,
<lignity, and ix)wer of Christ in his humilia-
tion more cuiinpicuous ; and the domestic
scenes which are connected with the story
are relato<l ^lith beautiful simplicity. (See
Martha, Maky.) Lazarus must have been
no onUnary chanictcr, fur he specially enjoved
the friendMirip of Jesus. The oon of God Med
tears at his tomb, and summoned him back to
life.

2. (Luke xvi. 20) In the parable by which
our Saviour illustrates the retributions of eter-
nity, one of the parties is named Lazarus.
This name is still nrcf)er\'e4l in iasartito, lazar-
house ; an<l in the Italian, fassaronu or be^'ars.

LKAl) (Job xix. 24)— a very hcaw metal,
known to tln^ ancionts from a vt.'r\' early i>erii.Ki
(£xo<l. XV. 10; Num. xxxi. 22; i^ech. v. G-8).
Lead was formerly utie<l in the pnK'ess of
refining gold and silver. Hence the fi^nirative
idluriions (Jer. vi. 2i>, 30; Kzok. xxii. 17-22).

LEAF JIaa. Ixiv. 0). The briKhl fn^sh colour
of the leai f>f a tn'c or plant shows that it is
richly nuurixhed by a );(mk1 soil Hence it is
emblematical of prosju'rity. ** His leaf aJb<o
shall not either" (Ph. i. 3; Jer. xvii. 8; Kz(>k.
xlviL 12). A fade<l leaf, on the contrar}',
shown the lack of moisture and nourishment,
and becomes a fit emblem of advernity ami
decay. "Wilt thou break a leaf driven to
and fro?" (Job xiii. 2r).)

LKAH (Gen. xxix. l^i)— the wife of Jacob,
and elilest daughter of Lalisin. Jacob dosireil
to marry liachel, I/eah*s sister, and served her
father seven years that ho might obtain her as
his wife. \Vlien the perio<l was acc^omplished,
Leah was imponefl \\\xm himinHU.'ad of Kachel,
and he was coint)eilcd to Ber\'e seven years
longer ff)r her. > n.>m the i»eculiar nature of
the marri.iKe ceremonial in tae East — the bride
l>eing intrixluced veilefl to the husband, &c. —
such a dece]>tion was the m<^* easily practistHL
Leah was honoured with a numei\jus family.
(See Jacob Jomeph.)

LEASIXa (Ps. iv. 2) -lies or falsehoo<lH.

LEATHEIl. (See Bottle, Clothes.)

LEAVEN (Exo(L xii. 15)— ferment mixeil
with douQ^h to make it light; or a piece of
dough or bread thus mixed, and used to lighten
a laifger mass. It makes a thorough change in
the whole ; and hence the force of the parable
(Matt. xiii. 33), bv which the silent iimuence
of the Goepel on tae heart of man is beautifully
illustrated. And so also it figuratively denotes
401

LEB

the inflnenoe of fdae and oimiu|>l doctrinei
(Matt zvL 6), as wdl m tiM evil pMBOu of
the depraved and miTMgiietmte httut (1 Cbr. t.
7, 8). The diRiM of It OB oaiuii oocMiaofl
was an important part of tho Jewish ritosl
^xod. xiL 15, 19). The Hebrawa, on Inring
Egypt, were requind to do so in inste; w
they had no time to pnrapen leavened brad.
Its use was theraCore a ■ymbol of laste to tium
(Exod. xil 9).

Dough kept until it ia grown aonr it used ia
eastern countries as a fennent lor fnA
dough. The Gennane cell leaven mmelaf,
"sour^ooffh," in nniwiB witfi tiM nasmiig
of the Hcorew tenn; and in vrins emntriei
the lees of wine aie need ae vne net vMit

LEBANON— wUlt (lea. zsziiL 9h->
celebrated range of moniifeeiiie in 9yri% noitk
of Palestine, mnning north eeet end sootb-
west, in two peiallel ^*"— ^ in mowjmt fons,
and norsoing nearly the ooime of the share ti
the Mediterranean. l>e eiintli imsIiiii chiia
is called Anti-Iibanna, ** oppoeite to libsBU^"
or Lebanon proper.^ lletiieea tiMW^m^siii

Code-Syria, or "the valley of Lebuaa''
(Josh. xL 17). One of hie mat hodhfts «ai
called Hennon (Deat. iiL ^ Skm ^eot iv.
48), and Amana (Song, iv. 8). (See HxKVOS.)
Its summits, from 6,000 to 8^000 feet high, sod
ravines, are covered with snow duzing the yesr,
and its rock is a white limestone, from i^dck
issue pure, limpid streama (Jer. xviiL 14). It
is described by travellers as a multitude d
mountains, separated by <^bMp ravines, xbA
covered pretty thickly wiUi pine and fruit tnM»
although not so densely as the focesti of
America. Its ascent is steep and rocky. Hi
cedars are now found principally at the fool d
one mountain, covering a spaoe three-fomtks
of a mile in circumference, and amoant to
nearly 400; some of them 40 feet ToaiL
and nearly 100 in height. The balsamic odoir
of these cedars is alluded to (Hob. ziv. 6 ; Soa^
iv. 11) ; and so many of uiem wen laed a
building Solomon^s ]|^laoe as to give it the
name mentioned, 1 kL vii. 2; z. 17. Tk
same timber was used for shipboilding (Es^
xxxil 5). (See Ckdab.) The fewoedazstibit
remain may l)e called *' the glory of Lebawa*
Their fine shade, conical form. oeantifQl f|B-
metry, and lofty heidlit, hmy justify tfe
figurative language of the Bible (A, Izxx. 10;
Amos iL 9). After the hot months have j/tmA
snow is foimd 2 feet deep on some paits.

A traveller thus describes the moontaiani
its scenery :— *" The highest elevation of tbe
mountains of Lebanon is to the woaHtk-ttAd
TriiMli, and their summits, capped with cksdi
anil covered with snow, are duoemed at A^
distance of 30 leagues. ^ The Oixmtes, wUch
flows from the mountains of l^amasem, m^
loses itself below Antioch ; the Kaamai, wlndi
from the north of Balbeck takes its esw
towards Tyre: the Jordan, whioh soidi ^
waters towards the south,— aU novt A*
altitude of the recion from which tney doi"
their sourcei Leoanon, whidi gives its atfv
to the extensive range of the Keinian, aadtti

country of the DrpsflB, pniaents to tbe traveller

the Bpectade of ita majeati" ~ ' " "

every step he meete with Bcc
nktura dUpUvs beaaty or gnuidi
romuitio wildnega, bat alw«ys variety. When
he huids uD the coMt aS SyrU. tbe loftinesa
and rteep awwnt of thia mftgnificcnt rampart,
which aeema to enclose the eountry, the
ffiguitic nuuae« which ahoot into the clouda,
buinrautoniahDieiitand reverence. Shotdd he
climb tb«« vniiuiiitfl which bounded hia view,
And aacend ibe higheat point of Lebanon— tbe
Baonin— the immenaitv of apace which he
diaDovers becomes a freab aub]ect of admiration.
On every aide he beholda a horizon without
bounds; while in clear weather the aight
lort ovei the deeert which extends to tl
Persian Gulf, and over the aea which waahea
the coasta of Europe; the uiind aeeme to
embrace the world. A different temperature

gevaib in different parte of the mountain.
ence tbe eipreaaion of the Arabian poets,
that ' the Saimin bears winter on his head,
spring upon hia ahonldets, and antunm in his
bosom, wlule soBUner lies sleeping at hia feet.'"
Tbis description of the mountains of Le-
banon enables ns to portrive the reason why
mention is so often made of them in tbe writings
of the prophets. Lebanon and Cannel, beinR
the most rmnarksble among the mountains <^
Psleetine, are frequently oelebrated in the
acred poetrr. The one was ranaAable ■•
well for its tudght •• tor its maonitnde, and
the abundance of ths oedan whit£ adorned its
mlnmit, ei.bibitbig a striking and mbstantdal
appearance of strength and majesty : the other

VM rich and fniiUnl,

olives, and delidoos bnitt, in a m

ing state both by nature and cnltivation, and
diajJajring a delightfnl appearmncs of fertility,
beauty, and grace. The different form and
aspect of theae two mountaina are moat accu-
rately defined by Solomon, when he com-
pares manly dignity to Lebanon, and the
beauty and dehcacy of the female to Carmel
Sang, V. 16; viL G). Each of them su^eata a
difierent general image, which the Hebrew
poets adopt for diflerant purposes, expressing
that by a metaphor which more tjjnid writers
would delineate by a direct companaon. Hiua
Lebanon is used, by a very bold figure, for the
whole people of the Jewa, or for the state of
the church (Isa. xiiv. i; Hos. xiv. 5), for
Jemaalem (laa. iiivii 24; Jer. uii. 6, 23),
for the temple (Zech. li 1), tor the Idng of
Aaayria (laa. x. 34),— for whatever, in a word,
ia remarkable, augnat, and aublime (Isa. ht,
U; Ezek. xxxi. »-8, 16, 16). Hence, too,
whatever poeaeaaea much fertility, wealth, or
beauty, is called Cannel (Isa. iixv. 2; Jer.
ilvi.18; Mic. viL 14).

Itspouulation connsta of Syrian and Armen-
ian Catholics, Greeks, and Greek Cathohca,
DruMS, and Manmites. The wine of Lebanon
(Hoe. liv. 7) is stiU celebi^ted. Ita air U
pure, and its prospects are enchanting. Some
ot laaiah'i moat elegant imagery is derived
from Uiie mountshi and its magnifioent scenery.
Uosea mentions (Dent, iii 26-87}, aa a reason
tor wishing to go over Jordan, his desire to see
this delightful region, " that soodly mountain,
wad LebuionJ' on the lAher aide.

LEBBEUS. (SeeJvDK.)

LESK (Num. xL C)— a bulbona vegetahl«

lik* tbo nninn, ft nrticular ipedn of vbich

hubaeo cullivatad in K| — " '- '-

erind. In tbi

n Kgypt f r

u>t lattuce, ujkdt, or uvrniry herbs genaimllr,
nuy ba inteniiol ; uid pcrtup* with mum pn>-
Ulrility. anil in uvontuics with ita Cunitnon
meMiing. the word may denutc > apedcs of
Bimu peculiar t>i Kgypt, and uwd M human
lood. Schubart apealu of cloTer, whoap youoK
■hoota and Icavei be saw eaten in many wayi
by the Egyptianii. Maver alsu iiieaka of pilea
of gnuu bflinj; greeJily di;voured by the Eiryp-
tjanfli both m^nter and nervanta; and he aiuui,
" I wa» «fter«'»ni«, when hungry, in a iiitna-
tion bi lay myBell on the Kild where it j,Tiiwa
and !?«;( with pleaaure, " Sonnini Bays, '■But
that which Killapjivar vvrv extraonlinary it,
that in this untniliu-ly fertile country the
Egyptiana Ihenmelves eat the fenu-grec hi
much that it ean pruperly Iw caltnl the feud nf
Men.. Id the month of November, they cry,
■ Ureen helbeh for aale,' in the atreeta of the

the inhabitanta easterly purchiBe at a low
price, and which they ent witli an incredible
BreecUuewi, without any b|>voU.ii of MaaoninK.
They iiretond thiit thu uni^iihir diet ii an
cicellent Btoniacliic, a ii>rcihc agauiit worms
anil dyai-ntery— iu fine, a |>n.-.ier\'alive againat
« evM niuiiWr of niaLutiiii. Kin^y, tlie
El^itiana mtsnl tbia )>knt a»vniluw«d with
w nuuiy giwd qualitiea tliat it in, in their
tatiiDatiun. a true iianacea." Such in all liLi'
Ubwd ia tho plant reftTreil tn in die ti^it
(iiKiteil at tbe omuiienrenient of the article.
1%e oriinnnl woni in tlie old I'eHtatiK'nt Ik
twelve timea remtered jfniM, once An''', and
HjtniHuii "ar«n,"

I.EES (laa. XXV. fi). The wont u akin t«
the Vronch lif. and the KnRtiHh ky. lia>inK a
•IniiUw HsniHcation. It ili'imle* wlmt litw at
the bott'ini of any vt-iwel wliicb hjw Iwen filled
'With an imiiure Huid ; and in tliv text it means
the ilreL'ii nf wine BetUi-<l to tliv lo'tbim.
Hence thu exnreiuion, " wine on the lei'K,"
(lenoteH olil anil puruwine. The leen are the
refuse <if the wine, which, when it Is ixiinrd
into a jar, oithrr sink down at tint, or rising
tu the to|> and funning a icum, nt IcnirtU Invuk,
descenrL nnJ become a sediment, which i>n:-
•ervea the wine in its flavour, freiihniiH, and
atrength. lliuB .leri-tniah says, "Monbhnth
been At case from his youth, und he Imth settled
on his Ices, and hstfi not bci'ii emi>ti(-il fii>iu
vessel to vessel, neither lintli be gone into cup-
tivily: thercfr.re Ids taste n-nmined in liiin,
and liis scent is not cbange"!" Wer. xlviii. 11|.
In this 1 ■mtfta^', Uutu and scent unaltered are
[■redicted nf wine settkil <iii the lees. So well
was this underatiHKl that the tenu "lees" be-
came a brief and eij>reigiive iilium for bait,
richest, and oldest wmM. j^nalogous expres-
sions are yet used in some wine oonntries.
But such vine needed to be strained ere it
could be drunk, and so the rrophet adds, that
it is "well refined." The fact of its having ;
been on the lees rendered clarificatiun neces-
■ory. The pnalmiit, in Pa. Iziv, S, represents

in Zeph, L 12, to d

and wnridlr-mindadnMi. na cUdml Oas-
f ore, qnoted from Iskiah, ivprmnti &> bat
wine which Um Jndean vintage oonld ttbtd.
The drink to be pnaeated waa wine df Ik
leeL The vine wsi ngkrded H God's b^
gift, and ita finait prndDOT in ito itata of HA-
est preporatian ii Mlected aa k ■nnbol pf oi
choice bleaainga of tha Gocpd llu onlinMT
mode of accounting for this idiatn. or how at
tcim lAnurim oama to aiguify Irtm, hia ban
to regard it as the partioiple of ritamar—ta
pmerve— leea being prtiavat of wins. Otba
supnose the WDtd tu be ol KnoOier f^milr, aid
to denote what ia (lt»wn or hei^kBd tonus,
like the asdiment whieli to dapadled omiat

Wine is apt to tors nnKUr
it miglit beoome cuidy au
tuibid it not ptoperiy attended to ; and so tbs
phiaae became a figure of at — '"^ - "'-' -

- - - _ yet f

the Coptic, where it aisnifiea firmemlatioit,-
dregs III wine beingtiaed often to induce fs-
mentation. Hiui B^tit, in Geiman, agnifiB
both lees and bonn or ynut.

LEUION (Matt. uvifi3)-« band of pd&n
in the Roman army consiating' of frcnn 6.000 to
7,00U men ; the original uombeT wa* 6,300 fii4
anil 730 horse. In this paaaage. and also is
Mark V. 9, IS, it means a large but ■—<■■*"■'*
nurolier. (Sec Army,)

LEHAJilM. (SeeLTBiA.)

LKNTILKS (2 Sam. zxiii 11)— a ^Mi»
of pulse not unlike the i>ea in ita goHnl
apliearonce. It is still a oomioon aAde sf
fooil in Kioiit. being dressed like beau, «
stewed with oil and garlic, and fonniu met
is failed "red pottage" (Gen. xxrTv, Jft
Probably they grew wild, and were fmmd i*
lirlils of gram (comp. 2 Sam. -itTii^. 11 vill
1 Chr. xL 1.1).

LKOPAKD (Isa. iL ft]— an animal tf d>
cat trit>e, which, it is supposed, abonndal <>
the countries of the Bible, frcan tha 6 -"^-*

Beth-nimrah" (Nu ,

" the house of the leopatds ; * andiuS(*gi^'
are mentioned the "mountajnaof thelMnaria*
Alluiiona to the leopard's character aDoUtt
often mode in the Bible, eapedaDrbyAi
obets : its n^anner of wa»#-i<;na #»»■ nasr

prophets; i

EF of watching fw di piV

LEP
(Jer. T. 6; Hoa. xiiL T), it* fleetncn (Hib. :
8), its fierceneu wid cmflt; (lu. iL 6); ui_
in Dan. viL 6 it is made the onblem of > great

LEPER, LEPEOaY (Lev. xiiL 42, *6],
'^le leproey la a loatlisome diBeaae, It u
Cklled diatJiictdTei; "the stroke or wonnd ol
the Lord." In more modem iiutanceB it com-
mences inteni&lly, and often list oonoealad for
years, or is secretly spreading before there u>
any oatirard indicatioii of it ; and after it
I»«ak> ODt, the nifferer often lingers for years
before it reaches a Criaii, and then jean
' e before the leper
s bonea and the n
llie disease, so thi

nd feet lose their p ,

of the body fall toeether, and the whola system

There were vaiious kindi of leprosy, many
of a less terrible character than that referred
to, and thoES mom lenient forms are the hinds
apparently rafsrred to in Scripture; but in
whatever form it appeared, it was rwaided a*
a judgment from the hand of God. We know
it was frequently employed for this pnrpoee,
M in the cases of Miriam (Num. oi. 10).
Gehaii (2 KL v. 27), and Uziiah (2 Chr. iivl
16-231 ; but whether it ordinarily differed from
other diBeases and calamities in thia respect we
have reason to doubt. The leper went about in
mourning, as if he was mourning his own death.

Although the laws respectioa this disease
which we find in the Mosaic code are eice«d-
ingly rigid, it is by no means clear that the
leprosy was contaaious. The horror aod dis-
gust which were frit towards a disease so foul
and loathsome might be a suffideDt cause for
auch severe enactments. It was the scourge
<rf the Hebrew race ; and there seems to have
been a praneness among them to mch cataneont
disorders. Mosea, therefore, minutely describes
the appearance oE this maladv, and give* dear
and fordble rules to govern the meiUoal tratt-
meat of it. Fat and blood, and other article!
of diet which eidts or aggravate coueUtotional
tendencies to diseases of the skin, were staictly
fortiidden to the Jews.

With respect to the " leprosy of hoiuea" and
"clothea" (Lev. ■ay. BB), some have SDpposed
that the expression was only analogicaf-tfae
apota and disfigurations wbich appeu«d upon
the walls and articles of clothing resembung
the leprous marks — a species of mould or mil^
dew, a kind of saline efflorescence seen often
in tenementa of mud-or aluminous euth, indi-
cating a great degree of dampness, corrupting
the air, injurious to health, and often the
occasion and preomsor of fatal diseases. Some
•ni^xiM leprosT in clothes to be a spot occa-
■ioned by dead wool having been woven into

LESBOS. (See HiTTi.En.)
LE3HEM. (SeeDaif.)
LETT£BS^SHii.xi.l4}. LLeanungor

LEV

literature— as when the Jews exclaimed con-
ceming Chriit. "And the Jews marvelled,
saying. How knoweth this man letters, having
never leamedl" IJohn vii, 16.) 2. Letters 3
the alphabet. "And a suparacription also was

li^ and Hebrew" (Luke Tiiil, 3g). 3,
Epistles. ThelettersmeDtiunedbythesaered
writers were in the form of rolls, not unlike
those of the present day. Niebuhi tells us

paste up the end of them, instead of sealing-
them: and the Persians, we know, make up
their letters in the form of rolls about 6 inches
long, and paste a bit of paper around it with
gum, and seal it with an impression of inW.
When sent to inferiors, they were often sent
open jNeh. vL 5] ; bnt when sent to equals or
superiors, they were enclosed in a purse or bag.
(See Seu.) Letters were sent_ of old by

and ijeab. He was concaraad in a bloody
affair with the Sheohemites, which oooaaionad
the denunciatory and [cophetic langoage nf
his fathar respecting him (Gen. iliz. 6-7), and
which was fully vmfied in the hiatiHy M his
posterity. The oppodtion of bis desnndants
to tbe idol worship which was practised by
others was the occasion of the mitigation Ml
their curae (Biod- XKdi 26-29; Deut MiliL
9). His descendants are called Levites. (See
LiviTKa, Matthew.)
LEVIATHAN (Job xlL I)-the Hebrew

chapter of Job, but not k ._

natoralists. The description answers i
nearly to the crocodile. Probably be was

of the sea, as behemoth, described in
the preceding chapter, was the monster of the

The crocodile is an inhabitant of the Nile

oiu voradty and strength, as well as fleetneaa

swimming. It has, proportionally, the

largest mouth of all m

both its je "-

lot less th. _.„... . . .,

sight sharp, bat strong and massy teeth ; and
is furnished with a ooat of mail so scaly and
ons as to resiBt the force of a musket ball
_ ivery part, eicept under tbe belly. Indeed,
to this animal tbe general character of the
leviathan seems so wall to apply, that it is
I seek farther.— See The Sook o/

LEV

Job literally traruiaUd, &c., by J. M. Gtx>d,
p. 479.

The description in Job ia truly graphic
The wildneiw, recklessness, power, courage,
fonn, strength, and defences ot the animal are
described with i>oetic vigour, freshness, and
truth.

The leviathan is figuratively mentioned as
an emblem of strength and dcstructivoness,
especially as personifjdn? the ])ower or king of
£gyiit, as in rt^ Ixxiv. 14 ; Isa. xrviL 1.

LEVITES (Exod. iv. 14). All the desccn-
<lants of Levi mav be comprised nnder this
name, but cliiefly those who wore employed in
the lower services of the temple, by which they
were distinguLshed from the priedts, who were
of the race of Ijevi by Aaron, and were con-
secrated to higher ofKces. llie Levites were
the descendants of Levi by Gershom, Kohath,
and Merari, excenting only the family of
Aaron ; for tiie children of Moses had no part
in the priesthood, and were only common
Levites. Goil chose the Levites instead of the
first-born of all Israel for the service of his
tabernacle and temple, (Num. iiL 6, &c ) They
assisted the priests in the ministrations of the
temple, and sung and played on instruments
in tne daily services, &c They studittd the
law, and were the onlinnry juflges of the
country, but Hulx^nlinate U> tlie i)rie8ts. God
provided for the subeistvnce of the Levites by
giving to them the tenth of cr)m, fruit, and
cattle ; but thojr paid to tiie priests the tenth
of all they recfivetl ; and as the I^vitcn pos-
sessed no instates in land, the tithes whidi tlie
priests thuH rvcoiveil from them were con-
iddered oh the iirst-fniitrt whicli they were to
<iffer to tiie Lonl (Num. xviiL 21-LM). The
JjcWtes hod a right to uWiut a twelfth of the
soil ; and the tithe they received wom, in the
largetjt proix)rtion of it, but a rent for their
lands wnicu were held by the i»ther triln^s.
Not more than a fifth of the tithe did they get
for rellKioUH wrvice.

God asHigne« 1 f< »r the habitation f >f the Le\'ites
forty-eight cities, with tieUU, patituren, and
garuenn, (Num. xxxy.) Of theast^ thirteen
were given to the priests, six of which wure
cities (»f refuge, (Josh. xx. 7-0; xxi. 10, &c.)
While the Levites were actually emi)loyed in
the tomide they were HU])iK)rtwl out of the
pro visions kei>t in store there, and out of the
daily offerings (Deut xii. 1«, 19; xviii. Ti-K).

Tne Levites were diWdeil into different
classes- the Gornhomites, Kolwthites, Merar-
ites, and the Aaronites, or i)riestrt-to eaeh of
which were assigned si^eciffed duties, (Num.
iii 14, &C.) niey were not to enter ui>on their
service at the tabernacle till they were twenty-
five years of age (Num. viiL 24) ; but David
iixe<l the time of ser\-icc at twentj' years. ITie
priests and Le\'ite8 waited by turns weekly in
the temple (1 Chr. xxiiL 24; 2 Clir. xxiil 4-8;
xxxL 17 ; Ezra iii 8).

lliere is much of deep interest in the history,

office, &C., of this order of Jewish ecclesiastics.

They were the body-guard of the Divine King,

a kud of literary aristocracy ob well as the

40ii

LEV

dispenwn of iutioe. and at the mne tone a
puDlic board c« heaha. (See Pbiest.)

LEVmCUS, BOOK OFj the thizd hook of
the Bible, was written by Moaes, and ooataiM
twenty-seven chapten. miided into four prin-
cipal sections :—(L) Tne laws oonoenimgaai-
fices; (2.) Theoooaecratumaf tiiahiglipriflBli:
VS.) Purification, &a; {4.) Saimd festivak
It is called Leviticos, Decanae the Lerilei
were the divinely'i^>pointed minSateis fay wham
those sacred services were in part CTndnctffd,

The laws contained in Levitieiu are wy
minute and moltifarioaa. The kinda of vietiiDi
>-their age, size, and perfection, the mode of
their death, with the aooompanying mat
offering, whether in the *'orei^''ttie "no,*
or the ^* frying-pan "—are all patunUy andpn*
dsely described. We have the hoznt affcBBC
and its solemnities; the peace offering; vm
its grateful ceremoniee; and the ain offoiK
and trespass offering, witi^ the mode ol th«
oblation, and the kind of guilt for whidi ttcy
made atonement Again and asain is thcna
peculiar sacredneas attached toolood, lor it k
the life ; and the life or Uood of the victim VM
presented in room of that of theoffendv. Tht
eighth and ninth chaptera veoord the cooMoa-
tion of Aaron, and hia first acoe« to the altar
himoured by the descent of fire from God oi
the \ictim he had immolated. The tentt
chanter tells the fate of hia mihappy soai,
Naaab and Abihu.

The fullness and minnteneaa of these ese>
monial regulations were evidently intended t»
exclude all i^logy for any human adifitkM
to the ritual It was perfect aa it came froa
God, and all innovation waa both nnwatnnte^
and unnecessary. The Hebrews were pnae
to idolatry ; but the very circamstantial bai
of their religion left them no room for gnti^
ing a vain and idle desre to inteimedifie vita
Go<rs worship. The whole ritual, too^ «m
tyi-tical^it taught present truths and xevesled
future facts. It carried the hope of the CSinrdi
forward to the time when Uod^a own Sob
should offer the great oblation — a pcHect hofe-
caust— a successful peace offerins — a saoxfiM
by which sin should be ezjnate^and guilty
man be reconciled and saved. The variNt
f qualifications and oflices of the priest, tbr
nature of the victim, and the adaptatioof of
the altar, prefigured the perfection and nb-
stitution of Him who '* through the Etoial
Sitirit offered himself without spot to God.*

Leviticus contains also many of the lawi bf
which the ci\'il department of the govenniMat
was to be administered. All its politMil
statutes are wise and good, and adaptedto fiv

i>e(»ple who were to be povemed l^ tboa
dany of them refer to diet, that the aatioa
might learn self-respect and acquire phjacsl
health; and many ol them are nrrrasaijM
tary enactments, indispensable in a cnnvdid
camp, and not to be fcavottai even afltrtkt
]>eo])le had been settled in Canaan. Masy
sins are prohibited which seem to ha^ bea
common among neighbouring ^intitma The
law of chastity is minutely goacded; the di*-

LEW

east of leprocy is strictly watdied; ani^ the
inl>eritance of property, whloh bo often gives
rise to fierce dispute, is carefully and justly laid
down. Had these statutes been obeyed, how
happy and prosperous would the nation have
been — ^possessed of Grod's favour, and unhurt
and unthreatened by surrounding kingdoms I

The book contains the history of a month —
the first month of the second year of the wan-
dering. Leviticus has a full and appropriate
conmientary on its ritual in the epistle to the
Hebrews; and, as an old father has remarked.
*< almost all its syllables breathe a spiritual
sacrament."

LEWDNESS (Acts xviii. 14). This word
is not used here in its present common accepta-
tion, but rather denotes the daring, flagrant
offence of one who is skilled in deeds ot iniquity,
or of an old offender.

LIBEKTINES (Actsvi 9)— a Jewish party;
but whether composed of such as were pro-
selytes or free citizens of Bome, or called
UJertinea from some circumstance in tibeir
history and civil relations, or froon tbe town or
province which they inhabited, is uncertain.
They had a place of worship at Jerusalem for
th« aoconmiodation of those of their sect who
might be dwelling in the city. (See Alkz-

ANDBIAHS.)

LIBNAH (Josh. xxi. 13)— a city in the
■onth-westem part of Judah (Josh. xv. 42)
asdgned to the priests, and a city of refuge
(1 Unr. vi 57). Its inhabitants revolted from
•Torsm (2 Ki viii. 22), and were defeated bv
the Assyrians (2 Ki. xix. 8). Another Libnah
was situated near mount Sinai (Num. xxziiL
20) ; and a third in the country oi Asher (Josh.
xix. 26). caUed there " Shihor-Ubnath.** It
has not been distinctly identified.

LIBYA. (SeeLYBiA.)

LICE (Exod. viiL 16). The third plague of
the £g3rptians was the turning of the dust of
the bunid into lice : and when it is considered
how universally the Eg3rptians abhorred ver-
min, and especially how strongly their contact
was deprecated by the prieste, the affliction
will appear the more severe.

The Jewish oonmientators, and most of the
Christians, render the original word by this
term ; and learned biblical critics have ex-
hausted their ingenuity to prove that this is
the correct int^pretation. The Septuagint
translators, however, were in favour of gnats,
as the anixnal designated by Moses among the
places of Egypt; and Jerome follows them
in lx>th passages where the word is used.
Several weigh^, if not condusive, objections
are made to ttus rendering: as, (L) These
insects originated, not from the water, as do
gnats or mosquitoes, but from the dust (2.)
They were on ooth men and cattle ; but ^naJta
do not take up their residence on any «>3^n"ftl
(3.) The Hebrew word signifies to be fixed or
firm, which does not agree to gnats, which are
ever on <the wing. (4.) And, finally, the
plague of flies came aiterwaids, in which
gnats would be included. Others, however,
dissent from both these opinions, and are

LIL

disposed to think the tick is the animal here
, signified, which sticks its daws into man and
hetait so fast that it never lets go its grasp
but by leaving them in the flesh.

LIEUTENANTS (Ezra viii 36)— a general
name for deputies.

LIGHT (Gen. i 2-4) — ^the dement b^ means
of which oDJects and their shape, size, and
colour are discerned. Its motion is extremely
quick, and is estimated to be about 10,(X)0,(XK)
of miles in a minute.

Whether light really emanates from the sun.
or whether it is a nuid universally diffused
through the universe, which the sun causes to
radiate or to exercise a vibratory motion^ is
not agreed. Light was created on the nrst
day, although the cdestial luminaries did not
appear until the fourth. There is every reason
to suppose that the sun was created as early
as any part of the planetary system, and the
work of the fourth day was not the creation of
the heavenly orbs, but the making of them to
be light-bearers or luminaries. Ldght is an
emblem much used in the langui^ of Scrip-
ture. Christ is often called a light, and God
is said to dwdl in hffht which no man can
approach ; yea, " Grod is light, and in him is
no darkness at all" (1 John i. 5). It is
constantly used as the emblem of knowledge,
purity, and joy. The holy lives of Christians
are also represented by light, as they are
so pure in their actions and transparent in
their candour, and as they reflect the light
the^ enjoy themselves on the spiritual gloom
which is round about them. The foUowing
references show a variety of figurative uses of
the word :— Ps. iv. 6 ; xxvii. 1 ; Prov. iv. 18 ;
Ecd. xi 7; Isa. iL 5: x. 17; Hos. vi. 5;
Matt iv. 16: v. 16: Eph. v. 8; CoL i. 12.

LIGHTNING (2 Sam. xxiL 15). The
terrors of the divine wrath are often repre-
sented by thunder and lightning ; and thunder,
on account of its awful impression on the
minds of mortals, is often spoken of in Scrip-
ture as the voice of the Lord (Job xxviiL 26 ;
xxxvii 4, 5 : xxxviii 25 ; xL 9).

LIGN- ALOES. (See Aloes. )

LIGURE (Exod. xxviiL 19). This was one
of the predous stones in the breastplate of the
Jewish priests. It is said to have resembled
the carbunde, and to have been of a bright
sparkling colour; but it is not among any
class of gems known in modem sdence, unless
it be tourmaline,

LILY (Matt vi. 28)— a lovely flower, of a
great variety of spedes, the most beautiful of
which are f oimd m eastern countries, and are
often mentioned by travellers. Their gorgeous
appearance is alluded to in the passage above
cited, as is also the fact that their dry stalks
were used as fuel.

Speaking of our Lord^s allusion in this
passage, the famous botanist^ Sir J. E. Smith,
says : ** It is natural to presume, the divine
Teacher, according to his usual custom, called
the attention of his hearers to some object at
hand; and as the fields of the Levant are
overrun with the Amaryllia Lutea, whose golden

Am

T.IM

lilixviMta flnw«n in autump affcinl cne at the

niiikt lirillunt anil kiitkhiiu nbjn-ta in nntare,

the ei]>mi>iiin iiF * Suliimim in all hii i;1<ny lui'

IwinK UTuyvi] like ime uf tLe«' ii i>wu[iarly

in all hii itlurpr n.it

aij>ri>i>rUl«. I cuiwiilvrthefwIinRV ' '
in « u rxiiniwi] w t)ie hiuhent hi

Biiwiilvr the fwlinn with whict

_ . 'Milj of idontii; uul if my

bntaniivt cmiit-ture Iw riuht, we learn a
chnnnJ'Wnil fart iwpei.'tini: the draiviD of the
yivr wIlti thf S<'ruii>D nn the Mount wa*
tlrlivrniL" Hut tho teno may include variuiu

In Soni; il I. allniiinn i* |<To1)al>1y maile to
■nniu eiwrini of thv lily that imw Hjwn-
tanniiiHiy in the tii'liU, anil wamH'lilinn ailmireit,
Ui.-:iu# iwliliini iii'tJreil: nnd in Sonu v. i'i,
rrfi-rence ih iiu|iiiim.il tii lie hail ti> tilt' Peniun
Mlv. within wliiwe I1ij«-i.t-i'iii> ii IihiiuI a
vr.llfOli..n of Hiiiil n'lt unlike iiiyrrti. The lily
atTonltil a iiattrm for niiirh iJ tlu- ornuneiital
work iif the tiinl>li-. (1 Kl viL ; 2 Chr. iv.)

l.IME llw. xxxiii. 131-a «-ell kiu.wn rah-
•itancr, obtuiiittl liy linmin'j liiiientune, bunen,
•lii'lln, Ai'., anil nmxl fur iilaotiT iir the cement
<rf lirick-work, Ai'. It it infrm.il from the
above jiSKinin', nnil from Aiihm ii. 1, tliat the
■iiMlvni mmlu of manufai-tiirini; tliiii artirl--
wan knnwn In the ancients. I'litt'miiervil
■n'Ttnr i- tlinl *liir-li i- n> iniii.-rf«>tly or
iinKkilfiillv niixi-il that it ennnut )■■ woriiiil
(Kiek. xiJj. Ill, II). It io liy nu iiieflm Mittun
tliat lime vai H conil»ni'nt t«it uf the iilaxter
iiK-ntionnl. l>eat. xxvii. 2. The writinx of the
iini-«iil« refernil t» iu thiii i«»iaj^- may havo

hIxJ!AliK'(lijkrit41-fnmilvi*me*.

I.INKX (l.ev. xiii. 4T| -a cl'-th maile nf
flax. It waa miirh valilnl anil iiiuil in aiieirat
nn it III In miKlem tinieii. Fine white lim-n ii
in Srri|iturB the rmlileni nf iwuwmcu ur nuiral
l.iirity(lt.-v. siv. (i;xix.Nl.

Tlieliei<t linen whh nneii-ntlT maile in Keyiit.
a- tlieir ciniiitrv ■fl.otl.-.l lli.' fii««t Hiiv (I'fv.
Tii. Hi] ; l>ut it it wiiil the niiwt of tliiir linen
waH ciianw; ami Solomon, it wiiiih, iHWKht
linun-yiini in KkT|>t (1 Ki. x. Sff. It i->Mi|>-
)iim(h1 thntlinm wiw anuicntly Uinnl fin-wrUilig
un. anil t]u> letti'n> tuniieil with a |i<-ii>-jt.

HiiH cl'ith, *■> wielirateil in amdent time*,
Ik Ktill fiMinil wtn]>iH:il aroiinil mnniniieii, anil
a|>|>rant to In- of ttie qiinlity of the roiiimnn
roltiiii Hhwtinii. (Smi CmiTiies, Jlii-TAtK,
Flax.)

J.IM:K(T>B.ivi. 6). Tliii eiTireiwion ivfem
tn the mudu of ineaiairin;[ Inml with a iiinl

LIT

M by the aantMl oreriknr i
J l5tT. - -

Me.

My I->rtirrt

'rwiKr-..!
LHIN'l<lei

(S«

,„ _., .._ _i tfl nijiiirf |uirtiu«lnr

ih'Hi'riiitiim. The liuu'a f.imi m majestie; iU
ficiwing mane, KhajfKy eyebrow", ){Iitti^ring

feet, and hia lieiKht atrai . -. _ . _. _

tawny. Tlie fi-rce omruge of the li.meiu
JK |<niverbtal. Ijom formerly inhaliiteil the
Buir>hy baokx of tlu Jordan, and wluo drives

the yvuag Uim" |h
;); HoiL V, 141; "thegnwi
i" (Num. ixiiL 34; ISm.

animal aboimd in the Bible, but

in their aiii^catioD that th^ nnd not li
ei[ilained. lie Sinipture haa alliiDaMtnb
ruar m teiribls, hii tuji ao puweiful. hii U
N> tiTiin, hia walk in ackrch of bia pnT, "i
the Hliring with which he lena npoa it b
the Hebrpw there are aeveral naaua for ttt
lion, (xpnaainf the difFerenoe* in lui ((e al
character, aa, theliun'f whelp" (Dent. m&
ffi: fjek. - - "■ "■^- -
xxxiv. 10 ;

■ml viiforoi

XTii. 1(J).

In.lnbiv. ia,ll.are&vedilTernit wndo b
denifte the lion, which are rightly rmideTtfl tf
'mr tnnslatnra ;— "The roarinK of the bo^
and the voice of the fierce lion, and the tMt
■•f the young lioni are broken. ITie uld Hb
periHheth fur hick of prey, and the ilait bm'i
whol|i*are icattered abnind." In NaLiLlt,
1^ i* another congerie* oi terma iii|iiiiMiTTfl
the age. character, etat'ire, and fenxatyof tti
lii>n. All the i>oet> of anaent time* almaaln
HlliiaionB to the ni^ile courage and itnoflk i
thill king of quailmiieds ; and Uie alluniaiB
Scripture are very nuuieroua, bnt all Mf
NiniLticnnt and intelligible.

Lll'tt (I.ev. xiii. 451. lliia word hai miM
l>eculiar MgniBcationa in theScriptun*:—

(See CalTM.)
" -i. 23). Thiipkn*
lipa through vUcl
~ivy, and otl«

by KJiif ill woTila.

LirH,BiiRNiNr,(Proi
hna be«i nipiKwed Co meal
the eiprfwiiotui of malii

(AcU ix. 1) : or. aa it ia oftener ii ,,- ,

Inmiinu with faliie profeanoiii of piety ■■
friciiibibip; a* the " potiiheni, covered aM
■ilver ilrow," apiiwira with barainK hrighlia*
thoii}.'h it i» in truth hut a potsherd.

I,ip. ovKiiLfo THE (&ek. iii». a. m
cbin. with the outer garment, waa a toko* ■
moumine.

LITTRK (Ih. IxTi. 20)— • onvred wnq'
ance probably not unlike the OiieatJ pk>
•|uin, whidi ii carried on the ahonldor. Mk

LIZ

A.RD (Lev. xi 30). It is quite nnoer-
hat species of the animal known to
I naturalists by this name is intended

sacred writers. The original would
e one which adheres closely to tiie
It was unclean by the ceremonial law.
J^. (See Debt, Pledge.)
K (Judg. iiL 23). The doors of the
. Hebrews were secured by bars of wood
, though the latter were almost entirely
riated to the entrance of fortresses.
, and towns. Thus we find it mention^
tCi. iv. 13, as something remarkable
ling Bashan, that there were "three-
Teat cities, having walls and brazen
(See also Isa. xlv. 2.) These were
tiie only locks known m early times,
ey were furnished with a hurge and
key, which was applied to tne bar
1 an orifice from the outside, by means
;h the bar or bolt was slipped forward
odem locks. There were smaller con-
es for inner doors (Judg. iiL 24), and
ly proiecting pieces by which to shove
it with the hand (Song v. 4, 5). (See
1NG8, Key.)

UST (Nah, iii. 15)-an insect of the
>pper species, remarkable for numbers
raciousnesa, and hence one of the most
il scourges of eastern countries. The
plague upon Pharaoh was in the form

of locusts (Exod.
X. 4-15; PsaL
Ixxviii. 46; cv.
34), and they are
frequently^ allud-
ed to as instru-
'ments of Divine
judgment (Deut
38-42; 1 KL viiL 37; 2 Chr. vL 28). It
en supposed that no less than ten
it species are mentioned in Scripture
oany different words. Many facts have
elated by travellers and mstorians of
y to show the immensity of the numbers
ists which have been observed to pass
me countries. Even the heathen viewed
ists as a dreadful judgment from heaven.
lays, " This plague is considered a,mani-
>n of the wrath of the gods : by their
r they darken the sun^ and tne nations
em virith anxious surprise ; their strength
tiling, so that they cross oceans, and
e immense tracts of land. They cover

LOO

the harvest with a dreadful doud; their very
touch destroying the fruits of the earth, and
their bite utterly consuming everything."

" The locusts," says a traveller, " properly so
called, which are so frequently mentioned by
sacrea as weU as profane authors, are sometdmei
gregarious beyond expression. Those which I
saw were much bigger than our common gnun-
hoppers, and had brown spotted wings^ with
legs and bodies of a bright yellow. Their first
appearance viras towards the latter end of
March, the wind having been some time from
the south. In the middle of April ^ their
numbers were so vastly increased that in the
heat of the day they formed themselves into
large and numerous swarms, flew in the air
like a succession of clouds, and, as the prophet
Joel expresses it. 'they darkened the sun.*
When tne wind olew briskly, so that these
swarms were crowded by others, or thrown one
upon another, we had a lively idea of that
comparison ot the Psalmist (Ps. cix. 23), of
beinfi" *toMed up and down as the locust.*
In tne month of May, when the ovaries of
these insects were ripe and turgid, each of
these swarms began to disappear, and retired
into the Metijian and other adjacent plains,
where they dcDOsited their eggs. These were
no sooner natched, in Jxme, than each of the
broods collected itself into a compact body of
an eighth of a mile square, and marching
afterwards directly forward towards the sea,
they let nothing escape them ^ eating up every
thing that was green and juicy, not only the
lesser kinds of vegetables, but the vine, likewise
'the fig-tree, the pomegranate, the palm and
the apple-tree^ even all the trees of the field*
(Joel i. 12); m doing which, they kept their
ranks like men of war, climbing over, as they
advanced, every tree or wall that was in their
way; nay, they entered into our very houses
ana bed-chamoers like thieves. The inhabi-
tants, to stop their progress, made a variety
of pits and trenches all over their fields and
gaixlens, which they filled with water; or else
they heaped up therein heath, stubble, and
sucn like combustible matter, which were
severally set on fire upon the approach of the
locusts. But this was all to no puipose, for
the trenches were quickly filled up ana the fires
extinguished by infinite swarms succeeding one
another, whilst the front was regardless of
danger, and the rear pressed on so dose that
a retreat was altogether impossible. A day or
two after one of these broods was in motion,
others were already hatched to march and glean
after them, gnawing off Uie very bark and Uie
young branches of such trees as had before
escaped with the loss only of their fruit and
folii«e. So justly have tney been compared
by the prophet to a 'great army;* who further
observes, that 'the mnd is as the garden of
Eden before them, and behind them a desolate
wilderness.***

The locust was by the law a dean animal —
it is " a fljring creeping thing.** Somespedesof
the locust are eaten at this day in eastern
ooontries, and ore even esteemed a delicacy

411

LOD

when [)roiK;rly cooked (oomp. Lev. xL 22:
Matt liL 4). After tearing off the legH ana
wingH, and taking out the entrails, they stick
them in long rows ui>au wooden npitii, roast
them at the fire, and then im)ceed to devour
them with grtrat zetit. Tliere are also other
ways of ])reiiaring them. For example, they
cook them and drefls them in oil; or, having
dried themj they pulverize them, and wht'n I
other fiMxl in ecarce, make bread (»f the meaL '
The BedouinH i^ick them witli Halt in close
maHHos, wluch they carry in their leathern
Hackrt. From tlu'se th(>y cut nlic-es as they may
need them. It is singular that even leameil
men liave sufTi-nHl theinsi'lvo.-* to hesitate about
imdertftanding thene jMUSsages citeil al»vu of
the literal locust, when the fact that they are
eaten by tlie Orientids is so aliundantly proveil
by the concurrent testinn my of travellers. One
ot them BavH they are brought to market on
utrings in all the cities of Arabia, and that he
saw an Arab on nmunt Sumara who had
collected a sackful of them. ^Vn Arab in
Fgypt, of wliom ho rei^uesteil that he would
immediately eat locu8t8 m his prcK'nce, throw
them u]>on tlie glowing cooht, and after he
HUpi>oRe<l they were masted enough, he took
them by tlie legu and head, and iievoured the
remainder at one mouthful. Wlien the Arabs
have them in iiuantitiefl they roast or dry them
in an oven, or boil tliem and eat them with
fudt Tlie Arabs in the kingdom of ]!^It)rocco
boil the locu<«ts; and the liedouins eat tliose
which are (•oll<-cte<l in givat quantities in the
beginning <»f Anril, when tlu-y are ea««ily caught.
After haviniur htt'n ro:u-t»d a litth^ uisin the
iii>n plate on which }»re:wl is l)iik<"d, Uh?y are
dried in the sun, and then put into laixe sticks,
with tlie mixturt! of a little salt. TlK-y an'
never serviii up as a <li«lj, but every i>ne UiktM
a handful f>f thcni wjien Iiuii,i.Ty.

In the biK»k of Itevt-lation we have a
dcHcription of the symbolical locust, whicli
gives us a terrific i7ui>re.-sion *ii their jMJwer,
and wliich is curiously illustrated by a jijissage
fnmi an easti'ni traveller. **An Arab from
15agda4l,'* he gjiys, ** compared the boa*! <»f the
locust to that of the hoi'se. its bre;u*t to that of
the lion, its feet to those of the camel, its boily
to that of tlie nerpent. its tiiil to that of the
HCori»i<»n; and »a t)f other parts.'' In like
manner, the Italians still call Ixnists little
horsi's; and the (Icnuauu name them Iiay
linrses. (Src'.ToKL.)

LOD. (SeeLYiuu.)

LO-DKHAll (2 Sam. ix. 4 ; xvii. 27) -a place
in the trils.* of («:m1, not far fn»m JMahanaim,
north of the trabbt.>k. Hrre <lwelt Macliir the
Anmionite, who assiste<l David when he nrtircd
from Aljsalom^s usur]>ation. and in whose house
lived Me])hilx>9heth, Jonathan's lame hou, who
sat at David's table, and received from him
**all that ]>ertained to Saul and his house."
Some b!ijijM)se it to be the Biime with " Dobir "
(Josh. xiii. 2C).

LODGK. (See Garden.)

LOG. (See MKAMrKEs.)

LOINS (1 Kl xviii 40). The dress of the
412

Oriental lutioiM beiiiR Ioom, It w.
when they were tnv^liiig or woridng, to gin
up their gument*, and fMtcn them aboot the
hims; henco the ezpreasioii i» figaz«tiT«I^iBBd
(1 Pet L 13) to denote zestnunt or abstmcBOi
trom worldly cares, thoog^hta, aod pomit^
whereby the aoul would be enta&gka or hin-
dered. (See Glotbes.)

LOOKING-GLASS (Job xxzvii 18). What
is thus translated vnm in Cact a plate of mcteL
polished so finely as to prodnoe a very perfect
reflection of objects. The miixoni of E^^^
ladies, according to WiUdnaoD, were of a nnied
metal, chiefiy m copjper, many spedmeu of
which are in the British afnawtttp.

Ancient Ulrrora

LORD (Gen. zxziz. 2). This wotd, tkngk
sometimes applied as a teim of reTqeace an
resi)ect, usually denotes the Snpi«ine Bene;
ami in this last sense it is applied indiserini-
ately to the Father and to tne Son (Acts x. JS:
Kev. xix. IG), esiiecially in the epistles of IhoL
In the common English tranuation of A^
Itible the word LOKD, when it ataadi kf
tiehovali, is printe<l in capitals.

Ijokd'h DAT (Uev. L 10), or the Chrirtiv
Sabltath, was distizigmshed by this name fin*
the Sunday of the i'l^aas and the 81M0A d
the Jerk's. The early Christian writers g<s-
erally made this distinction ; and the Cliri#ti
emiH;r«»rs used the term Lord's day, or Sua^t
acconlin^ t<.> the i)er8ons they ndarcascd 1 1,
whether they were Pa^pws or ChriftiM^
Lord's day was the favourite name of the dfv
in the times of the apostles luid first OuiilittW
and Sundaif was used only in accommodikics
to Uie |>oi)ular usage of the Pagans aioBi4
them. (See Feast, Sabbath.)

L(»Ri)'d suppEK (1 Cor. xi. 20). Hm n^
prece<ling his crucifixion, the Loid Jesns, w''
eating the paschal supper with his disoiM
])resented each of them with bread and inw»
and declared to them that as often st tkf
should eat of that bread and drink of tksie^
in remembrance of him, they would sbowftftt
or illustrate his deiith, ana their frith is i^
atoning efficacy, till he should oome. I^
great majority of Christians hold this ozdimaee
to be bindini' on the Church till the end cf tk
world, and that it is the privil^e ffrw* diity''
all the disciples of Christ to obser\'e it

This ordinance is sublime in its ▼07 ■>

LOT

plicity: its object of commemoration is the
Lord^ death — the great sacrifice of peace and
propitiatiou— the event which is the basis of
taitn on earth, and the theme of praise and
rejoicing in heaven. The mode of celebration
is very simple, as our Lord himself at the first
institation of the feast exemplified. But men
have perverted this ordinance — ^have made it a
sacrifice itself, and not the commemoration of
one. The mass is an unwarranted imitation
of the Lord's atoning death. The dogma of
transubstantiation is not less unnatund and
unscripturaL Christ says, "This is my body
broken for vou. ** Papists take this in a literal
sense, and fall into the grossest of all blunders
— alike opposed to the senses, to reason, and to
Scripture; for a priest's prayer changes a
wafer into a god — ^a god to be swallowed by his
worshipper. Volumes have been written to
show their error. It is altogether wrong to
allege, as is sometimes done by Protestants,
that Christ could not say, " This is like, or this
represents, my body," because the lang^nage he
spoke in had no verbs of this meaning. It
must be a language of great scantiness and
{x>verty indeed, t£a,t has no verbs denoting
similitude or representation. Christ's mother
tongue had abundance of them, if he had
chosen to use them. But Christ savs, " I am the
vine" — "I am the door." JaooD says of his
two sons, "Judah is a lion's whelp"— "Ben-
jamin is a ravening wolf." Nobody mistakes
the meaning of those figures of speech; and the
words of the Redeemer are preosely similar in
kind. Who would ever dream uiat Jacob
meant to affirm that two of his sons had been
changed into quadrui>eds? and yet he uses
language as strong and peculiar as did the
Beaeemer. The people of the East delight
in such striking metaphors. Instead of saying,
"The name of the Lord resembles a strong
tower," they simply say, "The name of the
Lord is a stronff tower." Their warm minds
neglect the wora denoting similitude.

The Church of Christ has been long re-
freshed and blessed b;^ this ordinance. Our
senses become the ministers of our faith, and
we hold communion with one another over the
emblems of the holy suffering humanitv of the
Son of Grod. It is a supper— as first celebrated
in the eveninjif; a feast— for it is a season of
joyous experience; the eucharist — for it is a
time of thankogiving ; the communion — for we
hold fellowship with Jesus and fellow-believers;
and the sacrament (which word is tlie repre-
sentative of the Greek term /bu;o*n$^fov, and
does not refer to the Boman oath) — ^for it is a
mysterv to which the initiated alone are invited
and a<ums8ible. It is to last in the Church
till the Bedeemer comes again. It thus leads
back to OalvwT, and forward to the seoond
advent (See Communion.)

LOT. L (Gen. xL 31; xix. 37, 38) The son
of Haran, and nephew of Abraham. Lot
shared for a time in Abraham's fortunes, but
afterwards left him, and established his resi-
dence at Sodom. For the sake of worldly
advantage, he suffered his own soul to he

LOV

daily vexed by filthy communications, and he
endangered also the spiritual well-being of his
family. But on that awful morning of Divine
vengeance Lot lost idl his property. Only his
two daughters remained : and they, tinged with
that laxity of morab wnich prevailed around
them, seduced their aged parent into sin. (See
Abraham.)

2. A portion or share of anything, particu-
larly an inheritance (Josh. xv. 1 ; Ps. cxxv. 3;
Isa. xvii 14; IviL 6: Acts viii 21).

3. (Prov. xviiL 18) A method uised to deter-
mine chances or preferences, or to decide a
debate. The decision bv lot was often resorted
to in former times, but always with the strictest
reference to the interposition of God; as in
the choice of the apostle Matthias (Acts i. 26),
and in the cases of Saul and Jonatnan, and of
Jonah and his companions, to determme who
had offended God (1 Sam. xiv. 41, 42; Jon. i
7). In the division of the promised land
among the tribes of Israel the use of the lot
was expressly commanded by God himself, it
heiaa understood that the extent of territory
shoiud be proportioned to the population of
each tribe (Num. xxvi. 55). So the selection
of the scape-goat was to be determined by lot
(Lev. xvi 8). Property was divided in the
same way (Ps. xxiL 18; Matt xxvii 35). The
orders ot the priests and their daily service
were also assigned by lot, (1 Chr. xxiv.. xxv.)

As to the manner of casting lots, we nave no
certain information. It is supposed by some
that the stones or marks which were used in
determining the lot were thrown together into
the lap or fold of a garment, or into an urn or
vase, and that the person holding them shook
them violently, so that there shoidd be a per-
fect mingling of the whole contents, to prevent
all preference by the hand of him who should
draw; so that the passage (Prov. xvi 33) is
paraphrased thus — 'In a lot-vase the lots are
shaken in all directions^ nevertheless, from the
Lord is the whole decision or jud^pnent."

Lot's wife (Luke xvii 32). The allusion in
this passage to the history oi Lot's wife refers
either to the attempt to return, which some
suppose she made, or to her mere looking back
with a desire to return. For her offence it ia
said she was turned into "a pillar of salt."
She was made a monument of the Divine dis-
^easure, but in what precise form is not known.
Either the lava encrusted her, which when
cooled had a saline appearance; or the word
adU may have its common symbolical meaning
of perpetuity. She became a perpetual monu-
ment of Goa's indignation. (See Salt.)

LOVE a John iv. 8, 16). This term signi-
fies one 01 tiie constituent principles of our
nature ; and in the perfect exercise of it is
compreuiended the whole of our dutjr to God
and to our feUow-creatures (Matt xxiL 37-40;
Eom. xiiL 8, 10; GaL v. 14: Jas.iL 8). Hence
it evidenUy comprehends all holiness of heart
and life. The highest and most glorious dis-
play of the divine character which has ever
been made to man is the love of God in Jesus
Christ (Bom. v. 8), and the great principle and

413

LOW

fruit uf both faith and obedience consist in the
ixMsesdon and exercise of love; for "love is
heaven, and heaven is love" (Juhn xiii. 'M, 36).
(See Chauity.)

LOW COUNTRY (2 Chr. xxvi. 10), or
LOW PIJIINS (2 Chr. xxvii, 28), calL^l also
THE VALLEY (Josh. xv. 33), and VALE
(1 Ki. X. 27). These words denote the western
portion of Judah— ^'thesliephi'lah" in Hebrew.
This ge< (graphical term is also simply rendered
plain (Jer. xWi. 2G).

LUBIM. (See Ltbia.)

LUCIFER (Isa. xiv. 12). This word, sig-
mfying lif/ht-brintjer^ occurs but once in our
Bible, and is then applied to the king of
Babylon to indicate lus glory as that of a
mi»ming star, or, figuratively, *'a son of the
morning. " Tertullian and some others suppose
the pOKsage to relate to the fall of Sutan ; and
hence the term is now usually api>licd in that
way, thou;^di without sufficient warrant.

LUCIUS OF CYRENE (Acts xiii. 1).
Cyrene was a Greek colony in northern Africa ;
and Cyrenians are mentioneil an iK'inj; ]tresent
at Pentecost (Acts iL 10). Nothing is known
of this Lucius.

LUI) (<ilen. X. 22)— a s<»n of Shem, from
whom the Tjydians of Asia Minor are supiMSod
to have descendetL

LUDIM ((ien. x. 1.3)— son of Mizraim,
whoHi.' iMiKterity, oIao called IjyilianH (Jer. xlvi.
\})j settuii on the contineut of Africa, to the
west of E^ypt, as wc infer fn.»ni tlie connection
in which tlicy and their country are mentioned
(Isa. Ixvi. H»; Ezek. xxvii. 10; xxx. fi). Their
prfciiw loc.ition is unknown.

LUKE (Col. iv. 14), or LUCAS (Philc. 24)
— the author of one of the (io8im.-1s, and also of
the l>r>ok of Acts. He was a phytticiau (CoL
iv. 14); but his llarent£^;e, nativity, and pre-
cise connection Aiith our Saviour and his
apostles are uncertidn. It is evident that he
wan well ac(}uainte<l with evfr>'thing rehitive
to the AleMMiali and to his ministry U])on earth.
He wrote his g(»Hi)el in Acliaia, alxmt A. I). C^{,
and the Acts of tlie AjMutles within a year or
two afterwards. I^)th these InKjks were dedi-
cated to The4»])hiltis, a distiiiguis1ie<l C'hnstian,
and 8U]»iM>sed to have been an Itdian. In the
Acts, geographical notes are often a<lded. till
the reconl of Paul's arrival in Italy; after
that, places not usually known are mentii'iRil
without any ex]»lanation. The inference is,
that llieo]»hilurt, to whom the b<N)k is inscribed,
belonged to Ital^', and wiis intin)ut<>ly ac-
quainted with all its l(K*alitie8. Ijuke travelled
with Paul, joining him at Troas, accompanying
him to Nea}>olis and Pliilippi, and atteruard
thnmgh Macedonia to Troas again. He went
with the a]s)stle to Konic, and remained with
him during some jteriod i>f his confinement (2
Tim. iv. 11 ; I'hile. 24). By some he is thought
to have been a Greek, and by others a Syrian,
and that he was bom and converted at Antioch,
from which place he commenced his travels
with PauL Some Bupix)Be him to have been
among the seventy uisciples sent out by our
Lord: he alone makes special mention of this
414

UJK

mission. Some mppoM luiii to be the Lnemi
referred to in Bom. xvi 21, bafc tbore is lo
foundation for the Btfttemea'L A raooil writer
in his Literary Hidorv of tMe New TetiimaiL*
■upnosee him to be the aame with Sila^tM
well-known companion of PanL The gronadi
of this hypothesis are by no means verystabk
For the peculiar change of name no roMoB i>
given, nor is there any tmditionaiy hmtontlie
subject. The two namea, mofeover, hesr as
resemblance. The author, indeed, addoM
some changes of njunes as s^ordmg aoslogoM
proof to his hypothesis. But Peter and Cephsi
are the same term in different langoag^
Thomas and Didvmus are aimilariy idaie^
and Lebbeos and Thaddeus are synonyiM
Zelotes and Canaanite are not properiy dsbi^
but only the same desi^ation; the fociMr
expressed in Greek, the latter in Syro-ChaUae.
Bartholomew, if it refer to NathanieU is ssh
a patronymic The double names of SanlaM
Paul are distinctly recorded ; and Levi, if it bi
the name of Matthew, has a •imilMP irignifirstr*
with it, according to Winer, in his Rtal-W^-
Urbuch, sub voce. The theorist says foxtkr
in defence of his hypothesis : " Lacairai ii
derived from lucos, and S^lvanns from s|rl«L
and lucus and j|^ra siffnify the same ^bag^
Hut so far from being related at all to Loea^
Lucanus is only the Grecixed form of ^
Syriac Lucas, and Silvaniu (not Syh-anat,*
the author erroneously spells it) is merely tibt
Grecized form of Silas. Neither hicnt sor
silva are therefore etymologically coonectrf
with tlie ideal Lucanus or the actual SilTam
If the assumi>tion of a Roman name wm nml
on ac<iuiring the privilege of a Roman dtfMi
then Silas is easily Romanized into SflTiBW
but the interchange of Lucas into SilvaBBS ii
both f)edantic and unneccssaiy. Besidei,tkt
author of the ** Acts " adheres to the short ni
original name Silas, between whidi and Lsw
there is no connection. More ptohabfe te
this conjecture is the theory that Silas ii tht
same |K;rson as Tertius, mentioned in Ba
xvi. 22; for Sihis and Tertius have ia iWr
respective timgiies the same significatioB. TW
other arguments adduced un behalf of A*
theory which we are oppoeinff are rtrj p**
carious. They refer to the i>hraseok^ «•*
sionally employed in the b(X>k of Acta IW
author endeavours to show that the use of tk
term " we,*' on the part of the lustorisn, k*
special reference to Silaa, who by this (dBSM*
ology includes himself with Paul, and pM**
himself to be the author oi the amuda I^
chose Silas for his companion after hit ■cpM*'
tion from Barnabas, and went immfmsHT
afterwards thnmgh Syria and Cilida casUt
ing the churches. But of this joanBf w
account is given. It is strange, if Silas s*>
the author, that he gives no aoconnt d ^
first journey with Paul. No mentkn ii w^
ol hispropress till, having jrane throi^ 9f^
and CUicia, he came to Derbe and Iait»
The author enroneously represents this vU^

*Loadon,18tik

lijk:

partion of the missionary tour as the principal
nut of it. The progress was oontinuea through
rhrym and the re^on of Gralatia, and no
recora of the enterprise is l^t. Is not this a
strange omission, if Silas were the author?
At the same time, throughout the brief account
or rather mention of the stages of this his first
journey, no identification of himself as tiie
author takes place. The "we" never occurs.
The historian first associates himself with the
apostle at Troas, where he seems to have
joined him — " we endeavoured to go into
Jdacedonia;" while two verses before it is
said. " they assayed to go into Bithvnia." It
is added in the verse first ouoted, assuredly
e;atherinff that the Lord had called us to
preach the Grospel imto them.** The author
aivues from this lanyiage that the only indi-
viduals divinely appomted to preach the Gospel
were Paul, and Silas, and Timotheus, who are
therefore associated by Paul with himself in
his epistles to the Macedonians. One of these
persons, therefore, must have been the writer
of the book. The inference is too sweeping for
the premises. The use of the term us wilfnot
justify it. The association of the historian
-with his party does not prove that he put
himself on an equality with them; for Paul
aaya, " We shall not all die, but we shall be
changed." The "we" implying this associa-
tion IS never used when Paul and Silas are the
only persons to whom it could apply. Care is
taken never to use it in such circumstances.
It is not used in the lon^ accoimt of the im-
-_ prisonment of Paul and Silas at PhilippL We
;2 cannot conceive it possible, had Silas been the
" author, that in the narration of this interesting
^ event ne should not have for once used the
^ terms we or us. Luke seems never to have
^ held any o£5cial public station, and so could
, not with propriety be associated with Silas and
Ximothj in the apostolic salutations. The
writer m the Acts says, the Pythoness " fol-
^ k^wed Paul and us;" and the author of the
theory on which we are animadverting con-
<dode8 that the us must be understood of Silas
^ and Timotheus, otherwise the writer would
' ' aafmredly have said Paul and Silas. But Pau
J waa the principal personage in the scene, and
7 iiB companions toe historian associates with
lumaelf. Silas afterwards was absent from
3?aal for some time, and during this period
X^aul visited Athens. Now, of this visit we
liave a full narration, with a report of Paul's
Camous oration on Mars* hilL Btrange mode
%)i procedure, if Silas were the author ! that he
^ silent, or at least brief, in reference to scenes
^n -which he and Paul were the only associates,
4^ad. so full and circumstantial as to other
:luicidents, visits, and addresses, when himself
absent ! Does this resemble nature or
tbabilitjr? The last account we have of
ifl his joining Paul at Corinth. His
does not occur afterwards, nor does
appear in any way to be connected with the
kive. We read afterwards of Timothj
associated with Paul, but no mention is
of Silas in the list, while Luke shows

LUK

himself in the use of the first person plural
Silas does not appear again, but the autnor oi
the book of Acts identifies himself with the
history, and came to Rome with PauL There
is no evidence that Silas was at Home with the
apostle^ while Luke is referred to in three out
of the nve epistles written from the metropoliB
— viz., in the epistles to Philemon, to the
Colossians, and the second to Timothy. Paul's
reference to Luke and Silas leaves no doubt
that they were different persons. Had he used
this change of name, as our author imagines,
he could only have embarrassed the churches.
Silvanus is associated with Paul in his opening
salutation to the church in Thessalonica, both
epistles being written from Corinth, while
Silas was wiu the apostle ; but if Silas were
the same person with Luke, he was at Rome
with Paulj and is yet associated with him in
no salutation (not even in the epistle to the
Philippians), while Luke is incidentally men-
tioned, ana in such a way as his humbler
station warranted. The whole history of Silas
proves that he was neither Luke nor the
author of the Acts of the Apostles. Some
suppose he suffered martjrrdom; but of the
time and manner of his death we have no
authentic information.

Luke, gospel bt, is the third in order in
our present arrangement. Its commencement
is in classical style — not like the J^Lain ttnd
unpretending Hebrew exordium. There are
some points m that introduction which possess
a peculiar interest. The evangelist alludes to
other narratives of Christ's life (ch. L I, 2).
Two classes of authors seem to be referred to-—
the ** many," in contradistinction to the ** eye-
witnesses " and " ministers " of the Word. The
works of the former were unauthorized docu-
ments, written in all probability from a good
motive; but not bein^ inspired, they were
failures. The compositions of the latter may
have been our canonical Matthew and Mark —
the one the work of an "eye-witness," the
other the production of a '* minister of the
Word." Luke professes to have made diligent
investigation, and he proposes to write "in
order."

This book contains many things which are
not found in the other gospels ; amona: which
are the following: — the birth of John the
Baptdst; the Boman census in Judea: the
circumstances attending Christ's birtn at
Bethlehem ; the vision granted to the shepherds;
the early testimony of Simeon and Anna;
Christ's conversation with the doctors in the
temple when he was twelve years old; the
parables of the good Samaritan, uf the prodigal
son, of the ricn man and Lazarus, of the
wicked judge, and of the publican and ]rhariflee :
the miraculous cure of the woman who had
been bowed down by illness eighteen vears;
the cleansing of the ten lepers; and toe re-
storing to life the son of a widow at Nain ; the
account of Zaccheus and of the penitent tiiief ;
and the particulars of the journey to Emmaus.
It is very satisfactory that so early a writer as
Irensus has noticed most of these peculiarities.

415

IMS

which proreii not only that St Luke*8 gospel,
but that tho (ither guiipelM ahto, arc the same
now that tliey were in the eecfind century.
(SeeGoHPELH.)

Jjukc^H g<Mi>cl M more elegant in many por-
tionn of it8 du-tion than the other evaugelintcL
It has a catholic aMiH'ct. and exhibits Jesiu,
not as the ^TeMiali of tlie Jewts Init as the
Saviour of the wurhl. Ijuke coinddes often
verl tally \i-ith Matthew in the tranncript of
our I^inrn RayingM (Matt. viiL 11»; ch. ix. 57;
Matt viii. 1»; ch. \ii. H; Matt xiL «; ch. xi
•24). Yet I-iuke narrat«'rt many evont» not to
be found in Matthew. His onler it* different;
and he urofeHses to write **in onler"— thatis
to Hay, with reference to tho chronological
succettKion of eveiit». Uiii correct use of medi*
cal tcmi8 has iKimetime8 l>een remarke<l; and
a very recent writer has Hhown his ]>ecnliar
familiarity with nautical phnuics and idioms,
in his description of I'auTs voyage and ship-
wreck.

But Luke was not an aix^stle. Whence,
then, the authority of bis goMiK'l? Ancient
tradition unanimouxly aHcril>eH it to the patron-
age of Paid. IrenR'iw, at a very early period,
says that "Luke wrote down the gosjwl
preached by PauL" ** Luke's <ligest, says
Tertullian, "is generally ascribed to PauL"
(>rigi*n calls it "the gosiwl sanctioned by
Paul** Other Fathers held similar opinions.
It has lieen remarked that tlie account of the
Ijord*8 Sup]>er in Luke and that in 1 Cor.
is very much alike. Chapter iii. 1 5, 10, contains
a statement alMnit the Baptitit very similar
to a portion of one of Paul's addresses n^f erring
to tiie same subject. Nay. some have gone
the unwarrant<.>(l len;^h ot supiMMing that
when Paul saj's, " In the dav when (ro<l shall
judge the secnrts of men by Jesus (Thrist,
acconling to my gosixjP (liom. ii. HI), the
words. "mygoMiK*!," refer to the comiKisition
of Luke. We believe, however, in the truth
of the early tnvlition. Chily in such a way
could the work of Luke Imve gaintnl a s]>eedy
and universal rccei>tion amon;^ the churches.
Its t4>ne, and H]iirit, and selection of facts are
in unisrtn -with the exi>anded xiayrs of him who
was the aiMMtle of tlie (rentiles.

LUNATIC (Matt. iv. 24). It was formerly
■upjNwed that tlie changes of the moon had
an influence uixm certain diHeases of the mind ;
and ]>ersons aff(H.*te<l i%ith thnne diseases were
therefore calle<l lunatics; and hence, too,
distractoil T>erwins, who arc sane at intcr\*als.
are still called lunatics, thoutrh the idea of
their l)eing at all under the influence of the
nuxm is generally regarded as irrational In
the iSjTiac versiim the rendering seems to
imply that the lunatics were diseased sleei>-
waikers, pn^me to range under the moon over
the flat nK>fs of eastern houses. Ph^'nittbtgists
still describe melancholy cases of somnam-
bulism.

LUSTS. 1. Unlai»-ful passions and desires

(1 (^.^. X. «; 1 Pet ii 11; i v. 2; 2 Pet ii. 10).

2l nic comiption of the heart, which inclines

to evil, and is lK>th the effect and cause of sin

41U

LYB

(Jas. L 14, 15). 3. The denre of food it
mutain life (Deat^ ziL 15L

LUZ (Jndg. L 26). 1. The old aame of
Bethel JrSeeBETHXL.) 2. A dty in tiie lad
of the Hittites, built br a man of Bc«U
who was permitted to go tree by the Epknin-
ites, as a reward for "**^^**tf known to tbtt t
secret nessage into the town, by wbaA dicy
enterea and took it. Ita eite n nnknowB.

LYBIA, or LIBTA (Acfci iL 101, ea
anciently among the Oimeb a geDcnl aav
for Africa, bat pitvperly it embnoed only »
much of Africa ae lav west of Egypt, oa the
southern coast of the Meditemneaa. Vnbm
eeographen call it Lybia Cyrenaiea, becm
Cyrene was its capitaL (Slee Ctbhi.) It
was the conntry of the Jiafafana (2 Chr. xa %
or LehalMm of the Old

it is Buppoeed to have deriTed tti
(JAONIA

LYOAONIA (Acte idw. e^ ll>-aimiMr
of Ana Minor whioh tiie apoetle FmI teioi
visited. It was eeparmted from Phngii^ai
created into a Roman province bgr Aqpife^
and was bomded i>avth by GahUiai «rt W
ra]()nadocia, wrath l^ CSficia^ and wot hf
Pisioia and Phrygian Ita chief tnww eat
Iconimn, Deibe, and IijatnL It ii now •
part of Caramania. and rabject to the Tmb

The *' speech " of thia ptovinee (Aoli m. ID
is suppoeed to have been cither the old AayriB
language or a oormptioii of the OntL M
it is impossible to settle the minstitsi

LYCfiA (Acts zxvii 6K--n smJh »lw
province of Aria Minor, S^nndeti noitt If
Fhrygia, east bw the ae* and eontay «
Pamphylia, south bvthe Medttanmai^ «i
west by Caria and the Gulf of daoeiH, aiv
that i>art of Anatolia embmced bstecm ^
bays of Maori and Satalia. Its cUrf cili«
were Patara and Mynk

LYI>DA (Acts IX. as. 38), or LQD: it
Hebrew, Lwi (Ezra iL 33}— m dtf i^tftri
bjr Benjamites after the captivitr— was a fc*
miles east of JoppiL on the way to JcnakK
Here Peter corea laeas of the pahy. It !■
burned by the Romans in the war of Jw^
but was rebuilt, and called by ths GifAi
Diospolis— the eUp of JupiUr, It n w ■
ruinSjbnt bean the old name.

LYDIA L A Pkbboh (Acts xvL HUh
a woman of Thyatira, who aweh in ths d^i^
Philippi, in Macedonia, and was eonnrtrf
under Paul*s ministry. She opened her lav
to entertain the apostles, oonatraiaing fhm^
partake of her Ko^itabty. She is dsarihi'
as a seller of ponde ; which msans iiitlwr 1M
idle sold the ooloaruig mattery or-'tMf
more likely— the fabric already qyed 1^^'*
engagement in worldly boainesi did art P^
vent ner ^ving heed to the thii^ of hv ^
vation. The neroines of vomanos risk ti^
shade compared with the simple recori of lk>
pious and devoted merchants (Oompi A^
zxviL7, 16.) (SeePDBPLB.)

2. A Place (Ezek. xxz. 51. Hmr «v ■
celebrated kingdom of Asia Mnior kasviV
this name, of whioh Saidis was the e^i*
It is supposed to have basa wttlid bf **

LYR

posterity of Lud, a son of Shem. It had
MyaoA on the north, Phrwia on the east,
Caria on the south, and the Effean Sea on the
west. It was once under the dominion of
Croesus, the wealthiest monarch of his age.
It was in the time of the apostles a province
of the Boman empire. The Lydia of the
above-cited i>as8age is supposed to refer to a
place or a people in Africa. (See LuDiii.)

MAG

LYBE. (See Habp.)

LYSANIAS. (See Abilene.)

LYSIAS. (See Claudius.)

LYSTRA (Acts xiv. 6, 8, 21)— a city of
Lycaonia, where Timothy was curcumdjsed —
probably bom — and where Paul performed a
surprising miracle upon a man lame from hk
birth. The people took him for a god, and
would have done sacrifice to him and Barnabas.

M

MAACAH (2 Sam. iii. 3)— the daughter of
Talmai, king of Greshur, and the mother of
Absalom and Tamar. llie same name occurs
elsewhere, and designates different individuals
of both sexes: as in 1 Ki xv. 1, 2, 7, 8, 10, the
daughter of Abishalom, the wife of Abijam,
and the mother of king Asa; in 1 Ki ii. 39 it
dengnates a kinff of 6ath : in 1 Chr. xxvii
16 it designates the father oi Shephatiah ; and
in Gren. xxii 24 it is a daughter of Nahor. In
1 KL XV. 1, 2, Maachah, the daughter of
Abishalom, is called Abijah's mother; but
in 2 Chr. xiiL 2, Abijah's mother is said to
have been a daughter of Uriel of Gibeah ;
while, in 1 Ki xv. 10, Maachah is called the
mother of Asa who was Abijah's second son,
Maachah, in that case, being his grandmother,
and not his mother. An attempt has been
made to reconcile these apparent inconsistencies
between 1 Ki xv. 2 and 2 Chr. xiii. 2, bv
supposing that different persons are intended.
The relation, it is said, is not the same in both
cases ; for the king's mother was a title of
dignify, and not of consanguinity, distinguish-
ing her rank at court, and not her relation to
the kin^. Thus Maachah, Rehoboom's wife
and Abishalom's daughter (1 Ki xv. 2), was
the natural mother of Abijah, or Abijam.
When her son Abiiah ascended the throne, the
rank of king's mother was given to Michaiab,
the daughter of Uriel of Gibeah (2 Chr. xiii
2); but at her death that title devolved on
Maachah, Rehoboam's wife, and she enjoyed
it at the accession of Asa, her grandson (1 iKi.
XV. 10); and hence, though she was Asa's
gxandmother, she is called by her title of
honour, the king's mother. But probably
Maachah is the true reading in 2 Chr. xiii 2.

MAACHAH, or MAACHATHI (Deut

liL 14) — a city and region of Syria, east and

north of the sources of the Jordiui, and not far

\ from Geshur, at the foot of moxmt Hermon,

> ooResponding to the modem Le jah and JaulAn.

^ The Israelites would not destroy the Maa-

' ohathites, but permitted them to dwell in the

' land (Josh, xiii 13); and their king assisted

the Anmionites affainst David (2 Sam. x. 8).

The lot of the half-tribe of Manasseh, beyond

Jbtdan, extended to this country (Josh, xii 5).

MAALEH-AKRABBIM. (SeeAKRABBiM.)

MACEDONIA (Acts xvi 9) — an exten-

tive district of Greece, west of the Egean

Bea, south of Thrace, and north of Thesaaly.

It rose to fame in tiie days of Philip and

hii son Alexander the Great* under whose

2b

reign Greeee was subdued, and Ma<^onia
became one of the most powerful nations of
antiquity. Macedonia received the GkMfpel
before any other part of Europe. It was at
that time a Roman province. The Romans,
under Paulus Emilius, having conquered the
country, afterwards divided the whole of
Greece and Macedonia into two great pro-
vinces, which they called Macedonia and Acnaia
(2 Cor. ix. 2). It remained a Roman province
tor nearlv 600 years^ when it was conquered
by the Turks, and is still subject to them.
Among its chief cities were Philkipi and
Thessalonica. (See Achaia, Grebck.)

Paul and Silas started from Antioch on their
first European missionary tour. It was Paul's
second missionary tour. At Derbe Timothy
joined them, and they passed through Phrygia
and Galatia into Mysia^ purposing to go to
Bithynia; "but the Spirit suffered them not."
They then turned aside to Troas, where Paul
was divinely instructed to proceed to Europe.
Here Luke, a pious phjrsician, united witih
the missionary band; for it is at this period
that Luke begins to speak in the first person
plural (Acts xvi 11). His profession was
evidently calculated to give him access to the
people when the other missionaries might
be excluded. They forthwith took passage;
touched upon Samothracia, the romantic rock ;
thence, the following day, they landed at
Neapolis, and passed on to Philippi At
Phihppi a little nobk were ^thered; persecu-
tion broke out ; Paul and Silas were put into
prison and beaten; the keeper of the prison
was converted, and the missionaries were
honourably released. Timothy and Luke, who
had excited no ill-will against themselves,
remained at Philippi; while Paul and Silas,
after a farewell meeting in Lydia's house, left
for Thessalonica, passing through Amphipolis
and ApoUonia. At Thessalonica a chimdi was
planted; the fire of persecution again kindled
up; Paul and Silas fled to Berea, and there
"nmotheus joined them again (Acts xvi 19^;
xvii 4-10). At Thessalonica Paul, as usual,
commenced by preaching in the regular place
of worship ; tor, while at Philippi they were
oonstnuned to worship at the river's side, there
being no synagogue there, at Thessalonica
there was one at least (Acts xvii 1, 2). But
not contented with a weekly proclamation of
the truth, Paul spoke as he naii opportunities
to the heathen population and their families,
and met with abundant soooess. as well among

MAC

the proselyteM (Acts xviL 4) m amons the
idolatera (1 ThetM. L 9) ; and then concluded
by exhorting and contforting Uieoi privately
and penKmaUy (1 Th(t>8. iL 10, 11).

MAOHPELAH (Gen. xxiii. \K 17)-a field
and cave near to Hebron, which Abraham
purchased for a burial -places and where he and
nia wife and Hoveral of his children were buried.
It is situated on tlie side of a hi^h hill, sloping
to the south-west ; and over thr cavo, which is
■up]MiM><l to have txM'n the burial- plxice of the

t)atriurchal family, is built a mori<)ue. It was
milt by llclen/the mother of i■on^taIltine;
though the Mosloms Niy it was built by
Solomon. Fmni tht* summit of the hill is a
fine view of the plains of Mamre. (See
Ukbrox.)

MADIA. (See Mkdia.)

MADIAN. (Ste Mimian.)

MAG ] ) A LA, c« »AMT8 i »F. From this, which
was prolMibly her birth-place, one of our Lonrs
female atteudiiuts wa.<« named Mxir>' Ma;;dalene.
or Maiy of Mau:dala; but many also read
Magadan. Maudala Las been identified with
the villsiu'e Rl-Mfjdel. lying at the south-rastem
angle of Grnnes;iret. (SecDAi.MANrTiiA, Maky.)

SlA<}I('IANS ((;cn. xli. «)- interpreters of
hieroglyphic^!, «»r, as souio HUftiH^e, '* inter-
preters of dreams.** In later times it denoted
nocnmiancerif or cut^liantcni.

To consult magicians wslh forbidden by the
Mosaic law, iindi'i' the pi>nalty of dcuth (Tjcv.
xix. ;*1 ; XX. ()). (St;e DiviNAxioN, Wise Men.)

mag<m;. (SL-e(;<Mj.)

MAHANAIM ((iin. x\xii. 2)-a town in
the territory <if (iad, imrtli of tli(> tlabbok.
It is oalh'd Slaliaiiaim (or "tln' lio>t,''«>r "iwo
hostrt") fnnu tlif vi-itiu whii-h ocfurrotl to
Jacob on that sjuit, as roconlrd in thi' alxive-
cite<i nassagi*. It was distinu'iiishnl lu* Isli-
boshetli's capital (2 Sam. ii. ^ TJ. L".*!. and as
the plare to wliich David repaiivd durin^' the
rel)eilion and u^un>atii>n of Ai>s:dom ('J Sam.
xvii. '24). iSome idLutify it >\ith a [ilace called
Mahnch.

MAHAXKH-DAX- mw/, of Dnn, In
Judg. xviii. 112 the iviu^ai 4it the uanic is ^'ivi>n.
It must have been in the locality of Kuriet
el-Knab.

MAKKEDAH (Josh. x. 10) one of the
principal citirs «»f the ('aMaaniti;s; was allotteil
t<i Judah, an^l lay Niuth-wr.'st of Jcnisidfrn.
There w:is a ri-markabl(.< cnw lii re, in which
five petty kin-.-s c^mceali'*! tlninselvcs, but
wcrt^ discoveriMl by Joslnui, and i»ut to tm
ignominious tieath. The old ^einrrapliers place
it H lioman miles to the ea-^t of KKutheii>|)oliH.

MAKTKSH (Zi;ph. i. 11) is generally 8up-

JKwed to refer to some street (;r wpiurc in the
nwer part of the city of Jerusalem, which wjw
chiefly inhabited by merchants, iiroccupie<l for
commercial puriK)ties — the Pluenician ipiarter.
MALA(;Hr— anr/rf of Jrhorali (Mai i. 1).
Many Jev/s allinn that Malaelii sivmifies only
an angel or messenger {Mulnchi Jrhnnh—thn
Lord** virnjtent/ir — as in lliig. i. 13 j Mai. iii. 1),
and that the author of this b<Kik is Ezra him-
self. Such is the opinion of the Chaldee ver-
418

MAL

nonists, and alio of Jeroma. Origea bdd ^
idea that the author oi this propbec^ wa* aa
incarnate apgel— an opinion which may have
had ite origin in a peeoliar tran^ation of the
LXX., which reada. ** The burden id the wnd
of the Lord to larael by the band of his anqvL*
The general opmion, hctwever, ia that ftlaladi
lived about 400 ytsara before Chriat, and wai
the last of the inspired propheta under the oU
dispensation.

There ia no reason for suppoeing tint
Malachi is not a personal, but merely la
official deugnation. Nor can it be sn^ipoied
that the title is a chance one — not inihcstive
of authorship, but caprieimiHly augratcd bv
the language of the famous oracle, ** Behold. I
send my messenger** (MnL iii 1). in which tbt
Hebrew term rendered ** my mesaengtr * ii
MalackL Malachi, like the other tiUes of tbi

books of the minor prophets, must be the;

of its innpired author. Nothinff, however, ii
known of his personal history. jHUs piophe^
is but the rtn're of one cryin^^ m the wudenNHb
" I^pare ye the way «if the Lord." It voeU
appear that this pn>phet was a oontempomy
ot rf ehemiah. As he seems to have been tM

last of the inspired choir, he is
named by the Rabbins the seal of the pmpbda
Malachi, prophecy of, ia last in the oris
of the books of the Old Testament It o»
tains sharf) rebukes of the sin and foQy of Ihi
Jews ; the roost glorious representatioos of Ihi
Messiah's advent ; and predicta the preparatki
of his way b^ the preaching of John ue Bi^
tist In ]iarticuhir, the negligence of the nicsb
is! severely reprehended. Their proOiscscy.
carelessness, and seltishneas had a witboiiv
effect upon the people. The nation, tea
thougli brought Itaclc from Babylon, aw
htcatcfi again in the land of their fathoi. hsd
sf)eedilv shown symptoms of a woful de^rasfl^
acy (Al^aL iii 5). But theve menaciet iR
intermingled with pmuises of a oomim

Nfalachi, in ch. iv. 5, seems to indicate thatUi
own successor was U^ be John the Baptifk vd
that the next ]irophet in Israel should be thi
herald of our Ixird. Tlie style has wit tin
grandeur of some of the other propheui It
IS tamer ami more ]m)Kaic in its natuie: V^
it is in some instances bold, vigonM& v
rhythmiciiL Malachi is often rv^feired t^ m dv
New Testament; and our Lord seals and 9lB^
tiouH his office and rank as a prot^t. (M*^
xi. 10; xvii. 10-12, &c)

MALLOWS (Job xxx. 4)— supposed to be >
kind of l>ramble without thorns, the y(^
leaves of which, resembling lettuce^ ^
gathered and boiled by the poor as food, ^f
are ttild tliat at Bagilad quantities of tka
vegetable are liawkcd about, while those ek*
cjirry it cr}'. Mofaehiat Afofaekia/ whiA
differs little {n>m the Hebrew word. MtfT
saline plants are found in the deserts of AxalW
and some are of opinion this ia a goienl is**

MAL

for the cIass. Others think that the real plant
intended is a species of taii'tport; to which
opinion the Greek Tersion of the word gtves
•ome countenance.

MALTA. (See Mslita.)

MAMMON (Matt vi 24) is a Syriac word
siffnif 3ring riches.

Mammon of unbighteouskess (Lnke xvL 9),
as it stands connected in this passage, may
mean that we should so wisely use the mammon
of unrighteousness, or the unsatisfying riches
of this world, that we may secure friends in
God and Christ, and in sinners saved and
blessed l^ our instrumentality.

M AMBE. (See Hebron. )

MAN (Gen. i. 26], in his physical nature, is
the head and lord ot the animal creation (Gren.
L 26-28). Though of one blood (Acts xvii 26),
yet^ as a race, mankind are divided into various
nations and tribes, distinguished by colour,
stature, physiognomy, language, and habits,
and inhabiting such portions of the earth as
God, in his wise providence, has assigned to
them respectively. Man was created in the
image and after tne likeness of God. He was
formed of the dust of the ^pround ; and, besides
the life which was given him in common with
other animals, he received immediately from
his Creator a rational and immortal soul or
spirit^ distinguishing him from, and elevating
him mcomparably above, all other creatures
upon earth ; assimilating Kim to the Author of
his bein^, and enduing him with moral affec-
tions, dispositions, and capacities. The He-
Inrew has several words denoting man, in
reference to his origin, the earth, or to his
frailty, or to his bodOy form and elements, &c.
The delicate shades of thought and allusion in
the use of such terms cannot be represented in
the English veroion. (Sec Creation, Image.)
We are told that Grod ** breathed into his
nostrils the breath of life*' (or lives); which
probably means not only the power ot respira-
tion, by which animal life is sustained, but
that he was at the same time furnished with
tiiose hifi^h spiritual faculties which constitute
him a living souL (See Adam.) The ques-
tion of man^s connection with some of the
wjiimals beneath him has been fiercely debated
of late. What is called development, and on
which so much stress is laid, if it take place
aocording to ordained law, is tantamount to
creation. We may ask, too, at what point of
the process of roan's elevation from the gorilla
do conscience, immortality, and speech come
in? Do not these indicate immediate Divine
gift, as stated in Scripture ?

ThvM created in the image and after the
likeness of Grod himself ^ man was placed under
the restraints of the Divine law : but, by the
force of temptation, he was led to oreak throuc^h
thoBe restramts, and so became an object of the
Divine displeasure, wherebv all his relations
and prospects were completely changed. From
this time the character of tne first man and
the diaracter of God were placed in direct
oppoaition to each other ; the one bein^ sinful,
na the other infinitely holy. And this dread-

MAK

fnl event has in like manner changed the
condition and prospects of the whole race ; for.
since that hour, sm has been the uziiversai
characteristic of every son and daughter of
Adam (see Sin), and death has reigned over
all but two of tnem. Man is still upon the
earth in training for a higher state and sphere
of being. He is under the moral and pro-
vidential government of the Divine Bein^gf. and
is requirea to love the Lord his Grod witn all
his heart, and soul, and mind, and strraigth,
and his neighbour as himself. Such, however,
is the strength of the depravity of his heart
that he feels no inclination to obey this law,
but readily yields to the temptations which
assail him to disregard and violate it. If he
has correct views of its strictness and spiritu-
ality, he finds that, however it may be with
him m the outward act and in the si^ht of Ids
f eUow-men, there are thoughts and mtents of
his heart which it condemns.

To save man in this hopeless extremity Grod
sent his own Son into the world, who not only
rendered perfect obedience to the Divine law,
but bore the penalty of its violation, and thus
made an atonement for him, and opened the
way by which believing penitents may approach
unto God, receive the forgiveness of their sins,
and be restored to the Divine favour. And not
only has he thus made an atonement for sin,
but, upon his ascension to glory^e sent down
the precious influences of the Holy Spirit to
renew and sanctify the soul, while he nimself
ever lives to make mtercession for us. Though
mankind, therefore, have lost the image of
God in which they were created, and nave
exposed themselves to the dreadful penalty
of the Divine law, vet by repentance and faith
in Jesus Christ, the mediator between Grod
and man, we obtain forgiveness of sin ; and
through free, sovereign, boundless grace, we
are delivered from toe bondage, guilt, and
pollution of sin, into the glorious libeity of
the chilflren of Grod, and are made " heirs of
God and joint-heirs vdth Christ." Obedience
to God's commands, and entire, cheerful sub-
mission to his authority, constitute the evidence
or fruits of this faith; but are not, in any
sense or degree, the ground or primary cause
of our justification in the sight ox Grod.

In this present state all men are subject to
affliction and temptation, sickness and death ;
but after this state is passed, all will be judged
according to the deeds done in the body : the
righteous, or those who, having been pwrdoned
and sanctified, have loved and served God, will
be received into his presence, where is fulness
of joy and pleasures lor evermore ; while those
who n^lect the means and refuse the offer of
salvation will be driven away in their wick^-
ness into everlasting ruin and punishment.
(See Christ.)

Man op sin. (See Antichrist.)

Man, BON OF (Acts vii 66). (See Son of
man.)

MANAEN (Acts xiii 1)— one of the pro-
phets at Antiooh, and said **to have been
Drought up with Herod," either as his foster*

419

MAN

broiher, or merely as one eduoftted along with
the tetrarch.

llAJs^ASSEH. 1. (Gen. xlL 51) The first-
horn of Joseph. When he and liis brother
Ephraim were ** lads,'* and Jacob their gnmd-
father was about to die, Joseph took them into
tiie patriarch^s presence to receive his blessing.
On this occasion he ad(»pted them into his own
family as his own children, and in a moat
signincant and interesting manner predicted
the superiority of Ephraim over Manasseh, as
it resi)ected numl^ers, &c (Gen. xlviii. 6-20:
oomp. Num. i. 32, 33, 35 ; ii. 18, 20 ; Ps. Ixxx. 2.)

On their way to Canaan the Israelites con-
quered a large territory east of the Jordan;
and some of themj whose iKxssessionB were
chiefly in cattle, <le8ircd to have their portion
assigned them among the rich pastures and
fruitful hills of Bashan and the surrounding
country. This request was granted ; and^ half
the trioe of Manassch received the territory
stretching from near to C*cesarea-Philii)pi,
along the Jonlnn. down almost to Mahanaim.
The other half nad its ]x>rtion on the west
of the Jordan, between Ephraim and Issachar,
across the country from the Jordan to the
Mediterranean, ^is tribe possessed small
tracts within the bounds of Issachar and
Asher.

2. (2 Ki XX. 21) Son and successor of
Hezekiah, king of Judali : ascimdcd the throne
at the age of twelve years. The former part
of his reigrn was diBtinguished for acts of daring
impiety and wanton cruulty ; which are par-
tdcularly detailvd by the sacred historian,
2 Ki. xxi. Fur these sins, in which he
persuaded his nubjectj* t4> participate, the
country was viriited with (iod's jud^^ionts;
and their severity and dettolatiun ore (k>scril)ed
in the strongost Jigiirative language (2 Ki. xxi.
13). He was at lost taken captive by the
Assyrian king, and ignoniiniously tran8i>orted
to mbylon. (Sec Ehariiaddon.) Upon his
repentance ana pravcr, however, ho was liber-
atcil, an<l returned to his capital, where he
died, after having <1une nuicD to repair the
evils of his former life, 'i'hc term of Ills reign
was fifty-five years. Tlie pni^'cr ascribc<l to
Manasses in the Apocrypha is the 8]>urious
production <»f a later age (2 (.lir. xxxiiL 1-20).

MANDRAKES (Song vii. 13). It is imcer-
tain what plant is intended by the Hebrew
wonl, which is translated mandrakes in the
above passage, and in Gen. xxx. 14-10. What
is generally called the May-appie is also often
cidled mandrake, and liears a fruit somewhat
resembling lemons.

A plant of this name is still common in the
East^ its fruit riiK^ns from May to Juno,
and IS of the size of small apples. To what
degree (if any) it possesses the proi)erties
as<.*ribed to it by the ancients, we know not;
certainly no such properties belr>ng to what
we call the mandnike. It is allied to the
species commonly called deadly nightshade.
The absurdities which the rabbis, and even
some modem travellers, have spoken about this
plant are not worth repetition.
420

MAN

MANEH. ^eeMiAau]

BIANGER (LnkB iL 7), randflrad "aten^w
Luke xiii Ifii. It denotflt literally a feediB|-
trough for animals ^ but perha^^ meam in lit
account of the Nativity lather a italled nlaoe;
the place in which cattie were fed — ^not m ^
inn, for there was "no room** for them in it

MANNA. The term seema to be derived
from the Hebrew words moii-ikiL wuiiwif
"What is itT»* (Exod. rvL 15). Wbatiw
children of Israel saw it^ ther said one to
another (not, as in our Temon. "It is mamyL"
but) "What is it?** "And Moees aid mito
them. This is the bread whidi the Loid brtk
ffiven you to eat.** The mamuk, so nimed
from their ignoranoe of its soozce and diaiaelcr,
was a substance miracolously famished to tht
children of Israel on their jonmey throoili th»
wilderness, and desiffned as a substitute to
bread, the material for which they could not
raise during thdr wanderings. It ii cdbd
"the bread rained from heaven** (Exod. zvi 4^
The most remarkable thinos about the mm*
of the Israelites were.— (IT) That douhk tb
quantity was supplied on the day yno&SK
the Sabbath, or seventh day; (SL) That cs
the Sabbath, or sevenUi day, none wai fiv*
nished; (a) That what they kept frem tb
sixth day to the seventh was sweet and goodt
while what they kept from any other dij to
the next day bred worms, and lij^^^yn* oAnm
These muacles, it should be xemembend,
were all wnmght in attestation of the nnetilir
of the Sabbath.

The manna of the Jews is described m i
small, round thing, as small as the hoarfroik
on the ground; that **it was like ooriaadv
seed, white, and the taste of it like wrfsi
made with honey" (Exod. xvL 14, 31). Wifai
were small thin cakes of fine flour, mh^
with oil, and used in various offerings (Ler. a
4; vii. 12). If to this mixture was addadi
portion ot honey, there would be the noooiib-
inent of the flour, the flavour of fresh oil, aal
the sweetness of honey. As to its mat aal
colour, it was probably that of the ootnHl
])article8 of white frost, or the finest haibtaBM^
nearly rcsemblinfr aleet. It was gtonsd i>
mills, or beaten m a mortar, then blaoed ii
pans in the shape of cakes, and b^ced. b
gathering this food, each was permitted "to
take what was necessary for his own we, w^
exceeding an omer, or aoout three quaiti^ for
each member of the family. If mnie thaatfi
should be collected by eztraordinaxy indait(Tt
the surplus was to be distributed to those sv
had less.

For forty years this miraculous wap^^
food was furnished daily to between £00$^
and 4,000,000 of people (Deut^ x«t, 5^ ^ B
ceased while they were encamped at Gilpl
immediately after they had oelebntsd tkt
passo^^er for the first time in the land ^
promise (Josh. v. 10, 12). It is not wnmohiMt
that the usual quantity of ^«iw>^i food etf
consumed. The manna was a subatitali Ii'
bread, which is the staff of life. To ooB-
memorate this kmg-continned and niji^

MAN

miracle, Moses was instrticted that a golden
pot diould be provided (Exod. zvi 33; Heb.
IX. 4), and that an omer (or one man*8 portion)
of the manna ^ould be laid up for preservation,
and placed in or near the ark, that succeeding
generations might see with their own eyes the
very substance on which their fathers were
miraculously fed in their long and perilous
joumeyings from ^gypt to Canaan.

The substance known to us as manna is so
called from its supposed resemblance to the
manna of IsraeL The best of it is brought
from Syria, Arabia, and Persia. It falls, or is
drawn from a tree or shrub in various ways ;
and the Arabs boil and strain it, and then use
it as honey on their bread or cauces. But the
manna of Israel was essentially different from
the natural manna in a variety of particulars.
The modem manna is not found in the desert ;
it falls only in the spring; it is said not to
melt in the sun; it does not breed worms, nor
become offensive if kept from day to day. It
cannot be ground or beaten in a mortar, as the
manna of the Israelites was. It has medicinal
properties, which that had not ; it is produced
on every oay alike ; and it comes at the very
season of the year when the manna of Israel
ceased. The Israelites never saw it before,
nor has it ever appeared again, as we infer
from comparing Deut. viii 3, 16 with Exod.
zvL 15, 32, 33. It is from the tamaritky or
tar/a. that the modem manna is obtained.
In tne month of June it drops from the
thorns of the tamarisk upon the tallen twin,
leaves, and thorns, which always cover tne
ground beneath that tree in the natural
state; the manna is collected before sunrise,
when it is coagulated. The Arabs dean
away the leaves, dirt, and other impurities
which adhere to it, boil it, strain it through a
coarse mece of cloth, and put it in leathern
skins. In this way they are able to preserve
it till the following year, and they use it as
they do honey^ to pour over imleavened bread,
or to dip their bread into at their common
meals.

Manna is called the " com of heaven,** and
''an^fels' food** (Ps. Ixxviii. 24, 25), perhaps in
mllusion to the mode by which it was supplied.
The phrase, " hidden manna** (Kev. li 17),
figuratively describes the support which Christ
furnishes to the true believer, of which the
world does not and cannot partake (comp.
John vi 49, 51).

MANOAH (Judg. xiiL 2), the father of
SuDSon, was bom at Zorah. In the absence
of Manoah. an angel appeared to his wife, and
l>redicted tne birth of Samson, describing par-
ticolarly the manner of his life, and the cnief
purpose for which he should be bom. Manoah
prated for a repetition of the visit. The angel
a£[am appeared, and Manoah had an interview
with lum ; and, when he was about to depart,
inpposed to prepare a kid for him, that he
mignt partake of the hospitality of ms house :
but the angel declined taking an^ food, ana
told him if the kid was for an offering, it must
be to the Lord. The kid was pre^Mkred as a

MAB

sacrifice, and offered upon a rock. When the
flame from the rude altar ascended towards
heaven, the angel passed upward with it.
Manoah and his wife, witnessing this wonder-
ful scene, fell upon tneir faces to tiie ground.
He was disposed to construe the visit of the
angel imfavourablv ; but his wife more justly
re^urded the emblematical acceptance of the
sacrifice as a token for good ; ana so itproved.

MANSLAYER. (See Citibs of Iucfuob,
MurdbrJ

MANTLE. (See Clothes.)

MAON (1 Sam. xxv. 2), distingmshed as
the residence of Nabal, was on the southern
boundary of Judea.

Maon, wilderness of (1 Sam. xxiiL 25),
was in the southern part of Judah, south of
the Wilderness of Ziph, and near the town of
Maon, and extended to the mountuns of
Idumea. It was in the Wilderness of Maon
that David concealed himself when the
Ziphites were seeking his destruction.

MARAH (Exod. xv. 23)— a place on the
line of the march of the Israelites, at whidi
bitter water was made palatable oy casting
into it a tree which God designated to Moses.
Whether the effect was miraculous, or only
the indication to Moses of a particular tree
which was capable of producing it, is uncer-
tain. The word Marah, signifying biUemeu,
was adopted by Naomi as applicable to her-
seU, in view of her many sorrows (Ruth L 20).

liie well of Howara, on the eastern coast of
the Gulf of Suez, is spoken of by travellers as
containing bitter water; and corresponds, in
distance, && , to the Marah of the sacred history.

MARANATHA. (See Anathema. )

MARBLE (Rev. xviu. 12)— a species of
limestone remarkable for its durabili^, and
capable of receiving a high polish. It was
probably used in very early times for building
materials (1 KL vi 7, 36; vii. 9-12; 1 Chr.
xxix. 2), and for many kinds of vessels. The
colours of marble are various and beautiful,
and pieces of all sizes may be wrought together
so as to resemble a beautiful painting. Sudi
was probably the pavement and colunms of
the I^ersian palace described in Esth. i 6.
The term in this passage is rendered in the
Septuagint, " Panan stone.** Some of the
other Hebrew names may refer to the beauti-
ful porphyry of Egypt.

MAKCUS. (See John Mark.)

MARESHAH (Josh. xv. 44)— a town of
Judah, famous as the scene of the battle
between Asa, king of Judah, and Zerak, king
of Ethiopia^ with his numerous arnr^. It was
also the residence of the prophet Micah (Mic.
L15).

A site called Marash is still found not far
from Beth-jibrin.

MARK (Acts xii. 12)— generally supposed
to be the same with " Marcus** (1 Fet. v. 13) ;
and John Mark (Acts xv. 37-39; Col iv. 10;
2 Tim. iv. 11) is not dear. Perhaps he was
converted bylPeter. He laboured tdtimatelv
in "Egjptf and is said to have founded a chorea
in Alexandria. (See John Mark.)

421

UAR
Uaik, ooaraL bt — the Mcond in oidar ol
the bookg of the New Teatunent. It i*
■iippnaal to hmve been written between jld.
6U tnd KS. Mtrk reoorda chieflj' the ftctiana
nf uur Saviour. It is Jeaiu >ctinj{ and not
Jeaiii dincouning that be pumtnt]'*. Hii
objfHTt u to bhtiw how He diacharged the
fiinctioiu of the Me«aiah>hiri. IF it wia
WrittiMi at Itiiiiia and fur tae Romuu, ita
OHMiHHitinn and Beltrctinn of itrikiog facta i«
wieety calcuUteil U> urcat the ftttendun of
■uch k people;— it was niited to th>ir taiite
and temperunent. Fact and not argument
moat deeply ini|H'e)«e<l them. It ii often
■nppowd, and it baa aim been aMerteil, that
Mark'a goiipel ia an sbridement of Matthew'a.
Tke idea liaH no Fcnindation. Mark ii iihorter
than MatthL-w an a whole, but it it longer
relatively. It omit* many Keneg in Matthew;
but in di^taiJinit thooe which are found in the
record of the Hmt evanjieligt it ii more minute,
~" ™ KOiphic, more circiimntaiitial, ' "'

fore [..nsier

Had it

abridginent, thi-re woi

■ppearancu of humony in arrangBMent and

ebninoliiflV.

The old tmlition ia, that
Mark wrote this dimivI at
Petet'a iWfueat

TbcM il K nSaol

UAB
of KonM waa probaUrtfatphnrf

,.jtica. WafiDdaooial^atiBwgtdiB

it, tmly diagniaad hv bang wiittsn in Omk
ebaracten. He sipUina MTeT*! of tbe JeviA
onatdini. Tb«Je«iahphi*M, " defiled kaadi^*

he eipUioa 1^ awinft "taat b, <i '—

huidO l^RiMBcloflbkuaiiiBd*

original mb'^-iS— •" ■- -

number ix Impenaot ammrroeta oef mi us
goapel and the other three, to ihmr t^t lUiii
not an abridgmciit or oompilatioQ bm Om,
or either of them ; and "-"^ thif we b»
mention tw» mifmiJiM wbiA h* M>t noouM
in any other eeapd; and jet then an brt
twenty-four vereea in Hark wldob ™*-™ Hf
impoitant fact not mtotioiiad bj tamt otbv
evangtliat.

MARKETS (Uatt iL 16), or HASEET-
PLACE (Luke viL 32). The i
eaetem towni oooopy one ude of so
other lidaa beiux occupied by public
temples, ooorta, and offioea M
Heifcetheywantliei'

Thetraditii
eturrent, anil Bcai ..
raoe|itiun ami (drcnlatiun of
» giMJiel which waa not
written \iT an aii(«tle. Tliu
Mones (IeiH-r1l)»rin it arc the
vivid and miiiutrduliniMtioua
of an eye-witneM ■ and many
tUnipi oomnienilatiiry of
Peter, mentioneil in thi- iithrr
Bniiwia, ant laiiitteil in Uik

on thin imint, tboui^ it diffen
M to the place where ami
time whvn tliiii ipi*|iel w.u
rablviheiL TIiiu it in mij
Dy I'ainaH, an early diw-iplf,
— " MaA Iwintc tile iutiT-
preter (amamieunal of rvter,
wnite exactly wliatever he
leniMulMTeil. Iwthe diil ixit
writu in nrdiT. . . . Mark
enmniittvil no miiitiike when

aa lie nvollectcd the...
Irensua Bays, " Mark, the
dinciple and interpreter of
Peter, baa (jiven iia in writing
the thinKH which hail been
preachi'd hyl'ettr." Oriitfn

and interj"*'*'' "^ P'

of the brethren in Rome, nrute a brief EOB|iel
Bccinling to the diMMmrxe* he bad heard
from Peter. Peter, on being apprier^ of
this, appruveil it, and authoriied it to be t«ad
Id ohurdiH,'' ftc
423

itij people would be found at t

the {crcateiit nnmben, aa wdl as JvOgm ^
ma^^utrateiL Hence the force of Uic npH^B
oonceming the soribea, that tbey "kn mU*-
tioiw in the maikat-placai'' (Haik ni. 38).

MAR

Ab the market-places would embrace the
whole area, so there a crowd of children and
idlers would be found amusing themselves. To
reprove the inconsistency of the Pharisees in
rejecting Christ for doing, as they said, the
very thmgs which they rejected John for not
doing, he compares them to a company of
childi^en who are imitating the customs of Uieir
elders on public occasions, as by a mock
murriage or a mock funeraL On the former of
these occasions, it was customary to express joy
and congratulation by music and dancmp^ ; and
on the latter, to employ persons to lead in loud
lamentations. In the coildren*s sport, a few
tried to persuade the rest to join in some joyful
measure, but they preferred to mourn; and
then they commenced a lamentation, but these
|)referred the music. So perverse and incon-
sistent were they, that they could be pleased
with nothing.

The market-place was resorted to by
labourers who sought employment (Matt xx.
6,7).

MARKS, CUTTINa IN FLESH (Lev.
zix. 28). The " cuttings" were for the dead,
but the " marks ** refer to the practice ot
tattooing, or bearing any symbol, as did
soldiersj slav^ and idolaters (OaL vL 17;
Rev. vii, .3: xiii. 16).

MARRIAGE (Matt xxu. 2) is a divine
institution (Gen. li 21-25). It is also a civil
contract, uniting one man and one woman
together in the relation of husband and wife.
Among the benefits of the institution are, — (1.)
Domestic comfort; (2.) Provision for the
health, education, and support of children ; (3. )
The distribution of society into families or
small communities, with a master or governor
over them who has natural as well as legal
authority; (4.) The security which arises from
parental anxiety, and the confinement of
<duldren to permanent habitations; and, (5.)
The encouragement of industry.

No sins are more frequently and pointedly
oondemned by the Bible than such as violate
or impair the sacredness of the marriage
relation^ and nothing is wanting to raise this
to the highest, purest, and most sacred relation
in which two human beings can stand to each
other, but obedience to the precepts of the holy
Scriptures on this subject (See Divorce.)

The ceremony of betrothing has been already
explained. (See Betroth.) Some time usually
elapsed between this period and the actual
marriage. The bride in the interval remained
with her parents. The matrimonial ceremonies
were peculiar and picturesque. The bridegroom
had around him ^oun^ persons of his own sex
to make merry with him, and these are named
by our Lord^ *'the children of the bride-
chamber"* (Matt ix. 15). The marriage was
often celebrated in the open air. A large
canopy was erected, which was supnorted on
four posts. The brid^n^oom i>lacea himself
under it, and the bride, deeply veiled, was led in
beside lum ; and in modem times, at this point
of the ceremony the officiating rabbi reads the
contract, and the bridegroom places a ring on

MAR

the forefinger of the bride's left hand. There
seems sometimes, in past ages, to have been a
covenant in writing subscriDed by the parties
(Prov. ii 17 ; MaL ii. 14). In ancient periods
the near kindred of the parties used to bless
them. The married persons were in the evening
conducted in great pomp and procession, wi£
torches and lamps, to their new abode — ^a
custom described by Homer as prevalent in
Greece, and one which also prevailed in Rome
(Ps. xlv. 14). Every reaaer recollects the
parable of the ten virgins, and how tiie Lord
improves this peculiar custom. The parable is
solemn and impressive, and its scene was
vividly realized by a modem missionary in the
East * * At a Hindoo marriage," says he, " the
procession of which I saw some years ago, the
bridegroom came from a distance, and the bride
lived at Serampore, to which place the bride-
groom was to come by water. After waiting
two or three hours, at length, near midnight, it
was announced in the very words of Scripture,
'Behold, the bridegroom cometh; go ye out.to
meet him.' All tne persons employed now
lighted their lamps, and ran with tnem in their
hands to fill up their stations in the procession ;
some of them had lost their lighto, and were
unprepared; but it was then too late to seek
them, and the cavalcade moved forward to the
house of the bride ; at which place the company
entered a large and splendidly illuminated
area, before the house, covered with an awning,
where a great multitude of friends, dressed m
t b eir best apparel, were seated upon mats. The
bridegroom was carried in the arms of a friend,
and placed in a superb seat in the midst of the
company, where he sat a short time, and then
went into the house, the door of which was
immediately shut a>iid guarded by sepoys. I
and others exx>ostulated with the dx>or-KeepeTB,
but in vain. Never was I so struck with our
Lord's beautiful parable as at this moment —
* And the door was shut' "

The marriage feast now began, which usually
lasted seven days. Many gruests were invited,
as at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. One of
these was elevated to a temporary authority
over the rest, and was named ruler," or
*' governor of the feast " (John ii. 8, 9). An-
other of them, standing in a close relation to
the bridegroom, and who seems to have acted
in his name, was called the ** friend of the
bridegroom " (John iiL 29). The guests, if the
marriage was in the higher circl^ received
each a magnificent vestment These were
hung in a chamber through which the invited
parties passed, and eacn robed himself in
nonour of his entertainer and the occasion, ere
he went into the banquet-halL This robe is
styled in our Lord's parable, "the wedding
garment " (Matt xxii. 12). On the occasion m
ner marriage the bride wore her most splendid
attire. AUusions to this are freouent in the
prophets, (Ps. xlv. 13; Isa. xlix. 18; ixi 10 ; Rev.
xix. 7, 8, &c) It was the custom to crown the
married couple. Hence the allusion. Song iii 11 ;
Isa. xlix. 18, where the word ornament might
as well be rendered crown. (See Dowbt.) ^.^

423

MAB

Frov. zxxi 10-31 oontains a striking de-
■eription of a good wife. The first wife and
fint woman was given to Adam as a help meet
for him; but she was first in the transppression,
and in consequence of this fatal priority in
crime, one portion of her curse is subjection to
her husband — ** he shall rule over thee " (1 Tim.
IL 12-14).

Man^ laws with regard to marriage are
found m the Mosaic code. Woman is but a
slave in all lands which have not felt the
power of the GospeL It alone restores her to
tier true rank in society. Conjugal duties are
often enforced in the epistles of the New
Testament. Polygamy is condemned in the
Word of God. Our Saviour did so very ex-

Sressly when, in reference to the question of
ivorce, he said, *'Hnve ye not read that he
which made them at the banning made them
a male and a female?"— one man with one
woman.

The marriage union is often employed to
illustrate the union of Christ and his Cnurch,
not only in the Song of Solomon but in many
other portions of ocripture (Eph. v. 23-33;
Bev. zxl 2).

MARS' HILL. (Soo Areopaoite.)

MARTHA~the sister of Lazarus and of
Mary, who dwelt in Bethany. Their residence
was often the resort of the Saviour. As a
family^ they were his chosen friends; and
accordmg to their various dispositions, testified
their love an<l faithfulness to him and his
cause. Martha's anxious spirit would not
suffer her to remain at rest while her Master
was prc-ijcnt to be scrvwl : ** She was cumbered
with much serving." Her active hands busied
themselves in aflministering to the comfort of
her beloved Lord, and it was her devoted
heart that prompted these kind attentions.
Martha seems to have desired the assistance
of her sister in her manifold dutiep, and to
have i^Tshed Jesus to enjoin more active service
on Mary ; but he was too well pleaseil with the
heartfelt devotion which Mary exhibited to
chide her for it.

At the i>eriod of the decease of Lazanis,
when Christ was coming to Bethany, Martlia
went to meet and infonu him of her brother's
death. In the agony of her heart, she ex-
presses her belief, not only that had he been
present her brother had not died, but that,

even now whatsoever ho would ask of God,
God would give it him." It is not probable
that Martha glanced at the possibility of her
brother being again brought to life. But Jesus

!)roceeds in the interesting conversation which
le held i^ith her, to declare tliat Ijaaarus would
rise agtim; to which she x>romptly reiointnl,
that she knew he would rise again at the lost
day. Jesus informs her more fully that he
was *' the resurrection and the life." and that
whosoever should believe on him, though he
were dead, yet should he live." Martha pro-
fessed her faith in Jesus, that he was the
Christ the Son of God, which should come
into the world.** But she appears not to have
fully undentood the import ot thia oonversatlon,
424

ICAR

and not to hftTe ngpided him as God ii
with whom all thinga w«re poMlble. Forift
the grave of Laaanu, when the SaTionr wm
about to perfonn the stapeodooa minde of
raising her beloved brother, her natue dmnk
from oeholding the cheriahed f ona of ttrt
brother changed, as she nipposed it to he, iiAo
the loathflomeneas of oofxupdoo, and rlnfkd
in the dismal garments of the tomh. But At
Saviour's merc;^ was not stared by her mlMliat
Gently he remmded her of his woids: **Bai
I not unto thee, if thoo wonldat believe Aos
shouldst see the glory of God?** How wos-
derful is the condeioension of the Son of llu!
how forbearing and lon^-snifering vith ov
weakness and mabeliefl how sjmpathiBBf
with our sorrows ! and how notent andivdC
timed are his consolations! (See liAXaXDl.)

Martha is again presented to ns in SuliiUis
as serving at a supper given to Christ im ths
house of Simon, m Betnanv. It was in ttii
manner she chose to honour ner Master, fsdqg
herself honoured in his service, fliers ait bb
other acts of Martha recorded in SoKUtsR:
but we may conclude, from what is reoorasd €i
her history, that she remained a dsfolBd,
ardent follower and dia^ple of Jesos CSkrii^
omitting no oppcntuni^ oltesUfylng br atfadb-
ment to his cause and people her wve sii
gratitude to him fr(»n wbcnn she had rsecifsd
so msny and so signal blessings. Thebfasiafllv
of Martha has been often treated withi^Jmliaa
With all her domestic activitr, there is m
reason to doubt her piety or faith in CbawL
There needed some one to saperintend tkt
household, if Mary was to be released frook sll
its cares. Were there no Marthas, thmttan,
there could be no Maiys. (See Mabt.)

MABTYB (Acts xxii. 20)— one who ban
witness to the truth at the expense of hii lifa
llie word occurs thrice only in the Scriuiuwa

MABY— in Hebrew, MIRIAmSM.
L Mary, the virgin mother of Jesos Chiii^
was, according to some, a danghter of Bi <r
Joachim, descended of the royu line of Dsi^
through Nathan. She was betrothed toaatt
named Joseph, of the lineage of David, bf
descent from Solomon, their marriags ttM
uniting the two surviving branches of the w-
torious deliverer of Israel^ after thirty geiMB^
tions. Nothinf is said m Scripture of ths
early history of either Joseph or Maiy. Ibq*
are present^ to us as Poor in circumstsaoe^
but oelievers in the religion of their fothoa
waiting for the "consolation of Israel** sv
the fumlment of prophecr. But befbie tkii
marriage was celebrated, Mary was found ti
be with child. While Joseph was in peiplsii^
how he should act on this disooveiy, the saga
of the Lf)rd appeared unto him m a viaos,
addressing him as the son of David, and af '
ing, '* Fear not to take tmto thee Mscy W
wife, for that which is conceived in hsr it ■
the Holy Ghost. ** Joseph immediately obsfid
the Divme conmiand ; and God thus piofidid
a pious protector for the reputation and eoa-
f ort of Mary. Sublime aira touohing is t^
announcement of the Savioiiz'a birth to MuTi

MAB

"Hail! tbon highly favoured, thou bleased
among women : the Lord is with thee ! " No
wonder that Mary was troubled at this extra-
ordinary salutation. But she listens in humble,
silent wonder and joy, while the an^^l unfolds
to her the glorious m3rstery of the incarnation
of the Son of the Highest—that he should be
bom of her — partake of her human nature— be
without sin— oe the Son of €rod— and that she
should call his name Jesus — a deliverer. Her
confiding heart and unswerving faith at once
responded J ** Behold the handmaid of the
Lord ; be it unto me according to thy word.**

After this event Mary went into the hill
country to visit her cousin Elisabeth, and there
received confirmation of the predictions already
vouchsafed to her; for Elisabeth, filled with
the Holy GhosiL spoke with a loud voice, and
blessed the mother of her Lord. Mary seems
also to have been moved h^ the Spirit, and to
have expressed herself in tnumphiuit, exultinff,
prophetic language. Her song bears no little
resemblance to thiAt of Hannah, the mother of
SamueL But most probably she was ignorant
of the precise manner in which these prophecies
would oe fulfilled. Mary now returned to her
own home at Nazareth, and there remaided
till she and Joseph went to Bethlehem, to be
enrolled according to the decree of Cesar
Augustus. Li this city, crowded as it was at
this time with strangers, there was no home for
her who gave birth to the Lord of Glory but a
stable, and no cradle for her Son but a manger.
(See LKS.) To this lowly abode a bright star
pointed, and angels beckoned, guidmg the
''wise men*' of the East, and the humble
■hepherds of the p»lain, to lay before that
heaven-bom Son choice nfts and heart adora-
tion. The parents of Jesus circumdsed him
on the eightn day, according to the law ; and
after the period of Manr's i>urification was
reckoned, they presented their child at the
temple. Simeon, who had lonpf looked for the
siJvation of Israel, took him m his arms and
blessed him, prophesying concerning him ; so
also did Anna the prophetess ; while Mary
marvelled at those things which were spoken
of him. What her precise emotions were on
all these occasions cannot be determined.
Could she, as she gazed on the unconscious,
innocent face of that helpless babe nestling in
her bosom, fuUjr understand its divine nature
— its glorious mission ? Scripture merely says.
^Mary kept all thes'' things and pondered
them m her heart.** When residing in Beth-
lehem, the jealous tyranny of Herod, and the
bloody decree issued by nim, obliged Joseph
snd Mary to flee into Eg3mt on the warning of
God. When Herod was dead, they returned;
hut dwelt in Nazareth for fear of Archelaus,
Herod's son.

Few incidents are recorded of Mary after
the birth and infancy of the Messiah. On one
oooMion, when they with their child were at
Jerosalem at the ytarl^ feast, Jesus left the
company; and when ma i>arents sought him
iorrowinff, and at length found him in the
temple, Mary seema to have laid almost re-

MAR

provingly. "Son, why hast thou dealt thus
vdth us? behold, thv rather and I have sought
thee sorrowing.*' But Christ's answer seema
to imply that she ought to have known he
would be foimd in his Father's house and about
his Father's business. The mother of JesuB
was present at the first miracle performed by
her son at the marriage in Cana. She seems
to have been persuaded that her son was pos-
sessed of divine power ; for she came to him,
saying, '*They have no wine." But the
Saviour respectfully and gently^ reproved his
mother for this dictation : thus implying that
in lus conduct as Messian he would admit of
no interference, even from his mother. In
Luke viii 19 we are told that Mary sought an
interview, in company with others of the
family, when Christ was preaching to a crowd
in a country place ; but nrom this passage we
learn that her near relationship to Christ was
no immediate advantage, for the Saviour says,
** These are my mother and brethren, who
hear the Word of Grod and do it." Mary was
aUo present at the crucifixion. Who can paint
the agony of the mother's heart at this feuful
scene? Then, indeed, was the prediction of
Simeon fulfilled, "that a sword should pierce
through her souL" ^ But when the desolate
agonized heart was sinking within her throuj^h
the darkness of this angmshed hour, the voice
of this beloved Son arose in tones of love and
filial affection, commending her to the care of
his best-beloved disciple ; and ** from that
hour that disciple took her to his own home."
Whether Mary witnessed the ascension of the
Saviour, Scripture does not expressly say ; but
the prooability is that she did ; at all events,
her son— the Son of Man — ^burst the fetters of
death asunder, and declared himself the Son
of Grod with power. Then the peculiar sorrow
that had pierced her heart was turned into
unspeakable poy.* The last mention of Muy
in Scripture is as one of a company who con-
tinued m supplication and prayer in an upper
room at Jerusalem, after the ascension oi the
Saviour. How Icmg Mary lived, and how she
died, history is silent. From the saying of
Simeon, some supposed that she suffered mar-
tyrdom ; but the probability is that she died in
peace in Jerusalem.

Interesting and important as the history of
Mary is, the fact that comparatively little is
said of her in Scripture seems to point witii
significant warning to the gross idmatry with
which a corrupt church have worshipped her,
and to the fabulous legends with which, in
superstitious fanaticism, they disfigure the
brief incidents of her life. The ignorant
devotees of popery pray her to command her
son to grant their requ^ts. None can be the
hearer and answerer of prayer but the Omni-
present God, who answers prayer in and
through Jesus Christ our Lord. Mary is ever
to be held in honour, but never to be wor-
shipped. Blasphemous titles have been some-
times given to ner, such as. ** Mother of God."
The worship of Mary is perhaps at this moment
more prevalent in the popiah church than at

425

MAB

any fonner period, llie notions of her im- 1
maculate conception and ^rpetoal vir^ity
are an unfounded aH ia the idolatroufi iiractice
uf hiT worrthi]). lliough she was the ^ix^in
mother of Johub, yet nhe is nowhere named in
Scriptnnt the Virijrin Mary. (See Brother.)

2. Mahy— the wife of C-leophaA, Hup])06e<l by
some t4> l)e BiHt<-r to the virj^in Mary, stotxl by
the cross of (-IiriHt, with lier Kiifter, and witn
Mary Mocfdalene. Acconlin^ to this view,
her HoHH, •TanicH the LesH, Simon, Joees, ana
Judas, were couKins to the Saviour, and were
called the brethn-n of the Lord. (For another
hy]K>thi*Kis. Kce Buother, Jamea.) She was
present at tlie crucifixion, and seems to have
been one of those holy women who ministered
unto Jesus C'hriKt It is recorde<l that she,
accommnieil bv Mar>' Magdalene, went to the
sepulchre of thii ]«ord, and Utok with them
sweet sjtices wherewith to eniljalm his body;
and while in ]M'r]»lexity as to how they woiilu
roll awav the sUme fn>ni the sepulchre, two
men in shining garments announee<l unto them
the rcsnnx'ction of the Ketlfemi'r; and on their
way with the j«»yful intelli;;i'nce to the dis-
ciples, they met their risen Ix>nl, and fell at
his feet and worshii)i»e<l him.

3. Mary— a p>dly woman residing in Jeru-
salem, honoured to be the mother of John
Mark, supposed t4) Ik? one of the four evan-
gelists, at whose house the disi.'iples were
asscmbliil on the ni>rht when Peter was mir-
aculously rescnuMl from ]irisim by an an'Jrcl.
The 1 trot lability is that her house often formed
a refill,'!* for tlie iM.'rset'ute«l followers of the
cnicitied Jesns. ^Ijiuy are the opjKirtuuities
by which C 'hrit^tian lovo caw testify its willin;;-
ness to serve tin* Lnnl by niinistvrini,' to his
serv.'Uits, and aiding; them in the furtlierance
of Christ's cause.

4. !Mauv- tl:esi-<terof LazaniB, whom Christ
rai*<ed fr«im the dead, and of Martlia. resided
at Bethany with her bnitlier and sister. She
was a devoted friend and dis<'i|ile of Jesus
CJhrist - sittin*: at his feet and learning of hini,
while her sjiirit worshipfwd in <le«-j) devotion.
A more tou<"hing picture of famdy sorrow,
domestic nditrion, and heavenly consolntlon
could not 1k> drawn, than that in which Mary
is rtipreseiited in Scripture as a )>rincipal isir-
trait. Her character seems to have been one
of c<^>nt*'iiiplitiion and of dpen-seate4l feeling-
less of active energy than of devoted, contiding
affection. To one of this temiK.'r:iment, the
circumstances in which she was placed were

t>ecidiarly tr>'ing. Slie had a sick and <lying
»r«>ther, suffering from the seeming neglect of
a dear friend and iK>werful jihysician. Sunk
in desrM>ndenc>', she seems to have felt that,
had the Lord Ix^en present, all wotdd have
been well; but she does not appear then to
have known the extent of the l)i vine jjower
iN>K>ei<Ked by that In-hive*! friend, who could
nave saved her brother even at a distance.
ITie tender tie was broken — a brt)ther's love
was hmt; in quiet submission she sat still in
the house, overwhelmed with sorrow, liut
when the M.'ister sent for her, she immediately
420

arose and went to him, uid fell at hn ftt^
sasring, "Lord, if tboa badat been hem, mj
bnvther had not died.** WhathightdreneoniiiB
could haye been pronounced on Mary tfaia
that Jesus loved her ? and what greater pndd
that loye than that, when Jesus saw her weqi,
he also wept in sympathy ? But Christ doti
not afflict uithout the power to heal; and en
lon^ the voice of the Saviour rose with hesfiir
on Its wings, roused fn^m the sleep of den
that bek>ved brother, and changed the dnih
of her fM>rrow into a fountun of jor. Tbs
reader cannot but observe the deep derolM
and reverential love with which Maiy re^udd
tlie Saviour, and which she testified in a »•
markable manner at a supper made to JtMi
in Bethany, six days before the passorer. Iff
anointing nis feet Mrith very coetlypofaB^
and wipmg them with her *hair. Toere vm
no offering too costly which MarVs love wobU
not dictate, and no service too humble wtiA
Afary's love would not diimxfy. She M
chosen the good part, and it woold not hi
taken from her. The character of Mair, wUi
resembling that of Martha, is quite mstaeft;
the one is thoughtful and contemplativt, Utt
other busy and active. The pictnrs is cm
taken from life, and sketched with mtBd
colouring and discrimination.

fx Mary Magdalene— so called fnn kv
being a resident in the village of Magddi
(See Mag PAUL ) She waa a devoted fnlb«tr«(
the lx>rd Jesus, and ministered to him of kv
substance. She apiioara to have foDosid
Christ's ministry devote<lly ; to have stund If
him at the cross ; to have been present at hi
burial : and to have jmid him all the attestia
that aiifection and reverence ci^uld iupire, f*
which she wsa richly rewarded. Itfaiv lUf-
dalene was the first to whom the ^wv
appeareil after his restirrectiim, and the fiat
he coumiissioned with the glorious mosM ^
his disci [>les that he luul risen againTnW
C'hrist first addressed her, she seemi not ii
have recogniseil him : it may be her eyes *■*
dimme<l with tears, and her attention shsuM
with grief ; but when the f&miliar tones of kr
deliverer's voice, addressing her witk M>
wonted affection by her own name, fdl vp*
her ear, then must her heart have been «<*'
whelmed with a full tide of joy and giatilwfc
for Christ had indeed delivered her fnn *
fearful iK>9session. The popular belief tM
Mary Magdalene was a woman <tf noAt^
character has no foundation in S<3iptiiR,W
rests merely on tradition ; for she was sol tk
sinner who bathed the feet of Jesoi (I^
vii.) ; and the best of the early eastern fi4**
rejectetl the notion of her uncnastity.

ALVSCHIL is found in the tiUeorivcif-
tion of Ps. xxxii. and several other pni*^

Galilee, and, though a Jew, was emrAojd*
a tiix-gatherer under the pittvindsl gv**?*
ment of Judea. He was called from hitofidri
occupation into the service of Chrifli

MAT

tained him at his house (Blark ii 15), became
one of the twelve apostles, and was engaged in
the propagation of tne Gospel afterour baviour^s
asceDsion (Acts i 13). There is no certainty
re8i)ecting the time, place, or manner of his
death.

Matthew, gospel of, is supposed to have
been written five years after Christ*s ascen-
sion, or about the year 38. Some hold that it
existed at a very early period, both in the
Hebrew and Greek languages; and others
imagfine that it was first written in Hebrew,
and translated into Greek by Matthew himself,
or at least during his lifetime. Many have in
every age held the theory that the Gospel of
Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or
Aramaic. That there existed in very early
times a book named the (irospel according to
Matthew, or the Gospel according to the
Hebrews, is evident from all antiqmty. But
the question is, Was this our present canonical
ffospel of Matthew ? There is no evidence
that it was. The fathers who refer to it do
not in general seem to have seen it, nor, though
they had inspected it, could the great majority
of uiem have determined its nature, for they
were ignorant of Hebrew. Many concurring
circumstances show that this so-called goepel of
Matthew was used chiefly by the Ebionitos, or
early Unitarians ; and quotations from it. pre-
served in someold authors, favour the idea tnat it
was a hasty and spurious compilation, fabricated
m support of heretical opinions, and, to secure
Gonency for it, dignified with the name of the
Gospel oy Matthew. The earliest statement
is made by Papias ; but it may be questioned if
his words refer to the canonical gospel The
ffospel of Matthew was principally intended
for Palestine, but it needed not on that account
to be composed in Aramaic; for Greek was
prevalent m Palestine, and, like the Hebrew
▼emacular, was in universal use. There are
no traces of a translation in our present
Matthew. We prefer, then, the theory that
the original language of Matthew's gospel was
Greek.

Matthew, as appears from the preceding
article, was early called into the company of
Christ^s disciples, and was a constant attendant
upon his ministry to its close. His is the
earliest of the four histories, and certainly has
the characteristics of a narrative written soon
after the events happened. The visit of the
irise men, the slau^nter of the infante, the
parable of the ten virgins, the resurrection of
the sainte at the time of the crucifixion, and
■ome other facts, are related by Matthew,
-which are not mentioned by either of the
other evangelists. His gospel was written
for Jews. The style, manner, and composi-
tion show this. Its object is to prove to
them that Jesus of Nazareth is indeed their
promised Messiah. Such an argument could
anJy be carried on successfully by showing
that their own ancient oracles were fulfilled
in the birth, life^ and death of the son of
Mary; and this is precisely what Matthew
doee. He compares the events of Christ's life

MAZ

with the acknowledged prophecies possessed
by the Hebrew nation, and shows how minutely
they correspond.

For example: the genealogy of Jesus is
traced back to David, for he is ** David's son ;"
and to Abraham, for he is Abraham's " seed.**
Jesus was bom of a vli^in ; and the evangelist
refers to Isa. viL 14. Jesus was born in Beth-
lehem; and he quotes Mic. v. 2. John came
as the herald ot Messiah; and Isa. xL 3 is
referred to. Jesus laboured in the commence-
ment of his ministry in the borders of Zebulun
and Nephthalim; and Matthew subjoins the
oracle from Isa. ix. 1.

Th« miracles of Jesus were works of amaring
beneficence; and in them, it is declared, was
fulfilled that " which was spoken by Esaias the
prophet, saying. Himself took our infirmities,
and bare our sicknesses" (Matt, viii 17).

The parables of Jesus were vehicles of pure
and impressive instruction; and this peculiar
mode of teaching chosen by the great prophet
was, as the evangelist affirms, a realization of
ancient prediction in Ps. Ixxviii. 2.

Christ rode upon an ass as he entered Jeru-
salem in triumphid procession ; and his selec-
tion of this animal was in unison with old
foreshowing in Zech. ix. 9.

It is thus plainly seen that Matthew wrote
for such as believed in the Old Testament, for
it is his book of constant reference. His
design was to teach the Jews that Jesus was
tiie Christ. He does not need, therefore, to
compose a regular biography ; but he collecto
and groups together the remarkable features of
the career ana character of Jesus, and placing
them by the side of old inspired prophecy,
shows how minutely they corresponded. The
proof is varied and successful — the gospel is a
triumphant defence of the Messiahship of
Jesus. Objections have been sometimes started
against the first and second chapters of this

?ospel, but they come from those who deny
Christ's divinity, and are therefore enemies to
the idea of his miraculous conception.

MATTHIAS (Acts i. 23)— a disciple of
Christ, and a constent attendant on his travels
and miuistrv, from its commencement until his
ascension (Acts i 21, 22). He was appointed
to supply the vacancy in the company of the
twelve apostles occasioned by the apostasy of
Judas.

The validity of the election of Matthias has
been sometimes called in question, because, it
is said, it was premature, and that the apostles
shouldf have waited till the descent of the
Spirit on the day of Pentecost

MAW (Deut. xviii. 3) — one of the priest's
portions in a sacrificed animid. Josephus and
Philo understand it of tho fourth stomach,
which among the anciente was esteemed a
great luxury.

MAZZAROTH (Job xxxviiL 32). "Canst
thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season?"
was one of the questions by which Grod re-
proved the weakness and presumption of his
servant Job. It is supposed by some to mean
the twelve signs of the zodiac, each of which is

427

brought forth in its aeaHoD by the windom and
IMiwer of G<m1 only. The Vulguto renders the
term l)y Lucifer. It is left in our version
untranHlate<l.

MEALS, MEALTIME (Ruth ii 14).
The meals of the Orientals, both ancient and
nifHlem, may be C(>mi)ared to our dinner and
8iipi>er (I^iike xiv. 12). What is here called
dinnrr mi;;ht nevertheless as well be called
breakfaM ; tor it is a light meal, and is token
at an early hour. In Ternia thev partake of
this first meal between ten and eleven o'clock
in the forenoon ; and it consists principally of
fruits, milk, cheese, and confections. (See
Food.)

The principal meal of the da}*^ is the 8upi)er.
Amon^ the Komans it anciently tot^k place
alxnit three o\>l(»ck ; but in the East, as at the
])rescnt day in Persia, about six or seven in the
evening, in onlcr to avoid the enfeeblin^p heat
of the aftenuKtn (Mark vi. 21 ; Luke ziv. IG,
24 ; John xii. 2). IWfore going to meals it woa
common to wash the hands—a custom rendered
necessary by their meth<Ml of partaking of food.
The same practice obtained among the Greeks
and liomans at an early date, and still prevails
in the East. (See Katin«.)

The Pharistec8ha<l exalted this into a religious
duty, and affiHrtcd to be greatly scandolizeil at
the omission of it by the disci])les of our Lord
(Matt XV. 2. 20; Luke xi. :fe<).

In Samucrs time, the ]>e(»ple would not eat
until he had bli'ssed the sacrifice ; and this is
the first notice in Scrinture of a blessing on
fotnl (1 Sam. ix. l.S). In the time of Christ,
however, it was common Ix-fore every meal to
bless or give thanks (Matt xiv. 1*.>; xv. IMt).

A distinction of rank also pn^vnilod in sitting
at meals. (St-c Feasts. Skat?*, Taim.f:.)

MEARAH (Josh. xiii. 4)- a noted cave
between San^ita and Sidon.

MEASrKKS AND WKIGTITS (l*rov. xx.
10). The .rewi.sh law contains two prece])ts re-
8|)ecting weights ami nie.asun*?*. The first (l^ev.
XIX. 35, 'M)) may ref«T t** the standards kept
in th« sanoturiry ; ami the setvmd (Deut xxv.
lii-15) refers to sutrh oh were kei)t lA'ever>' family
for itH own um.*. Mut^h iM'rjjlexity has attende^l
all invexti^'ntions of this sulijoct. and we must
l>e contented with mere approximations to
truth.

The mcnlels or stindanls of the weights and
measures which were in earliest u.-jC were
I»reser\'ed for a long time in the Jewish
teniple, but were destroyinl with that sacnMl
edifice, and aftenvanls the measures and
weights of theix'ople among whom the Jews
dwelt were a<mpted. Josephus asserts that
measures and weights were mvented by Cain.
ITiey were certiiinly in use from the earliest
perifxl (den. vi. 15; xxiii. 10).

As Ui currency, it is supjwsed the early Jews
ha<l no coins or ]fieces of metal of fixed size
and value, but that the precious metals were
exchangi'd for articlraof men^handlse by weight
Thus Abraliam lj<»ught the field of Ei*»liron for
400 shekels of silver, and just as in Canada or
any newly-settled oountry they might buy an
428

acre of land for 100 bnaheis of wbesL or UN
pounds of flax. Thia ia the miial modi
of dealing among unciTiliaed natkni at tbi
present day. Every piece or man cf mdA
was valued according to its purity and vq^
Hence the practice of canrjruig wcigiiti m •
bag, to which alluaon is firequenUj made \j
the sacred writeriCpeat. zxr. IZ; Fhiv. xn.
11 ; Mic. vi IIL We h»ve abundant eridaei
that in Davia's time gold was used m m
article of merchandina, and not as a ataiiM
of value.

In presentinjg this aabject in aneh a fona ■
to aid the biblical student or teacher, w ibl
include only those terms which are actodlf
used in the Bible, and shall endeavosr ti
establish a definite role rather than to |i»
plex by an array of conflicting opinioni tti
authorities.

I. Of Measures or Ijekqtsl

The hand-breadth^ or ptUm (1 KL m 9.
was 4 digits, or the Dreadth of the four fiagH
— from 3 inches to 3} inches.

A tpan (Lam. iL 20y— which Bxpre— tli
distance across the hand from the f lUf ''J**
the thomb to the extremity of the nwli
finger, when they are stretohed as £w spat
as poMible— say 9 to 10 incheai

A cubU (Gen. vi 16). It is ohrioin flirt
this term is aoplied by the aacred «iitnt»
different lengths, one Doing at least a ha^
breadth longer than the other. It is, hofwefi^
generally agreed that the common oolil *■
about 18 inches. The meaaure was fraa 4i
elbow to the point of the middle finger.

A fathom (Acts xxvii 28) wasmn ( fa<
to <>A feet.

The mauurinff-rted (Ezek. ylii- 16} iiiip
posed to have been from 10 to 11 feet; laiiBi
mea^uring-linc (Zech. ii 1), 146 feet

The furfong (Luke xxiv. 13) was a Gn*
measure, and nearly the same as at piiswt
viz., one-eighth of a mile, or 40 roda

The mUe (Matt v. 41), probably 1,612 j«d^
or about one-twelfth less than oars.

The Sabbath-day*9 journey (AcU i U) •■
about seven-eighths of a nule ; and tki t>*
denoted the distance which Jewish tinBti*
said one might travel withont a vioistKi"
the law (Exod. xvi. 29). It is supposed ^
this distance extended fint from the uSMOt^
to the remotest section of the csin]X <*
afterwards fn>m the temple to the raafi^
I)arts of tlie holy city.

The term, a day's journey (Sum. si ^<
Luke ii. 44), probably indicated no ob^
distance, but was taken to be the odviV
distance which a person travels on font ii ^

itrosecution of a journey — periiMs 90 fl^
)ut the first day's journey was a wort «*>"
tliat travellers might easily reton ht 0
thing which they left behind

II. Hollow Measures.
(1.) Dry. A ea6, or ia6 (2 Ki vi A**'

third of an omer, or 2 pints.

An omer (Exod. xvi. 36), one4eBth d ■
ephah, or 6 pints.

The measure, or seak (Gen. zvsL 6; }bi^

MEA
aiiL 33; Luke xiiL 21), ciM-thiid of an aphah,
orSOpinta.

Tfaa epIiaA (Ezod. itL 36), 10 omen, or 3
■ealu, or 60 piati.

The Aoner (Ib&, t. 10), when nnd for dry
moBaare, 100 omera, or 600 pints.

TaUIi-deal (Lev. nia 17), or tenth part, is
■apposed to fasve be«D the >une with the
omer, or the tenth put of an ephab.

The Greek word translBted biuhd (Matt. T.
15), i* Buppoeed by Bomo to uuwer to the
Hetmw word tcaJi. The Bonuui biuhel wm
ytrj umiiy the bkob with the English peck.

12.) Liquid. ThedwILei * "" '
ilieUj fui one-tor"- *- '-^-

The Un (Er«
bath, orlOpinta.

The bath (Iso. v. 10), one-tenth of a homer
(Euk. ilv. 11), 7i gallotLB, or 60 pinti.

The homo-, or cor (Eiek. xIt. 14), 10 ballu,
76 nlloiu, or 600 pinta.

Ills Jlrkm (John iL 6) waa a Greek meamre,
oontaininB 71 galloos.

HL OFWKioHra.

In the time of Uosea the oommon WHght
a ahekel, which tens ngnifiM a weigU.

Bamea of weights; and here it msj
mallad that there appears no anfficient warrant
for the opinian that the Jewi had two kinds

The laleM (2 Sam. xii. 30), 3,000 shek^ »
numehs, 1,600 oonoeg—eqiul to B3 pooodi 13
otuiDsa avoirdnpoia.

IV. Or CUBBKNOT.

It) Bffore tJie taptivii^.

The grnA, one-twentieth of a shekel, would
be worth now nearly 1 id.

The Ukaii, half a shekel, equal to la.

The ihtitl, 20 gerahs, weighing half an
ounce troy, equal to 2b. id.

The naniA, or tnino, 100 ihekeli, 60 ouncei,
or 4 pounds 2 ounces troy, equal to £10.

The taUnt, 30 min», or XO^^ shekels, B3
ponndi, 12 ounces, equal to £312 10s.

The pound is the same with the nun*

The value of gold was to that of silver abont
as twelve to one.

The itonm (1 Chr. ixix 7), or drochH, «M
the same with the darie.

(2.) After Vie captivitg.

The daric dram, or drachm fEzra iL 69), wa*
a Persian gold coin, equal to about £1, 3s.

The ftoier, or " piooB of money" (Matt rrlL
27), a Greek or Roman silver coin (a shekel in
weiaht), and in value over 2«. Id. The stater,
or coined shekel" of the Jews, is often found
in the oabinets of aotiquaiieB at the pteeent

The penny (Matt xidi 19), or draehtit, k
Bomau silver coin, equal to from 6d. to 7d.

The faTOiing (Matt. i. 29), aHoroan silver
coin, equal to Jd.

Another piece of money
equal to one-fourth of a Far-

^'"(ijirk 1

prevails respecting the n

._ The penny a dag

(Matt. XX. 2) seeing to be a

or twelve hours' labour, and
the tmopence (Luke i. S^i
affords very equivocal e

B of B

1 the

Egyptian BsUnc

of weights. When the phrase "shekel of the
aanctnary" is used (Eiod. in. 131, it means,
not that this was different from the common
riMkal, but that it was a true standard weight,
aoooiding to the authorized standard prHerved
In the sanctuary, or, as we shoold say, a
■B>led weight or measure, to denote that its
MKnnKy is certified by anthotity. To weigh
aiifastances the .Tews had—

The i&tkd (Amos viii. G), halt an ounoe
■ToiTdnpois.

The ffioneA or mina (Esek. ilv. 12), 100
Jtekels, or 60 ounoes— equal to 3 pounds 2
•onoea avoiidopoia.

fEood Samaritan; but when
it is considered what these
sums could obtain of the
comforts and necesaories of
life, the ease appears differently.

As latelv as the year 1351, the price of laboar
was regulated in England by Parliament,
sod " bay -makers, corn- weeders, without meat,
drink, or other courtesy" (in modem phrase,
"finiliQg themselves "), were to have a. penny a
day. In many places higher wages are givep
for hay-making than for any other kind of
agricultural labour. The pay of a chaplain in
England, in 1314, wae three baJf -pence, or about
day. At the same time, wheat

dghteence a bushel, and a

L A penny a daf under such circum-

ss woiud not be inconsiderable wagia.

MEA

It halt been estimated that 440 graixM of sQyer
would f)iirchajic> as much in the fourth cen-
tury l>ef(ire ChriKt aM 4,400 graina would pur-
cliaRe in Knpland in 1780.

MKAT, MflATS (Cien. i. 29; Mark vii. 19).
The f(MKl of the Hebrews was refoilated l)y the
aT>|M)intnient of Ood. ^ (See Clran, F(X)D.)
'I heir methods of cooking meat were various,
Uiou^h they never ate of food dressed by any
other than a Jew, nor of foo<I prei>ared by
other kitchen utenttils than those of tlieir own
nation. Wliat animals they mi^ht eat, and
what they ou^ht not, were fiarticularly com-
mande<l, liov. xi. ; Deut. xiv. The import
of the word nirat seems to have undergone a
cnnsidf ruble chan^'e since our verniuu of the
Biblv was maile ; for in this it means food in
general; or, when confined to one s])ecies of
fiNMl. nhva>'H si^oiifies meal, flour, or grain, but
never flesh, which is now the usual aceept.itiiin
of the wtml. A "meat offering" in the Scrip-
tures is always a vegetablr, ainl nwcr an ani-
mal offering : and it might now be rendered a
•* bread offering," or a *' meal offering," instead
of a ** meat-offering."

Meats okklkkd to hwls (1 C-or. viil 7,
10). At the first settling of the Church there
were muny di:<]nit(.'s concerning the use of
meats offered to idols. Some newly converted
< 'hristiuns, convinced that .'\ii idol was nothing,
and thut the distinctii*n of clean and unclean
cn.'.atiires was aU dished by ourSavitmr, ate in-
diflerently what<;ver w:is servetl up to them,
even among pai^^ns. without in(|uiring whether
the meats li:ul been otFere*! to idnls. i'liev t<H)k
the same lilM>rty in buying meat sold in the
market, not n-i^anling whether it were pure or
impure, acc'jniinv: t«» the .lews, or whether it
had ln-i-n ofFen-ci to iilnjs <ir nut. l.'iit other
Ohrisiiun**. weaker <»r les?* iustnicted, were
offended at thisliU'rty, an<lth< night that eating
of meat whici) had bren otFered t-o idols w:us a
kind of ]»artakin'4 in that wicked and sacri-
legious act. This divf^rsity «>f opinion pnMluced
some Hcamlal. for which Paul tl)t»ugiit it be-
hoved him to pmviile a remedy (Knni. xiv. 20,
21). He ih'ti-nnine*!. tlienfore, that all things
were clean (Tit. i. l."»), and that an i'lid was
nothin;^ at all*, that a man mi;;ht rifely eat
ti{ whatever was s<il(l in tht. market, and need
not very scrupul<i\isly inquire fn.nn whence it
came; and tliat if an unlH'liever should invite
a Isjliever to eat with him, the believer might
eat of whatever wa** set Injfore him, &c.,
(1 Cor. X. \i\ kt'.) r.ut at the same time he
enjoins that the laws of charity antl pnnlence
should Ikj o!)served : that believers should be
cautious of scandalizing or offending weak
minds; for though all thin;rs might Ije lawful,
yet all things were not always ex^icdient. —
WaUon-* Ji'n'tiunarji.

M K I ) K H A ( I sa. xxi. 2) - a city in the eastiim
part of the tfiritorj' of Re\d>en, which still
retains nearly its ancient name, M.vlalja, 4
miles soutli-e:ist of Heshbon. The site of the
old town shows the ruins of a temple and the
excavations of iKinds and reservoirs.

MEDIA, called so in Scripture after a son
430

MED

of Japheth (Qen. z. 2). Tlw muat wd k
rendered Modes, and sometimes Medisi vi^
out any proper groimd of vsrialaQB. Tk
country waa boonded on the north sad cMt bf
the Caspian Sea; on the soath by Afli7iii«
Susiana, and Persia proper : on the vest bf
the Greater ArmeniA; and on the eait bf
Parthia and Uyrcania. It wna divided origia-
ally into six prorinoea, which were aftcmndi
reduced to two — Media Biagna and Mefii
Atronatene. The first, or northern muiIm^
is ^-ild and hilly, oold and bleak, rat vilk
numerous valleyii of great f ertilitrTlti iwidaa
capital is Tamu, a chcnce residenoe cf thi
Persian kings, llie second, or more sontbai
province, having the Zagros moontaias oo ib
western frontier, and comprising a Urge jpotia
of Kurdistan, oonsists of nnmerous m^sb^
more than 3,000 feet above the level at the Ma
with many fertile openings stretchinir asiif
among multitudinous chaus of mmntri—
(.■ro|M and fruits of aU kinds were abandaskii
this istrtirtn of the kin^nm. The "ISmm

Clains," famous for their breed of homs, hf
etween Behistun and Khorran-abad Hi
country was an oblong parallekgrsBi, iV
miles by near 300^ and 4hw as laige m ^
Syria and Babylonia put t«igether. It mm
probable that both urovinces hsud a csfM
of the same name — Kcfaatana; but it ii tli
southern city of this name, or Takht-i-Sds*
man, recognized also as Hamadan, wlick
ancient authors describe with maoj mc
gerations.

The early history nf the Medes is ^npf^
in ]>rofound obscurity. They firvt spfi*
distinctly in Scripture in the histiniau ■"
formati(»n that the conquered inhalstinti d
Samaria were placed by the Awyrisn Uk
'* in the cities ot the Medes." Tlien the^ M
found in the prophetic utterance of utiA
against Babylon, which gives al»i a tin'
glimi»se into their character : ** Behold. 1 «!
stir up the Medes against Uiem, whk£ M
not regard silver; and as for grdd, thev M
not delight in it. Their bowv also shaU M
the young men to peces ; and they shall bin

))eople. ready by bhsnl or treaty for an i

with the nation into which tney were sftv*
wan Is absorbed, is plain from another ondi<f

tht; same pn^phet: **Go up, O Elam: hea
O Metlia*' (Isa. xxL 2). That the M«d«f

an Ar>'an race is apparent from the fsek tW
they were calleil so, according to Hcrodooa
by other coimtries ; and probably they M|h'
in successive migrations from Weston Ifr'
dostaiL There seems to have been, at a ««f
rcniitte era, an Aryan element oi popalstMS*
Chaldea by the side of Turanian and Stfi*
races. (See C7iiali)EA.)

But the distinctive name seems to bavsiB^
into obscurity for many centuries, or it V^
have bei^n absorbed in some more (((■■*
appellation. The term Mede first aUMsn ■
the Assyrian monuments aboatB.a SHI 1V^

they are first fouiijl <»n the monuments, th(?y
bear their well-known title, and inhabit the
territory which they held for many subsequent
oenturiefl. But at this eiurly period they were
weak, and unable to resist invasion. Shal-
manezer II. conducted an expedition into the
ooontry in the twenty-fourth year of his reip^
destroyed the population, and carried off im-
meiue booty, xiis son, Shammas-Iva, repeat-
^ ii^r the invasion, met ajipan^ntly with but a
^ feeble resistance, but did not occupy the
territory Which he had overrun. Under the
■uocesBor of Shammas-Iva, the Medes appar-
ently yielded themselves as vassals and tnbu-
" tariea. The tribute exacted was paid in
horaes. This season of submission passed, and
the indomitable Median s]>irit rose a^in, when
— ~ Saigon con^picred several insurgent towns, and
formally annexed them to his own kingdom.

\ To peipetuate the subjugation, he also, accord-

— ing to nis favourite policy, erected over Media
a number of militaiy forts or garrisons. Sar-
=^ ^n*8 plan of action was, as himself expresses
It, "to change the abodes" of his vassals by
_ wiiolesale deportations. Babvlonians, Cuths-
~ ana. and Sepharvaites, were placed in Samaria,
and Israelites were planted in the cities of
~ Media (2 KL xvL 24). Sargon is the only king
who could have done as the Bible describes,
bein^ the first who jMissessed any of the
If edian towns. In one of his inscriptions, Sen-
nacherib, son of Sargon, boasts of reoeiving a
'^ depnt^on from some remote province of
TWfM^ii*-, '*of which the kings his fathers had
xuvt BO much as heard;" and Esarhaddon
mentioDs a Median invasion, the seizure of
two chiefs, and the capture of great spoil
JlCedia was thus for many years a refractory
porfeion of Assyrian territory. During this
time it was not a monarchy, but only a con-
federation of warlike clans, each under its own
<^ef ; and it is not distinctly known how it so
xmpidly rose to military unity and su])remacv.
The stury of Herodotus is not to be wholly
credited, and the annals of Ctesias are without
foundation. But it is beyond doubt that,
-towaids the end of the Assyrian empire, Media
spnuig up into a great warlike power, though
it is impossible to a8si<^ai a cause for its sudden
development under Cyax ares. On the Behistun
inonament, the royal race of the Medes is
traced only to him, but not beyond him.
IVhen, in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, a
SAjpaitian rclwl cLaimed the throne of the
TOOvince, his chief plea was his descent from
Oy&xares. Saracus, an effeminate king,
naoended the throne of Nineveh about G47 B.c. ;
And in the thirteenth year of his reign, the
J^edes suddenly marched out of the passes of
-the Zagrue motmtains and overran the country,
Imt m<M;ting the Assyrian host, were signaUy
^lafeated^ with immense slaughter. Having
xe-organized his army, Cyaxares made a second
«iid more succossful attempt, l)ut was obliged
to retreat into his own country, as Herodotus
■tntee, to defend it from a Scythic invasion.
Cyazares was at first defeated by these
strangers, and a treaty of peace, vaBsalage,

MED

and tribute was concluded. Those predatory
hordes, gradually spreading themselves over
Western Asia, were ultimately weakened.
The Median court then invited the chiefs to a
banquet, and having intoxicated them, slew
them in their helplessness. The nation then
rose to arms, and the invaders were expelled.
But A8S3rria had now fallen low ; its glory had
waned ; and it became an easy prey. Chaldea
had been under Assyrian domination for half a
century, and it was ready^ to form an tdliance
with Media to avenge itself. Nabopolassar,
its satrap, joined Cyaxares, whose daughter
was given as wife to Nebuchadnezzar, the son
of the former. By the oombinod assault of
Medes and Babylonians, Nineveh fell about
B.C. 625. (See NrNKVEH.) The conquerors
divided the territory; and as the result of the
conquest, Nabopolassar founded the Baby-
lonian, and Cyaxares the Median empire.
(See Babylon.)

Cyaxares was succeeded by his son Astyages
about 5i>4 B.O. — a prince neither famous for
ability nor conquests. The stories told of his
court by the old writers, as Herodotus and
Xenophon, may be exaggerations, but they
show us that prince and people were rapidly
degenerating; and that, aiter the conquest of
Assyria, the hardy Median nati<m was cor-
nipted by luxury, and gpradually became so
effeminate as to be an easy prey to some brave
and ambitious neighbour. That neighbour
was the Persian branch of the same great
Aryan race dwelling to the south of Media.

The priority of the Mede« was, however,
long recognized, as in the common phrase.
** the laws of the Medes and Persians ; '* ana
the invaders of Greece, under Darius and
Xerxes, are called Medes by i'Eschylus and
Thucydides. The two nations were alike in
blood, language, and manners, and the amal>
gamation was therefore more easily accom-
plished. But the old restless spirit was not
wholly qiiellcd, and in the reign of Darius
Media rebelled, and elevated Phraortes to the
throne. The following is the account of the
rebellion and its extinction, given by Darius
himself on the monumental rock of Bcnistnn : —
** Sa>'s Darius the king — Then I went out from
Babvlon. I proceeded to Media. When I
reacned Media, a city of Media named
Kudnisia, there that Phraortes, who was
called king of Media, came with nn army
against me to do battle. There we fought a
battle. Ormazd brought help to me; by the
grace of Ormazd I eutirolv defeatc<l the army
of Phraortes. On the 20tli day of the month
Adukanish, then it was we thus fought the

battle Says Darius the king— Then

that Phraortes, w.th his faithful horsemen,
fled from thence to a district of Me<lia, called
Rhages. Then I sent an army, by which
Phraortes was taken (and) l)rought Ixifore me.
I cut off both his nose, and his ears, and his
tongue; and I led him away (captive?) He
was kei>t chained at my door ; all the kingdom
beheld him. Afterwards I crucified him at
Agbatana. And the men who were hia chief

431

MED

followers I slew within the citadel at Agba-
tana.** Al)out a ccntuxy after, tiie Medea roae
to arma a^fain, but were finally put down by
l>ariu8 NothuH.

Fuw remains of Median art and architecture
have l)een ])reiier\'e<l, and the towns seem for a
lunff time ti> have been unwalled. The Medea
were a brave race, but cruel in their wan, for
thev were bent on blood and luet^ as the
Hcorew pn>i»het intimates. Hie soldiers were
in general anueil like the Persians. Jeremiah
dcscrilxn the Median ** arrows as those of a
mighty exjiert man." The Medes were cele-
brated for the use of the bow, with which they
fou^'ht on honu^back. lliey were in fact a
nation uf mounted Iwwmen. llieir arrows,
acconlin;;^ t<.> an ancient writer, quotcil by
Kusebiuu, were **i>oiBoneil with a bituminous
liquor, calle<l najintha. Thus prepared, they
were shot from a slack l)ow, and Dumed the
flesh unth such violence, tliat water only in-
crea-Hotl the flame ; dust alone could abate it."
The name %\-riter rci>orts that thuy encouraged
a breed of lan,'e do^nj, ** to whom they used to
throw the IxKlies of their friends, parents, and
relations when at the ]K)int of death, looking
ui>on it OM dishonourable to die in their beds,
or to be laid in tlie Kroumi" The practice of
]K)l3'^'anly, k4> incitUHisteiit wiUi domestic happi-
ness, was carried by the Medes to great excess.
Acconling t4> Stra1)o. it was even enforced by
law. and apjK^ars to liave been allowed to the
wives as well as enj«)ined uix>n the huslutnds.
In confirming allianireH, the Medes, acconling
t4) HeriMlotus, like the Lydians (bendes the
ceremonies they iiseil in common with the
(inieks), were aeclLs^^m^'d t«) make an incision
in the ann, and to ]ileil^'e one another in the
uiingl«'d I)1(khI. ITiey were evidently a<lvance<l
in civilization prior to their union with the
Persians. Tlu; rich colour and el»«;i;ant texture
of their dresses prove their early commerce
and mannfiK'tun^. Their own omntry was
opulent, fi>r it was also the great mercantile
hi«,'h\vay of Asia, and their victorious arms
bnnight tlieni immense tribute. The rigid and
formal eti«piette of their royal court is reflecte«l
in the niniilar Per.-.ian ccn'nionial. ITieir
nlpbabi^t wiis Him]iler than that of Assyria and
Babylonia. ITie religion was originally Zoro-
n^trian, but degra<led in course of time by
MagianisHi, which brought a cumbrous sacer-
dotalism and a iiriestly caste into a simpler
and i^uirer cii'tMl, and establihhed fire-worship
on pictures<|ue altars, with numerous cere-
monies, oracular \itteranccs, and mystic in-
cantations. (See Peiisia.)

MKDIATOll (GaL iii. 10) -one who inter-
poses betwtH.'n two parties at variance, with the
view of effecting a reconciliation between them.
The title beh^ngs pre-eminently to the Divine
illedeemer, in and ny whom GtJd is reconciling
the world unto himself (1 Tim. ii. 6; Heb. \'iii.
ft ; xii. 24) ; and it is to be remembered that
he is the ONLY Mediator between God and
man. ( H cf turse our blessed Saviour has ol wajrs
stoisl in that relation, as well Ixifore as since
Lis nuuiif estation in the flesh. He is the An^l
432

MEL

of tlia oovcnuit, hy wham aD tbe DifiM
commimicatiana were mads imdBr ths wnl
dispensatknuL Of the new oorcnant he hwriai
the surety as well as the Mediator, assKwf it
with his own blood ; and the hlnarinjp of Ba
covenant are now, and erer will be, bestowidii
virtue Of his merita and intcrcwsrioa. lit
erroTB and abanrditieB into which maii^ at
betrajred who reject thia doctrine an witbari
numMr. No view of the aabject aooocdi vitt
the Divine orades, or brings into tibeir jolt
relation all the paitiea oonoemed, dceepk ttit
which contemplates the Redeemer both ia la
divine end human natnxe. On Ihe one hod
he is identified with the infinite Jehovah, wkm
honour and glory are to be maintainfid, ari
whose favonr is to be secured; while oa tki
other he is the self -offered, atrtning m

JunsnTbeii

for sin ; and, as the friend of i
them to come to him in faith and .
and receive the bouDdleas Ki«Mi«g«' «{ GoA
ffrace, secured to them l^ his own insiiiic
intercession. The natures of the offended oi
of the offending parties meet in hinfc-GsA
fellow and nuurs brother. God*s f^arj is dar
to him as God, man's intersata are dear to Ua
as Man. In all ages, and in all parts d tb
world, there has constantly prerailed mks
sense of the holineea of the snprone DivniQt
as to make recourse to some sort of imrilitf™
universaL There is not a form of icUa
known, even among the savagea and hMMS
nations, which does not reoosnia^ witk wh
or less distinctness, the necessity of a McdUv
between the Divinity and man. Thii bA,
together with the consideration that then ii
nothing in the doctrine itself cuntrsiy ts
reason and analogy, sufllciently estahBiba it
against the objections and cavils of sooffeo ai
unbelievers.
MKD CINE. (See Phtbiciahr.)
MEGIDDO (Joeh. xiL 21>— a dtybckiM
to Manassch, but lying within the fimiti ■

' ym the

Issachar, not far from me nvw .

waters are hence called the **wateii d
Megiddo " (Judg. v. 19). Ito inhahitsiiti M
not expelled by Manasseh ; bat wlien laid
became strong they were made trihiia^
Solomon f ortined it, and made it the raidoa
of one of his commissaries who provided iwv
of provision for his household (1 KL iv. 13; &
15). There, too, Ahaoah died, in vuoMH(amtt
of a wound in battle, and Josiah was uii^

Pharaoh -nechoh of itsmat (2 Ki iz. 27; n*
29). The ''waters of Megiddo" (Jadfrv-fl)
are supposed by some to be the river lEj^
It is the present El-Lejjiln.

M£LGHlZ£DEK~it-fij7 of rigUmttm
(Gren. xiv. 18). This mysterious perns s*
king of Saleni, which many suppose vw lA^
wards Jerusalem (though it is not impnbi^
that the title, "king of Salem," was an>?
appellation, signifvinpf king of pmet^ Bt >
mentioned before the institution of the Asaaii
order as a " priest of the most high God." B*
birth and genealogy are concealed yh|}

Surposely— or the phrase "without Mte'
;c., may mean that his parents wars of ots6>^

MEL

or low origin. This latter notion iB not probable.
We know not that he had a predecessor or
successor ; at any rate the time of his priesthood
was unlimited, and in this respect different
from the Levitioftl priesthood (Num. viiL 24^
25). The phrase, '^ having neither b^finning
of days nor end of life.** may apply either to
the time of his birth ana death being unknown,
or to the indefinite term of his ofScial life.
Abraham diowed his respect for the age, rank,
fictVf and priestly office of Melchizedek, by
paying him a tithe of the spoils he had taken in
the bfl^e wi^ Ghedorlaomer and his allies,
whom he pursued to Hobah; and hence the
aivument of the apostle, that if Abraham,
whom the Jews refi^vded so highly, and who
was the ancestor of the sons of lievi, thus
acknowledged the dignity and superiority of
Melchizedek, surely Ohnst, the great High
Priest, of vihom Melchizedek was but an
imperfect type, was worthy of similar or still
greater honuige. And if toe ancesknr of Levi
thus paid hcmiage to Melchizedek; the ^ype of
Christ, surely the p»riesthood which was nlled
by the sons of Levi must be regarded as far
inferior in dignil^ and excellence to the priest-
hood of Christ himself, (Heb. v., vi, vii) His
priesthood resembled Christ*s, in its being
underived and untransferred, and in its
combining also the power and prerogatives of
zoy^ty.

Who he was has been disputed.

"The Hieradtffi held Melchizedek to be the
HolySpirit.

*'Tbe Melchizedeciani, the author of which
sect was Theodotus or Thomas, held Melchi-
aeedek to be one of the dvifduui of God. emanate
£nmci him, superior to Christ, and after the
model of whom Christ was formed.

" It is an ancient opinion, as Epiph. Hseres.
liXVIL ^testifies, that Melchizedek was the
Son of God — i. cl, the Logos; the same who
jippeared to Abraham and to thepatriarchs, &c.

"Origen, and after him Didymus, steUid
Melchizedek to be an angeL

"Others have held that Melchizedek was a
man formed before the creation, out of spiritual
and not of earthly matter.

** Melchizedek was Enoch, sent Jtfain to live
on earth after the flood. So Hen. Hulsius.

" Melchizedek was Shem, the son of Noah—
a favourite notion.

** Melchizedek was Job. So G. Kohlreis.

"It is unknown who he was. So Lyser.
Gresner, Baldwin, Crenius, Buddseus, ana
others.^ — Stuart's Com, on the Hebrews,

These are vain suppositions — unsupported
bv analog or Scripture. This priest-king was
of Hamrte extraction — ^as he was a Canauiito ;
and not being of the seed of Shem, his
genealogy has no place in Scripture. He
ooold not have been the Son of Grod in human
f oral, as some have ingeniously maintained.
for ^aul could not argue that Christ had
been made a typo of himself. Such vitiated
reasoning would only be proving a thing by
itself— A species of fallacy which cannot be
ascribed to an inspired auwor. The language
2f

MEL

is, indeed, striking and peculiar; but a little
attention to Melchizedeirs history, office, and
character sufficiently explains it.

MELITA (Acts xxviii. 1). now Malta—
an island 12 miles in breadth and 20 in
length, lying between Sicily and Africa, about
200 miles east of Tunis^ and in that part of the
Mediterranean which, m the apostle s day, was
often called Adrian including the Ionian and
Sicilian seas, according to the testimony of
Ptolemy and Strabo. Here Paul and his
company were shipwrecked on the passage to
Rome^ and were very kindly treated by the
inhabitants, especially by Publius the eovemor.
A modem traveller says, — "Passed St. Paul*s
harbour, where the apostle was shipwrecked.
In reading the account of this shipwreck, I had
ever experienced difficulty in comprehending
how there could be a place formed on the coast
of an island where 'two seas met.* But in
viewing the tspot pointed out where the ship
was. 'thrust m,' iha diflleulty was removed.
The idand Ofuxo Bea west of the main island
(Malti^, aBdiBsepaiatedoiilybjrastraH,from
half to a quarter of a mile in width. When a
violent eurodydon (east wind) prevails, and
the seas run mgh, a oowerfnl current is forced
in at each end of this strait, which ranges
nearly north and south. The ship was driven
in at the north end, and struck in a small nook
on the Malta side, about 40 rods from the
entrance. This strait must have been, I think,
* the creek with a shore, into which they were
minded^ if possible, to thrust in the ship;*
for, while Xjmg off to the north, the entrance
of the strait has the exact appearance of the
mouth of a creek or river.'*

A locality somewhat different has been
assigned to the shipwreck by others. But the
name of St. PauTs Bay lias, however, been
long associated with the deep bay refeired to
on the north side of the island, and the vessel
is supposed to have struck on its western head-
land. A recent author has written a very
ingenious and interesting book on the subject—
Tht Voyage and Shipwreck of SL Paul, by
Jas. Smith, Esq., of Jordanhill, 1848.

Some have denied that Malta was the scene
of the shipwreck, and have placed it at Meleda,
a small island in the Adriatic. Bryant,
Falconer^ and Hales have advocated this
view. Tnere seexns, however, to be no ground
for their hypothesis. Malta nas an unbroken
tradition m ite favour, and the name Adria
was anciently given to the whole of the sea
that rolls between Greece and Sidly. Meleda,
the small islet, never seems to faiave heesa of
such importance as to have a Roman Pro-
consul resident on it ; but Malta had. Should
a ship sail to the western coast of Italy from
Meleda, there would be necessity for ner to
touch at Syracuse ere she could come to

Tms island was early settled by a Phoenician
colony. Since the Christian era it has belonged
successively to the Gotha. Vandals, Saracens,
Normans, Germans, and French, until Charles
y. surrendered it to the knights of St. John

433

pBrtfli *iiil by theti.„.j

to Engluid. At piuKDt it ii ths centra of
•itonoTB miarintuiry «per«tioni.

MELONS (Num. II. 6)— iinibslily what i*
known to lU ui the wat«r-mel<iii, n fniit whUb
ia itill faand in great perfectiuii in Kgypt, mnd

which tnvellcn tell m fiimi>>1irii the chief
fiMid uid drink of the lower chunei during the
heat of ■aminer.

MEMPHIS. (Sea NorH.)

MENAUEM [2 KL xv. 14) «u the son nf
flodi, >iul having iIud Shallum, king of
Samaria, reigned in bia itewL Hia reign,
which luted ten f eora, wu diatingniiihed fur
CTuelty and oppreMion (2 KL it. IG-aO).

M^NE (Dan. V, 35H» ^°^ "^ *•"' "■<rni-
ftcant aentenoe which appeared on the n-aQ of
Jlelahaixar^i banqueting.nall, to warn him of
tha in^eDdins doatructioD of Babylon. The

and niuia, when frinilatad litanllrr^
he ia nunib«i:«d: HaN,_Iia it vw
Tek^. ha ia wo^faol; U] ~
dividing." Terrm,^

^e lait ia activeDlDnt, wttfath* uuaiJiMilil
preceding. (See Bumubab.)

ME1>Ea1tH (JodL xiiL U) to wmml
to have been coatignoai to Kademolh, BaK
and JabiahriChr. 4.78.79). In UbrttaM
it waa in the haiidl of the M«*inta (Jar. iM
21). And vpanntly it 1» ia Os VUkm
the BeUu of mure modem ntnea.

MEPaiBOSHBTH. Ln8uB.ziL9WB
a son of Saol, who, witb hto fatotber uiiin
othen of the familT, «uffared > viotet daA
at the handa of the GibaooiteB.

2. (2Sain.iv.4)OrUERIBAAJi(lCkMft
34), waa a aon trf Jonatihau, mhI manilw 4
S»nl, who, at the ue of fiv« jian fall b<B
hia nnrae'a anna, and waa «ver aftsr • ain'^
When David waa in qniet poaHMian a ■*
kiogdom, be aougbt out Uiii bnuA rf tk
family of Jonathan hia faimd, itii wt ^

■ jJiS fat Wa lA*

ferhyjaailj.^tli

I BiMiiwl AMi<t

MEB

Meholath, bv whom she had five bodb, and
David took ner sister Michal. The five sods
of Merab suffered a violent death at the hands
of the Gibeonites (2 SanL xxL 8). They are
called "the five sons of Michal, whom she
brought up for Adriel" — ^perhaps her former
husband.

MEKCHANTS (Isa. xziiL 2). The earliest
mode of commerce was doubtless by caravans.
Tlie merchants to whom Joseph was sold were
probably of this character. The earliest
commerce with India, of which we have any
knowled^, was earned on in this way by
the merdiants of Arabia and Egypt. There
was, however, considerable intercourse between
many countries by water. The PhcenidanB
held the first rank as a commercial nation, and
their first metropolis was Sidon, and afterwards
Tyre. Somethmg may be learned of their
commerce from ££ek. zxvii and xxviii. (See
Ships.) The conmierce of the Egyptians was
also very extensive. They imported goods
from India, and carried on an export trade
with various jMurts of the Mediterranean. The
wandering life of those early merchants for
sake of lucrative traffic seems to be alluded to
by the apostle James (iv. 13). (See Phosnioia. )

MERCT (Gen. xix. 19)— an attribute of the
Divine Being, for the knowleck^e of which
we are indebted wholly to revelation. Had
not tdn been introduced, mercy had never
been exhibited. Moreover, the extension of
mercy is an act of Grod's wilL He must be
holy from his nature, but he wills to be
m^df ul from his gracious purpose. The plan
of salvation by Jesus Chnst provides for the
exerdse of infinite mercy, consistentlv with
the most rigid demands of truth and rignteous-
ness ; so that, under this gracious dispensation,
'* mercy and truth '* may be said to " have met
together," and "righteousness and peace" to
"have kissed each other" (Ps. Ixxxv. 10).

The expression, " I will have mercy, and
not sacrifice" (Hos. vi 6; Matt. ix. 13).
signifies (as its connection indicates) that Goa
is pleasea with the exercise of mercy rather
than with the offering of sacrifices, though sin
has made the latter necessary (oomp. 1 Sam.
XV. 22).

Mercy is also a Christian grace, and no duty
is more strongly urged by the Scriptures than
the exercise of it towards all men, and
especially towards such as have trespassed
a^punst us (Matt xviiL 33-35). (See Foroivb-

ITBBS.)

MmcT-sxAT (Exod. xxv. 17). This was the
lid or cover of the ark of the covenant. It was
made of gold, and two cherubs of gold were
placed at each end, stretching their wings
towards each other. The lid of the ark was the
royal seat, upon which God was supposed to
be present in a peculiar manner, to hear and
ftDswer prayer, and to make known his holy
wilL The term is applied to Christ (Bom. ul
25), and rendered in our version " propitiation."
The Hebrew name signifies a covering. It was,
and is, God^s throne of grace ; and smners ap-
proach it now by the blood of Christ.

MES

MEKIBAH. (See BspHrom.)

MERODACH (Jer. i 2)— the name of an
idol-god of the Babylonians, Bumposed to have
represented the planet Mars : orten called on
the monuments Bel-MerodacL

MERODACH-BALADAN (2 Ki. xx. 12)
— a king of Babylon, who sent messengers to
Hezekiah to congratulate him on his recovery
— ostensibly to enquire about the miracle of
the sun-dial, but really to form an alliance
against Assyria. Merodach, after a reign of
twelve years, was dethroned bv Sargon, as the
monuments show. His second reign, on being
restored, was only for a few months^ for
Sennacherib boasts ci having expelled hmi in
the first year of his own reign.

MEROM—heipht (Josh, xi 5, 6)— a marshv
lake in the northern part of Juaea, through
which the Jordan flows. It is now called
El-HtiUhf as is the valley which encloses it.
It is about 12 miles above Tiberias, and was
regarded by many as properly the source of
the Jordan. Most qf its bed is drv in summer,
and is overgrown with gpass and shrubbery,
affording retreats for wild beasts. In tne
spring ^shets the lake swells to 6 miles in
length, and 3i in breadth, and abounds yith
fish. It is called the "waters of Merom," or
"high waters," because it was higher than the
other lakes of Judea^ (See Jobdan.)

Dr. Wilson thus si>eaks of it: — "When we
had gone about three-quarters of an hour to
the north, we were opposite the southern ex-
tremi^ of the lake— tne waters of Merom of
the Biole, the Semedionites of Joeephus, and
the Bahr Hiileh and Bahr Klait of the present
times. We left our road and went to the
margin of the lake; and we were glad that we
did so, for we found it laid down in the map
with a considerable want of accuracy. The
greatest body of the lake is to the west of the
emergence of the Jordan, and the Jordan is
rather wide at its exit. Indeed, the lake itself
at this place tapers somewhat to the south,
after it has run in a tolerably straight Ime
from the west. There are no considerable
banks on the south and west of the lake, and
but a small rise in the water would make it
overflow. On the mar^ of the lake itself,
and over a good part of its surface throughout^
there are a great many sedges, rushes, ana
lotuses. Thousands of aquatic birds are seen
gambolling on its bosom, and many swallows
skimming its surface. Its waters have not
guite the purity of the lake of Tiberias, as it is
fed by several muddy streams running through
a morass. It would be no difficult matter to
effect its drainage." — Lands of the BibU, iL,
pp. 161, 162. (See Jordan.)

MEROZ (Judg. V. 23)— a place in the
vicinity of tne brook Kishon, whose inhabi-
tants were accursed for refusing to come to
the help of Israel in the contest with Sisera.

MESECH (Ps. cxx. 6), or MESHECH
(Ezek. xxxii 26) — ^the name of the country in
the north-eastern angle of Asia Minor, sup-
posed to have been settled by the posterity of
Mesech, the son of Japheth. They had con-

435

MES

nderable commerce with Tyre (Ezek. zrviL
13). Some Huppoee the Miuoovites were of
thia race. The prince of Boeh is in the Sep*
tuafifint version of Ezek. xxxviii. 2 mentioned
along with Mesbech^the MoechL Koeh is
snp]KNie<l by Home to mean the early progenitora
of modem Rumia. The terms Mesech and
Kedar, in the above passage from the Psalms,
are 8U|)pose<l to denote northern and southern
barbariamt generally.

MESHA. 1. A Place (Gen. x. ^). Sup-
poeed to denote the country called by the
Greeks Messene, and lying near the modem
Bassora.

2. A Perhon (2 Ki. iil 4). A king of Moab,
who refused to pay to Jehoram, king of Israel,
the annual tribute which he had been accus-
tomed to pay to his father Ahab. For this
offence Jenoram determined to punish him:
and calling to his aid Jehoshaphat, king of
Judah, and the king of the Edomites, he
invaded the terntorjr of Moab, signaUy defeated
them, desolated their country, and at last the
Idnff an<l his army were closely besieged in a
walled town. In this extremity, Mesha at-
tempted to cut his wa^ through the enemy's
ranks ; but failing in this, he made the horrible
sacrifice of his eldent son to some idol-god: and
it was done openly ufMin the. wall, in signt of
the camp of Israel, that they might be per-
suaded, oy such a revolting spectacl^ to raise
the si<^re. lliis effect was produced; for we
are told that they immediately retired, con-
tenting themselves with great spoiL

MESH AC H. (See Abednego.)

MESHKCH. (See Mesech.)

MESOPOTAMIA (Deut xxiii. 4). or
AliAM, of the tv») rirrrs, elsewhere called
•*Padan-aram*' (Gen. xxviii. 2), or the ** plain
of Aram," was tne luiiiie of the country lying
between the 'J^igriH and the Enplirates, ana
esjH'cially of the north-weitt portion of it. It
was the firnt alxxle of men both before and
after the HimmI, and wiih bounded north by
Armenia, ea^t by AHM>-ria, Houtli by Ariibia,
and west by Syria, and embraced the modem
El-jesira of Turkey.

MESSENGER (Mai. iil 1). The bwH and
etlicts of the Jewish kings were ])roclaime4l
near the r«>yal renidence by public criers; but
thev were made known to more dixtant towiiH
and provinces by mfsscngers sent for that
purpose (1 Sam. xi. 7\ 2 C'hr. xxxvi. 22; Amos
IV. 5). 'ITiey 8t<HMl ni the gate of tlie city,
where the largest masH of peo])1e might be
found, and procLiimed the law or message, as
in Jer. xL G; xviL 19, 20. At JeruHalem
these messages wore proclaimed in the temple,
where a concourse of people was always met
Our Saviour is called the ** Messenger of tiie
covenant'* (MoL iiu 1), inasmuch as he divested
himself of his divine and eternal glory, and,
taking the form of a servant, came to declare
the will of God, to seal the covenant of grace
with his precious blood, and thus to make
propitiation for our sins.

The tpies concealed by Rahab (Josh, vi 17)
are also called *^ messengers; " and the punish-
436

fS^

lOO

ment wliich Gkid infliota oBthe widad toOv
sins is abo oftlled a "mr— niiiii " **A» «*£
man seeketh mdw relMiSBim^^uanhn a end
messenger ahall be aenft *|p^«^ }am^ (hm.
xvii 11).

Ministers of the Gomsl mn alo odbd
"messengers" (2 Cor. Tin. 23), becMn tby
declare or aniMnmoe the mnieimn id inacj
which the Gospel oooteiiML

MESSIAH (Den. iz. 85), or MKSSUfl
(John iv. 25), ngidfieB anotatal— etitb mm
by way of eminenoe to Jeeoe Caniit It ■
sometimes applied faj the aacvBd wiitas a a
subordinate senae, ae to Cyme in Iik xlr. 1;
but when appUed to Chrie^ it denot« flethi
unites in himaelf the offioea of e pmhet •
priest, and a king— not of the Jevaoid^W
of all mankind.

The praniaa of e Meaaieh ia the
doctrine of the Old TcetenMBt— e
gradually mifnMed tibxoaidi all the ^a
which preceded the period of ha adnd.
But when he came, the Jewidi nU M
been blinded. The ap&ritiuJitT of haaiaa
and enterprise bad bMn loat m^tA oi, aai At
Jews expected the Meaaieh woold ba tUr
deliverer from civil bondage, and weald nia
them as a nation to great poaar. Haa
they rejected the meek and HmW Jam^ ad
put him to shame and death, nej aaadi^
appointed and offended beeanaa ha kafte
was not of this world, and promiand uuiaiiiiaa
to them in distinction frata the Gentilak la
whole Scriptures abound with uTalnaa lU
they were and are under a sroaa dafaam; ad
the Clmstian church ia looldng vitk da^
interest for the time when the wvl ihil 1>
taken from their eyes; when they shall look a
Him whom they have pierced, mi.< moon: ad
when they sludl receive him aa tht ia|-

}>mn)ised and long-expected Measiah. (Fa*
ull account of the character and oflice, me^^
the Messiah, see Chbibt; andforhisbiosnfil^
see Jehuh.)

MKTH£G-AMMAH--Miile of tke m^

city (2 Sam. viii 1)— the aame with Grt
(cump. 1 Chr. xviiL 1).

MICAH— written in full form, MICAIAl
— tpho if <u Jehovah f (Judg. zviL L) L A
celebrated idolater in mount Ephraia, ^
persuaded a Levite to officiate aa ms priatta
a stipulated reward. The emisBariea sat ort
by the tribe of Dan to find a aettleoMBt ia
them, happened to caU at Micah*s hooi^a'
saw the idols and the Levite, a gtandna d
Moses; and the party of the Daaita all
aftenvards went to Laiah took Hicah^ haa
in their way, secured all his inagsii al
nerHuaded his priest to acoompaBy Ata
Alicah endeavoured to obtain them aaaia, M
in vain, (Judg. xviiL) Thia incident awn tM
lawless and unsettled state of aocietj at iM
disturbed period.

2. (Mic. i 1) TheprophH wai a aatia^
Mareshah— hence caUed the JforeiCMM
village in the south of the territoiy of Jahk
(Josh. XV. 44). It in Buppoaed that a lataaai
to one of his predictioiia aaved tfas lift ^

MIC

Jeremiah (Jer. xxvi. 18-24). Such a reference
vouches for the genuineness of the oracles
ascribed to Blicah.

Pbopuect of, is the thirty-third in the order
of the books of the Bible. It was uttered
within the space of fifty ^^ars — viz., from the
commencement of the reisn of Jotham to the
close of the reign of Hezekiah, or nearly con-
temporaneously with Isaiah. The prophecies
of MioEkh which are recorded in the sacred
canon make but seven chapters, and are
divided into three sections : —

L Prophecies in the reign of Jotham, full
of denunciation for sin — sin for which there
could be no apology in a land of Divine
illumination: foreshowing also Samaria^s over-
throw, and Sennacherib's march against Jeru-
salem, (ch. i)

2. Prophecies in the reiffn of Ahas, some-
what similar in texture and dengn — ^menacing
Israel, and foretelling destruction to Judah;
conveying heavy censure and wo to such as
could not bear to have the truth spoken to
them, and who, full of spiritual mdolenoe
themselves, exercised a hateful tyranny over
the people; ending, however, wita a glorious
prediction of the blessing and extension of
Messiah's kin^om (chs. ii.-iv. 8).

dw Prophecies in the reign of Hezekiah.
containing, among other oracles, one of great
beauty and precision in reference to the
Saviour's birth, (chs. iv. 9; v. 1-5; vii.)

The remarkable feature of this last prophecy
is. that it is very explicit respecting tne oirth-
piaoe and prominent characteristics of the
Messiah, and the blessings of his rei^ upon
earth. The passage now referred to is found
in ihe fifth chapter: —

** And fhoo, Bethlehem Ephrathah,

Art nxiall to be amonff Jndah's thonssodB;

Still cot of tfaee shall He come to me

To be a Gh>yemor in Israel;

Whose goings forth have been from old—

From days of eternity.

Notwithstanding he will give thee np.

Till the period when Shk who is to bear

Hash brought forth.

And the rest of his brethren shall come back

To the sons of Israel.

And He shall stand and feed in the strength of

Jehovah,
In the majeeihr of the name of Jehovah his Gk>d,
And they shall endure :

For now shall He be great to the ends of the earth.
And this very one shall be oor Peace," Ac.

Christ's birth of a woman pointed out so
specifically, its place so correctly named, and lus
pre-existent difuity^ along with his functions
and success as Messiah, so graphically marked,
are, '* without controversy," contained in this
oldprediction.

Tne style of BfGcah approaches in many
sections to that of Isaiah, as in ch. viL 18-2Q;
and it also bears some resemblance to tiie
rapid transitions of Hosea. The rhythm is in
general round and fulL vrith an occasional
nlay upon words. His use of figurative
umgnage is beautiful and appropriate, and
his oracles sometimes assume the form of a
dialogue. Micah was a contemporary of

Mm

Isaiah; and their nearness of age and similarity
of theme may account for the remarkablie
ooinddenoes of thought and st^ to be found
in various portions oof their writings. .

MICAIAH. (SeeAHAB.)

MIGHA£I#-^Ao <u Ood (Dan. x. 13)— a
name of frequent occurrence in the sacred
writings. It is applied particulariv to an
angel, or a prince of angels (as tne name
denotes, Jude 9) ; and in the book of Danid,
the same Michael is spoken of as a prince:
some supixise him to be the Son of Ood. (See
Abohavokl.)

MIGHAL Q Sam. ziv. 49)— second
daughter of Saul, and the wife of David. She
was evidentiv an unprincipled woman; yet
she was attached to her husband in the early
portion of her life ; for when she aided David
to escape from the fury of her enraged father,
she placed an image on the couui, so that
when the messengers came to seize him, Midial
told them he was sick in bed. Saul directed
him to be brought, sick or well ; and when the
messengers came again and discovered the
trick, Michal excused herself to her father by
a direct falsehood. During David's exile
Blidud married another man, vrith whom die
lived nine or ten years. David having in the
meantime become established on the throne,
required of Abner, as one of the conditions of
the trea^. that Michal should be restored to
him, whicn was accordingly done.

As an evidence of her impiety, we are told
that she despised David when she saw the
expressions of his sratitude and ioy at the
approach of the ark of the Lord, and was
evidently filled with passion and contempt.
For this sin she was visited with a special
penalty (2 Sam. vi 16-23).

MIGHMASH (1 Sam. xiii 2), or MIGH-
MAS (Neh. viL 31)— a place in Benjamin. It
is supposed to lie on the road through Rama.
ProoithDly a narrow defile, formed by two
abrupt nigged rocks in mount Eohraim, was
called the 'passage of Michmasn** (1 Sam.
xiii 23), in which was the garrison of the
Philistines, and which was probably so well
defended as to make it a saie dei>ot for the
stores of Sennacherib's army in his advance
upon Jerusalem (Isa. x. 28, 29). The place
was in later times of some importance (Neh.
xi 31), and is mentioned by profane historians
400 vears after Ghrist. It is now called
Mukhmas, 7 miles to the north of Jerusalem.

MIGHTAM— rendered "golden" in the
margin— is a title given to six of David's
psalms, (Ps. xvi, Ivi, Ivii, IviiL, lix., Ix.)
The meaning of the term is not known. It
may denote the character of the music or its
accompaniments.

MIDIAN (Exod. iL 16), or MADIAN (Acts
vii 29) — ^a desert coun^ lying around the
eastern branch of the Red Sea, and supposed
to have been settied by the posterity of Midian,
fourth son of Abraham and Keturah. Midian
was celebrated for its eamds (Judg. viL 12) ;
and the descendants of Ephah, who were the
posterity of Midian, were rich in camels anc^

437

Mia

dromedarieB (Ta*. Iz. 6). Hither Moses fled,
And here he married the daughter of Jethro.

When the children of Israel were encamped
in the plains of Moab, the Midianites were
invited uj the Moabites to join in the deputa-
tion to Balaam, to procure Lis services to curse
the children of IsraeL For their conduct
towards the Israelites they were completely-
subdued; their kin^ and their male popula-
tion slain; their cities and fortifications were
burned ; and their property of every kind^ to
an almost incredible amount, with their wives
and ufisprinKt weni brought to the camp of
Inael, and were disposed of by Moses and
Eleazar, (Num. zxxL ) Probably a few escaped
the general massacre ; for about two centuries
alterwanls, the MidianiteH, who were Arabs,
were again a powerful nation, mustering an
immense aimy, who, for their oppressive treat-
ment of the Iiuraelites, were defeated by Gideon,
(Judg. vi-viii.)

The "curtains of Midian** (Hab. iii 7) is a
figurative exureiwion denoting the borders or
innabitants ox Midian.

MIGDOL— /oiivr (Exod. xiv. 2)— a fortress
or tower; probably the modem Bir Sua,
erected at a watering-i^ace a few miles north
of Suez, towards Euum. An Egyptian town
of the same name is referred to by the pro-
phet.

MIGRON (1 Sam. xiv. 2)-a place in the
vicinity uf Michmash (comp. Isa. z. 28). (See

MiCHMABH.)

MILCOLM. (Sco Moloch.)

MILE. The word iH from mille—a thou$and
— as the milu was 1,000 paces, or 1,G18 yards.
(See MEAsrKEs.)

MILETUS (Acts xx. m). or MILETUM
(2 Tinu iv. 20)— a city and 8ea-iM>rt, and the
capital of ancient Ionia. It 8to<Nl al)out 40
miles south of Ephesuis and was second only
to that city in wealth, cuinnicrcc, and luxury.
Miletus is diHtin^iished as the birthplace of
Thales, and Anaximenes his pUT>il, and also
for a ma^iiticent tcni]>le and oracle of AiX)llo.
It was here that Paul receivinl the elders of
EphesuB, whom he could not visit in hid jour-
nev : and hero he left Trophimns .sick.

MILK (1 Cor. iiL 2) — a liciuid and very
nourishing fcKxl, drawn principally from cows ;
but in the East, as we learn from Scripture,
miUc of sheep, goats, and comelH was highly
prized and UKed as f o< m1. llie sini] dest s] »iritual
food, or the nloin and easy truths of the (iospeL
wherewith the new-lx>m soul is nourished and
sustained, is compared to milk (lleb. v. 12;
1 Pet. ii. 2).

A "land flowing with milk and honey"
^Josh. V. G) means a country of extraonlinory
fertility, affording everything which is needed
for the support and comfort of life. The
phrase, "wine and milk" (Isa. Iv. 1), denotes
all spiritual blessings and priviIe;,^^s.

The prohibition, "lliou sholt not seethe a
kid in nis mother*s milk,** refers probably to
some heathen practice in connection with the
growth or offering of first-fruits, as the connec-
tion would imT>ly; and it seems revolting to
438

prepare for food a yoang — *"*»*^ m the Bok
which is Its appropriate BntrimcBl TIm pio-
hibition is siven time tmn (Ezod. zzm. U;
zzxiv. 26; DeaL xiy. 21).

Cheese was made of ndlk (8 Sam. zv& SL
The word rendered "diceeM** in 1 Sbdl zf&

18 means cAeeset of mUk^ waammtA to have hem
slices of ooagiilated or conued miOc, whidiliid
been strainad throagli a leathern rtniber^ oi
after it bad ^rown luird, wm out in jmm
for use. This is much like the modem pwaa
of making cheese ; and food made in tht wm
way is common in some parts of the Vwtd.
States under the name of dfceWMeri. (8m

BUTRB, OhBIBB, FoOIX)

MlIJi (Ezod. zi. 5). The simplMt bdH fr
bniising grain waa iwia>iwg more tfasa tw
stones, between which it waa broken. M
were often seen in the ooontiy of tht Nv*
by Richard and John Laiiaer, oa ttar
expedition in Africa^ If one of tiMst §!■■
be nollowed oat, so ae to contain the eon H
be pounded by another atonei, or hf^^itutd
wood or metal, it is not a null* bat a aortB.
When manna was given in the deimt, "lb
people went about and gathered it» aadsroo^
it in mills or beat it in a mortar" (Not il
8). In the law it ia ordained, ** No msaM
take the nether or the upper nrin"**^ H
pledge: for he taketh life to pledge" (IM
zxiv. 6)— that is. he who lends monsfy nort 1>
humane to the berrower, and most not mb
the poor man i)awn his null, without iddck la
life cannot be sustained. From tbew aft
and mortars there most have been obtuaii il
first only a kind of peeled grain, wUch wbt
compared to the Grezman graupe^ the £npA
ff^^j, and the American griu. or Aosmn|L
Fine nour was more laborioouy oMained froa
household mills, like oar coffee-milk A*
latter implement is indeed far more refined ai
ingenious than the £astem hand-ndlla Ttf
we read that Sarah set before the three flffh
who visited Mamre cakes of **fine niesi*(G«a
x\'iiL 6). It is almost needless to obserra ^
sieves must have been known at the ■■>
time. (See Pestlb.)

Niebuhr describes two kinds of Entin
hand-milla. The first is very simple, and e*-
sists of an oblong stone, somewhat loiijtlwi"
or hollowed upon the surface, upon iHiiob tb
com, after beins" moistened, is rnbbed vtt
another stone of a lonti^ and roand iN*
Niebuhr saw these mQja only onoCi tm
seem, therefore, not to be common. A*
other, which is also described by Shtv ■'
Toumefort, was seen bv Niebohr in SiCft
It consiBts of two rouna stones, eadi sM^
feet in diameter and 6 inches hiffh. TYw o^
one, or ** nether millstone '* (Job zfi. 9^
immoveable, and is somewhat lower siev
the edge than in the centre — that i% i^ F
slightly convex on the top. The nppcr ost '^
just the reverse, being concave on the U4li*
or thicker at the circumference, so ai ts ^
pretty closely to the other. In tlw oo^
there is a hole, and above this a foiiB^ f[
hopper, into which the grain ia pooisd, tf*

MIL

gfchos it nins in between the stones, and is
broken between them into meal, which falls

over the edge upon a board.
On the top of the other
stone there is an upright
peg, by means of which it
18 turned around. Such
mills cost, savs Toumef ort,
less than a Spanish dollar.
They resembled the old Scottish querns, as
may be seen in the above cut.

Frequent allusions are made in Scripture to
these utensils. Of leviathan it is said that lus
heart is '*as hard as a piece of the nether
millstone" (Job xlL 24). At the siege of
Thebez ** a certain woman cast a piece of a
millstone upon Abimelech's head, and entirely
brake his skuU" (Judg. ix. 53). In Matt
xviiL 6 our Lord speaks of a millstone being
hung round a person's neck, and of his being
cast, BO loadeo, into the sea. This kind of
penalty was common in Svria, and was at one
period inflicted in Rome, by order of Augustus
Cesar.

Wheat was the grain commonly used for
bread. The poor people, however, lived much
upon barlejr. as at the present day the Arabs
do upon millet^ or durra. Niebulur thinks this
dorra was the first kind of com which was
ffiound and made into bread. The durra
bread, like barlev bread, is very good while
fresh ; the latter, nowever, is superior, and has
a better taste in hot climates than with us.
After some hours it becomes tasteless: yet the
same thing takes place with regard to the
wbeaten bread of the Orientals. They are
foToedj therefore, to bake every day. and no
more is ground doily than is wanted for the
baking. The work is done by women and
menials. Two women are usually emploved
at the process, the one whose right nana is
disengaged throwing in the grain (Luke x viL 35).
This daily p^ding makes such a noise in the
houses that it is heard in the streets. The sound
was i>leasiiig, because it was naturally associated
with industry, and the supports and enjoyments
of life. Hence the premction in Jer. xxv. 10.
The noise of the millstones and the lighting up
of candles are circumstances belonging to in-
habited places, and are striking when we call
to mind the fact that they grind at a very early
hour in the morning. (See Bake, Bread,
C^oRif Oven )

MdULET'(£zek. iv. 9)— a plant resembling
wheat and i^e. the staUc of which grows to
about 3 feet m weight, and bears a great num-
ber of grains. Tlus grain was coarse, and
chiefly used for beasts. (See Mill.)

Niebuhr informs us that there is a kind of
millet used in the East, called durroj which,
made into bread with camels' milk, butter, or
grease, is almost the onl^ food eaten by the
common people in Arabia; but he says he
found it so unpalatable that he would have
fMref erred plain barley bread. This furnishes
the reason of its bein^ appointed as a part of
tile hard fare of EzekieL
MlLLO—yi^n«w —HOUSE of. 1. (Judg. iz.

MIN

6) Supposed by some to denote either tibe
senate or chief men of the place, or to be the
name of a distinguished individual in Sheohem,
whose family and adherents joined in elevating
Abimelech to the throne. Others suppoee it
to be a village. 2. Millo in Jerusalem (2 Chr.
xxxii 5) was a section of the fortifications^r
pcHrhMW the dtadeL The expression in 2 JSjL
xiL 20 perhaps describes the place as Silla.

MINA (See MEASUBsaJ

MIND (Gen. xxiii 8). Tne meaning of this
word, when employed by the writers ox Scrip-
ture, must be determined by its connection.
According to this, it sometimes means the soul
renewed, m opposition to the flesh under the
dominion of sm (Bom. vii 25); and at other
times it denotes the immaterial, in opposition
to the material nature (Eph. ii 3). Agam, it
signifies temper or dispositionj as in PhiL ii.
3, 5; or a particular laculty is mean^ as in
Ps. xxxL 12; Isa. zlvL 8; Ixv. 17; Mark xiv.
72. Occasionally it desi^inates the motive or
intention, as in Prov. xxi. 27; or thought, as
in Isa. xxvi 3; Jer. Ii 50; or opinions, as in
Judg. xix. 30; or affections, as in Ezek. xxi v.
25. When used in reference to God, it sig^nifies
wilL counsel, or purpose, as in Bom. vuL 27;
xi 34 ; 1 Cor. ii 16. When used as a verb, it
signifies to regard and care for, as in Bom. viii
5; xii 16; PhiL iiL 19; or to incline, as in 2
Chr. xxiv. 4; Matt. i. 19; Acts xx. 13; or to
be disposed, as in PhiL ii. 2, 20 ; iii. 15.

MINGLED PEOPLE. (See Mixed Mul-

titudeO

MINISTEB. L (Ezek. xxiv. 13; Josh, i
1; Matt. xxv. 44) One who serves another.
When applied to Christ, as the " mimster of
the sanctuary ** (Heb. viii 2). it denotes his
ofScial character as our High Priest, who is set
on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty
in the heavens, and who ever liveth to make
intercession for us. 2. (1 Cor. iv. 1 ; 2 Cor. iiL
6: Eph. iiL 7; 1 Thess. iiL 2; 1 Tim. iv. 6)
Those persons who are appointea to preach the
Grospel and administer its ordinances. 3.
(Bom. xiiL 6) Mi^nstrates, as Grod's ministers,
to punish the evU and protect the good. 4.
(Ps. dii. 21 ; Dan. viL 10 ; Bom. xiiL 6 ; Heb.
L 14) The angels, who stand ready to do the
will of God.

MINISTBATION. 1. (Luke L 23) The

rriod during which an office is administered.
(Acts vL 1; 2 Cor. ix. 13) Distribution of
alms. The law of Moses was the ** ministra-
tion of death and condemnation. *' It convinces
men of sin, the penalty for which is eternal
death: and to this thejr are already condemned.
The Grospel is the *' ministration of the Spirit
that giveth life.** It proceeds from the Holy
Ghost, is confirmed and applied by him,^ and
by means of it he conveys life and all spiritual
graces And benefits to the souls of men (2 Cor.
m.7L8).

MINNI (Jer. IL 27)— a province of Armenia,
or more prooably one of several clans or tribes
who were settled on mount Taurus, east and
south of the Black Sea. The Ashkenites were
another of these tribes.

439

MIX

MINNITH (Judg. XL 33)-* pLwje eait of
Jordan, 7 miles OMt from Hethbun, on the
FhilAdelphiA road, famous for its wheat (Ezek.
xxviLlT).

MINSTREL (2 Ki iil 15)— a nrasidan or
piper. It seems, from the case of Jairus, to
tiave been oustomarr in the time of our Savionr
to employ minstrels at funerals; for when
C?hrist came into the house to raise his daugh-
ter, **he saw the minstrels and the peofile
making a noise " (Matt. ix. 23). (See Bukl^
MoiiRM.) , ^

MINT (Matt xxiil 23)-a garden h«b of
▼arions species. The law of Moses required
that tithes should be paid of the produce of the
field (Deut. xiv. 22) ; but the Jews, in their

If IS

Pharisaical preciHion, tithed an article which
could scarcely l>e n*^anlf il as tithcable by the
law, while its UKwt imiM)rtant, plain, and
imperative i>recc*]>tM were inconsistently ne-
glected by them. (See Tithes.)

MIRACLE (Kxod. vii. 9)— an effect caused
by an extraonlinary interposition of Divine
{Niwer. It is not an effect contrary to the laws
<»f nature, as they are called, nor aoes it neces-
sarily retiuire a giitji^nnon ot thoHc laws. ^ It is
at mtMt out a HiiMiK'nrion of the oiieration of
s<ime (»ne of thone laws as to a specific event.
It would not and could not be produced by the
onlinary oi>eration of these lawn ; and hence,
bein)^ beyond or above the order of nature, it
riKiuircH the exerciHe of Divine power to accom-
plish it. A law of nature is, that the same
cause operating in the same circumstances will
produce the some effects. Were the same
causes to operate, therefore, and the sune
results not to follow, there would be a \'iolation
of a law of nature. But in a miracle there is
the insertion of a new cause, and a new effect
naturaUv is tlie conse<jiience, and all in har-
mony with some higher law which we may not
com]>rehend.

A miracle, then, is a work beyond man's
power to perform. He who nerforms it does
so by the asHintance of Grod. If God gives his
]M)wer to a man, it must be for some great and
extraordinary reason. Such a reason is our
sudvation; and Uie men who proclaimed it to
our race were furnished with God*s power to
work miracles, in order to convince tne world
440

that tfacy wwe ipeakiiw tralb. Tht
of a mnade pmwm that the umii iriio jmt-
formed it is God*a mf—Migm, Mid yha Gtafi
troth; for God wobxb B¥ hzm, ana would aot
so lend hii power to aainqMMtar. TliemiEMfai
of the Old TertaoMBt wwt often anncfai «f
doom, and wvongiit upon
Bot^ Jems wvongiit hia '

prising freqneiiioT— a freqi

of impairing, owj inciraaaed
What else coold be axpactad Cranf God
human f onn t Christ^ apoatiai iinHitffil Ub
example. Hmw miracki were noto^jpnoii
of Divine power, hut abo asanipka ctVimt
goodnesa. The dead wen raiaed-te dai
blind, and lame wen oared, "^tb whit Kt-
leas aunplidty are tfaaae miradaa of oar Lad
and his apoatiee narrated I How f ei j diffcwi^
too, are the miracles reeoirded in 8tti|iUn
from the etartlhig modigiaB which pegaiini
claimed, or the eilly and ip'oteenae tricb
which imposton have pemnned. drirtTi
miraclee were not only done in pafalie, vac
not only clearly above tiie reach of wm. to
perf onn. bot were of eminent utility* Aot
was in them no idle display of power, lbs
was benefited, tboogfa a tree vdAt be bisitid
What ^ood had Rome tho>a^ ti^ earth Bilk
jrawn m the forom, or a thonder stona ihoiU
strike her Capitolt What nofit had 9fK-
taUne, thonsh Simon liagoa nad aetad|r,«
alleged, maae dogs of Inaas that \mmL «
statues of sUme that talked, or had flows ■in'
self through the air, or pnot on tiie ihne df •
serpent, or the appearance of a goatt Bil
Christ's miracles gave food to tiie hiHn;
health to the diseased, peace to the haanO*
to the dead ; and his appeal is, **Beiisi« ai
for the veiy works' sfdce.** "Wiuidmiin mJb
the truth when he said, "BabfaL webir
that thou art a teacher come from God, lor ai
man can do these miracles that thoa daik
except God be with him.*^ What, tlaiiiat
the Lord and his iniwstlee have said to ■ >
truth, divine truth, and we most hAn ^
Peter describes in the followii^ wordi lb
nature of this kind of evidence: — **Jmmd
Nazareth, a man approved of Qad. amoaff in
by miracles, wonders, and signs ** (Acta a. W
by ** miracle^" or rawer by worka of poea
actions whi<^ God only coold perfbm; ^
** wonders "—actions wmch attract f" "-
and cause great astonishment; by **!
actions which are the signal of God*s \
in attestation of his own tnith. Thonllni
words describe the source, natoie, cAd,*'
puiTKise of miracles.

'1 ne miracles, as performed by Jenift suBni
thirty in number— that is to amjj nmeti*
thirty of them are recorded, and mess sntfif
a small sample or specimen of his aonoia
acts of supernatural goodnesBL Manyeflhi*
were itTou^ht before a great munlidi d
people — fnends and enemies — in the #■
day, and where there was no ponildiferd
deception. And it really rpguiiMM mw fcit
to believe that such a mnhitade cf paph

could be BO often

t«3r

MTB

most bUmelea men thftt ever lived on the
euth, than it reqtiiree to beUeve the miincleii
themselveB.

MIT

The following it a table of Christ's miracles,
arranged in the order in which thqr are sup-
posed to have been wrought : —

Mkradti, Ptaee, Jtteord.

Wstor tamed into wine, Csna, J6hniLl-U.

The Capernaam nobleman's Bon oared, Da ...* iT.46-M.

Draught of flahea, Sea of Galilee, LnkoT. 1-lL

Demoniac cured, Oi^peniaimi, MaiicL 38-96.

Fetsr'B mother-in-law healed, Da m,8L

Leper healed....... Do. 40"4ft.

Oentarion'Baerrant healed, Da MattTiiL6-l&

Widow's son raised from the dead, Nain, Lake vii. 11-17.

Tempeet calmed, Sea of Galilee, Matt vilL 38-37.

Demoniacs of Gadara cored, Chidara, 88"84b

Ifan sick of the palsy cared, Oapemanm, lx.1-8.

Jairas'dao^ter raised to life, Da 18-96.

Woman diseased with issae of blood healed, Da Luke viiL 48-48.

Sight restored to two blind men, Da Matt Ix. 37-81.

Dmnb demoniac cared, Da 82,88.

Diseased cripple at Bethesda cored, Jerusalem, John ▼. 1-9.

A withered hand cored, Jadea, Matt ziL 10-18.

Demoniac cored, Capernaum, 33, SA.

Fire thousand fed. DecapoUs, xIt. 16-3L

Canaanite woman s daughter cored, NeariVre^ — ~- zr. 33-38.

Man deaf and dumb coxed, Decmpolis, Mark TiL 81-87.

Four thoosand fed, Ik). Matt zr. 83-89.

Blind man re8t<»ed to sight Bethsaida^ Mark viiL 33-96.

Boj poesesaed of a deril cured. Tabor, Matt zriL 14-3L

Man com blind restored to sij^t Jerusalem, Johniz.

Woman cored of eighteen years* infirmity, Galilee, Lake ziiL 11-17.

Dropsioal man cored, % Do ziv. 1-4.

Ten lepers cleansed, Samaria, zriL ll-Ul

Lanmis raised from the grare to life, Bethany, JohnzL

Two blind men restored to sight Jericho, Matt zz. 80-84^

Fig tree blasted. OUvet zzi.l8-3L

The ear of Malcnus healed, Gethaemane, Luke zziL 60, 6L

Draught of fishes, Sea of Galilee John zzL 1-14.

The period at which miracles ceased in the
Clrarch has been much diBputed. They were
not needed after the Churcn was folly organ-
ised ; and the very dispute about the period of
their cessation seems to imply that they were
gradually withdrawn. Tne miracles of the
popish church have indeed been '* lying won-
ders." Bishop Douglas, in his CriUriont has
laid down the following rules for judging of
miracles: —

**INnt, We suspect miracles to be false
when the accounts of them are not published
to the worid till long after the time when they
aan said to have been performed.

^'SeeofuUy, We suspect them to be false
when the accounts are not published in the
place where it is pretended they were per-
fonned, but are propagated only at a great
distance from the supposed scene of action.

** Thirdly f Suppoemg the accounts to have
tibe two foregoing qualifications, we still may
suspect them to be false, if in the time when,
and at the place where, they took their rise,
the circomstances were such that they might
be sufifered to pass without examination.** —
Douglai^B Criterion, n, 27.

The age of miracles has passed away, but
the record of them yet remains to us. StilL
they are confirmatory of our faith, and stand
out a striking evidence of the heavenly nature
cf onr religion.

HIRLOf—At^A (Exod. zv. 21)-^the sister
el Moses and Aaron, is supposed to have been
flome years older than Moses; and being ap-
pointed to watch the ark of bulrushes in which |

her infant brother was laid, among the flags of
the river, she was there when Pharaoh's
daughter came down and discovered it, and
proposed to go for a nurse, concealing her
relation to the child. She immediately called
her mother as the nurse, and ihe infant was

{>laced under her care. She was smitten with
eprosy for her treatment of Moses, but was
restored in answer to hor brother's prayer
(NtmL xii 1-15). Miriam, as a prophetess,
enjoyed divine gifts. She died, and was buried
at Kiadesh (Num. xx. 1).
MIRRORS. (See Lookino-glass.)
MITE (Luke xiL 59)— the lowest denomina-
tion of Jewish money. (See Mxasubes, &c.)

Boman As.

MITRE (Exod. xxviii. 4-7). This was the
head-dress of the Jewish priest. It was of
fine flax or linen, made with many folds,
making in length 8 yards, finished with elegance
and taste, and wreathed round the head in the
shape of an Eastern turban. It bore upon its
front a gold plate, on which was inscribed,
" Holiness to the Lord." The hi^h priest's
mitre had on it a crown on which this inscrip-
tion was set, and this crown was boiind to the
mitrebybluelace(Exod.zzviiL37). The Jews

441

MIT

tell OS thftt the mitre and the homnet were the
same thing, only folded up differently, aooord-
ingto the oignity of the wearer.

The mitre was the symbol of complete con-
secration, and also brought to view the repre-
sentative character of the high priest Through
him alone could the nation approach God, and
by his sacerdotal functions was holiness to be
produced among the people (Exod. zxviiL 38).
(See High Priest, Priest.)

MITYLENE (Acts xz. 14)-the capital of
the ancient island of Les1x)& The whole island
is now under the Turkish power, and is called
Mitilene. llie chief town is called Castra,
near which the ruins of the ancient city are
ditfcemible. Tlie island lies on the eastern
coast of Asia Minor, nearljr opposite Pergamos.
and is about 170 miles in circumference. Paul
passed through this island on his way from
Corinth to Jerusalem.

MIXED MULTITUDE (Exod. xiL 38).
The phrase so rendered is in Hebrew a grtfU
mixturff and it refers to a motley crowd of
^(fM'tians who left £^gyi)t along with the
enianci]ated Hebrews. U ucv were persons of
low caste— perha])s outcasts from society, per-
haps the offH])ring of marriage between Helnrews
and Egyptians, lliey may have found shelter
among the Hebrews ; and knowing that their
condition could not possibly be wone, th^
resolved to accompany the emigrants. They
had nothing at stake, and pcrhaiw they mijght
be gainers hy the change and the expedition.
Keference is again made to them in Num. xi.
4, 6. They could not Im? weaned from their
Egyptian habits. They were not of the chosen
race— had no fixed ]inneiple weredisapiMinted
in their proHiK*ct«— longed to retimi to the fine
climate^ fertile soil, aiicl copious fniits of Egypt;
and so infected with their fickleness the tribes
to which they had attached theniK(.tlves. They
seem again to be referred to in Deut xxix. 11,
under the ai)]K>llutioD, ** tlic stranger that is in
thy cxunp, from the hewer of thy wood unto
the drawer of thy water."

What are called *' mingled people" in Jer.
XXV. 20; Ezek. xxx. 5, seems to denote an
alien i)opulatioii in tlie midst of another peo^jle
— Huch as foreign soldiers and settlers.

MIZAU, THE MODXT OF, is referred to in
Ps. xlii., and was some remote hill to the far
north of the country and east of the Jonlan.

MIZPAH (1 KL XV. 22), or MIZPEH
(Jr>sh. XV. 38). Tliis name is given to sevend
places, and implies a ])ost of observation or a
watch-tower. They seem to have been known
as places of convocation on ]mblic occasions,
rehgious and civiL

2. (Josh. XV. 38) A city in the territory of
Judan. north of liebron, and nearly 20 miles
south from Jerusalem.

3.^ Another Mizi>ah was in Benjamin (Josh,
xviii. 2fi).

Samuel dwelt at Mizpah (1 Sam. vii. 5, 6),
and Saul was anointed king there (1 Sam. x.
17-24) ; and hither it is supposed the Jews
often resorted for business and devotion ( Judg.
XX. 1; ISam. vii 5-7; x. 17). It was fortified
442

IfOL

fay Am with the sUme and timlMr vhkh
BJuMha had been ming for tlie like pnipoM itf
BamaaKi. zr. 22); eiidwas the tesdnDt
of Gedaliah, the goremor ttppaiiited hv Ncbe-
chadnenar after his sabjectiooa of m htd
(Jer. zL 6). We find & rebuilt aft« tb
retam from Bal^ykm (NdL iiL 19). Sow
identify it with the present Soopoi^ to tk
north-eait of Jemaalem. ATy^a^y valkj d
Blicpeh is mentioned in Joeh. xL 6^ nppomi
by some to be idsntiael with Goele^nia (G«i
zxxL 49).

4. A dij in the territogy of Gad, vhoi
Leben and Jaoob entered into a oofCBsiiK d
friendship, and where Jephthnh nndad ad
mustered ms anny (Jndg. xi. 11, S9i

5. (Josh. XL 3, 8) A tract of coimtiTlfi*
near the base of mount Hennon, imf"|'— " V
theHivites.

6. (ISauLzziLSn Atownof Ifodbb
David placed hie father and moClMr
his reverses of fbrtmie.

MTZRATM (Gen. z. §) is thi
word translated Egj^it^ The
name is dual, and may convey in it a
to the ti0D Sfflfpti, known aa Uf

Egypt The modem A»m^a^,».

anabbreviatianof theHafarawwovd
(SeeEoTFTj

MIZiELEPHOTH-BlAIM (Joeh. iL ^-i
place near Sidon, and eappoaed. with ■■■
plausibility, to be the aame with _ _

MNASON (Acts zzi 16)-a mtin d
Cyprus, but a resident of JeraaalenL Htw
an early convert to Christianity, sad h»
pitably entertained the apostles. The caad
reading of the passage is, *' hroii^ si ^
Mnason of Cyprus,** dtc

MO AB— /oMer** jpro^emr— fladib or (Sm
xxiL 1 ; xxxiii 48-BO) — ^were aitoatod id d
the Dead Sea, on both sidea of the Anoa

The inhabitants were called Moebita» a'
the country derived its name from Mosb^ A>
son of Lot (Gen. xix. 37), by whose poMf
it was conquered when m poasesncsi of ■>

fonsf 4b

giant race ot Emims (Dent. ii. 11, 12). TlQ
were severely punished for their titstisiit ■
the Israelites (Deut ^-riii 3^. j^^ g. ]^
30; 2Sam.viii.2). (See Mkbha.) tW**
an idolatrous nation, and are maae the sd^
of several prophecies, (Isa. xv.. xvlT^
xlviu.)^

Their country seems to have been esBii^
ingly fertile in ancient times : hot now it ii>
bwen desert, traversed only by waaMi
Arabs, according to that pndietioa d tkt
prophet, " Moab shall be a perpetosl 6t^
tion*M2{eph. iL 9). TraveUns all ooaor*
remarking how minntely ancient pniiti!
has been nilfilled in the history and &tf*
Moab.

MOLE (Isa. iL 20). ThewovdinLBV.ii.A
which our tranalatoTB render wule, is pRV'^
the chameleon; and the wocd tnttW
weasel, in the jirecedinff verse, is tbs aj^
and in the East, at this oay, the mole iieJ*
khuld, which is evidently the mms • ^
Hebrew word choied here used. Soat*

MOL

positon are of opinion that the words ren-
dered *' moles and bats," in the passage
first above cited, should be read as one wora,
and that no animal is meant, but a detp sink
or subterranean vauU; and another concurs
in the opinion, but thkiks that seipulch^es are
intended.

The habits of the mole are well known ; and
the idea of the proi>het is fully sustain^ by
any expression denoting the caverns or desolate
places of the earth which such creatures fre-
auent, and which are a fit locality in their
darkness and filth for idol-gods.

MOLECH (Lev. xviil 21), or MILCOLM
(1 Ki zi 6), or MOLOCH— Wn^ (Acts viL 43)
— the name of an idol-god of fire, or sim-god,
worshipped by the Ammonites with human
saCTifioesL

The Rabbins teQ us that it was made of
brass, and placed on a brazen throne, and that
the head was that of a calf, with a crown upon
it. The throne and image were made hollow,
and a furious fire was kindled within it. The
flames penetrated into the body and limbs of
the idol; and when the arms were red-hot the
"victim was thrown into them, and was almost
immediately burned to death. Its cries were
drowned by drums, &a Some have doubted
whether tiiere was an actual sacrifice of life on
these occasions; and they refer to customs
still prevalent in China, and among some of
the Induui nations, where the devotees walk
barefoot over burning coals, and often carry their
children in their arms for the purpose oi con-
secrating them. This they call " passing
through the fire" (2 Ki xvi 3). No objection
can be made to the credibility of the Rabbins*
account from the barbarity of it; for the
burning of widows and the drowning of child-
ren in India are certainly no less revolting
instances of cruelty than the throwing of
infants into the heated arms of an idol-god.
Tlie following passages also are proof that the
▼ictims were actually murdered : " Thou hast
slain my children, and delivered them to cause
them to pass through the fire for them** (Ezek.
xvL 21). " Even their sons and their daughters
they have burnt in the fire to their gods'*
(Deut. xii. 31). "They have built the hiffh
places of Tophet, which is in the valley of the
■on of Hinnom, to bum their sons and their
daughters in the fire ** ( Jer. viL 31). " They
have built also the high places ot Baal^ to
bum their sons with fire for bumt-offermgs
nnto Baal ** (Jer. xix. 6). '* Yea, they sacri-
ficed their sons and tneir daughters unto
devilB, and shed innocent blood, even the
blood of their sons and of their daughters,
whom theysacrificed unto the idols of Canaan **
(Pb. cvL 37, 38). The barbarity and murder
of Moloch's worship are beyond dispute. Mil-
ton has well described it : —

^ First, Moloch, horrid king, besmsar'd with blood
Of hnman ncriflce, and parents* tears ;
Though for the noise of amms and timbrels load
Their children's cries unheard, that pass'd throogh
To this grim idol Him the Ammonite [m

Worshipped in Babba and her watery plain,

MON

In Argob and in Basao, to the stream
Of utmost Amoa Nor ccmtmt with such
Audacious neighbourhood, the wisest heart
Of Solomon he led by fraud to build
His temple right agsinst the temple of God
On that opprobrious hill ; and made his grove
The pleasant valley of Hinnom, Tophet tiienoe
And Dlack Oehenna call'd, the type of helL"

The ''tabernacle of Moloch** was the tent
or small house in which the image of the idol
was placed. It was of a size and shape to be
portable^ and was taken up like other bag^^age
and earned from place to place.

MONEY (Gen. xxiii 9). This is the first
mention of money in the sacnred Scriptures. It
was silver, and was weighed, and is said to
have been "current with the merchant.** The
practice of weighing money is genend in Syria,
Bgypt^ and all Turkey. Nopiece, however
effaced, is refused there. The merchant
draws out his scales and weighs it, as in the
days of Abraham, when he purchased hts
sepulchre. In considerable paymente, an
agent of exchange is sent for, who counts it
by thousands, relects pieces of false money, •
and weighs all the com either separately or
together. With us the piece of metal is
stamped according to its value, as fixed by
pubhc authority. It is, however, supposed by
some that the Hebrew word renaered ** pieces
of money,** in Gen. xxxiiL 19 and in Job
xliL 11, denotes a piece having on it the stamp
or impression of a sheep or lamb^ intimating
thereby its current value. Pecuniary transac-
tions are altogether characteristic in the East,
and the exchi^ge of money is a common and
profitable traffic. Buckingham, describing a
mosque, says,— '* The mosque at the time of
our passing through it was full of people,
though these were not worshippers, nor was it
at either of the usual hours of public prayers.
Some of the parties were assembled to smoke,
others to play at chess, and some apparently to
drive bargains of tradfe, but certauuy none to
pray. It was^ indeed, a living picture of what
we might beheve the temple at Jerusalem to
have been, when those who sold oxen, and
sheep, and doves, and the changers of money
sitting there, were driven out by Jesus, with a
scourge of cords, and their tables overturned.
It was, in short, a place of public resort and
thoroughfare, a house of merchandise, as the
temple of the Jews had become in the days of
the Messiah.** (See Bags, Changers, M£a<

8URE8, &cO

MONTH, quasi mooneth — the period of the
moon*s revolution (Gen. viii. 4) — tiiie twelfth
part of a year. The Hebrew term has an
analogous derivation to the English one.
The ancient Hebrews called the months by
their niunbers : as first month, second month,
third month, fourth month, ac. The length
of the montn was regulated by the changes of
the moon. After they left Egypt the Jews
had two courses of months; one making the
civil, and the other sacred year. The former
commenced from the first new moon in October,
and this was used in civil and agricultural

443

uoo

a flob: ud the latter from tiw frit I In
xn in April. bwanH they Mt Bgypt
flftModl ol tlut montli. and WW MBd

VJL L in«B.gr AMU Ilardi. or AprU.

Vm. U.Xa.otItf, » Anfl,arlfn„..

IZ. DL SKu, U&.orJoB^...

X. IT. nauUB, ^ Jmn grJils.

XL T. AbL ^Julr.orAacwt

XXL TL Bd, Aiifml.«9atitiimb*.

L Tn. TWai. IT BlMiiti. .... Smmnlier. «'■ — ' —

n. TnLBoL Odobw.orNc

m. UC.KU«i.<irCUd«k Nanmber. or

IV X. TetMOi, Dminbgr, or JunuT.

TL XIL Ad*r,..

but 3M dayi | Diam*. Bmim DmL It. Hg nL l| M

wHihortof nxL 91; 97L n* OriMtah mAM**

, ,_. a aoupcwat* Jmrnaj* bf hm noaa, aad mIwI wm^t

lax ttu> diSennoe, tbe Jewi avacytiiTM ynn I bcr obaBga, llwFtalaMMnlkhHA^

intercalated a fAirfcetfk montit, whiah tlwT "Umiod ihaQBiltMdta ttw brAK.«rfc

TmlT* lunar . — __ — „

and di bcmi^ ths Jswiah jear .
tba lUmaa I7 twelve cti^i. To

MOON (lieQt. __,.

LIGHT (Gen. L l(i). The moon !■ » nl
revolving roimd the earth, and n^ecting
the liffbt of the sun. The moon u only
210,0(» milei dutant from the earth, and
revolve* round it in twenty-seven daye
eight houn. Her eurface, when eeen by a
tdeaoope, ia highly divsnilied with monntain,
valley, and prndpica, in all varietiea of form
and pnaition. The moon aJwayi preaenta the
•Blue face to na, ■« ghe revolvea round her own
axil in the same time that ihe revoWea ronnd
the earth.

The Church ia compared to the moon with
ereat forea and beauty (Song vi 10), aa ihe

rem the Sun of BighteouaneM all her

HMldglaiy.

ew Mann regulated many o( the feast*
ana aacntd aerrioca onder the old dii^enaatioiL
Tba new moon waa alwaya the baginniiu of the

h, which waa a holid^, annonnoed by the

ig of the taored trumprta.

11 have gennally wenhipped tha

tbe names of Vveeo ofhtavnt,

Yanu, Unmia, Saaiolh-baotJi, AMantii,

btightnei
Them

Dnde ef hia died, Imiliiii aa ob^bi

named .HadjSa. yriSL ItoSS^S
and irtra aftarwarda boMaw tta «■£«
Partla. (See Knm.} Uodaetf Smit
tbe diqdeaanraof Hsmaa, e«a tf ttolW

diwpiwd Tmr hnlalrlaiJMi Ttm IhawM—
tion ^ the wbola body «f J«wa Ik Aa afte
Hia pnrpMe waa, Immmtv, A^mttt If*
interpoRtiaa of tU qiMM. -^mm Mil
life, and Mordec^ waa «lBTMad to Vidkli
power. (See HtMAK.) ^ha TiaJaiiwB^
mitnmienta fitted and bt thv phn Vhili
baa aor birii and *■— "anawt ^idloM iMt
pliihed. The rnotad tonb «t WwliJP
Ertber ia plaoedlT aon* i» tfa* «Mb* rf*

MOREH, FLAD or nun orrQi^A*!
Dentid. Mh^ather pmbaUraVvMB**

ol ShtM^am/^ P<rb^» kt^U laetrfaH

MOB

nf the same name (Judg. vii 1). It was near
the mounts Ebal and Gerizim, and some think
it the same with Ebal (Dent xi 29, 30). The
oak of Shechem is often referred to (Gren. xxxv.
4 ; Josh. xxiv. 25, 26), and in these and other
]>a8sage8 it is supposed to be the same with
theplain of Moren.

Henoe. from Judff. vii 1, it would appear
that the nill of Moreh was in or near the valley
of Jezreel, perhaps the little Hermon. As
the original phrase means high oak, it might
be applied to several places designated in each
case Dy the connection.

MORIAH-mum (Gen. xxii 2). This hill
was situated north-east of Jerusalem, and was
originally separated from Acra by a valley
which, aocordinff to Jewish historians, was
filled up by the Asmoneans ; and thus the two
hillB became one; In the time of David,
mount Moriah was not included within tiie
limits of the cit3r, but fonned a part of the
cnltivated groundf of Araunah the Jebusite,
from whom David bought it (2 Sam. xziv.
16-85). On this spot Solomon built the temple
<2Chr.iiLl).

Tliis mount was raised by artificial means to
the height of about 700 feet. Being at first a
rocky precipice, it was enclosed by a square
wall, and filled in, until it formed a level area
for toe temple and its courts. Moriah is now
» piece of level ground. It is occupied b}r an
opea court. 1,500 feet long and 1,000 feet wide,
Aurcoundea by a wall, and planted with trees.
In the centre of this area is a large platform,
X)av«d with marble, on which stands the mosque
whidi the caliph Omar erected in the seventh
century, and which is considered the second
only to the holy house at Mecca in point of
aaocta^. and the first in size and magmficence.

No Christian was for long allowed to enter
this enclosure ; though this prohibition has been
relaxed in favour of several modem travellers.
It is generally supposed that this is the mount
Moriah on which Abraham was directed to
offer up his son Isaac for a bumt-ofifering.
Sot it has been suggested that the scene of the
Intended sacrifice may have been in some part
«{ Moreh. (See previous article.) Mount
Moriah is not visible " afar ofL,^ as the mount
of aacrifice is said to have been in Grenesis.
la &ct, it is not visible till one coming from
the south stands on the edge of the vaUey of
Hinnom, and looks down upon it. In the
mttcreA. nanative the mountain is not called
Moriah, but a mountain "in the land of*
Moriah. Gerizim or some other high hiU
would be visible i^ar as Abraham lifted up his

Sea, at the end of three days' journey from
B south, or the vicinity of Beersheba.
Nothing in Scripture necessitates the belief
that Isaac was to be sacrificed on the temple-
mount, and there is no allusion of the kina by
the historian when David bought the site
ftam Araunah the Jebusite — no hint that it was
«yer called Jehovah-iireh. The temple is
indeed called mount Moriah in 2 Chr. iii 1,
the latest of the books of Scripture. It is
contended, on the other hand, that a journey

MOS

to NablCis would rec^uire more than the three
days of the narrative in G«n. xxii 4, while a
journey to Jerusalem could be easily accom-
plished in that time. The question of site is
no vital one : it was not on mount Sf oriah that
the Son of God offered himself. (See Stanley's
Sinai and Faleatine, p. 251, for the one view ;
see Thomson's Land and Book. p. 475, for the
other view. See Jbbusalem^I^ple.)
MORNING. (See Day, Watch.)
MoBinNO BTAB. (See Stars.)
MoRNiNQ WATOH. (See Watch.)
MORTAR. (See Lime, Pestle.)
MOSES— (fravn au4— was bom B.O. 1574^
His life is divided into three i)eriods of f ort^
Tears each. The first period extends from his
birth till his flight from Egypt^ the second
from his flight out ci Effypt to his being com-
missioned to achieve the deliverance of his
brethren from their oppressors ; and the third,
from his receiving this commission till his
death. His father's name was Amram; that
of his mother, Jochebed. Both parents be-
longed to the tribe of Levi The mddents of
his oirth and preservation are told with touch-
ing simpUdty in the beginning of Exodus.
By what name he was called during the three
months in which he was hidden, neither Scrip-
ture nor Joeephus informs us. Olemens Alex-
andrinus says that his parents named him
Joachim at nis circumcision.

The foundling was early brought to reside
in the palace of l^haraoh. Every attention was
paid to his education in the various sciences
and ftfts of which Egypt, renowned for its
leuning, could boast tne possession. Jewish
historians assert that he was instructed in
astronomy^, astrolo^, interpretation of dreams,
mathematics, magic, hieroglyphics, &c. ; ana
inspired authority corroborate the statement
by declaring, uiat '* Moses was learned
[educated] in all the wisdom of the Egyptians **
(Acts vii 22). Jewish legend fills this portion
of his life with romance.

Josei>hus gives an account of a successful
expedition which he conducted on behalf of the
king of il^ypt against the Ethiopians, who had
invaded Egypt as far as Memphis and the sea.
To some such exploit as this Stephen seems to
refer in his defence, when he characterizes
Moses as a man ** itd^hty in deeds" (Acts viL
22). It was about this time that his patriotism,
which had been growing with his growth,
began to manifest itself in deeds of valour.
Having gone out on one occasion to visit his
brethren, he saw an Egyptian smiting an
Israelite. His anger bemg roused by the
wrong done to his brother, he flew to his
assistance, and having first ascertained, as he
thought, tiiat no one witnessed the dispute, he
slew the Egyptian. Some have asserted that
Moses on tms occasion not only did nothing
wrong, but that what he did was perfectly
le^al An I^gyptian law is quoted from
Diodorus SiculuB^ to the effect that " he who
saw a man being murdered or violently
assaulted on the highway, and made no effort
to rescue him, though it was in his power, was

445

MOS

himself lUble to be punished with death.**
But it should be remembered that the person
nnaulted on this oocaiiion was a slave, and
that the amailant was a freeman, and may
have been liis master or overseer; and in all
countries where slavery is tolerated or enacted,
the slave is to all intents and purjioses an
outlaw. On the following day, when he went
out, he beheld two brethren of the Hebrews
engaged in contention. Having remonstrated
with Uiem on the impropriety ox their conduct,
he was rudely repelled by the offending party
asking, ''Who made thee a prince and a judge
over us? intendest thou to kill me as thou
killedst the Egyptian?" Moses, perceiving
that the matter was known, and learning that
the king also ha<l been apprised of it, judged it
])rudent to withdraw from his power. 'He
fled fn)m the face of Pharaoh, and dwelt in the
land of Blidian.** Weary with his journey, he
sat down by a well to rest. The seven daugh-
ters of the ]>rieKt of Midian shortly arrived to
draw water, tliat they might water their
father^s flrtcks. S(»me shepherds ha\'ing come
and driven them away. Moses interfered in
their behalf, and aHsistcu them to draw water
for their flock, lliis incident procured for the
stranger an intnxluction to Reuel, the father
of the maidens, who apiwinted him keeper of
his sheep, and gave unto him Zipporah his
daughter in marriage, hy whom he had two
sons. Genhom and Ehezer. Here Moeee
dwelt forty years (Acts y\L 30).

Though a wise Providence thus for a time
removetl him into oliBcuriiy, **the fulness of
the time" — the "set tiino ^ — for the Israelites
was not yet com p. Moses wn8 not yet qualified
to be a li>a<U'r ; the Igroelites themselvoK were
not yet ^)ri>parf(l for their exmliiH; and the
present king of Kg>-pt could never have been
expected even to UHten to the demand which
Moses afterwanis presvntod to hia successor.
The retired and pastoral life of Moses in
Midi«an was highl^r fav(»urable to ]>iou8 medita-
tion, to the exvrciflo of the tender and bene-
volent affectionH, and to habitn of \'igilance,
X)ationce, and endurance of hardship. In this
retreat he hod no doubt much to learn and
much to unlearn. His mental framework was
here re<luce<l to more sjTnnietry and compact-
ness. Dwelling in a family where the worship
of Jehovah wanolwerve*! (see Jethro), his mind,
hitherto t(x> exclubively fixed on the sufferings
of his brethren, would have its early pious
impressions revivetl and deepened; wnile the
incessant watchfulness and toil necessary to be
bestowed on his flock would go far to nt him
for the anxieties and fatigues of his situation
as leader of the host of IsraeL \Vliile Moses
was thus sojourning in the land of Midian, the
king of £gyi)t died, and the Israelites, whose
servitude hod become insupportable, lx*gan to
long and to pray for deliverance, llie time
to favour them was come. God now was
about to answer their prayers. Moses had
from his very birth been marked out for this
i»**rvice. He was now to receive a call to his
office directly from God himsell
440

MOB

Ithaiipe&eatluithe cum witli hu flodt to
the "mountain of God, even to HoicbL* VUi
there he beheld m bmah bluing widi fii^nk
■howmg no ■ymptoma of dostractian. Bern
astoniued at this marwdHknm n^k, he tanS
aside to eTimine it more minnttfy* On A"^
■o, a voice was henid addreenngnim bji^
from the midst of the bosh, and lAMhuy Im
beware of approaching irrevwqajy tbt b^'m
which was the angel ^ tho IjQcd. Mnsiw"ltf
hisfaoe, forliewaaafeaidto look iqMn God'
Commission was then ffiven Moaes to set orf
for their delivenuioe. Moaea at forty jsatiif
age liad longed for anch employment, sad «■
bold even to rashness in the serviee d )m
brethren. But his f eelinga at eigfaty sit eoa-
siderablv different. Instead of ei^crily^
thankfully embracing the oaamnnfla, ta
dy was, " Who ami, that I shooid go siAi
araoh. and that I should bring tiie aSldm
of Israel out of El^mit^'' He thus nmttr
declines the work to wnich hemmhag^eAL
This feeling God xemoved by tiie proaitas rf
Divine assistance. Another HsiiUiiitj fta
presented itself to the mind of Mnsw Hat
would he address the people? iniiABlta|pfi
would he speak of Hmi from whomhenerfni
his commission t Having received imtrodMBi
on this pointy and bang assmiMl of idlaMi|
although not ^*"Ttfiiiattt imrrfas, MomiB
felt unwilling to undertake the ualiii"^
Something was reauiied in order to aklMt III
authority to his nrethren, else tksy wii/^
address nim as before, *^who —^ Am •
leader and a prince ? ** JehoTak thai gsft 1i
him his credentials, by showing ^™ff a ftAif
of miracles which he woold be — »«>*J li
accomplish, as signs to the people in the f*at
of their proving unvrilling to leoeiTe ^^^ h
spite of all this Divine oondeeccnaaon Mom ii
not silenced. He still nroposee HiflBonltiM aid
obstacles. His next plea was, "0,aTLoii
I am not eloquent {litt a man of woids); Wi
am slow of speech and of a slow tongas.* CM
sought to overrule this objectian Ey tiM p»
mise of Divine assistance. Bnt Him did t^
satisfy Moses. In proportion aa he was iW
up to the conclusion that the t^»n was iuiait
ible, he seems to have become the moteiisiosi
to undertake the task. He now plsislf i^
dines the call, at whicfa^ we aret^ Ai
"anger of the Lord was kindled acainrtna*

Aaron his brother is piomised to him ai •
coadjutor who was w^ qualified to be ki
spokesman to the people. Mooea, howei« *
warned i^ainst supposing that he wonU Am

get rid of any part of his reeponsibaitr. Sd
e is the " called of God," and aa such nwlb
sui)erior to Aaron. Moses at length oodm^
to the mission. Having returned to JiAn
his father-in-law. he told hiTn what had h^

Sened, and asked and obtained ni i iiilwiia **
epart for Egypt After he had set a^ *
when he was setting out, Jehovah sgss f"
peared, told him of the wonders wwk *
would be made to perform before VhModk
and while assuring him of final, caQtiaBMlki>
against expecting instant succcaSi Wlas^

MOS

was on the way an incident of a di£Fer€nt
nature oocnrred to him — " The Lord met him,
and sought to kill him.** The reason of this
visitation seems to have been the omission on
the part of Moses, perhaps in deference to
Zipporah his wife, of the circumcision of Us
vounger son, Eliezer. When this omission
had been supplied, Moses was released. He
seems at this period to have sent back Zipporah,
with her sons, to her father's house, {£zo^
xviii)

There had been some previous concert among
the heads of the people ; and while he was vet
in the wilderness, Moses was joined by his
brother, to whom he made known the divine
commission which he had received. The two
brothers proceeded in company to Eeypt.
There their first step was to summon the elders
of the children of Israel, without whose con-
currence and support it would have been use-
less to make any overtures to Pharaoh. They
next proceeded to the monarch and requested
pormissioiL in behalf of the Israelitish i>eople,
to go and hold a feast unto their Lord in the
wilderness. The reply was an impious and
disdainful refusal; and the only effect^ as to
the Israelites, was an increased rigour of
bondage. Moses, as well as the i>eople, seemed
din^ipointed and dissatisfied with the issue.
The result of Pharaoh's obstinacy was an
awful series of miracles, which were not more
necessary to overawe the tyrant than to in-
atmct and impress the bondsmen, among whom,
during their long residence amidst iaolaters,
the knowledge and worship of Jehovah seems
to have been gradually aecreasing. Of the
really miraculous nature of these signs, and
the radical difference betwixt them and the
magical pretensions of the Egyptian wizards,
there can be no doubt. The Lg3rptians them-
selves (Exod. xi 3) seem to have acknowledged
it; ana on no other principle can we account
for the departure of the Israelites from Egypt,
their subsrauent histoiy, and their ideas in
respect to God.

Fharaoh and the Eg3rptians seeing the first-
born of evexy family cut down by the God of
the Hebrews, hastdy and at midnight dis-
missed the Israelites, whom Moses conducted
in triumph to the wilderness of the Bed Sea.
He also took with him the bones or mummy
of Joseph, according to the solenm command
of the dying p«triarcn. Pharaoh soon repented
of the permission which he had nven to
Moses, and equipped hastily an expt^lition to
march against and bring back the Israelites.
Here the Israelites were in critical circum-
stances. Environed on all sides, escape seemed
impossible. ^ At the command of Grod, Moses
stretched his rod out over the sea, when the
waters were at once divided; and a i>aBsaffe
being thus opened, he conducted the people
safehr througn the bed of the gulf. Pharaoh
and his host rashly followed. But the rear of
the Israelites havmg got ssf ely through, while
the body of the i^yptians were still in the
heart of the deep, Moses again stretched out
tile rod, and the waters returning to their

MOS

natural level, drowned the army of Bfizraim.
Moses, after this decisive victory, composed
an ode, in which he celebrates in lofty strains
the greatness and goodness of Jehovah, (Exod.
XV.) (See Red Sea.)

Marching through the wilderness, the people
be^m to feel severely the want of proper and
sufficient food and water. They foolisnly and
ungratefully muimured against MoseSj and are
even ready to stone him. Moses cned unto
the Lord, who miraculously relieved him from
his straits and the people mim their sufferings
by abundant supphes of food and water. The
next remarkable incident in the joumejrings
of the Israelites was the enmigement witn
Amalek. In this engagement Moses took no
active part. He deputed Joshua to the com-
mand, while he himself, accompanied by Aaron
and Hur, ascended the mountain which over-
looked the scene of battle. Moses, however,
was not indifferent to the issue of the conflict,
nor was the issue independent of him; for
when he held up his hands Israel prevailed,*
when he let down his hands Amalek prevailed,
and when his hands became heavy, Aaron and
Hur supported him, and thus victory was
secured to the people in the plains beneath
over the Amalekites (Exod. xviL 8). After
this Moses received a visit from Jethro. who
brought along with him Zipporah and her
sons. The interview shows that amid all his
greatness and honours, and the arduousness
and variety of his public duties^ Moses was
not indifferent to private and family affections.
The visit of Jethro was of important service to
Moses, as by his advice suDordinate judges
were ai>ix>inted to try and decide upon the
many civil causes that were daily occurring,
and the unaided attention to which, on the
part of Moses, was threatening to undermine
ids physical constitution.

An era in the history of Israel, and a
memorable period in the life of Moses, was
the giving of the law from mount SinaL llie
part which Moses took in this matter was that
of a mediator (GaL ilL 19). Moses was called
by Grod up to the mount (Exod. xix. 20), and
the people deputed him to receive the words
of JehoviA. and communicate these words to
them (Exoa. xx. 20). He was forty days and
forty nights on the mount. When about
to return to the people, God informed him
that, left to themselves, they had returned to
the idolatrous practices of Egypt. Aaron had
too^ readily complied with their rebellious
desires, and fashioned out of their jewels a
molten calf. (See Aaron.) Jehovah also
informed him that it was his intention severely
to punish the idolaters, and that he would
make of him a great nation. A mind of
ordinary purity would have been dazzled with
such a prospect. But Moses sinks the thought
of himself m that of his countrymen, and m-
tercedes successfully in their behalf. As soon
as Moses came in sight of the camp, his eye
was shocked by the indecent dancing in honour
of the idoL He at once procLumea that who-
ever were on the Lord's side should stand f or^

447

M03

and setMurate thenwelves from the idolaten.
liie tnue of I/evi alone apjieariiig, were oom-
miiwioned to iday the iiupemtvnt and ttabbom;
and there fell that day about 3.000 men.
\Vhvn thiit revolt (mm the Muet High had been
efffvtually checkeil, Moaeti M^n appeared as
interucMKir for hU brethren. Uiit prayer if
brief but very remarkable.

Moee8 next preitentH a petition that God
would Bhow him hiM ^h^ry- Jehovah araurei
him that mich a HKht would be intolerable.
No man could see (nxl and live. ^ Yet he is
favoure<l wil^ a glimpse of the divine glory.
Jehovah hid him in a cleft of the rock, and
ooveretl him with his hand, while he made the
eclii>Bed railiance of his gloiy to iians before
him. In tlie firnt frenzy of hin it«l upon
seeing the goldt'U calf, he had dashed from
him the two tables containing the law written
bv the finger of G«)d. and broke them in pieces.
He is ni>w rv<iuired to hew out to him two
others tfimilar to the first, and is called again
to the mountiiin, where he remained the second
time forty days and fortv nights, during which
time he aid neither vat bread nirr drink water.
When he came dovm from the mount, after
having received imitnictions in all that per-
taine<r to the Jewish l>olity. his face shone so
brightly, though he Inuiselt was not aware of
the fact, tliat he watt obligeil to veil it, that
the iNKiplc might be enabled even to look on
him.

Having left Sinai and gone inU) the wilder-
ness of Parau, MfHtes was subjecte<i to another
]kainfnl trial fn>ni the inunnuringH and hists of
the |)eo]>Ie, (Num. xi.) On tliit* (HX'asion he
manifestcHl unlM'Iiof. We nmy jKdliate his
ctmduct by the irritating crmduct of tlie i>eoi)le,
but we cannot excurie him. Having com-
pludneil to the l^onl of the diHicultv of ^ivem-
mg Hiioli and Ko nninoroiLH a iteople, Jehovah
directeil him to in>titiite a juiiiciul ci>urt, con-
sisting of seventy eMors, to aid him in the
government. A ntriking instance of humility
and unenvpng greatnesn is furnished by the
reply of the ancient lawgiver to tlie youthful
and admiring J«»Hhua, wh(>n the Litter re-
rpiested tliat Kldud and MeiUul might l>e pnv
hibitiKl from i)n»i>hes>'ing : *' Kuviest thou,**
was the reply, **for niv sake? Woidd (xod
that all the Lord'rt peo]»fe wt-re itniphets, and
that tlie Lonl would put his spirituiN>n them !"
(Num. xi. 2tK)

When nearing the jjromiKeil Lmil, twelve
aml)as.-.-\4lorH wt;re sent forward by Mr>scs to
aHcvrtain and re]M)rt on the state of tlie land,
and the i>ower and diH|)ositions of the in-
habitants. Tlie majorit>' of the messengers
brought liAck a false and dispiriting reiiort.
That servile i>eople believed the lie, mutinied,
and woidd have stoneil their leader. Jehovah
would have let loose among them the i)esti-
lence to extirpate them, and offered a second
time to maJcc of Moses a great nation ; but by
the intercession of their generous and i>atriotio
mediator they were i»ard(me(L

Besides the general stubbomm^ss of the
people, Moses suffered much from the en\'y
448

MOB

and flmbitiaii off paitiealtt' imlifidiiA. lfi»
am and Aaron even openly qpeke agaHikm
Korah, IHthen, and A>i«^'m^ tJao cndmomi
to organize aoonepimoy; bet firam Ibdr oiri
and malignant ettenpte JAomh 6BBntd
hit senrant, and pnbliay Tindictttod Ui draM
apiMnntment to hie office. (See Camt, KoulI
When the people were at the wOiammi
Zin, they mnnnured for want off watar. Moai
and Aaron betook theoaaelTeB to God, ai
implored hia interference. Thtj leaM i
oommand to speak to the ledc, ud wm
aamired that upon their eo doiK a tomm
supply of water wofold ffoah out. Jfbna. iv
in^ nmtton the rock twioe^ in a |iieiiiiijilai
spirit, received the divine intinatiantHl h
would not be allowed to condaet tiie ptBfii
into the promiaed land. The forty ]f«Bi(
wandering had now come imilj to « ai

(See JoUBVETIHOfl.)

After havinff aeon the moat ooiMlaBntofan
that God woud aocompUah all hk pmoMii
bringing hiapeo^ into thepsoniindund(NiA
zzzi, xuIl), uoMa ■awimbfad tbe Mt6m,
and leoapituMted in their heariiw As eif^
of their history. He eshortedttsa to d^
dienoe^ proDoaed to them the UoMOHifliiilki
cunea whicn were ■aapendedonthdrfnlftiri-
nets, tolemnlir testified to the truth ni kd^
ness of the Divine Bcins (I>eiil xim-nxi
and made all neoesnry arraineBM

snooesBor for the oompietion otths

He then celebrates the gloiy off God umt^
the most sublime and anunaled hyamof p^
that we find on reoord; andaftc

on the tribes respectively the

pn»phetic blessings, he went iq> to a

apiK)inted for that pnrpose by God, &«■ At
summit of which he mignt see the wholt kifik
of the land of Canaan, and acnes fnm At
Jordan to the Mediterranean. When W h'
thus surveyed the promised '** i ■ itiaff ^
his countrymen, he cheerfully nagnA Mi
spirit into the hands of a oovenant-kMfii|
(rod, at the advanced age of one hnadndflf
twenty years. He retained his facohia*
the last; for we are told that at his dasft'li'
eye was not dim, nor his natural foiee sbiO^
(Deut xxziv. 7). His body was not had*^
the promised land, nor was his gravel

burial (Deut. xxxiv. 6). what Jnde ama
archangel disputing with the devil am 1>
body (Jude 9), and nis i^vpearance aksr ^
Elijah on the mount of tvanafignratioapWt
xviL 3), have led some to oongectiiiv w^
was immediatelv raised from the d^*}
translated into neaven ; hot in the alast'
Scripture such coniectnres are frnitkaL

The leading traito in the diaraeter cf MM"
have already in the coarse off tiw mtn^
been alluded ta By the pecoliar blisiirf^
the softer and the sterner fcatmes toUi^
acter, he was remarkably qualified fsr ^
high office. He was faitnfal, yet wl b^i
enthusiastic, yet cantftona; pnmgi, jstito*^

M03

He powcaoed a mind given to oontempl«fci<m,
yet ne was not thereby unfitted for active life.
His dispositions were free from pet^ jealousv,
and purified by universal benevolence. In
government he was equally removed from the
arrogance of a despot and the sycophantic
arts of a demagogue. Yet he was susceptible
of hasty outbursts of anger. He is indeed said
to have been the ** meekest" of men (Num. xii.
3), though this, from the connection, can hardlv
mean more than that he was '* sorely tried."
More than once was his brilliant career sullied
by sudden ebullitions of passion. There was
in him too visibly, as in ail the other sons of
God, an "old man" and a **new man." The
Ifttter struggled against the former, and was
ultimately victorious.

Moses had no personal ambition to gratify,
and he created no office of emolument for
his family. His whole conduct proves his
consciousness of a divine mission. He brought
the people into imminent danger as soon as
they had left Egypt, and Pharaoh's heart
rejoiced at his seeming ignorance. The despot
exclaimed, ** They are entangled in the land,
the wilderness has shut them in." No man in his
■ensee could have led them into such je<^3ardy :
bat Moses felt that God was with him, ana
God he obeyed. He lifted his rod — ^the Bed
Sea was divided. Moses ordained three feasts
at which all the male population were to
aasemble from the whole realm, and the law-
giver promised that no enemy would ever take
advantage of this defenceless state of the
frontiers to invade the coimtry. What im-
postor could with any safetv have hazarded
such a pledge? But Moses always relied on a
mpecaal Providence to defend his claims, and
arenge the violation of any of those laws which
he enacted in the name of Jehovah.

The Pentateuch is a permanent memorial of
Moses. The 90th Psalm also is ascribed to
him. He is thought by some also to be the
aothor, or at least the editor, of the book of
Job. (See Job.) In whatever light we view
Moses, we must assent to the eulogypro-
nounoed upon him by iiupiration— There
arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto
Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face"
(Deut xxxiv. 10-12).

MoaES, BOOK8 OP, or law of. We have
ah^ady alluded to Moses as the author of the
first five books of the Bible, ciJled the Penta-
teadi, containing the history of the creation of
the world and its inhabitants^ the fall and
cmse of man, the destruction of all the human
race save one family of eight souls, the disper-
aaon of the nations, the deliverance of the
chosen people of God from oppression, and
the introduction of that wondernu <Uspensation
of whidi the Divine Being himself was the
aiithor and executor, and under which the
dvil and ecclesiastical government of that
nation was administered tor so many ages.

And whence did Moses receive the Imow-

ledge which philosophy has been so long in

reaching through the paths of neology? Was

the generation m which he lived more learned

2o

MOS

than any which snoceeded for thousaadt of
years? There is not the slightest shaaow of
evidence to sustain so incredible a position.
It could not be through the slow prooessea of
geological investigation, either of himself or
his contemporaries, that Moses learned the
sublime truths which were hidden from Aris-
totle and Pythagoras. The superior wisdom
which distinguishes the Hebrew prophet from
all his contemporaries, and renders nis simple
narrative a staoidard of truth in all ages, was
from above. It was from Him who made the
world that Moses learned the historv of its
creation, and in no other way could nia suc-
cessors on the inspired page be possessed of the
truth and wisdom which shines as brightly in
their paces as in his. (See Aaron, Hebrswb.)
Each of the books of Moses is explained bj
itself. (See under their respective titles. )

The inspiration of the author of the Pen-
tateuch is one of '"the things most surely
believed among us.** Messiah himself was a
prophet ' * like unto " Moses. The Pentateuch is
the loundation of Scripture ; all the subsequent
books of revelation are full of allusions to these
early documents. The books themselves cUum
Moses for their author, and there is no reason
to doubt their statement. Their style and
composition show them to have been written
'*at sundiY times;" narrative and legislation
are naturaUy interspersed. Laws are given in
various forms; for according to the growing
exigencies of the time earlier statutes re-
quired modification. (Compare, for example,
Exod. xxi. 2-6 with Deut. xv. 12-17 ; Num. iv.
24-33 with Num. vii. 1-9; Num. iv. 3 with
Num. viiL 24 ; Lev. xvii. 3, 4 with Deut. xii
5, 6, 21; Exod. xxil 26 with Deut. zxiv. 6.
10-15; Exod. xxii 16, 17 with Deut. xxii. 29.)
Had these books been a modem compilation,
the laws would have been dassined and
arranged under separate heads : but they are

S'ven by Moses in the simple form in which
ley were originally enacted. The Hebrew
nation has idwa3rs received these treatises as
t^e books of Moses, and they were read to the
assembled tribes at stated periods. It is im-
possible that the nation coidd have received
such publications at any period later than
Moses. And so we find, from the time of
Moses downwards, uninterrupted witness to
the existence and genuineness of the Pentateuch
(Josh, i 7, 8; xxiii 6: comp. Josh. xxiv. 26
withviii 32, 34; 1 KL ii 3; 2Ki xxil 8; 2
Ghr. xxxiv. 14). To prove that these refer-
ences are made to the very same books of
Moses which we now possess, nothing more is
necessary than to make a careful comparison
of the passages in the historical books with the
passages alluded to in the Pentateuch (2 Ki
xiv. 6 with Deut xxiv 16; 2 EL xxiii 2-25
and 2 Chr. xxxv. 1-19 with Lev. xxvi 3-45
and Deut. vii U— xxviii 68; Esra iii 2-6
with Lev. vi, vii ; Ezra vi 18 with Num. iii
6-45; viii 11, 14; Neh. i 7-9 with Lev. xxvi
41 and Deut iv. 26, 27; xxviii 64; xxx. 3-6).
.All these multiplied references mav be verified
bj consulting the places zef erred to in the

449

MOT

books of Moftes. The iMime thing cocon in
the prophets Israel an<i Judah eeparated
after the (ji*ath of Solnmon ; but the ten tribes
preserveil tlie law of M«tsteH, the only religious
Dook in circulation anuing them ; and it is still
known to the lfami>d as the Samaritan Penta-
teuch. The ]>n>pht't4 who laboured among
these ton triU^H of ton allude to the Pentateuch
(oomp. HdK. ix. 10 with Num. xxv. 3; Hos.
xL 8 ynth IVut. xxix. 23; Hos. xiL 4, 5 with
Gen. xxxii. 24, 25; Hi>s. xii. 12 with Gen.
zxniL 5; xxix. 2U; Amos iL 9 with Num.
zxL 21, 24 ; Amos iv. 4 with Num. xxviiL 3,
4; AmoD iv. 10 with Ext^L viL-xi. ; Amos iv.
11 with Gen. xix. 24, 25* Amiw ix. 13 with
Lev. xxvi. 5). The proimets ahu) who flour-
ished in Judah are full ot varieil referenceM to
the law and oarlv litt-Tature of their people.
The history and chara -tor of the Jewish nati<m
are a i>eriK'tual monument of the ancient
existence, the venurity, and authenticity of the
books of MoHOit, the man of God. The pro-
phecies contained in the Pentateuch have also
been strikin^rly and minutely fulfilled ; and the
Jews in their prcst-nt condition, dispersion,
and dcgnulation, are livin;^ ^^itnesses of their
truth. No ancient Inxik is surrounded with
■uch evidence of its gcnuinenoiis, authenticity,
and inspiration as tlie Pentateuch. Venerable
in their a^^e, sublime in their natural sim-
plicity, ovcrpoworiiii; in their evidence, and
mit^Iity in their nrHiilts, are the live books of
Moses. (See under the names of the various
Books).

MOTE (Matt. vii. 3). The mote is an^
minute particle of dxut or cliaif ; the l)eam is
a s]>linter, lar^or and iumfo easily «orn. I'er-
wms who ari' cvnsorioiiH or hyiM)critical easily
discover th«i snialli-st faults in thiHo around
them, and absurdly <'xa;jr;:«'rite them, and all
the while they an* iiisi'usibjf to the grosser
blemihheH wliidi disfimuv tlu'ir own character.
He who has the u;,'ly " beam " in his own eye
has no reas^m to look askance at him whose
eye has caught unconsciously some flying
•'^mote."

MOTH (Luke xii. 33). Tlie moth is a well-
known insfct, out* Hpecies of which, in its
catcrjiillar state, Ls verv destructive to furs,
wfMjllen cloths, &c. The egg of the moth,
bcim? deixwit*Ml on the fur or cloth, pnxluces
a ver>' small insect, which eats away the nan,
weakens or destrovs the thrcatl, an<l linally
ruins the fabric. I'here is frc(|uent reference
to this weak but destnictive insect in the
■acreil Scriptures, In J»jb iv. 19 man is said
t() be "crushtMl Iwf ore tlie moth" — that is, **as
soon as a moth " — when* thut animal is made
the emblem of man*s weakness and defenceless
condition. In Job xiii. 28 the wasting, de-
caying life of man is compared to a moth-
eaten garment; and in iRa. li. 6 the earth is
laid to wax old as a garment-- that is, a moth-
eaten garment, as the original imports. In
Job xxviL 18 the man who rises by injustice
is compared to the moth, which, by eating into
the garment where it dwells, after a while
destroya its own habitation. In Pa. vi 7 the
450

word rendered in (mr venica eoiifinneil.pnna?7
meana moth-taten. In Pa. zzxix. 11, "TTiob
makest his beauty- to oonauxne awaj like a
moth,** the effect of Crod*a judgments on maa*
kind is illustrated by the oonsumin;; power of
the moth ; and so in Hoa. v. 12. The deruta-
tions of tlua insect are particularly refemd to
in Isa. L 9: ''Lo, they aU ah^U wax old as a
garment; the moth ahall eat them up." As
much of the treasure of the ancients conasted
in costly garments, we mav readily undemsnd
why the moth waa conaiaered so nozioiii an
insect; and this will teach ns the troe import
of our Savioar*8 words. Matt, vi. 19, 20: set
also Jaa. v. 2.

MOTHER (Gen. iu. 20). TheHebrarwori
am, meaning a mother, ia a simple somd,
priHluced by the mere ahuttiog <n the li^
** Before the child shall have knowledge to ay.
My father and my mother" (Isa. viiL 4); tul
is, before he can ntter the simplest soiuidr-
before he is but a few months ofage, or a yesr
old. The name, mother, among rae Hebiv«%
not merely had its proper signilicatian, bot sbs
denoted grandmother (1 Ki. xv. 10), or distsBfe
female ancestor, as Eve (Gen. iii. 20L or amf
intimate relationship. Tiiiii last is a ngmatiTe
use of the term ; and so we find it used fcr s
nation (Jer. L 12), and for a chief city (2 Sua
XX. 19). "Mother in Israel** is one vboB
God has elevated to instruct, nourish, Mad ufn
his people (Judg. v. 7). The fond affecCiflB
of a mother is often referred to in Soipto*
(Isa. xlix. 15; 1 Cor. iii. 2). Tobeamotbo;
csi>ecially of sons, was the yearning ambitioB
of every Hebrew wife. Childn^n paid gnrt
reverence to the mother. In countries vhcic
iHjlygamy prevails^ children of the one mudis
form one family m the household, and tin
children of the same father by anoth^ mother
are to them as aliens. Close relationship sad
affectionate intimac>' are denoted by tkt
phrase, "mother's children.'*

MOUNTAIN. Palestine had nxuBenn
mountains. (See Lebanon, Carxcl.) Mom
represents it as a land of hilhs ; and the mimbtf
of its hills added ipt^atly to its extnt of
surface. Its mountams are not only a g^tfii
of defence round its frontiers, but the wbab
territory is intersected with them. Tliiu. ■
Ezek. xxxvi. 1, &c, *' the mmm tains of Isnd*
mean the entire country, for they fenneJ iti
cluiracteristic feature. Tliey were cultinsed
in many cases to the very aununit, ttsraa
after terraci> covering their sides. ** Mivt ^
the hills, indeed, exhibit the remains of tenaoa
built up aroimd them, the undoubted si^ d(
former cultivation." Agsun, when traveHiiC
Upwards Hebron, he observes, ** Many of thi
former terraces along the hill-sides are still ii
use ; and the land looks si^mewhat as it nV
have done in ancient timesL*' — Bob^ifon
Rf searches, ii., pp. 187. 428L

*• We often counted forty, fifty, sixty, •i
even seventy terraces from the bottom of ^
valley up to the summit of the moontsia*''
Nor. of a Mission, die, p. 123^

Figures from this aspect of their comitiytf*

Moir

often employed by the Hebrew poets and
prophete. A difficulty is a **^at mountain*'
(Zech. iv. 7). A revolution is the ''carrying
of mountains into the midst of the sea" (Ps.
zlvi 3). Grod easily and speedily removes
every obstacle — " HiUs melt like wax at the
presence of the Lord" (Ps. zcvii. 5). The
int^n^ty of the Divine nature is sure and
lAsting — ''Thy righteousness is like the great
mountains" (Ps. xxxvi. 6). The eternity of
Qod*s love is pictured out by this comparison —
" For the mountains shall depart, and the hills
be removed ; but my kindness shall not depart
from thee " (Isa. liv. 10). When David wishes
to express the stability of his kingdom he sa3rs,
"Lord, by thy favour thou hast made my
mountain to stand strong" (Ps. xxx. 7). The
■ecnrity and protection afiforded by Grod to his
people are thus beautifully delineated: "As
the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so
the Lord is roimd about his people from hence-
forth, even for ever" (Ps. cxxv. 2). When the
prophet would express his faith in Grod, how
pore it was, and what confidence it inspired,
nr above any assurance which could arise from
earthly blessmg or defence, he sings, "Truly
in vain is salvation hoped for from the hills,
and from the multitude of mountains" (Jer.
ill. 23). Messiah's kingdom is also comp&red
to a mountain in Isa. ii.' 2; xL 9; Dan.
u. 35. (See Hill, Rock.)

MOURN, MOURNERS (Gen. xxiii. 2).
The Hebrews, at the death of tneir friends and
rdations, gave all possible demonstrations of
grief and mourning (Gen. L 10). They wept,
tore their clothes, smote their oreasts, fasted,
and lay ujMn the nt>und; went barefooted,
pulled their hair ana beards, or cut them, ana
made incisions on their breasts, or tore them>
with their nails (Lev. xix. 28; xxL 5; Deut.
ziv. 1; Jer. xvi 6). The time of mourning
was commonly seven days ; but it was length-
ened or shortened according to circumstances.
That for Moses and Aaron was prolonged to
thirty days (Num. xx. 29: Deut. xxxiv. 8).
They mourned excessively tor an only son, as
his death cut off the name of the family (Zech.
ziL 10). A priest mourned only for near
relatives; the nigh priest for none (Lev. xxi.
1-12).

During the time of their mourning they
continued sitting in their houses, and ate on
the ground. The food they took was thought
undean, and even themselves were judged
impure (Hos. ix. 4). Their faces were covei«d ;
and in all that time they could not apply
themselves to any occupation, nor read the
book of the law, nor say their usual prayers.
They did not dress themselves, nor make their
beds, nor uncover their heads, nor shave, nor
cut their nails, nor go into the bath, nor salute
anybody. Nobody spoke to them unless they
^mke first (Job ii 11-13). Their friencfs
oommonly went to visit and comfort them,
bringing them food. They also went up to the
fool, or upon the platform of their houses, to
bewail their loss (Isa. xv. 3). It was reckoned
a yrery pious work to comfort moomerB; and

MOir

when they came to the mourners, they stood
around them, ten in a row, and approaching
towards them one by one, wished them comfort
from heaven. If they sat, it was on the groimd,
and the chief mourner had the chief seat. The
friends came not to comfort them till after the
interment, and not many till the third or fourth
day after the decease (John xi 19, 39). Thc^
sometimes went to the graves to lament thenr
dead; and so the Turkish women do to this
day. The Jews had a kind of prayer, or rather
benediction of God, as of him who raises the
dead, which they repeated as they mourned,
or even passed the graves of their dead. The
Jews in Chaldea did " not mourn and weep,"
but "mourned one towards another;" that is,
they durst not openly bewail their misery, but
did it secretly (Ezek. xxiv. 23). The mourning
habit among the Hebrews was not fixed either
by law or custom. Anciently, in times of
mourning, they clothed themselves in sack-
cloth or nair-cloth; that is, in coarse or ill-
made clothes, of brown or black stuff (2 Sam.
iii 31). Women were hired to weep and mourn,
and also persons to play on instruments^ at the
funerals of the Hebrews (Jer. ix. 17; Matt. ix.
23). All that met a fimend procession or a
company of mourners, were to join them, as a
matter of civility, and to mingle their tears
with those who wept. Something like this is
still customary in Turkey and Persia, where
he who meets the funeral takes the place of
one of the bearers, and assists in carrying the
bier, until they meet some one by whom ne is
relieved.

The custom of hiring women to weep and
mourn is common at this day in many of
the Eastern nations. Laue, m his Modem
Egyptians^ illustrates these old customs in his
description of an Egyptian funeral : —

"The most common cries that are heard on
the death of the master of a family, from the
lips of his wife — or wive*— and children, are,
*0 my master!' — *0 my camel!* (that is, 'O
thou who broughtest my provisions, and hast
carried my burdem. ! *) — ' O my lion ! * — ' O
camel of the house ! * — ' 0 my glory ! ' — ' 0 my
resource!* — 'O my father!* — '0 my mis-
fortune!* Generally, also, the family of the
deceased send for two or more 'nedddbehs,'
(or public wailing- women) ; but some persons
disapprove of this custom, and many, to avoid
unnecessary expense, do not conform ^*ith it.
Each neddabeh brings with her a ' t^ * (or tam-
bourine), which is without the tinkling plates
of metal which are attached to the hoop of the
common tir. The nedd^behs, beating their
t&cSf exclaim several times, 'Alas for him!'
and praise his turban, his handsome person.
&C. ; and the female relations, domestics, ana
friends of the deceased — with their tresses
dishevelled, and sometimes with rent clothes —
beating their own faces, cry in like manner,
'Alas for him!* This wailing is generally
continued at least an hour." (See Bubl/ll.)

MOUSE (Lev. xi 29). It is supposed by
some that the animal called the mouse in our
Bible was the field mouse, which is larger than

451

MOU

the common mouse, and entirely different in its
motions and habits. Otiien suppose that some
other s]>ecie8 of the common m(»use is intended,
the fleuh of which was forbidden to lie iwed
for fofid (Lev. xL 211: comp. Isa. Ixvi. 17).
Common field mice are very destructive to the
fruits of the field. Mice niaile (n^at havoc in
the fields of the Philistines after the iieople
had taken the ark of the Lord (1 Sam. v. 0,
&c. : VI. 4, r>).

HlOUTH. ThiH word has a mat variety of
uses amon^ the Hebrews. When one hetnns
an addn^HH or sonj^, he ** opens his month. '^
To fq>eak ** mouth to mouth" (Xnm. xiL 8)
den(»te8 intimate converse. To j»ut ** words
into the mouth " (KxikI. iv. I'A) is to su^'gest
the theme of discourse. To l»o * * in the mouth "
is to be often or always talked of — uited of tlie
law (KximI. xiii. U). To lay ^'the hand upon
Uiu mouth** is to be silent (Job xxi. 5). The
**r«Ml of his mouth** (Isa. xi. 4) is the power
of the (lOHiH'l. ** Unclean spirits like frofTs,
which come out of the mouth of the dragrjn**
(Rev. xvL 13), are the rea<lv cxecuttirs of God's
conimands. Other xh^vh vl the terms are so
evi<leut and a])propriate that they need no
exp1un:itirin.

MOWING, Kixr/R. "It was the Utter
growth after the king's mowini;»** (Amos vii.
1). It was the ciiMtom in Jutlea to lea<i out
tne cattle to feed in the common pastures in
the month of Ai>ril. The horses of the kings,
and tho!*e deni^^ied for wur, were turned in
(hiriui^ the month of March, and of i^mrrte had
the lM>st of the feeding", and tlit; flucki* and
hen Is in ^'eneral were not sutTtretl t«i go into
the jtoMtures until uftiT thcM- horsen were
taken out and init to hurley, whioh was thidr
i^unnion food (luring the residue of the year.
The vinion of Auioh repre.sents tlie judgment
of God in sending locusts to eat off and destnn'
the gT:u4H which hud HpruiiL,' up aft'>r the kiug^rt
fi'edingrt had pa.<<si>d, and on whieli the iM-oi)le
depended for the sustenunce of tlmir fiocKs and
heriU (See Hay.)

MUFKLKKS (Isa. iii. 10), or tfHinfffed
omnmfiiti (as it in in the nmnnn). are HupiH»He«l
to have been a c<»v*'ring for the face, such aw in
now worn by women of the Kast. The pecu-
liar veil referred to was snudl, and consisted of
two pieces, united by clasps near the eyej*.
Tlie reference in the term may l>e, as J)r.
Henderson has remarked, n»>re to the value
of the clasps than to the veil itself. (See
Cu»TH !■><.)

MULIJKRRY TRP:ES (2 Sam. v. 23. 21)-
a common tree, whone leaf uifonls the appro-
priate f«x)d of the silkworm. In (mc of David*s
cam|>aigns against the Phili.-ttines it became a
(luestion whether he should attack them as
tney biy encamjMMl in the valley of Re])haim.
He was told to take a certain jKisition over
against a grove of mulberry trees, ])crhax)s
under a hill which was sunnounted by such a
grove, and at a given signal, prolmbU' a nishing
of i^dnd in the topmost branches of^the trees,
resembling, we may supi>ose, such signals of
God*8 presence aa were given on other occasions
iD2

KUB

(Jon. i. 4 ; Aots iL 2), lie wm to Bake tbi
onset (1 Chr. ziy. 14, 15), wbidi he did, ■■£
was completely victoiKma. It is hard to Mr
what tree is mattiit by the word r&adoA

mulberry tree.

Mulberry trees, however, abound in Sifiis it
the present da^. There is a long and minuto
account of theur cultivation and pfodnoe is Dr.
Boi%Ting*s Report on Sjfria.

MULE (2 Sana. ziiL 29)-<tbe name of Os
offspring of the horse and the aie. It is maA
smaller than the former, and is a xeinaricalil|r
hardy, patient, obstinate, sure-footed aainiil
living ordinarily twice as long as a bone, aad
is fed with far greater facility and chespoMa
Burckhardt mentions some he had sees iriuch
were valued at from thirty-five to forty poadt
Mules are mudi used in Spain ana SanA
America for transiwrting goods aousi tkf
mountains. So also in the Alps, they sie mid
by tra^'ellers among the defiles, whtve a hone
would hardly be able to pass with mhtf.
Even the lungs and the most fliiithigniArit
nobles of the Jews were accostomed M
ride upon mules (see passMe above dfeai
and also 2 Sam. zviii. 9; 1 KL i S3; l
25; zvui 5; 2 Chr. iz. *24; Esth. viiL M^
14). It is probable that the Jews padaisl
but did not raise mules. Bfixed bieidiiy^f
this nature seems to be prtJiibitcd iaLeT.
xix. 19.

The Hebrew word translated mate inG&
xzxvL 24, signifies more properly kolfowtmm
or baths. That these pla<x« sboula bs ds-
covered by means of animals is nothing woadv-
ful. lliis would give a l>etter meaning to thii
passage. The desert of Arabia has nttf
warm sjirings. There is in the nei^bMiihodd
of the 1 >ead Sea, in the ancient country of ^
Kdomites, to which Anah belonged, a fMHSi
bath of this kind, known to the Greeks mA
Roman-t under the name of Calirrhoe.

MURDER (Ps. X. 8). The Jewish kv
calls a murderer one who slays another froa
enmity, hatred, or by lying in wait. For d*
crime there was no pardon : the city of rtSs^
and even the altar, furnished no asylum, v*
might m(»ney be taJcen in satisfaction (Esai
XXI. 14, 28, 29; Num. xxxv. aO-;)2; iKiiiai
C, 28-34). It seems to have been rejaidcdM
one of the most odious and abominaue criBd
(l»eut. xix. 13; xxL 9; Num. xxxv. 33» W,
and was a subject of early and sever« legislsti*
Moses carefully distinguished between nmric
and homicide. When there was evido^
malice prepaue, deliberate forethoogfat. *
]ilanned assassination, the evil doer wm not i^
escape. The use of a leiKal weapon implied*
design to kill, and was proof of wilhd made-
Unintentional slaughter was leniently d<*^
with, and the old laws of blood-i« venge wocbott
modified and ameliorated (Gren. iz. 6). ^
case of the inadvertent killing of another; I***
vision was made for the protectioa <■ ^
offender by cities of refuge. A man lai^
kill with impunity the thia when in the tetci
breaking into his house, if it were dad: m'
he could not dijdangi»^}| j^ ttmimm d ^

MTJR

Qoctomml intruder; but in daylight, if he
killed a robber in such drcumstanoes^ he waa
held guilty of a wanton destruction ot human
life. If a master beat his slave so that he died
under his hand, he was responsible to the law ;
but if the slave survived tor some period, the
master was not ajjprehended, the law presum-
ing that it was not the interest of a master
either to kill his slaves or so to maim or bruise
them as to deprive himself of ^eir labour —
•• They are." says Moses, " his money " (Exod.
xxi 21). When a corpse was found on which
were marks of a violent death, and the mur-
derer could not be discovered, a solemn and
pablio inquest way held in the district where
the crime was committed. The elders were to
perform a striking ceremonial over a sacrificed
animal, and offer up an impressive disclaimer
and prayer (Deut. zzi 1-9). (See CiTils ov
Retdos.)

MURRAIN (Exod. iz. 3). This was the fifth
in order of the plagues with which the Esnrp-
tiana were visited when they held the Israelites
in bondage. The word translated " murrain "
aignifies death; and may mean death by plague,
or pestilence, or any other fatal disease. The
term mortality would be nearest in sense to the
original, as no particular disorder is specified
by the Hebrew word.

MUSIC (1 Sam. xviii 6). Music must have
been all but coeval with man, even as an in-
strumental performance. It is to be found in
all lands, and among all classes of society.
Eapedally among people of an excitable tem-
perament such as the Hebrews and other
Oriental nations generally, is it universally
admired in its execution, and deeply felt in its
power. The Ijrric odea of the early Hebrews
were set to music. This sacred minstrelsy
piroved its hallowed and thrilling influence on
the banks of the Red Sea (Exod. xv. 20, 21).
Music continued to be an miportant part of
the festivities and religious servicea of the
Jews. In their annual pilgrimages to Jerusa-
lem their march was thus enlivened (Isa. xxx.
29). This is still the custom in Oriental pil-
gnmagea. The practice of music was not
reatricted to any one class of persons (1 Chr.
xiii 8 ; XV. 16). The sons of Asaph, Heman,
and Jeduthun were set apart by David for the
muaical service, and ** the numb^ ol them,
with their brethren that were instructed in
the songa of the Lord, were 288." They were
divided, like the priests, into twenty-four
oonrses, which are enumerated, 1 Gbr. xxv.
Of the 38,000 Le vites, '* four thousand praised
the Lord with instruments'* (1 Chr. xxiii. 5|,
being more than one in ten of the whole avail-
able members of the tribe of Levi Each of
the courses or classes had 154 musicians and
three leaders, and all were under the genial
direction of Asaph and his brethren. Each
coorse served for a week; but upon the fes-
tivals all were required to be present, or
4^000 musicians. Heman, with one ol his
leaders, directed the central choir, Asaph the
right, and Jeduthun the left wing. These
aevend choirs answered one anouer, as is

MUS

e(enerally auppoaed, in that kind of alternate
aingingwhicn ia called ant^phanal, or reapon-
sive. TThe i^riests in the meantime f>erfonned
upon the silver trumpets (2 Chr. v. U-14).
The twenty-fourth psaun seema to have been
arranged for this purpose : —

BothChonua.

Jehovah's is Uie earth and its falnesa—
The world and its inhabitantat
For he founded it upon seas;
He established it upon streams.

Fint Chorus,

Who can so tip into the mount of Jehovah?
Who shalfBtand in the place of his holiness?

Stamd CSuruM.

He whose hands are clean, whoae heart is pure;
Who lifts not his soul to vanity, and swears not

in deceit:
He shall receive blessing from Jehovah,
And righteousness from the God of his salvation.
This is the generation which seek him.
Jacob's generation are those who seek thy face.

First Ckonu.

Baise your heads, ye doors;
Lift up yourselves, ye everlasting gates; and in will
come the King of glory!

Second Chorus.

Who is the King of glory?

First C^ktrus.

Jehovah, the strong one and mlgh^;
Jehovah, the mighty one in battle.

Second Chorus.

Baise your heads, ye doors;
Lift up yonrselTes, ye everlasting gates ; and in will
come the King of glory I

First Chorus.
Who is this, the King of glory?

Both Choruses.
Jehovah Zobaoth, he it is ; He is the King of glory.

It is necessary to suppose tha^ in order to
ensure harmony from such a numoer of voices
as this, some musical notes were used. This
truly regal direction of sacred music continued
after the death of David until the captivity;
for though under the impious rei^ of some
kings the whole of these solemnities fell into
disuse, they were revived by Hezekiah and
Josiah; and although during the exile ^e
sweet singers of Israel hanged their haips upon
the willows by the waters of Babylon^ yet 200
musicians returned with Ezra to tne Holy
Land (Ezra ii. 65).

Musical Instruments (Eccl ii. 8). They
were invented bv Jubal, the son of Lamecn
(Gen. iv. 21). These inatruments had appro-
priate names; and we find at a very early
Eeriod that Laban said to Jacob, "I mi^ht
ave sent thee away with mirth, and with
songs, with tabret, and with harp " (Gren. xxxi
27).

Musical instruments may be divided into
three classes: stringed instruments, wind in-
struments, and sucn as give their sounds on
being struck. Of stringed instruments were
the harp, the inttrument of ten stringt, the
taddtnUf andptaUery, The following group of
figures containa representations of a trumpet^

453

The "iDatruiDent of ten itrini^" rcMmliled
■ moilcni Euitar, bavin); its Btrin^ atretcbrd
— rr Munetuing not unlike & druin ; and it wu
~ d with tlic fingeiw.
e vind inKtrument* vera inch u the
' mif reeil-pipe, or haiitboj,

'X;

Mliym

certain

I'trela
in [icriiida (if rejuicinf;

daleimer, which w &*pe<^ta
of ba;;]4j<f; thtMilrtrtram-

pcU winch MiMCB nrdvred
tolw miule atthu command
of Uiid fiir the pricnt'i use

the juliiluo,

,.. llie apimuicli i.f danijcr
tiiward a rity. Ten wind
inftnimuiitH an mcntiuned
in Scrii>tiire.

The instruments of per-
ciuBJoD seem to havu Wit,
liiMt, wliat in (>nr venion
in rvDilerod "titnhrrl," or
eiu' to hurc Ihvu fonneil uf
a Iiioce of skin tightly dntwn over a hiKip,
niwmbliDg a bunlxnirino : antl, necunJIy, the
cyinliali <ir cartunebi, which were plated of
niutal, one held in each hand, aiul lirnn^lit
toitetbcr witli a filion) laiiiil cla»li. (See the
liL'lit-hanl fiinircs in the aliive initn.)

The " inr^mtuetitt of muwic" mentioned in
1 Ham. zviiL fl, on useil by women, are »up-
IHMetl til have been luutalLu trium-lim, an the
name imlicatw. Thexe voriuuii inuhii'nl in-
lArumeuta btc dcMrilied in c^er pn^iM under
their atipmpriatv nninv*.

MrSTAlil) (Malt niii. 31)-a gpecien of
the plant known to na by the mime name, but
cif much hirvrr nze, and CMi-cdally in the
fert^ilu Kiit of Jndea. With uk it is a HDiall
onntial herb, but tliere it ^iwi to the nize of a
jii; tn-f, and waa auflidcntly larRC to bear the
wiM^lit of a man to elimb u|ii)n it. The needs
are very small ; no tlutt it proverUialli-. or in
I»il>ular lanKuace, exjjressed the leant tdinii, or
miiiuleat (uirticU-. It was tbu laivest plant
k fium the amalteiit geed which was then ur is

KTB

BaTioor*! Hiable forcibly iUnitratn the (^
tmt between the infancjr of his Cfannl
and its final pronvritr, aa well a* betwia
the early fruita ri God's snce in the ml
and the full derelnpineDt of ChriiliB
character in the believer. It ii difiailt
to tell pradaelj what plant wee intndid
by OUT Lord m hie allnrion. I'wbiH
Irbyand MMielea think thataqieatsrf
tree thay met with un the jounn- ts
Kersk limn tin ■oiitheni bnder ef Oi
Dead Sea ii the oae to which Jmm MiiMJ
his beai«l«— > tree of Mime ■in' and beigbt
and the Snat at which has a taste ns^
bling muitanL Otben mi^wK it to hsn
been the Salradora Pmiea, bat witbod
good foundation.

MUTH-LABBEN ii the tiHerfPii*

What the bne readii^ of this term ia it ■
~ to say. The T.YT and ■«•

1 must have read a iliffervBt «E«i

-.- they render, ''cooceniina the mjilgV
and thus translate it, " on the death ti Ui
son," meaning AboaLnn. A^y regatd it ■■
the commencing word of some aong or Uibsv

MYRA.IActa«TiLSl-HtBeai»rtof Syrii,
and one of its principal citiee— was sitaM
near the Boathemmcet cape of Alia UiBC,
where Paul embarked for Rome in a iat d
Alexandria.

The msgnificent miiu of Klyrk, now n^Ai.
attest the opulence of the ace rf Adiiao ti^
TraJHn. The necniruf u, or ^ice of inlenuaB.
haa of itself the appearance of a dCy

MYKKH (Cen. xliii. 11) represnti t»
diffewnt Hebrew temu. The tenn lit, ■
renilered. denotes laudanum, or thensiniiW
exudes from the Cgttai Cntitaa, a gum jidiU
by a thorny tree which ktows ei)^t or oiM
feet high, chiefly imi»rted frum Ar^oa te lb
>:ast Indies. It woe at a very early pcrimln
article of commerce, and was on ingndittf <'
the holy ointment (ExihL xii. 33). audeftfe
embalming subrtance (John lis, 39). It w»
used aa an acreeable perfume (Estk iL H;
Pa. xlv. «: I'rov. vii. 17). It waa ilv n-
gardwl among the valuable rifts which itmi
cuatomsry to present to kin^ nobles, mi
others aa a token of res|)ect in nneimt liD>
aiul countries (Gen. iliii. 11 ; Matt. ii. 1. U)

In Matt. xxTii. :M it ia eaid that theyp-
Jeans to drink vinegar mixed with pafl. "W
111 Mark xv. 23 is calletl wine miii;d«l ^
myrrh. It was probably the sour wme eM
the Roman sohUeri used to drink, K^U

with myrrh and other bitter iT-*- ' —

•"■ich hks the 6i((n-j -' — '

•,—• — ■■— -, afterwarda ynitMJ*

him he toated and drunk (John zix. ^L

MYRTLE (Isa. xli I<l)_i beantilul, h-
grant, and ornamental evergrepn. Grotai'
the myrtle are still found of apoolaw*
prowtb m some parts of .Tude» and aiimf^
ing latitudes; and for the rich hoe it tt«
greeu polished leaves, their agnoable bV***

MYS

and beautiful flowers, are used hjr the sacred
"writer in contrast with the noxious useless
briar, to illustrate the prosperity and glory of
the Church (Isa. Iv. 13 ; see also Isa. xli 19 ;
and Zech. L 8-11). The myrtle furnished the
■wreaths of ancient heroes and victors.
Branches of the mjrrtle were gathered, among
others, to cover the booths and tents of the
Jews at the celebration of the feast of taber-
nacles (Lev. xxiii. 40 : comp. Neh. viii.
15).

MYSIA (Acts xvi. 7) — a province of Asia
Minor, and at this day a beautiful and fertile
country. It has the sea of Propontis on the
north, Lydia on the south, and Bythinia on
the east In the northern section of Mysia
was the province in which the ancient city of
Troy was situated, and not far distant was
the Troas mentioned by Paul (Acts zvL 8; xx.
6; 2 Cor. ii. 12; 2 Tim. iv. 13).

MYSTERY— oonceo/meTit. The uses of this
word are not uniform in the New Testament.
It does not always denote, as in common
English discourse, what is obscure and un-
intelligible or incomprehensible, but only what
was unknown or secret till it was discovered
or revealed. In 2 Thess. ii. 7 the phrase,
" mystery of iniquity," refers to secret, and,
in the apostle's time, yet undeveloped apos-

' NAA

tasy. In Matt. xiii. 11^ "It is riven unto
you to know the mystenea of the Kingdom of
heaven, but to them it is not given,*' the
meaning is, that the disciples were privileged
to know in a more perfect form the deeper
truths of the new dispensation than the pro-
miscuous and imthinkm^ multitude. (So, too,
in Mark iv. 11 ; Rom. xl 25.) In 1 Cor. xiv»
2, it signifies truths wrapped in some obscurity.
It often refers to the meaning couched under a
significant symbol (Eph. v. 32; Rev. i 20).
It also denot^ the Grospel or New Economy, as
having been long concealed, but at length
brought to light (Eph. iiL 9; Col. L 26; Eph.
vi 19; CoLu.2;Eph.iii4;lTim.iii9). In
some of these verses we have such phrases as,
the "mystery of faith." "mystery of the Gros-
pel," "mystery of God," "myste^ of Christ."
The term describes in other sections some of
the loftier, more abstruse, and transcendental
doctrines of the Gospel — ^the incarnation, as in
1 Tim. iii 16 ; the resurrection, as in 1 Cor.
XV. 51; tha rejection of Israel, as in Rom.
xi. 25. Lastly, it seems to denote the cycle of
God's secret purpose — "The mjrstery of God
shall be finished" (Rev. x. 7), his whole hidden
plan of counsel and operation, which gradually
manifests its final result, as we perceive in
Rev. xi 15.

N

NAAMAN (2 Ki. v. 6)— a Syrian cen-
eral of distinction (2 Ki v. 1), who applied
to the prophet Elisha to relieve him of the
white leprosy with which he was severely
afiiicted. The pleasures of his high station
were marred by this nauseous malady. All
means of remedy had been exhausted ; and he
was induced to make the application in con-
sequence of what was said to his wife about
the prophet by a little girl who had been
taken captive from among the Israelites, and
was living in the general's family. Hiunble
instrumentality may be blessed to accomplish
a great end. The great man in his desperation
stooped to hearken to his youthful slave ; and
takLi^ with him a letter of introduction from
the king of Syria to the king of Israel (sup-
posing, perhaps, that the king of Israel would
Know what prophet was meant, and would have
influence over him), Naaman ascended his
chariot, and with much pomp (2 Ki v. 9,
13) went to the king of Israel, who resided in
Sunaria. The king of Israel expressed his
surprise and eneief that the king of Syria should
send him such a letter ; and it was soon noised
abroad that the Syrian general was at the
palace, and for what purpose he had come.
£liBha sent word to the king that he need not
be concerned ; if the leprous stranger would
oome to him, he should see that there was a
prophet in Israel So Naaman applied to
felisha, and was directed merely to wash seven
times in the river Jordan, lliis simple remedy
seemed to Naaman altogether inadeauate. H
the mere washing of the body would suffice,

there were waters in Syria purer and more
salutary than all the waters of IsraeL Why
then make a journey to Samaria to wash in
the Jordan ? He was about to leave the p\woe
in indication, when some of his retinue
very wisely suggested to him, that if the
prophet had proposed some expensive or diffi-
cult remedy, he would have tried it at once ;
and surely ne could not refuse to try one
which was so simple, and which, whether
successful or not, would cost neither toD nor
money. Thus they persuaded him to follow
the prophet's prescription; and. upon washing
in the Jordan seven times, his nesh and health
were perfectly restored. Deeply impressed
with tne power of the God of Israel, by which
his loathsome disease was thus suddenly cured,
he offered a reward to Elisha, which he promptly
declined. He then voluntarily promisea to
renounce all his idolatrous practices; and
asked for a quantity of earth from the soil on
which the prophet and the people of God
dwelt, perhttps that he might bulla with it an
altar to the God of Israel; and so tender had
his conscience become, that he feared even to
attend his master the king in his idolatrous
services, as his official duty required, without
asking beforehand if such attendance might be
pardoned. He is supposed in Jewish trsiaition
to have been the person who, at the battle of
Ramoth-gilead, "drew a bow at a venture,"
and smote Ahab. Perhaps this is the event
ijluded to in the phrase, "by him the Lord
had nyen deliverance unto Syria" (2 Eli v. 1).
(See KLTflHA.)

455

NAB

NABAL— /ooi (1 Sam. xxr. 3)— • very
yre$Xthr dtizen of Maon. When David was in
the wildemeflB of Paran, Nabal was in the
vicinity of ("annel, a pUce west of the Dead
Hvtkf nnearing his sheen, of which he had no
leas than 3,000. David sent ten of his young
men to ask him for supplies in the most
courteotis manner; but Naoal, who was pro-
verbially churlish, refused, in the most offemiive
terms, to grant his request. David imme-
diatelv ordered 400 of his men to arm themselves
and rollow him to the place where Nabal
lodged, intending to de<itroy him and all that
jiertained t^) him. When they drew near,
Abigail, the discreet and beautiful wife of this
son of Ik'lial, was admonished of their purpose.
She nromntlv ma<le up a present, and, witnout
the KnowIe<lge of her husband, set forth to
meet David, with her servants and with asses
t4> bear the giftii. When David met her, she
showed him the most profound reverence, and
so entirely conciliaton him, that he received
her present, and gave her his blessing. When
Abigail returned, she found her husband at
the feast which he had made at his own house ;
and she deferreil communicating to him the
history and result of her embassy until he
should recover from the effects of his indul-
gence. He had no sooner received hor state-
ment, than, in consequence of the terror and
shock which the communication gave him,
he was seized with a severe illneKS, which
]>roved fatal at the end of ten days. (Sec
ABTG.\ir«)

NAHOTK -frnit (I Ki. xxi. 1) -an Israelite
of the town (»f Jezrvel, who owm-il a vineyanl
ailjoining the palaoo of kini,' AhaK Anxious
to secure thin particular H])ot, that he mii^ht
use it for a ganlt-n, the kiiii^ pn)i)osed to buy
it, or give him wiine other i»r«)i>erty of equal
vahio; but Nalntth declined to ]»art with his
patrimony, to tin* yroat disappointment and
mortiHcati( m < )f tin? wicked monarch. J ezcl n'l,
his more wicked wife, immediately fonned a
cold-bl(M)ded and exeenible X)lan to take tlie :
life of Natxith, in wliieh she succeeded; and ,'
so Ahab o)>tained posHCH.^ion of his inlieritanee.
ITie proiwrty of persons convicte<l of hi^li
treason Kc^-niH then, an now, to have been
forfeited t4 1 tl le en > w n. (S w A H A B, J EZEBi: l. )
NADA15- //i;/7. 1. (l^-v. X. 12) A son of
Aanm, C(jnHuiue<l by the anger of (jihI. (See
Amur.)

2. (1 Ki. XV. 2^t) 'File son and successor of
•Teroboani, kin^ of Israel ; reijriie<l two years.
Ilis reign was wi<ke<l and corrupt, an«l he was
finally asstossinated while ]>nisecuting the siege
of (iil)bethon. a Philistine city.

NA<J(iK (Luke iii. 2."))— same name as the
Hebrew Nogah. 'IMiis ancestor of Clm«t lived
al)out thf^ time of Onias I.

NAHALAFj (Josh. xxi. .35)— a J^'vitical ;
city in Zobulon, identified with the ni<idem
Malul, a hamlet in tlie valley of Ksdraelon.

^AHAIAVaTj -torrctiiJt of Orni (Num. xxi.
3I>) — one of the Jsraelitish encampments t<»wanl
the end of the wanderings ; supposed to be the
^ Wady Enchiehy which runs into the Anion.
4()0

NAI

^XUASB—mrpemL 1. (SeeAMKomm)

2L Supposed bj sdom to be anotlier mbb
for JesM : by ottien, Nabaah is tdkcB to bt
the wife of Jene and mother of David (i
2 Sam. xviL 25 with 1 Chr. iL 13, U, IQ.

NAHOR (Gen. zi 2S), or NACHOB (JoA.
zxiv. 2), was the name of Abraham's aairi-
f ather, and also the name of one of AbraiB^
brothers (Gen. zL 9Q, idio manied '^EkAt
the daughter of Haxan (Gen. zi. 291 He
lived at Haran; which is thence calbd "tlM
city of Xahor" (Gen. zzir. 10).

NAHSHON (NmDL tiL 12)-son of Ab-
minadab, and head of the tribe of Jnddi,
made the first offering for the tabensck ■
the wilderness. He u the only one of te
heads of tribn who is nut called a pcines ii
the history of this tranaaction. FtofasUy te
omission was designed ; as to be the hesd d
the tribe of Jadah was, from the pre-emiaaei
of that tribe, a sufficient honoar.

NAHUM-CDs^ofeer (Nah. i. l)-a wkifi
of £l-Kosh, a village usually placed in Gsiiht.
There is considerable diversity of opimoa si to
the time in which he lived; and some ttm
place £l-KoBh in Amyria^

Xahum, prophect of, is the thirb^-fbuAii
the order of the books of the Old TrsTsmfflf
Though divided into three chapters, it ii a
continuous poem of unrivalled smrit and mb*
limity, and admirable for the el^ance of ill
imagery. Richness and originality are fosii
in every verse, with a moduuted and
riiythuL His figures are very grspfiie, ad
his boldest delineations are sketcheom ihort
sentences (ch. i. 2, 4, 5). The third cfaa|jls ■
a very striking description of a siege-tie
rattle of the war chanot, the gleam of Ike
sword, the trench fiUud with oorasei, tk
ferocity of the successful invaders, SepoBe
of the defeated, the vain attempts to reooild
the crumbling battlements, final overthmr
and mm.

Tlie prophecy relates chiefly to the deitoi>
tion of the ma;,^ificent city of Nineveh, wlndi
had been propheided by Jonah neariy a cental
before. These predictions, it is supposed, inn
made in the reign of Hezekiah, and hsTebMS
remarkably fuliilled, both as to the fact ui
tlie manner of their fulfilment. The dty d
Nineveh was destroyed about a century sfttf
the ]>rophccy of Nahum was uttered; and*
c<.)mplete was its overtlirr>w, that the flV
on which it stood has been matter uf ■■*
c«>njecture for nearly, or quite, sixteea e»
tunes. Nahum, for fervid iwiAginftty*, Md
clear and impressive description, is the pisfii
among the minor prophets. (Se« NiSBVM.)

XAIL (Ezra ix. 81. Travellen tdl n^
what we might infer from the frail matoiih
and weak construction of Eastern dveObii^
that the nails or spikes which are neotsaoT*
hang up garments, curtains, and uUamS^d
various kinds, are not driven in, bntareM
in firmly with the wall in the prooe« d ^
erection. They are largo, and being ■> o*
spicuous, they are well finiftl)^ xhe fipn» d
the figure in the above passfie ii obiM

NAt

inAsmach as the n&il being not, like ours,
easily drawn and placed elsewhere, was a part
' of the fabric itself, and could only be removed
with the wall itself, or some part of it. Hence
the word in the margin is rendered, " a con-
stant and sure abode'' (see also Zech. x. 4).
The nail with which Jael killed Sisera was a
tent pin, with which the cords of a tent are
fixed to the ground.

NAIN — btauty (Luke viL 11) — a village of
Galilee, south of mount Tabor, and but a
little distance from Capernaum, still called
Nein. The place is distinguished as the scene
of one of Christ's most remarkable and affect-
ing miracles. Sepulchral caves abound on the
west side of the village (Luke viL 11-15).

NAIOTH (1 Sam. xix. 22)— a part of the
town of Ramah : or, as the word signifies,
the habUatUma of Ramahy — where a school of
the prophets was established.

NAKED (Gen. ii 25|. In the Bible it often
signifies not undressed or without clothing,
but merely without the upper garment. In
1 Sam. xix. 24, Saul lay prostrate without his
tonic, and he is said to be "naked." In Isa.
XX. % the prophet is said to have walked
"naked" — ^that is, without his outer mantle.
Peter is said, in John xxL 7, to have " girt his
filler's coat unto him, for he was naked ;" his
robe had been laid aside to enable him to work
at his net without hindrance and restraint.
The term is also used of one half clothed or
poorlv clothed. " If a brother or sister be
naked'* (Jas. ii 15) — that is, in want of suf-
ficient clothing. So in Isa. Iviii 7; 2 Cor.
XL 27. The term is also used figuratively.
The "nakedness of the land" (Gen. xlii 9]
b its povert]^ or defenceless state. Hie word
Wfnetmiies signifies open, manifest, or un-
oovered (Job xxvi 6; Heb. iv. 13). It is
employed by the prophets to represent the
exposure and de^ptdation of idolatry and
apostasy (Ezek. xvi. 3G; Rev. xvL 15). iNaked-
nesB of the feet was a token of reverence. To
_ ** uncover the nakedness" is unlawful or in-
oertuoos union (Lev. xx. 19)-

NAME (Gen. ii. 19). This word, in some

passages of Scripture, has a peculiar significa-

tton, as in Prov. xviii. 10, where the term

denotes virtually God himself, with all his

Sttributes and perfections. The names of

God are expressive of some element of his

ehairacter>-are the symbol of some revealed

attribute of his nature. We name him only

because we know him, and we know him only

because he has made himself known. (See also

l^ XX. 1, 5, 7.) In the New Testament^ it

often means the character, faith, or doctnne

of CliriBt (Acts V. 41 ; viii. 12 ; ix. 15; xxvi. 9).

N'ames among the Jews were often given in

^llnsion to some x)eculiar circumstances in the

^!Aiaracter, birth, or destiny of the individual

CSzod. ii 10, and xviii 3, 4) ; and sometimes

^hey had a prophetic meaning (Matt, i 21).

^f any instances occur in S^ipture of the

^Bme person having two names. Names were

^dumged. and are still, in Eastern countries,

slignt reasons. A change of office or

NAT .

station often occasioned a change of namot
The child was named often by the parents,
either father or mother. Examples of the
latter are found in Gen. xix. 37, SIS; xxix. 32;
and of the former, in Luke i 63. The name
of one's ancestors or kinsmen was often given
to diildren (Luke i 61). Name in the New
Testament sometimes signifies person, as in
Acts i 15. The phrases, "in the name of
Grod," and " to the name of God," are quite
distinct in the original languages of inspiration,
but often confounded in our version. They
are also different in meaning. To do a thing
in Grod's name, is to do it b^ his authority ; to
do it to his name, is to do it for the advance-
ment of his honour, &c.

The phrase, " upon his thigh a name writ-
ten" (Kev. xix. 16) alludes to an ancient custom
in the Eastern nations of adorning Uie persons
of princes and heroes with inscriptions ex-
pressive of their character, titles, &a (See
Stone, Thick.)

NAOMI (Ruth i 2)— the wife of Elimelech,
and the mother-in-law of Kuth, who moved wi^
their two sons from Judea to Moab. Elime-
lech died, and also his two sons, each leaving a
widow; and Naomi having thus been left
alone, returned to her home in Judea. So
severe had been her afflictions, that she proposed
to her friends on her return to call h^ Mara
which signifies biUer) rather than Naomi
which signifies beaiUiful) (Ruth i 19-21).
See Ruth.)

NAPHTALI (Gen. xxx. 8), or NEPH-
THALIM-weft^in^ (Matt. iv. 15)— a son of
Jacob by Bilhah.

Nafhtali, tbibe of, received their portion
of the promised land in the northern part,
between the Jordan on the east and the pos-
sesions of Asher on the west. It was one of
the most fruitful sections of the coimtry, and
included the sources of the Jordan (Josh,
xxi 32-39; Deut. xxxiii 23|. The figurative
langua^ in which the benediction of Jacob is
expressed, " Naphtali is a hind let loose : he
giveth goodly words " (Gen. xlix. 21), implies
the increase, power, and prosperity of the
family of Naphtali The city of Capernaum,
where Christ resided and taught so much, was
situated in the borders of Zebulun and Naph-
tali, near Tiberias. Hence the language of the
prophet, Isa. ix. 1. (See Hart.)

NATHiN-f7>ren (2 Sam. vii 2)-a dis-
tinguished prophet, who lived in the reign of
David, and enjoyed a large share of his con-
fidence. To him David first intimated his
design to build the temple; and he was
divinely instructed to inform the king that
this honour was not for him. but for his pos-
terity. Nathan was also cnarged with the
Divine message to David, upon the occasion of
his sin against Uriah, which he conveyed
under a most beautiful and significant allegory,
and by which he cautiousl3r and sahitarily
made the king to condemn nimself. Nathan
was one of David's biographers, — perhaps one
of the national annalists. His courage and
fid^ty in reproving his sovereign, whose

457

(] Chr. I

KAT
dvDce he mjoveil, hv beyond all pt«i*t

'-. ai). Then) tn levwal othL-ra of

.ncntiuncd in the Bible, of who»

history He ore uniiifuniiiKi ['i Ham. ». U; xxm.
30; 1 Clir. xi. M; Ktn, viiL It;; Luke iiL 31).
(SeeSoMiMoN.)

HATHAKAEL-jTi/f of God [John L <5)-
flne of tiiii twelve diwijJn), Li iiiipiniiied to b(
tbemunevritli Itartluilmiiew. {Sl-l- DakthoLO'
MEW.) lie wu ciillvit iipnn by I'hilip to go
with him an<l we tlie MvhuIi, who hmd juiil
•jipoan-d. Xatlmniu'l eeema tu have tluubted
ha friemru tvAtiniony ; but, to resolve hii
doulitu, Liiiunitnl touxutnpsnyhim. As the}
&pi>n>iu:lieil the Mef>i<iah, he rrcriveil tho moot
eniiihaUc te»titiiitty tu hie inti^ty that cui
ba firtmd uii recuni (John 1. 17). Jenis un tliii
OGOuuiin UeclATFit liiH own omiiindence ; for he
piuteuira ti> koiwhii chanictfr ■nil heart »t
thnr flnt Interviii*, and axiurea liini that his
newMUimn him umlera %-tree, beneath the
abadf a( wliii-h he bwl lauuiljly been en^-ngcd
in reli;d<niH vxiTriw* (John L M). Xalhanael
«M umvinvi'il, and soknowledpHi him as tha
tme Mewnuh. <.'hri>t tlwreiiiiun am-urcd hin
in mhrtiuica tliat he should see still mor
cnnTJndnji evidences uf liis Meuiahiihiii.
AnnmK tliucc ifrvatcr evidence:! niav have been
tu events reconleil. Matt ia 17; iv. ll;ii.-ii
S; Jolin ri. Ai; xii. ■m^\.

NATIUNS, DIVISION OF. The uunea
an (rfn-n in the t^-uth chapter o( tieneiiiii.
Hatiy uf tbe pnfHT namra nociirrinB im this
mil remain iinnhnnscd as die apiieUatinn of
RKM ODtl Iiinuiliatii'. (>th<iv an found in the
iduntl nr dtisl numliiT, |iAivii^; that tliey U-ar
a penuuul and uiitinnal lefFrvniN'; ami a tlijril
clan liuvi- tluit jifvidiar termination whicL in
Hrlin-u- \vt,-ir winiilies a trjit or triW.

TUe p-neral trtitbn etintaiucil in this Inlilical
rtateniiiit )i»v<- mni-n themselves into tliv
tnulitiiiiiK of all the IjixtiTn nutUHw. Atahi;i,
India, VnAn, and Hiina are rvplet*! villi
them, 'lluir iniiple U'licvc iu an early
triinrtite i4x-uiiatii>u of the world -thesoiiHof
IlamjiaK-in^southwaTil. fruni tlie ivKion of the
duicasiiii. ti- the distant extreuiitim uf we«teni
Asiaaiul intfi IniniinK Africa; tlKiaeof SAumi
UnKrrin^ aluiiit the Kiipbratvn an<l tbeo-ntral
poTtii>n:< of t)»! Ai-iatie continent ; wlule tliu
laceof Ja|divt c-diiuiiml tlic northern lihdnsof
Aida, ninrrhiHl ovit to tlut (irei'ian Isles, and
thenee to the Knnipean territory. Much
exists lu featureji, iiilonr. liintury.aiid laniniaj^
Coirolmnitive uf this first anil liricf fragment
of gcin.Tiiidiy ami rtaUstics. " By the»u were
the nati-ins diviileil in the earth after the
llooil " — " after thiir families, after their
lon^uei, in tlivtr lands." We cannot identify
y portion of the cliart, ' ■ —

<A Boeluirt. Itoeenmilllcr, Midiaelis, Tuch,
Geaeniiis, I'lAt, vun Boblen, Winer, and other
Mholan, and its conclusiuni are strengtbeneil
hj the recent dediictii>na (if comiiarative |diilo-
Ingy, and the ailvnnreil results (H phyuulo^col
(nvestijiatiun and discovery.

NAT

Javha'i uiTn.
L Gomeb; Cimmorialia north of the W»i*
Sea. Br » commoa traiupmitxM 4
letters, the name may be realiud ia tk
term Crimea. To the nme source w
be traced the Cimbri of ancient JntW
and the Celtic nations, who called tk»
selvee by the ci^natc term Kjmr. B»
lated to them an,^

1. AAktruu: perhapa between Anneniaaf

tlie Black Sea. The Hrbns bm
scarcely diaeuidcd, may h« faoni] a b
formiir name of the Black 8e«i

2, Bipkath: the fnbalritaDU of the If.
hvan mnnntainiL Hie name is sc■^
what laily nsed to dgmfy a duii i

Z. TOgnmak : Araieiiia (Enk. xarin. H

The Armeniaua call themadM tb

" House of ThopKom."

IL MAGOO:CaiicanisaDd vicinity. Scrthias

or the Memsolian tribes. " Goi, IhsW

-' Magog" (Elelc. -'= **■ •- -^

thefirstsyUa

III. MaDai : the Medea.

IV. JAVA.H or ISK: loniana or Gneka h
F^anscrit, Javana is the name of tfatr
West, or Greece. AHibI to them aic,—

I. EiHlmh: EUia or Hellas, the Gtsdl
dwelling on the west oa«t iS theHr

S. Tii'-iAitA.'Tartenna.intbeaiMitkiBJeM
of Spun— the iwion where tbe n«-
cians first planted colonies,

3. KiltiiH : the inhabituiu of Cypra^ ■
other Greek ialonds.

1. TtodaiuBi .- Dodonici, in Enims.

V. Tubal: the Tibnreni, in Pontiu.

VI. KIekhech: the Mouhi, in tbe iSa^k
inountiuni, between Iberia, Anaemia
ColcliU

Vn. TiHAS: the Thraciani: or pnhaH*
titvellers on the river Tlras, the DnW
The Dames are identical, the On«*l
Samech being replaced by x in the Gni
alphabet.

I. Ccsh: the KtLiupians and SonthenAi*
iaiis. I.uther renden this tens bj A
expressive German word IJohitBasi-
land of Moors, Kegroliuid. It i> pin

liiscolour! lluit the Ciuhiteswerc[a-.

in Arabia as well as Africa, and Mitk

Ethiopia of Scripture is used wiA ^

wide rianifiMince, apiwara from the tJ^

ing table of the descendants at CtA •

i* verified obio by HerMdotus, who ^

of Kthiopions fnim Asia and frunUf^

Their dtBcendanta wer«,—

L Xinrod, Uie first king of Sb;M^-i*'

Ilabylon and Mesoputomia. la Ga t

8. Kimrod is mentioned a* a •»•

Cuah; but the niMle id alha* ^

NAT

not in the usual form. It seems to
imply tbat Nimrod was audacious and
adventurous— that he refused to foUow
the rest of his race in their southward
progress, but went eastw^ard to found a
kingdom for himself, and at Babel to
establish a central monurchy, in order to
frustrate the Di vine command to disperse
and populate the world. The design of
the uuilders of Babel is expressed in
these words, — "Lest we be scattered
abroad upon the face of the whole earth."
Nimrod resisted the purpose of heaven ;
but his efforts were defeated by the
special intervention of the Alnughty
Legislator.

2. Sd>a: Meroe. It is joined with Gush and

Egyiit in Isa. xliii. 3.

3. HavUah: Cliaulotsei, in Southern Arabia,

or on the Persian Gulf.

4. Sabta: Sabota, in Southern Arabia.

5. Raamah: Bhegma, in the south-east of

Arabia.

a. SJidniy probably a tribe in South
Arabia.

6. Dtdan: Daden, an island in the Per-
sian Gulf.
(S. Sabtecha, on the east coast of Ethiopia.
J. MizBAiH: the Egyptians. The name is

yet preserved in the word Misr, the city

of Cairo. Allied by blood and descent to

them were, —

1. Ludinij \ African tribes on the fron-

2. Anamim, f tiers of Egypt and Barbary.

LuDiM IS associated with Cusu and
Phut in Jer. xlvi. 9 ; but the word is in
our English version imtiroperly rendered
"Lydians."

3. Lehahim or LuJbim : the Libyans.

4. Naphiuhim: the inhabitants of the pro-

vmce of Nepht}^s.

6. Pathrasim: the inhabitants of the Egyp-

tian nome of Pathures.
C CaMlvhim: the term cannot refer^ as is
ordinarily supposed, to the Colchians of
Asia Minor, as, according to tradition,
they were a military colony planted
by the Pharaoh whom the Greek authors
term Sesostris. According to some Egy^p-
tologers, the Hebrew word KSLHim,
would, in the phonetic hieroglyphics,
read as Shillou-xah, the land of the
Shilliiughs — dwellers among the oases,
and in portion of Barbary. The Ber-
bers, says an Eastern author, descend
from Kesloudim, son of Mizraim. Their
offspring are noted as, —
a. Philistiniy the Philistines.
h. CapfUorim, the Cretans.
DL Phut: Mauritania. The name is now
softened, as in so many of these southern
tongues, into Fez. CusH and Phut stand
in Jer. xlvi 9 as a general term for Africa,
or at least such portions of it as are not
comprehended in Egypt.
LY. Canaan gave his name to the country
between the Mediterranean Sea and the
Jordan. His colonies were, —

NAZ

L The SidonianSf on the northern borders of
Canaan.

2. The HiUitea^ in the country of Hebron,

south of Jerusalem.

3. The JebuaiteSf in and around Jerusalem.

4. The Amoriles, on the east and west side of

the Dead Sea.

5. The Oirgoiitea, in the middle of the

country.

6. The ffivite8f on the river Hermon and in

the valle3rs of Lebanon.

7. The ArkUea^ at the foot of Lebanon.

8. The SiniteSf in the district of Lebanon.

9. The ArvadUes, on the Phoenician island

of Aradus and the o^iposite coast.
10. The Zemaritea, the inhabitants of the

Phoenician town of Sim3rra.
IL The HamtUhiteSf the inhabitants of the

Syrian town of Epiphania on the Or-

ontes, the eastern limit of Northern

Palestine.

Shemitbs.

I. Elau : the inhabitants of the province of

Elymais — Persia.

II. AssHUB: the Assyrians.

III. Arphaxad : the mhabitants of the north-
em part of Assyria. One of his descend-
ants was

Saluhf from whom sprung
£ber^ progenitor of the Hebrews, and from

him
o. Felifff and
b, Joktaiiy called by the Arabians KatcK-

tan, ancestor of the following Antb

tribes : —

1. Almodad — middle of the province of Ye-

men.

2. SheUph, the Selapenes in Nedj or Tehama,

in Southern Arabia.

3. Hazarmavethf the inhabitants of the Ara-

bian province of Hbadramaut, Atramitae.

4. Jerah, the inhabitants of the mountains

of the Moon.

5. Hadoram: unknown.

6. Usal : the country of Sanaa in Southern

Arabia.

8* CM^* } °°* ^^y recognized.

9. Ahimad,

10. Sheba, Sabians in Southern Arabia.
XL OphiVy El-Ophir, in the Arabian Pro-
vince of Oman.

12. Havilah^ the province of Chaulan, in

Southern Arabia.

13. Jobaby the Jobabites, on the Gulf of Sal-

achitis, between Hhadramautand Oman.

IV. Lud: Lydiaj anciently called Maeonia.

V. Aram: of Syria and Mesopotamia. Claim-
ing affinity of blood and oesccnt were, —

1. UZy the mhabitants of a district in the

north of Arabia Deserta.

2. Huly perhaps the inhabitants of Coelo-

Syria.

3. Oether: unknown.

4. Mashy the inhabitants of a part of the

Goraisean mountains — probably Mons
Masius.

459

NAZATIEXF. Ohtt. iL Zt)-
nt N'uari'tli. Oiii' -if thu namej
(Hit till) ft'lj-u - -

..i".,fNl«

iviibsjiility in, thnt tbr n-titinire in rather to
tbe vmeraj ciim-nt iif iicoiiliiTy rtrijM'ctinB
tba hnuiblv uiil ■b'ri|ii>ca cnnititjiin nf Chmt.
Ottirrw mii|aiiiv<1 it ninnueted with Srl^rr a
Itniuih— u tuuiii' j^vm tu the cumins ^Mi-mriitli
in tbc (Mil TrKtuiii'Dt 1 and tliey think tlmt
'Samrran in mily a. (im-k form uf tlip dil
Hclin-H- ai'iH-Uiiti-.D. The ntrnt, an lUriveJ
fnmi tbi- lilive uf lil* n-^lMiri-. apiilied tu
Jcimii may havi- ■irit^nnlly l">ni>^ nii bail i.r
u>nt«ui4u<iiiH luuuiiiu; ; Iiut an N:<iiirvth wuh
• pWv miHiti- itiul iilMciin% of Uiix<il iIi:ili-vC
uid taiuteil lihHiil, the tenn lievanio r>no uf
obkKiayand Hcurtu Tu "canuout nf Nnzor-
flth. uT tu fiu a Noxarene. TLThliTetl 4>zbu aa

NAZARETH {Mi.ti

known aa Niwsera, or' Xun-toIi. It wu nritcd
fur Jtii wii:hn]n<-»i (JuLn I 4C). It uCLiiiuea'an
vIvvHlvd Mte aluut midway lictwitn DioiiDt
Tabur ami Cuia. Jeaiu ■pent much of his
time here ; and hence the title " Jems of

Nuanth" (Mark xtI S: Lnin uir. Bi
Acta ii. 23).

A precipice of M feet, whicfc E« (M*
mile trum the village, ii regarded h ^J^
bi wbii'h tha people d the tcmt canMMI
with the aavage intention of -'-*=-jt ka 'M
(Lukeiv. m Thiaepot, .elected bTB^
tradition aa the icene of the fniicw <■*
Aoct not corresiiuud to tlie iiuTatiT& B»l*
iltBtant from the city. It ie indeed • |i^
eiquerock, and overluoka the plainof Ednas
but itj pinition does not identify it wiA tj
frnm wnioh the enrved inhAbi^ab a^
have thruwn the Saviour. They bdJOT"
the "bruw of the liill on which thrirafl*
Imilt;" not tu ■ rovk •! milei Ktvf. >•*
is nri need of gnat Miarch to aiceHMitttS
■•icality, for the hill on which the 'W
Htondi, in the aunth-weat part of lit IM
"break! oD in a perpendicular viA,'''
SO feet in height." HobinMsi mji M*
niiliuod " BFveral other ptecinoel ■ .■'
wMtem hill around the villue. naii'
llomon CaChiilio chureh hen, eJt^ *■
'■ Church of the Annunciatinn.'' m«>^f
they »«y, on the eiwt wbere Mary th« ■•!
cif fiur Jjord recuived tfas divine "•^'•Hj
ia the meat motiuficent chnrch is lb li^
except that of the Holy Snnk'hie ri ^
■alem. The tnditinna c/ the itili^'
reaiwcting the fonntwn of Uary, thi ktf *

NAZ

oeeph, and the tyraiaogat where Christ
ftugnt, are not worthy of record.

Chie traveller speaks of the streets ae narrow
nd steep; the houses, which are flat-roofed,
re aboat 250 in number: and the inhabitants
e estimates at 2,000. Tne population of the
•laee is variously stated, though the average
Btimate is 3,000. We subjoin a few sentences
rem Dr. Wilson : —

"When we got to the Wall NabilsmkiL on
he top of the hill over Nazareth, we had on
11 sides of us a most glorious prospect The
phere of observation is here as much enlarged
B bdow it is contracted. To the north-west
f vm, overlooking a part of the country con-
idenblT wooded, we had the bay of *Akk&
nd Half ^ with the clear blue expanse of the
fiediterTaneaiL or Great Sea of the Hebrews,
Dffoading itself in the distance beyond. South
I iUs, and striking to the south-east, we had
ke whole ridge of Garmel before us, which,
longfa stripped of much of the glory of its
Iden forests, still presents striking memorials
f that 'excellency' for which it was so dis-
ngmshed. To the south and south-west of
I, somewhat circular in its form, is seen here,
>iinded by the picturesque mountains of
imaria, the 'great plain,* the battle-field of
le country both in ancient and modern times,
id probably the real or typical site of the
hfctle of Armageddon. To the east and south-
st of us we had the little Hermon, which,
ough bald on its crown, has considerable
fpetotion on its shoulders; mount Tabor,
uiding apart in its own nobility, and^ like
.ture*s own pyramid, not commemorative of
Athj but instinct with life, and clothed with
xonant verdure to its very summits ; and the
ep valley of the Jordan and the sea of
beriaa, with the equable hills and mountains

Bashui and Golan on its eastern side. To
e north, beyond the plain of el-Battauf, we
d the hills and mountains forming the con*
mation of the Lebanon ; and to the north-east,
oee forming the termination of the Anti-
sbanon, with Jabel esh-Sheikh, the true
ermon, the chief of all the mountains of the
nd, moistened with the copious dews which
Boend frc»m his hoary locks. Many villages,
duding a considerable number mentioned in
ripture, were distinctly visible."
N^ZARITES, (Num. vi 2, &c.) The
rm is derived from a Hebrew word signifying

S€parate, A Nazarite — and either man or
mian might take the vow — under the ancient
NT, was one engaged by a vow to abstain from
ne and all intoxicating liquors, and every
rm of vineyard fruit, natural or prepared ; to
; the hair grow; not to enter any house
Unted by having a dead body in it, nor to be
eaent at any fimeral. If, by accident, any
e should have died in his or her presence,
0 Nazarite was bound to recommence the
lole term of consecration and Nazariteship.
lis vow generally lasted eight days, some-
nas a month, and sometimes during life.
ben the time of Nazariteship had expired,
9 person brought an offering to the temple;

NEB

the priest then cut off his hair and burnt it;
after which the Nazarite was free from his vow,
and mi^t again drink wine, (Num. vi) Per-
petual Nazarites were consecrated as such by
their parents from their birth, and continued
all their lives in this state, neither drinking
wine nor cutting their hair. Such were Samson
and John the Baptist (Judg. xiii. 4, 5; Luke
i 16; vii 33).

Those who made a vow of Nazariteship out
of Palestine, and could not come to the temple
when their vow had expired, contented them-
selves with observing the abstinence required
by the law, and cutting off their hair in the
place where they were. The offerings and
sacrifices, prescribed by Moses to be offered at
the temple by themselves or by others for
them, they deferred till a convenient oppor-
tunity. Hence Paul, being at Gorinth, and
having made a vow like that of a Nazarite.
had his hair cut off at Genchrea, but deferrea
the complete fulfilment of his vow till he came
to Jerusalem (Acts xviiL 18). Why tlus vow
was made by Paul we know not, unless it
was upon his deliverance from some imminent
danger, and to conciliate the Jews by comply-
ing with a very solemn and salutary require-
ment of their rituaL The "charges** (Acts
xxi 24) were for offerings required at the
completion of the vow. The Nazarites con-
stituted a sect or a class by themselves, like the
Eropheto, and were examples of self-denial and
oly living (Amos ii. 11, 12). It does not seem
that Moses encouraged such acts of private
consecration, as the^ might easily degenerate
into ascetic fanaticism. What was the truth
meant to be symbolized in the wearing of
unshorn hair? Some say it was a badge of
entire subjection to the law of God, as the
woman's hair is spoken of by the apostle as a
token of subjection to her husband, and is
called "power upon her head" (1 Gor. xi.
10). Others suppose that as sucn long hair
was contrary to the world's fashion, it denoted
separation from the world. As hair, says
another, corresponds to fruits and blossoms
from the earth, the sweeping locks of the
Nazarite imaged the flowers and growth of

NEAPOLIS— 7MW tovm (Acts xvi. 11)— a
city of Macedonia, on the Egean coast, known
in modem times as Napoli, Paul visited it
on his way to Philippi. It is represented by
the modem Garalla.

NEBAIOTH (Isa. Ix. 7), or NEBAJOTH
(Gen. XXV. 13) — a son of Ishmael, whose
descendants are supposed to have settled in
Arabia, and to have been the Nabatheans of
Greek and Roman history. Their territory
was in Northern Arabia, and reached from the
Euphrates to the top of the Elanitic Gulf
Petra was its capital They were probably
rich in flocks and herds, and they transported
to the west the precious commerce of India.
Their opulence and grandeur may have
suggested to the prophet the beautiful figure
above dtedj, respecting the gathering of the
G€a[itile nations to the sceptre of the Messiah.

461

(

iehbooT-

NEB
NEIMX 1 (Tteat. iiiiL 49) One of tba
miminiU of tho inciuiiUini of Aharim, or
PuRBh, the pe»k of which iiriTlonked the
whole Irniftli uiJ bre»i1th of the |ininiu«l luu)
(Deut. xxxiv. M). Thu rionaclij hu not
been fully iilentilied. 'See Zni

2. (.IfT. xlviii I) A ton-n in the neietitK
boni of mi>ant NVhi, the powejaiim of wl.
wu ointrMeil hy the tribe iif Ki'iiben ftnd the
HnaUt.-ri (Num. xiiiL 3S; 1m. it. 2; Jer.
xlviii. aS).

3. (IwL ilvL 1) The name of an idol, np-
puMil t.1 be the |iLmet Mi-mirr, uid woiv
■hijiiieil by the AMyriiinii and Itabyloniuu.
Tile name <-f thia nuA ii iiii:iir}»nte<l ' —

with the wi'nhiii of thitt divinity.
t(;in]>le VM Kt iViraifipo, and ita
:n.>«1i u the Uin Nimmud. Two
It uf Xi'loi niiLv lie Kcn in the Britiah
tSuellABiUK.)

HZB

inf ca to Ae •IHI& ba
the third year of J< '

veueli, ■■ bvqjiiaa to hi* M^itaL n* Wm
tiau nTerrign ma ao bnkcB bf- Ui Mm
that he ant na more inTadiBff anwi M
STiia. Hiitah«r, Nab>»idB«r.ha>i«M
NebuchadnaoH baatanadacM thTtal
with a portioB of hia tniopa to Bab;k^iri
aafely aaeended tb* thnma about ■. n M
Three yeai* afttnnrda Jcfaoialm nnM
and Phonicia abo naa to anna. K^«M
BeiBrataDoamvsatad 1>T«; and t*uiwfc
toJenualon withftpoaliimof Uafma^W

people of the land." Z»delSaK. «^MM
placed on the thtvtie, after b t^Mlnapf
nine yean, raroltad cm the grrmai « M
Egyptias aUiaiMW Tl»— *
aftnilhciap J' —

NBlUTCnAnNEraAn (2 KL xx\y. 1),
kinit of Itabylun. viu ram and Kiicci'winr «f
N^ifHibuHU'. Tile luinii' in Tarimi-itv Hprlletl,
and pruliaUy niiiuw the chief fitvinin-d by
Nebot Ni-lHiebailuf-xinr liviil alxxit GOl) voani
befnre the blrtli of Chrift. anil nb-ircd in Uie
adminliitniliiin (4 the ipivrmment alKiut twci
yeam lu-furo hi* fatlwrii iWiwv. Mt-nro tbi-re
u MHue divi-r^ity in tlw irhrrinnIi>Kir':il refi-r-
encaa to faiH nign ; wiii.u aaiiiHitinv' it from the
tinus of bill aiwirlatiiin with hii fatlior, nml
othuN bvim the time bin mili- niga (imiitiencvc)
(ciimii. IJan. il 1: Jit. ixv. 1). 11>< father,
Nabupoluur, havinff l.ikni Nineveh, IlubyloB
Tun at imci- tii [ire-ciiiinmi'e.

NabnchaJnciiar'it linit ounpt^ini va* nssinxt
Phanuiti-N'ix'hi^ whi> hod a Hburt time brfiire
defeated kirn; •luiiah at Mvviddu, ami, as the
fruit of his victory, helil all die muntry fmm
the RuphmteH tii KKy|>t Nfliuchwlneziv
uet and defcatrd him at Carcbeilutb. Match-

hia battlea. He cianxi b
capital, and fortified it>^>
great wall, which <?atka«
more than 50D 00a««t mj f
nvuoniT, developed tbe V*
caltund nannma ut ihn^
try, and conMrncted aqueincta uJ in
qnay* and canala. Babylon be<»e * '
city under hie munificence. Hit
hia warn muKt have *
he hiui myriiidi of foi „_
into bia acTviirf. and carry not biigaiwl
ti-cturol dentin. The Inicki dog -«it ^
eitennve niiDB bear only one inrni**'
" NclmchaJneuar, emi of XabopabHi- M

of Rnbylon." Babylon bu bren '

quarry, supplying material* fortbt
many tnwiu; and the briclci fMiL, .
rabbinh of a hundred eitve ban tk^
Ircend. He built a new i«laoe (f a^
diniengioni, rc-encted the ttVilJe «< •*
and the temple of Memdach at ^"'^
piled HP "hanging jardena" (or bi- V*
wife, —-*— "**"■!

■^k'^

the dtT, called the YapDr-Shaim. aai ^-
141 milea in circumference, at Sippatt- , .^^^
a proud yet not an im&niiidad bMal ^* *

lot this great BaGylan, that .
e house of the kingdum in the nugbt of
jwtT, and for the honour o( roy msijerty ? "
. 29, 30.) BeroBiu, u quoted W

hiu, confini

On 'the *^ Stwid»Ta
iption," Nebachodneziar haa mada ■
1 uf hia oigantic andertakinn.
lie douole enclmure which NibopoluBar
oomplcted, I

(for) s bnDeh of the Shimat to the waten of
ths Yapor-Sbapn, the great rewrroiT of fiaby-
lon, opposite to the gate of Nin.

''The Ingi:ir-Bel and ths Nimiti-BeLtlia
great double vail of Babflon, I finished. With
two long embankments of brick and mortar I
boilt the sides of its ditch. I joined it on with
that which my father had made. I strength-
ened the dtj. Aorosa the river to the west I
built the walls of Babvlon with bricks. The
Yapur-Sbapu, the reservoir of
Ssbylon. by tJie grace of Mero-
dach, I filled completely full of
water. With bncks burnt as
hard as stones, and with bricks

ed. Nabopolassar made its ditch. With
mg embankments of brick and mortar he
1 its bed. He made the embankment of
mkha. He lined the other dde of the
lates with brick. He made a bridge

the Euphrates but djd i

who ia the protectress of her

strengUiened. With that which

protectress of her vc

great gates of the Ingur-Bel
and the Nimiti-Bel, the reser-
voir of Babylon at the time of
'! the flood (liL, of fulness), innn-
I dated them. These gates I
raised. Againat the waters,
their fonndatiuoa with brick and
mortar I bnilt. (Hero fallows
a description of the gates, with
various architectural detail^ and
an account of the deoorotiona,
hangings, 4c.) For the delight
of mankind I filled the reser-
voir. Behold 1 besides the Ingur-Bel, ths
impr^nable fortification of Babylon, I con-
stnict«d inside Babylon, on the eastern ode of
the river, a fortification such as no king had
ever made before me— viz., a long rampart,
4,000 ammat square, as an
extra defence. I excavated
^^ the ditch. With brick and

mortar I bnund its bed. A
long rampart at its head (T)
I strongly built. I adorned
its ffat^ The folding-doors
and the pillars I plated with
copper. Against presump-
tuous enemloa, who were hos-
tile to the men of Babylon,
great waters, like the waters
of the ocean, I made use of
abundantly. Their depths
were like the depths of the
vast ocean. I did not allow
the waters to overBow ; but
ths fulness of their floods I
caused to flow, on restiajn-
[ddl. ing them with a brick em-

bankment. . . . Thus loom-
t fintBh its I pletelT made strong the defences of Babylon.
- -'aplaoe) May It last tor syerl"— Hawlit— '- •--'—

ihelptrf thagrsatkiTdUeiodBcli,a'wvl But in tbs midst cs liia pionwrit; a sbangt

diacMe. when he dsaeribM the kinf[, tomnli I
hU latter end, u nkvius and uttenng words

I mllu^a to thii
meluicholy p«we in his iiDiicrUl CMver :—

" Fiiur yean (7) the seat of my kin^om in
the city . . . which . . . did not rejoice (ray)
hvart. In all my doniiniuni I did not build a
liilfh i>lacenf |H>wrr; the precioug treMurei of
niy kinsilimi I did not lay up. In nabvlm,
building fur mynulf and the hcmour of my
kinplom I diil not lay uuL In the wonhip o!
Mvrodach, my lord, the joy of my heart (!);
in IJahyliiiL the city uf liu novereignty, and
the neat of my enigiire, 1 did nut line hia |

Iirauvii I?], and I ilid not fumuh his utan '
k c, with vii-timn). niir did I clear out the;
can^a." — Itaulinson'a^ncH^n/ JfonarcAuj.ToL '
iii., !>. n^i. I

Kebucbulncuar wo* at ti'ni^tli reHtored to ,
leaixiD, an he nayii himself in I >an. i*. 31). He
died after a rvipi of forty-three years, and
when be mUHt have been fourecore yean of
>tn>-~prol>al>ly aliout IKil ilc. He waa a tme
(Jrientil, not without gwierueity, hut liable to
fits uf midden tttw. »•< when he Kent the three
children to the Hery fumAce^ and threatened
the magi with immediate rxecutioD. Hia
ferocity was Uint of an Kuteni despot who
I>ut« DO value on human life ; and by a refine-
ment of cruelty lie allowed king Zeoeldab tn
witnem the death of his two sons before he put
out his eyes, lie waa at the same time very
pioos in his own way; and he is always ^ving
thanks to Mi^rodacb, "the great lord," "the
senior of the gods," "the ronst ancient," for
his luccessea; and his inscri|itinDs umally end
with a mpplicution for bis continned favunr

the defenoei of hia «MpiU
river flowing thronaifc u m
build the woika whieli Hai
queen Nitocria. nabcM
onbankmnits boar Us am
queen, bearing tits EgntiH
was a danghter etuiag
mairied fint tu the nanrp)
and then to tba >rntiiMl vm
both ot wtracD, « -" ■■

away ere Cyttw d

prayer is offered for

« anny of Cyma in
lu, and tba Pcnuatno
lecuJtaL TbaAtttao
ioirdloc

tds aimy, renlved on e
stratagmn. He drained an
which flowed thrangli tka ci

NEB

hu concnbinsB, miglit drinlc therein. Then
they brought the gnWen vhhIs that were
taken out of the temple of the hooss of God
which WBH at Jerasalem ; and the binz, and
bis princes, hii wiTes, and his concubineg,
drank in them. They drank wine, and praised
the gods of gold, and of sQver, of braes, of iron,
of wood, and of atone" (Dan. v. lA). The
fDjBteriouB handwriting on the wall alarmed
tbe feaater with its myitic words; when the
queen mother, probably Nitocris, summoned
Ui Daniel, and he read the doom of king and
longdoiiL In the universal drunkeriness the
city was neglected ; the gates which guarded
it at the entrance and eiit of the river were
left open; the Fendans entered unchallenged;
the helpless city fell into their hands ; lire and
■word were carried through it; the dninken
revellen fell by a frightful
dnnng band of th" ' — ■■ —

avadeiB bunt ii

Idng vf the Chaldeans slain ; and Darius the
Mi3ian took the kingdom." The descriptioD
of Herodotna is aa follows, and his own re-

■ IT the dty, if properly

it under Cyrus:

" Cjnis," he says, " waa now rednced to
gnat perplexity, aa time went on, and be
made no progrcsa Bgain<tt tbe place. In this
diitna^ either some one made
the iDgsestion to him, or he.
betbongnt binuelf of a pl^^n,
which he proceirded to put in i
azemtiOD. Heplacedaportion,
of hkanny at the pomt where
tha river enters the city, and
another body at the back of the
]dace where it issuee forth
with orden to mareb u
town by the bed of the
aa noon aa the water became I '
diallow enough. He then ^
UmKlf drew off with the nn ^^
warlike portion of his host, and made for
the place where Nitocns dug the baem for
the river, where he did exactly what she
bad done formerh be turned the Euphrates
by a can^ into the baeiu, which was then a
TMwli, on which the river sank to such an
extent that the natural bed of the stream
bacame fordable. Hereupon the Persians, who
had b«D left for the pmpose at Babylon by
tbe (iTer-nde, entered the stream, which had
nnr nmk so as to reach about midway np a
nan's thigh, and thus got into the town. Had
the BalTkiiuana been apprised of what Cyrus
was about, or had they noticed their danger,
tlw7 would not hare aUowed the entrance of
Uia Peniana within the city, which was what
milMd diem utterly, but would have made
bat all the street gates which gave upon the

J atrap. But as

Persians came npon them by sorpiise, and so
took the dty. Owing to the vast die of the

place, the inhabitanta of the central parts (as
the residents at Babylon declare), long after
the outer portions d the town were taken,
knew nothing of what had chanoed, but as
they were ongagfld in a festival, continued
dancing and revslling until they learned the
capture but too certainly. Suchj then, were
the circumstances of the first taking of Baby-
lon" (Herodotus, L, :»3 32H).

Babylon sustuned other sieges and nndsr-
went many other chaugca at sabaequent periods.
Under the Medo-Pennan away it retuned
many elements of its former gniideur. Alex-
ander the Great, on his conquest of Persia,
resolved to restore Babylon to its andent
splendour, and bad made preparations for the

Sorpoao ; but bis death intervened. Seleucns
ricator built the new dtv of Seleucia, 40
miles to the north, and filled it with thousands
of tbe dtizeni of the original capitaL Babylon
was in turn besieged by Antigonia, Demetrius
Potinrcetea, Anbochua, and the Parthian^
so that it gradually auik into decay. Stnbo,
about 30 B.C., aays that it was one vast wilder-
nesB. Fausanias, somewhat later, affirms —
all that now remains of Babylon i< the temple
of Belns and the walls of the dty-— those wiUIs
being used in Jerome's time as Ute fencte of a
forest in which were preserved beasts of the

NEBUSHASHBAN ( Jer. uxix. 13). His

title was Itab-tana, chief of the ennueha, or

great chamberlain.

NEBUZAE-ADAN (2KL xxv. 8)-Heneral
of the armies of Nebuchadneaar. He con-
ducted the siege of Jerusalem to a successful
issue ; lite particulars of which are given in 2
KL XXV. S-2L This title was Rab-tabbachim,
chief of the executioneiB, "capt^a of the

guard,"!

" chief -marshal,*'

NEC HO (2 Chr. ixiv. 20)— a king of Egypt,
and the fifth monarch of the Saitic or twenty-
siith dynasty, whose expeditions are often
mentioned in profane history. As he was
advancing npon Carchemish, an Aaayrian city,
he nkssed through the possessions of the king
of Judah. Joeiah, regarding this as an act
of hostility, prepared to resist his proffem.
Necho sent ambassadors to inform him m the
object of his exiiedition ; but as he was already
in his kingdoTn, slid avowed his hostile purpneea
My of the kiI^cdom of Judali,

h thought h

f justified i:

4es

NEC

him. There wan no evidence to Jnuah that
Necho wotf umler the divine gniflAnce, though
he cUinieti to Iw wi. It may be mnurded as
precipitate in him to have opiweed such a
toroe upon nuch (proundH; and the ismie was
fatal The Imttle wan fought at Megiddo, and
Joeiah K»Ht his life. Xecho, on hui return
fn>m his exi)e«lition into Assyria, atopped at
lliblah, in Syria, and fient for Jeh«>ahaK, who
hail 8uccoe(le<l to the throne of Judah upon
the death of Joiiiah, and deposed him, loading
him with chain*, and sendine him into Egypt.
He then put the Und of Judah under a heavy
tribute, making Klialrim (whose name he
changed to Jehoiakim) king in the {dace of
Jehtialiaz.

Necho undert(K>k another expedition againft
the Assyrians, but was defeated by Kebuchad«
nezzar, accurding to the )irophecy of Jeremiah
(ch. xlvi. 2: 2 KL zxiv. 7). Necho*i exploits
are also mentioned in profane history, as his
fitting out a fleet Ui sail round Africa. Nebu-
cbadnezzar dethnmeil Jehoiakim (the nopainee
of I'haraoh- Necho), and made Jehoiachin his
son king, but his reign too was of short dura-
tion.

NECROMANCER (Deut xviii 11)— one
who pretends to divine future events by ques-
tioning the dead. The ]iractice luks prevailed
from a verv eiu-ly iicriiHl among tlie pagan
nations of the Kant It was forbidden by the
Levitical law.

NEGINDTH -a word ot'curing in several
of the ]walnis, und meuuiiig apiMireutly
" stringed inHtrum«'ntH.**

NEKSINliS (Job xli. IS), r.y the force
^ntli wliii:h th<* leviathan breathe.t and thmwi*
forth water (in a uianncr not unlike snefzing)
a light iri cuiii(i><L Thiit is not ini]M)Hsible by
the lawH of nature, but jHTiiaiH the exprej^ion
is {NH'tieal. Sni"»'/.ing iH ocou.-'ioned })y throw-
ing the breath tiirt»ii;;h the uo.se; and hem-e
was an evitUnice of reluming life ('2 Ki. iv. 35).
(Si-e Lkviathan.)

NEHKMIAIl - irhom Jfhnrnh cinnfort*.
This fMttriot conniHMic'eil bin can-er as a re-
fonner alxnit the year 444 B.C., in the twentieth
ye;ir of Art'ixerxes I^tnginianuK, and thirteen
yean* after the return of Ezra t4i tlie land
of the iKra^'litert. Hi8 father'H name wjw
Hochaliah, and he ha<l a brother uotiul for
piety au<l fidelity, named Hanani (Neh. i. 2;
viL 2). 1 Jey<ind this, bin geneah »gv is unkno\vn.
It is <iueHti«»ne4l whether he })efon;:e(i to the

S>rie»»tly tribe «)f Levi or the royal trilx' of
lu<lah, although the iirobabilities are in favour
of the latti'r hyiM>the»»iH. Though snning fnau
captive ancehti»rr4, he occu]>ie<i an liomiurable
and influential nituation in the family of the
Persian aut4>crat. He wai< tiip-lKMror to the
king. Ills bn>ther llunani having come fnmi
Jerusalem ti> Shunhlian, altmg with a few
others of the trilie of Judali, Neliemiah eagerly
inquired at tlieni reH])ectin^' the state and
proHpectH of hid |>e<»i>le in Judeo. The rejKirt
whidh he received, om t(» the aftiictetl and
despised state of the ]>eoplc, and the ruinous
condition of the walLi of the holy city, filled
400

NEH

himwhliMdiiaH. Whstfaor llwn InfiridiA
came to him with a special raqocst fron Ebi,
that Nehemiah ahoiud do aoiiwtliing ior \m
nation, we are not infdnned. Nchcnii^
however, not only derired, he xeeolved to vA
them, in order to excite and eheer tibfOL
With this view he devoted oertaia d^js Is
humiliation and pnjer, m otder 4at G«i
might break up iwfore lum the path, ai
pneper him in nie intention. By viitiie of Ui
office he had frequent aoeeeg into Uw lo^
presence. On one occasion the Ioih;;, pcRsof*
ing that his wonted rhrrrfnhiri hadfkft kin,
interro^ted him as to the caose of his asm:
Nehemiah, trembling betmeen hope sad bm,
diacloeed to him the oaose of mi idsni
This led to a request, whidi was ooQesdsd,rf
leave of absence, in order that he mi^ v^
and repair "the city of hisfsthen'sepoklraL*
A certain time was fixed at which he wh li
return. How long he was allowed to sbMl
himself^ firasn court we are not infonnei K*
notice is taken of his rfttiirnfng to SIhAm
till the end of twelve yean. As, hoiv«m,i
is altogether unlikelv that Nehemiak lUi
at first ask. or the King at oooe ocmmi H
such a proloDged absence, we may waggm
that on application the license was ie|wsM|r
renewed, or that Nehemisli actually ntma
to Shusnan at the expiry of the wsmU/k
time, and on representing the good cfMk

likely to result from his iWMonged

Jeruiialem, was invested with the oflbi d
Tirvliatha, or governor, in that remofee put d
the king's dominions. Before setfeiw oM

he t4K>k the very necessary precsntioa d
prociuing royal letters to the go>-eiiM]n is At
districts round about Judah, tiiat be b^
' have unmolested liberty of traveUing, M^
that he might obtain from Asaph, \ttfpa4.
the king's forest, the materials necesniT i*

rejiairing the towers and walls, and sbb i*

erL'icting a suitable house forhimseli f«

further security, he was furnished viA i

military escort to cimduct him to Jefuote

Ho was pnwpered in his journey. Atar

Hpeutling three days in Jerusalem vitibotf

dixclosing his pur])o8e to any one, be h«*

during the night, and. along with a few frieBfl^

]>n)ceeded to recunnoitre the ruined «ilb *

the city. Having Hati{«fied himself ss to At

' i>racticability of his purpoee, he revesled it ^

the iK>ople, told them how Gtxl countosaud

hirt aetdgn, and how tlie king also was fintf-

ablv diifptwed in reference to it. His aJita

haa the desired effect, and as one msa iki

iH>ople exclaimed, ** We ^-ill arise and boiU"

l*hia resolution, immediately on beraniH

kmm-n, excited the ridicule of their encas*

es|>eci8Jly of Sonballat the Uoionite, of Tobiik

the slave, the Ammonite, and of Gesben. ^

. Arabian. Nehemiah, however, was not to ^

: <launt«.'d by their malignant ridicule. Bi

1 let them know that their iuterfernice «*

' altogether impertinent and uncalled for. n^

expressed his confidence that Jehovah wxl'

pn>H])er the pious undertaking. Difl<r^

: iM>rtions of the work were allocated to ikf

NEH

differeot sections, who immediately and seal-
oualy ^ve themselves to the undertaking. If
the mere proposal to set about the work
exBSi)erated their enemies, much more would
itii vigorous prosecution. Yet, amid their
mockery and scorn, Neheraiah comforted him-
■elf in Grod. Finding that their shafts of
ridicule were powerless, Sanballat, Tobiah,
and the Arabians, and Ammonites, and Ash-
dodites, entered into a league for tne purpose
of putting a stop to the work. Their plan
was to attack tne Jews suddenly, and they
were confident of success. Nehemiah being
apprised of their design^ encouraged his coimtry-
men by telling them it was the Lord*s work
which thejr were doing, and that they must
defend their wives, their families, and their
propcorty, as well as their own selves. Their
enemies perceiving tiiat the conspiracy was
fmstratea by being detected, abandoned the
idea of open force. Nehemian, however, held
himself and the i)eople in readiness for any
farther assault. Arms were constantly kept
at hand, and at a preconcerted signal the
people were ordered to repair to an appointed
rendezvous.

An annoyance from a different quarter soon
qwung up, and threatened to disturb^ the
prosecution of their undertaking. Many indi-
viduals had been reduced to great poverty, in
oonsequenoe of famine and the burdensome

J exactions of their foreign king. Their richer
brethren, instead of sympathizing with and

: alleviating the distress, increased it by their
rigorous exactions of usury, thereby reducing
the more unfortunate citizens to the painfm
necessity of selling, as bondmen and bond-
women, their sons and daughters. The mental
distress caused by such circumstances could
not but operate unfavourably on the vigorous
prosecution of the work. Nehemiah imme-
diately rectified this evil. He convened a large
aBsemoly, at which the nobles and rulers were
hivited to be present. He then represented to

:*, them the inconsistency and wickedness of

- their conduct, and pointed his own conduct as
a pattern to uiem ; for during the first twelve

, Tears of his government, so far from being
Dordensome to the people, he had supported

-. at his own private expense 150 Jews, besides
a nunber of neighbouring heathens wno aided

^. them in the work. By these means he was

r snooessful in abolishing this grievance of the
poor. When the nobles consented to obey
rf^emiah, he took an oath of them, accom-

- panied by the foUovnng significant symbol : —
~| ^*I shook my lap, and said, 2So Grod shake out
1 arery man from his house, and from his labour,

that performeth not this promise, even thus
be he hhaken out and emptied. And all the
eongregation said, Amen, and praised the

: Lord"(Xeh. V. 13).

While these intestine quarrels were agitating
the Jews, their enemies without seem to have
refrained at least horn open hostilities, hoping

. no doubt that their own divisions might accom-
plish that which their efforts had hitherto
ailed to effect No sooner, however, was

NEH

harmony restored among the Jew^ than their
enemies again set about molesting wenu They
proceeded now to try what se<aet intrigue
could effect Nehemiah was invited to a con-
ference in the plain of Ono, for the pretended
object of amicably settling differences. But
the governor suspected the stratagem, and
excused himself in consequence of the greatness
of his work. Four times this message was
repeated, and four times the same answer was
returned. ^ This was sufficiently provoking to
hb enemies, whose next resort was to the
most odious calumny. They first fabricated
and circulated a chaige of treason against the
reformer, and then, under pretence of inquiry
into its truth, endeavoured to get the object
of their jealousy into their hamu. Still their
malice failed. Not 3ret, however, were their
arts ^ exhausted. Bribery might induce an
avaricious and hollow fnend to betray into
their hands the stirrer up of the people. Such
a man might possibly be found; and their
moral sense recoiled not from the multiform
wickedness which these diabolical ideas in-
volved. Shemaiah, a pretended prophet, was
profligate and avaricious enough to bargain
with the adversaries for the aestruction of
Nehemiah. His plan displayed cunning as
well as perfidy. He, in the pretended capaci^
of propnet, announced to Nehemiah that on a
certain ni^ht his enemies would attack him;
and feif^mng great regard for Nehemiah's
safety, ne ur^ed him to take refuge along
with himself m the temple. Had Nehemiim
consented to this, it is easy to see what would
have been the consequences. Some colour
would have been given to the charge of treason,
already preferred, in consequence of his flight
The people, dispirited by their loss of a leader
from his apparent cowardice, would have been
an eosjjr prey to their enemi^ and the person
of Nenemiah would have been secured to the
enemy. Nehemiah did not at first suspect the
treachery, yet he indignantly rejected the
counsel as unwort^ of one who had already
under^ne such difficulties and thwarted such
opposition, who was the prime mover and chicd!
governor of the people, and who had already
received such marks of approbation from Jeho-
v^, in whose service he was engaged. Thus
abo was this attempt of his enemies frustrated.
And in spite of all opposition from avowed ene-
mies, as well as discouragement &om several
Jewish nobles who were disposed to favour the
vile Samaritan in consequence of his Jewish
connections (see TobiahT, the wall was com-
pleted and dedicated in toe twenty-fifth day of
the month EliU— fifty-two days after the Jews
had commenced to labour. The building of
the walls being now finished, Nehemiah in-
trusted their watch to Hanani, his brother,
and Hananiah, two individuals in whose ^liety
and fidelity he could confide. He gave than
strict injunctions not to open the^ gates till
after sunrise, and to be careful in burinff
them before sunset And he also appointed
a number of the people as sentinels, eacn to keep
guard opposite his own house. He also made

467

TiToviidan for the bettor peopling of the city.
NuiiiWn of the ])eo])le were invited for this
muiMMe to settle in it, who complietl with the
invitation, while others voluntarily followed
tiieir example. Jjots were a1w> cast, and every
tenth man f mm the snmmndinK coimtry was
a>mpelled to take u]> his abode in Jenualem.
Thus was the api>earance as well as safety
of the city pn>vi<U'<i for.

Another ]N)int to wliich Nehemiah directed
hit* attention was, to ascertain thej^nealogy of
the n<ibles. rulerx, and people. Tliis a|>pear8
to have been <lone Principally with a view to
ascertain who wen^ tne proi)er and lej^al ]iarties
to conduct the iiublic woxvhip of inx\, and to
take char^*^ of the U^mjile sen'ice. A;* a tniide
in this ]tart of his labour, he ein]>loy<.Ml an old
ref^ter of the f^em^alogy of thofie who hail come
from captivity alon^ with ZenibbalnrL

Ilitlierto tiic efforts of Xehemiah had been
confined to merely external labours. N<»w that
these had l)een bn>u;fht to a satisfactory ter-
mination, it waH time to Ki't alx>ut the instruction
and reformation of the ]ieople. For this pur-
pose the simple but always effectual plan of
reading and expounding the Wonl of Ciod ^'oa
adopted, llie effect was strikingly benelicia].
To a i)eonlo long <U'prived of i>roi»er spiritual
aliment, tne reading of the Woru was a cause
of great joy. Its commandments fell on their
minds witn all the force of discoveries. The
feast of talxrmacles was observed with extra-
ordinary joy, and <luring the whole period of
its duration Kzra coutinueil to read daily to
the iH»ople fnini the law of ( lod. The result of
this was, that the ]uk>]>1(> asi-iembloil by thcm-
selvert, carefully excluded all strangers, and
enti'nil inti> a solemn lea^oie and covenimt,
avouching tlt'hovah to Ix^ their CJ«k1. acknow-
hslging his justice in hin w"verity t<>wanls them,
and tlieir resi>lutiou t4i walk in all his Ktututes
and onlinanccs. This covenant wax sealeil and
ratifiinl by many of the i)rino«'8, Levite;*, and
prieKts apjH'nding to it their Kignaturt>s that
of Nehemiah hiniNelf. as 1,'ovemor, In'ing first
in the lint. 'J'o this oivt'iuuit all the people,
eyeii although an op]K)rtunity was not atfonleu
of signing it, gave in their a<lherence, expressing
their resolution to alondon mixe<l marriages,
to ol»Ber\'e Sabbatical hvjum)IWj and in pn»vide
for the decent and regular i«u])]H>rt of the ordi-
nances and mininterH of religion.

After Nehemiah ha<l ln.'en twelve year* in
Jerusalem, he returned to Shushon. I Tow
long ho remained there cannot I>e definitely
ascertainetL It was, however, sufficiently long
to i^onl time for renewetl defection from the
purity of worship and practice <«tablished by
rfehemiah in concert with Kzra.

Tobiah, that insidious and inveterate en»;my
of the flews, had l>een admitte<I by Kliasliib the
priest, to whom he was related by marriage,
into an a]»artment of the temple U> reside— the
regular HUpi)ort of religious onlinancefl had
been absaiiloned— Sabbath )>n>fanation was
carried on in the mof»t oi>en and disgracefiU
manner -mixed marriages had become com-
mon, insomuch that even the children were in
4G8

danger of IfMing their TemacDlar tnogniL hr
aoQuiring from their mothen the needb i
Aandod, instead of the huu;Dage of tw JcK
Nehemiah h«viiig Fetamea, was pranpt ad
rigid in reforming these enoniioiDi abnaea, Et
expelled Tobiah and his hfmafhold itiiff ism
the temple — commanded the tithaa to be
brought into the atorehonse of Ciod— pntailBf
to the shameful traffic on the SaHratii ^.m^
allowing indiyidoala even to loiter ooIbob d
the gates of the tdtv, which were carrfol^dfrt
during that aacrea aeaaon. He dogiaoed, a*
communicated, and ptmiahed even wil^ ikripa
those who obstinately refuaed to pot avay nv
strange wives ; and so faithfollj did he dinani
this duty, that even one of tlw sons of JoiMk
son of tne high priest, who had nairiad t
daughter of ftMihallat the Horonite, and vfct
refused to dimniaa her when comnuyMBd to d»
80, was obliged to leave the oovmtty.

Here abruptly tenninates the reecid of tta
eminent reformer. The length of Ida bbobbI
administration, and the penod of Ina doA
are involved in darkness ; and on aodi a mttv
it is needlesa to haxani coniectona, vW
ixwsibly might be true, but whidi as pnb4r
may be false.

Hie character of Nehemiah maybe ddB»-
ated in a few words. With all hia t^B(^
seal, he seema to have had no little adfofl-
placcncy; and the phraae occurs BMmlhi
once, ** Remember me, O my God, caneoail
this," kc He did not possess lk bsflfr
nor perhaps the same depth of pietj aaddno-
tion, as his predecessor, EsTm. In ttMiifiif*^
of this, the labours of the lattv had win
imme<liate reference to the spirit of ttBfi»
than those of the former. Yet Nehomab w
undoubtedly ixissessed of ereat piety asd fi^
intereRteil benevolence. On no other priBOl^
can his actions be explained. He was fim >
his conduct toward his own people; aad v
malice or wily stratagem of his eDemici ooril
daunt his manly heart The cnrtaiD A^
abruptly on his history.

Nehemi^ book of, is the aizteenthiaAe
onler of the books of the Old Testamcai tt
maybe regarded as a oontinuatianoriaFfi''
ment of the book of £zn^ which immcduKif
precerles it ; and in some JBibles it is caDed d*
second book of Ezra, though it is unqimtiw
ably the work of Nehemiah.

The contents of the book are the aob «
Nehemiah's life, given in the preceding trtick
It may be said to contain an acooontof^
motives and designs of Nehemiah in vii^ui^
t4> n^tttore Jerusalem, the place of his is^
sepulchres ; of the commission he reoeivw;
his asstxnates in the work ; their ^f"^
successes and difhculties: the introdncCws*
a Ix'tter order of things, both in the ^*^^^^
and cinl departments ot the government : oj
a census or register of the x>eople. VarirtT «
stylo and change of person, when the anv'
describes himself, are found in it ; and M*
have su]>ix)sed that such sectiona were «•-
jK>sed by Ezra. The author ia spokca ^
the thini person in ch. viii 9; z. L ^

B chan^ mB7 imply ■ divenity dI uitiionli
I4«hemah moat hare conmlted tuid nude

, 0. *2a After

the deatb of Neheniiah Jude» bemme mbject
to the Bovemor of Syriik

KEHILOTH— a vord found >t the bwin-
ning of P«. T,, uid which idgnifiefl probably
the jtuCca or vind imtrumenU. The title of
Ps. V. maj b« tbiu tnuiBlat«d: — A pulm of
David, addressed to the maater of mnaic proa-
nding over the flntw."

NEHXrSHTAN-droM-iiMip (2 Ki. iviii
m by Hezekiah, kiiig of Judab,
n«ut that MoHB bad wt a- --

, (nam. zzi 8), and which

bocn prcMTTed by the Inaelitea to that U
The aupwrtitiom people having made an .»„.
of thia lernDt, Hexekiah caused it to be
tmned, and in deriaion gave it the name of
JftkuMati. '

NEIGHBOUR (Lnlcez. 29). ThePhariHwa
leafaained the meaning of the word neiifhbour
to thoae of their own nation, or to their own
lii«nda. Bat our Saviour informed them that
«Dth

otiwri^t

CDemiM. Tfaepui^le is beautifully told! Its
Inddenta are natural and striking. Every
human being in distress, whatever his creed or
fais country, is our neigbbonr,

NEPHEWS (1 Tim. Y. 4). ThU word, from
ths Idijn n^xn, meant grandsuiis in olJ
' is rendered on the margin " sons'

_i. rii. 14. '- "^ '—

Timothy the Greek word
descenilantB.

NEPHTOAH,WATEROF(Joeh. iv. 8)— a
■prlOK on the line of bonndary between Judah
mkI Benjamin. It has been identified with
Ain-Idfta, 2k miles north-weat of JerusaJero.

NEEGAL (3 Ki iviL 30)-one of the (fods
of those heathen who were transplanted mto
ndeatdns. Ttiis idol probably represented the
idjuiet Mars. His worship had its prini.-ipal
acene at Cmtha, and his symbol was the mon-
hoT. The name Srrgal appeals also in the
raroper name, Sergal-thaTcrr (Jer. xxxii. 3).

IfEEGAIrSHABEZEB. (See Nkbcchad-

I oCber; that they ought not to da to ao-
T what tiiey would not have done to them-
bb; and that this charity extended even to

used of old

an instmment ao eitensivelyin nse in catching
birds, qnadrapeds, and fishes ; and these terma
»re taken either from the coAatmction, oper-
ation, or daign of the neb Figurative uses of
the term are auffidentty obvious, and denote
craft and insidioas power (EccL vii 26). Many
repreeontatiuDs of catching beaate. birds, aiM
fishes, by means of nets of various forms and
aizm, are found on the I^yiitian monnmenta,
and which serve to illuattata several portions
of Scrintore (Prov. L IT; Isa. xix. & 9; Hah.
L 15, Id). The preceding cut, repreaenting a
fishing net, is from these monuments.

NETHmtMS {Ezra ii 43, 58). The word
signifies gitm or dtdieaUd pertont. They
were first a portinn of oonqnered Gibeonites ;
then there was added to them a remnant of the
Gtbeooites, and were given as sacred servants
__,.__:.___ _ .,._ -^---(iKi, ii. 20-22), and

ably ii
called

which men devoted themselves or others— that
is, children or servants — to God, to minister in
the sanctuary. The number of these sacred
serfs was greatly increased in latar time* by
David and others. Their condition appears to
have been easy. It was not till after the
captivity that they were called NetJunim4
(NeL iii. 26; viL46,60, 73; X.28; iL 3, 21}.

The Nethinims were caried into captivity
with the tribe of Jndah, and great nnmben
were placed not far from the Caspian Bea,
whence Ezra bniught 220 of them into Jadea
(Ezra viii. 17-20^ We find in Jewish hiatoiy
a feast called Xylnphoria {iBood-mrrying)j a
Idnd of aolemnity in which the whole nation
did iovfuUy the work of the Nethinims.

'TTATT fEzra ii. 22)— a village prob-
e vicimty of Bethlehem. A place
Ted Beit-Netif lies 13 miles south-west of
Jerusalem.

NETTLES (Prov. iriv, 31)— a well-known
wild plant, the leaves of which are anned with
stings ; and when the leaves are preaaed by the
hand^ the atinga produce a awelling with aaharp
burning pun. The leaf when wet or dead doea
not posaeaa this power. The presence of netUea
betokens a waste and neglected soil ; hence the
figure in the passage above cited, and in Is*.
miv. 13; Hos. ii. 6. The word rendered
nettles in Job iix. 7, and Zeph. iL 9, is sup-
posed to refer to different B^cies of nettles, or
to some larger shrub of similar properties, else
it could not afford shelter.

NEW MOON. (See Pubis, Month,

NEW TESTAMENT. (See ScEiPTnaiB.)
NEZIB (Josh. IV. 43]— a town in the low
country of Judah, now Beit-Nusib, a few miles
from Beit-Jibriiu

NIBHAZ (2 KL iviL 31)— an idol-yod of the
Avites. The signific»tiaD of the original word
isAoriter. Hence a connection is traced between
this idol and the Anaibit of the Egyptiana,
representing a dog's head and a man's bo '

NICODEMUS (John iiL l)-a ruler and
a Pharuee, who«e oonverBation with the
Messiah, as r«ourded in this chapter, reveala
one of the grand doctrines of the Christisii
syirtem — viz., ** regeneration by the Spirit
of God.** The simple but pointed instmo-
tion he received on this occasion seems
to have been made effectual upon the hesrt
and conscience of Nioodemus. as we find him
afterwards evdncing on more tnan one occasion
Us attachment to the Redeemer; y[et there
seems to have been a want of decision about
his character (John viL 45-53 : zix. 39).

NIC0LAITAN8, or NICOLAITANES
(Rev. iL 6, 15)— an ancient sect whose deeds
are expressly and strongly reprobated. Some
have supposed that the name is sjrmbolical —
Nicolaus corresponding to Balaam in literal
signification, and that it denotes all teachers
like Balaam; seducing to idolatry and im-
purity. (See NicoLAR.)

NICOLAS— pfup/e*« victor (Acta vL 5}— one
of the deacons of the church at Jerusalem in
the days of the apostles. He was a native of
Antioch, converted to Judaism, and thence
to Christianity. It is supposed ov some that
he was the founder of the sect of Nioolaitans,
but without sufScient warrant (See XicoL-

▲ITAMR.)

NICOPOLIS-rifw ofviekfty (Tit iii 12)-
the place where Paul determined to winter— is
supposed by some to be a town upon the river
Nessus, which divided Thrace from Macedoniik
(See the subscription to the Epistle. ) Another
town of the same name was in Epirus, opposite
Actium, to which some have thought, with
more probability, the apostle refcm in the
above passage.

NIGHT-HAWK Pent xiv. 15) -a
species of bird, unclean by the Leviticai law
(Lev. XL 16). but not the bird known to us b v
this name. Probably the night-owl is intended,
which is described as of the size of the common
owL and lodges in the large buildings or ruins
of Ejpnrpt or Syria, and sometimes even in the
dwelling-houses. It is extremely voracious.

NILE. (See Egypt.)

NIMRIM (Isa. xv. G)— a stream in the
north part of Moab, near to the village uf
"Beth-nimrah*' (Num. xxxiL 30), the nuns of
which now bear the name of A'iifin'n. But
the identification is still uncertain.

NiintiM, WATEH8 or (Isa. xv. G)— a brook in
the land of Moab. A place of a similar name
is found at the south-eastern angle of the Dead
Sea.

NIMROD— rc6rf (Gen. x. 8}— the son of
Cush, and^ specially duftinguisned from his
other sons in the reconi of (genesis. The name
may have been a title given to him by the
nations whom he o])prm8ed. The inferior
creation wera not alone the objects of his chase.
The Hebrows regard him as the leader of those
who attempted to build the tower of Babel:
and the Orientals moke him the author of
idolatry. He was principally concemeil in
buildixig both Babylon and Nineveh. (See
AfiflTBiA.) The expression, a "mijhty hunter
470

KIN

(or a 'himtiag giant') befora tlie l4iri,*
thai he was remarkab^ ddlfiil and pomsftf
in hunting wild be— ta, *' Befon the Cvd" iss
figurative phiaee, wigtdSviag**Terrnammbl'
"^Thelandof inmtwl" C^^ ▼« efistheMM
withBabyloo. Scymeidflnti^Nimndwilhtk
Ori<m of Grecian mythalQgjr. (See NmfKl
NINEVEH-41M gtml Amynan cuilri.
The name means appanntlj tlw dty of I«k
the Anyrian Heroidee ; and m tbe As^iia
mytholoffy Niniw wm the son of Niivoi
Nor is Uus derivation reallT oppoacd ts tk
statement of Gen. x. 11: ''^Oat of Aitl
(of Shinar) went he (Nflmrad) to Asnia
bTdldedTrmeveh." TUa tnnhtian ■ bi
than that of oor ««"«««■» Tonion: *'Oat d
that land went foith Aaalnir and bdU

Nineveh.* For the diaooone in the eoBtok
is of Nimrod, wImtom Aidnir ia not msBliflMi
till V. S2; and the introdoctka of hk mm
here would petplex the gvoealogMi Hi
country of Shmar alao ia oppoeeJ to tibs son-
try of Asshur or Aasijxiaj and AHiria mm
to be called the land of xSHmrod in Ifie. i. &
According to modern reaeeidi. a OwMtt
dominion waa eartj mtnWiihfin ia Itfw
Bal^lon; and Kimrad (Gkbh), caOsd dm
its founder, seems to be tlw name of thsfllM
Anyrian oapitaL (See Babtloil) Uatethr
article Ajbbtbia we have given an onlSnrf
the country, and its hiatovy, religiai, catm^
and language.

^Hneveh oad periabed ao nttatly, and il«
eariy an epodi, that the alloaiani of dmmd
writers to It are to a d^ loDff since extiaBk,n^
the very site of which haabeoome audkr «f
mere conjecture. TTfimdotnadeaciibesthfTinii
as the river on which Nineveh had stood; W
of the city itself he Imew nothing: XiBflJlba
with the famous 10,000 encamped anoag tki
ruins; but, failinff to reoogniae them, he cdb
them "a great deaerted indoaueL** Lao*
asserts that mme knew in his time wh«e tki
city had stood. Strabo writea vagndy thrt
Nioeveh was situated in the beait of Am^s$,
or Aturia, ashespellsit. Alezanderim la
victory over the F^raiana in the neighboohnt
but none of his hiatoriana make lefusBCi ii
the lon^-buried ciwitaL StiU, anudsk Ika
general ignorance, tne true site was alnp
suspected! as the Nebbi-yturas or tomb cf tv
prophet «J onah traditionally testifies. A if^
m the vicinity was called Ninaivi, and tkr
ruins have always been oonaideied n hanV
some connection with it. This iiiniimiie ni
entertidned by Abulfeda, Benjamin of Tadd^
and Tavemier the traveller. Rich, ChaBif<
and Ainsworth first turned special attnli*
to the remarkable moundsi and Eiaiy**
enterririse soon nroceeded totneir examinsi^
In 1^2 BotU Wan to excavate, and ^i*
years afterwards Iiayaid oonunenoed his ii^
eating and successful expdorationL Tl«>^
mains which were discovered by tfaflM cs*
cavators filled the world with astodoishiDCBi'
a citv, an empire, had riaen from the A^
slumSer of ages. Its kinga oonld be mnnlMn'
and its tongue mastered; while its hiittfTt

1

NIN
Tifl, vid dwelliiigB f<inned mi
lUtum, wondroua in ita Tuiety

mud full

The vicient hutoriaaa dwell upon <
nienie size of ths dty. Diodonu uji
WW a qmubanele 150 lUdia in lengUi
■tadu in breadth,
knd therefore 430
at*di> in circiuD-
fcrence. By such
k CHlouIation, iti
lon^vr BJdee were
kboQt 36 miles
and iU ihotter
24, hiving
cloaed area

aBont ten taaea
the me of Lon

jrunjik, Nimmd, and Kanmlee — hare *m1i ita

from ideutifyiiig itaelf or its monuments with
Nlnsveh, declared that it wu built near Nine-
veli. Next, Calah or Nimmd ii lUao dirtln-

tbontr ila walla
were 100 feet
bifl^ and 90
broad that three
charioto oonld be
drivoi abraaston
dum whilethera
RHsnc out of
uemlEOOtowcrs,
Mch aOO feet m
height. The re
■MTchea of L^
mti hare been re-
garded by himeelt
>ud many others
«a confinuing thia

daacription, so far as nze is concerned. Tbeic
tbeiay itttlutt if the mounds of Nimrnd, Eo-
ynnju, Khoraabad, and Eanunlea be taken aa

roniAily correspond to „

JHoaonu. Again, Nineveh is aud in the book of
Jonah to be an exceeding gnat city of three
daya' Joarner." If a day's journey baradnmed
•t 90 mike, this Tory general language will also
indicate an i^iproxifflatioit to the desoiution of
the Greek hiitoriaiL The population ra Nine-
veh can only be Eueased at, as it ia hard to s^
irtiat is meant by the " more than rix score
tbonaand persons that cannot disoem between
tb^ right band and their left hand." If by
the phrase is meant children under fire yeara
Vt age, there would not be in it, according to

But the words may
e the entire population, and depict

(f enjov

them as wholly ign(-_

tiie andent people who bad
tha Dirino oracle*. Such a , , ..._..
aiot, however, appear so likely ; and the wards
referred to most probably contrast one portdon
<d the people with another, thonsh, it the
reference be to children, it is unpoamble to tell
at what age or peiiod of life the line is drawn.
Bat th^ ane stton^ objections against Iha

Palace or Nlmrod.

piished from Nineveh in Oen. x. 13: and on
Uie monmnental records it is r«aided for a

considerable period a* the capital That the
fonr towns existed apart aa fortified plaoss is
aUo eviiient from the fact that they are joined
together by no continuous wall or ditch ; nay,
as GawlinsoD says, they are as carefully forti-
fied on what would be the inside of the city la
they are in the other directions — another proof
that they were distinct towns, each with ila
own line or circuit of ramparts and towers.
Nor do these four towns form anything like
such a distinct quadrangle as the language of
Diodaras implies. According to Rawlioson,
Nineveh is represented by Koyunjik and
Nebbi-yunna. Ott this theory, the dty on its
side next the river would be more than 2J
miles long, the northern wall being 7,000 feet
in length ; tjie southern wall correeponds, and
the <--— — " "-■' ' '-'-^ ■-- ■■--

andthe area wonldinclude 18,000 acres, capable
of containing 176,000 inhabitants, giving GO
square yanls to each individual. If, then, tha

dties or fortified district^ be taken iuto ao-
connt, we have " an exceeifing great city" even
for those times. Such a measurement falla,
indeed, greatly abort of the msgnifioent dimen-

mrnui Mcribed to Nineveh by tli« old hiitoriAU,
none of whom htA ever leen the AHyrun
capital. Hie langiuwe of Scripture is vague :
the phraie, "thm oayv* journey,** may not
describe ita area or ita utmost dia^nnal length,
but may only mean that it took Jonah three
days to deliver his message. In a word, it is
almost imiM)ssible to resolve these difficulties.
I^bably the mounds of Kovunjik may mark
the place originally called Nineveh; out as
the city grew, other iialaces and towns were
added, and those three other cities, with
separate names and independent sites, may
have formed a royal group which, in the days
of Jonah, went by the general name of
Niiieveh.

Nineveh had long been ri] toning for ruin.
A picture of its power and prosperity is given
in £zek. zxxL, and its doom is ^)reaicted by
Nahum. It was a * * blixnly city ;** its * * Wolenoe
was i)n>v(»king to God ;*' it wai *' full of lies and
robWry ;** its ferocity to captives is nourtrayed
on its own monuments ; and the Hebrew pro-
phets dwell upon its haughtiness and fierceness
(Isa. X. 7, 8).

About 625 B.C. Nineveh fell under a com-
bined attack of Medes and Babylonians. The
Hebrew prediction!* of its destruction were
wondrousiy veritie<L Its river, long its defence,
was to hMten its overthrow, as Nahum had
said. * * With an « i veminning flood he will make
an utter end of the jilaco thereof, and darkness
Hhall )furHue Mh rni-niics ; ** **Thc gates of the
riven* shall Ix* opened, and the palace shall be
diHHolveil" (Xah. i. 8; ii. 0). So we are in-
fnnued that tlie Tigris btirHt its luirriors, and,
acconliug to Diofloru^, wudhed away tlie wall
for 20 Htodia, oiu*ning an ea.xv and unex-
j)ectc<l way f«»r tlie invoilen*. Acconling to
tlie HAmc t)n»|ihet, fire wn.s to ))e a dovituring
aj,'ent — **tiie hre shall dev<uir thy })arM ;" and all
the niinH bear in their charred reinoinH marks
erf terrible confUigration? It wan during a
peritnl of debauch, acconling to the (ireek his-
torian, that the final and sncceMifnl assault
waH made ; and ho Nahum had predicted that
it should tiike place jch. i. 10) : ** Wliile thoy be
foMen together aH tlioms, and while they are
drunken as dninkanls." The suddenness of
the overthrow, an<l the inimdation wliich laid
the city o])en and cn'ated a universal panic,
are also foretold (Nah. ii. 10). The easiness
of capture under Huch circumnt'mces is also
distinctly sketched (Nah. iii. 12). The cap-
tureil city was for all time to become a heap
of ruins ; and many eye-witnesMes luive tt>Rti-
fied to the truth of the oracle of Zeph. ii. 13-ir>.
How th<»se awful wonls have been vcrifie<l,
modem travellers and excavators boor abun-
dant witness. After its overthrow, it was not,
like many conquered capitals, to ))e relmilt, for
JehovaJb had said that he would "make an
uttt-r end of the place thereof;** "affliction
shall not rise up tlie second time;** ** I vnU.
make thy grave, for thou art vile;** "there is
no healing of thy bruise.** Al)out the time of
Nero a colony was founded among the ruins,
but no attempt was ever made to restore or
». 472

Knv

n-ptoffM tlw chj. Nineveh is Ae dlr if
Ninns : bat Ninas is oaHj n myth, m wiu m
his wife, SemirMnia Ho* liiifen ia a tiaaecf
romantic kgwidaL ptapagntod \j narritiMl
bistoriaiiaL Works of wonde^ ama sa battki
of nnoommon enteryrise^ aad ths craetiDKf
great dtiea and rnlnssal nMoaBcstik wm
ascribed to her. The only SsnarannB im tk
monnmfent ia the wife of Iv^-lnah IV., wfaa «■
pohaps a Babylonian prinrifa^ and a ahawh
the actual govenuncnt — her name as a ^mb
being, contnzy to coatooi. foond on the aataal
reoorda. The stoiy of the ao-oalled hetkieft
QardanuRihia, as told by the Gnek hMfani^
is qnite baeeleas, and nm not be meeled.

In leferenoe to the Idnga of Nmenh, «■
oommenoe the list at the point wiiere «e U
off in the article Assyria. It may be am*
tioned that Ninereh oonqnered Baoyka lb
aecure the government, the cooqneror pita»
ized an Aasyrian dvnasty, and attrniphiit H
govern by means ot it» tfaoni^ it ajuieii^
poeeeeeed and exercised a species of iaavariirt
power. The firat king of this iine eai i
N'ebnrhadnefTar^ who fought with the Jka^am
king Aaahur-iis-ilim, bat was defeatei Si
son, Tiglath-pileser, invaded Bal^flonis etti
was under Merodach-iddin-akhi, and anaf
the capital As between Tg^gi^ii^ sad So*
land of old, war oontinacd tor nspy yov
between Aaayria and Babylon with iiqif

Nabonaaaar at lensth made
independent, and Merodaiw-BafaidaB
lished his power in the year in whi^ Saiig
ascended the throne of Nineveh. It n on
Babylonian king that sent an flmbssiy vitk
presents to Hezekiah, either, aoooidiBg t»
Kings, to congratulate him on hia reeom^,
or, according to Chronicles, "to inouire of tae
wonder that waa done in the land,**— Ae
action of the shadow on the son-dial of Akv;
the real purpose, all the while, beiw tktf
mentioned by Josephua, to draw the HefaRV
monarch into a dose militaiy ^ll^MM^ m s
protection against the overwbdming poecr
of Asssrria. The jealona Asayrian mumaft
at once attacked Merodach-baladan, and dn^
him into exile, after a reign of twelve rtm-
But he had recovered his throne and haa beU
it for a few months, when Sennacfaerib^ ii ^
first vear, finally deposed him. BdliM'k
cylinder has on it a record of thia f»nir*T*^

In 2 Ki. XV. 19 we read that '*PnL the kiK
of Assyria, came against the land oTlaneLaBd
that Menohem gave Pul 1,000 talents of sb«r
that his hand mi^ht be with 1dm to ooefiiB
the kin^om in his hand;" the reauHof tlv
bribe bemg that '*the king of Aaayria tonn
liack, and stayed not there in the land." 1%*
is the first direct mention of any Aaayriaa kia;
in Scripture. But Pul cannot, from his naa^
be identified with any Assyrian moBSick.
The name Vul-lush, auppoeed for a tint ^
resemble it, is found to be a wrong rceifie^
Polvhistor and Berosua place him on the fiit
of Assyrian sovereigns ; but the Assyrian e«*
ignores him: prolmblv, therefore, ho.***
usurper, a warrior who held awav ia v

leaof tlie empire, orpsiluna I^d liege to Djunaaoiu, and mti^ Iirul;
qqeror who for a time, uiil in Megiddo and Dor ^)peaiiiig among the oon-
syrian uiarch^, had snatched qacral dtiee, u inacribed on a matilatad
royal prerogatiTe. Moreover, I remnl in the Britiili Maaemn. Hie Shal-

fTi^i^-

P

■fi '■ '>

'*'■*' "^

^ " "'''

dof difltnr-

lution; and

t, Tiglath-

9 not Duke

1 father, eo

: have been

timatB dcB-

Polyhirtor

aoriginaUy

n the Poy^

t»e to Qie

l/ufm-

ries of bold

adventures.

at'an'^l'y

lip

ZtJ^T^MJIkit

."sts

i^

'^^--1

LilteriE.

^m^^^M

i again in
kab (2 EL
ha days of
irael came Tiglath'pileser, king
d took lion, and Abel-beth-
anoah, and Kedesb, aad Hazor,
Galilee, all the land of Naph-
i1 them captive to A«Byna."
tliis ; Ahai applied ''■ *"■" *"■

PaUce, Nlmroii^

t a confederacy formed agaliut
d Pekah, and gent him gift*,
nioug Bubmindon, "I am thy
(on." Tiglath-pileecT at Once

2 Ei xviL 3, 4 mart
have been the fourth of that mune. He took
Samaria aftar a aisge of two yeara, and carried
away the ten triDee into captivity. King
Sargon, hoirever, aa appears from the monu<
mental records, claims the capture of Samaria
as a (vork of the fint year of hia reign j so that
probably Shalmanezer had died in the mterval,
or been dethroned before the conquest of larael
had Ihq) oondnded. Indeed, the name lb said
to signify "Idng in fact," implying that he
was a nrorper, and glnriad in his success. Ha
penetrated as far as Ashdod and Egypt (Isa.
xz. 1, 2}. and even to Cyprus, "in the midst of
the seas." His son and successor, Sennacherib,
occupies a very prominent place in Scriptnre.
His monomentat name, Tsm-akbi-irib, or Sin-
^du-erba, means **moon adds brothers;'* so
that he does not eeem to have been the eldest
son. Indeed, Beroeus says that his elder
brother was viceroy of Babylon prior to his
father Sargon's deauu Accordiiig to hia own
recoids, the conqQeBts of his earlier yean wero
immense. He warred on PhiEuicia, puahed
into Philistia, and defeat«d an E^^ptian army
under Sabacos. About this time Padi, king
of Elcron, had been eipelled by his revolted
sabjects, and the royal exile and vassal of
Asspia had been given into the custody of
Hezekiah. The king of Jerusalem, by par-
ticipation in this revolt, offended Sennachelilx
who at onoe " came up against atl the fenced
dtiea of Jodah and took them." Heukiah,
onder great alarm, sud, "I have offended;
retnm from me : Uiat which thou puttest on
mo will I bear." He therefore paid theexor-
bitant tribute demanded of him — "three hon*

■ant he iitriii[>eil i-ff tb« pncioiu mcteli frnm |
the ilmin aiul CiliuiiDit ••( the tMn[ile (J Ki.
■riii. 1:1, I'ij. Srnnai^hFrili'ii own muDuinrDtftl
moaiiiiit, ■• rewl by lUwliswin, Hinclu, Opprrt,
aurl Kiix Tallxit— whii, unidxt Hnne mnmllCT
dUfrrEncH, wm is the mkin — ii u f ullowi : —
" IkicBUHe llrirkukh, kinu of Jiulah, mrald
n<it nilmiit bi my yi'kf, 1 came up aguiut
liini. knl l>y fun'e uf kmu anil tij the miubt of
my {iiiwvr 1 t-Kik forty-nil tif )iia Htnaie fenced
ritlen; uiil iif tho muUIer t>nrni vrhich were
•CHttrrrcl khinit I tixik uid iilunderril » count-
hiiH muuLiTr. Anil from thiMs ijLicr* 1 cu>-
taiwl anl <.'itni»l <>a u i>tx>i1 •Mi.iX pmpre,
id.1 Ul-l \-<><iUh'. tmile nna fi^nikle; togethi'
with tlw liiirwrn uid murtii, »*i"i mJ tamel

iii>l ■!

^'IIIIltllM
UJ.

IleB-kuh ll

CB|Ht>l city, liko a Irird
tnwcnnmnil thi^cityt
Iviikii iif (MtrtU Ml ax

mltiturle. And

ID Jer

XIX

■noBbafeltbaAaj^WML Hi

nuuixi noord = — ■ — ■ — ' "■-*' ""^

tngetbar, bat

worda, aftai •»» i^ um. •^ui

piovocBtiim glTen ta SaBDMberib

hkT* baa thmt HoAuh Lad 1

with ISfTT* for hsli\ and hi

eortomaiy taribota (oofop. I*^ :

3: iiivi 6). Topnrart tba

EgypUan hkI Hcbrfw araic^ juimhh i

gatherit^tb^t Heaakiah wai DDdcr no iMJ
pani^ h* datacbcd ft pntiao of hi* bnft
undo- TartaiL Rabaaiia, and Rabthdih, k
iotert JaraMleni. BabdiakA'* tnaifit d»
fianea had no affect, for Iniah bad ci" "'
oouraga to the king. ^Hw AMyiiia An

D a ea^, buildliMf

1 him in, and raiding

Iviikiiiif earth Ml an tiiinvvtnt •■wai«. . . .

Then ii)i»li thU Hcttkioh thrre fell the f«ar of

tbs tHiweriif my aim*; and he imit out t

tiiM chivfa BDil the vUvn iJ .Teruiialem

HO takoU •■( ipAil ami HIM) talents iff ulver, and
divnw tmumm— a rich and immenM biwty.
All thrne tiiiuuH vera liTnu|[hl t" me at
Nineveh, tlio seat <if my govenum-iit, Heuldab
haviHK n-nt them ly way of tribute, and aa
a l"ken iif lii* m)liiiiiiM'>n ti> my, pnwer.'
Ilvtween the twii aixiiunt* there it a di»-
i-reliani? of :HKI tnk«tii in the ammint of ulver,
Ki-niiture iirobaliljr xivinic inily the amount ol
Uw Iniiie cli-mamled in actual niomo'. bnt the
AMVrian tHl>li-t iir»ii>11y taking auumnt nf the
whiil« imletnnlty - the metal f'Xmil, not unlr
in the trvBuiiTj, but ill the hmiM- of tliu Lunl
Ah ti> tliF {tni-ixe Jierioil of tlic irn-amon, there
are Hunie ehmniikiirieal diffii-ultii'ii not eiudly
rriolveiL A very few ycam aftcrunnln, Seo-

nt making miv for ,. - .

the oapitaL latniited to ttiefr aanagp^ ^
mu ''^waning aninat Lifanah.'* Wt ad
aniiety waa to reducv Jodo bcfcm lUiU
■houhf oome to its aanatauM; andhtBiSiM
a letter to Henkiah foU of outi^MOi h*
lence. Bnt tha dwpatcb «ai the oWMM dt
famoua nrado, asiniing Difina pntntia k
tb« equtal, and thi latniiinii a nUa «
Ignon^imu oVCTtbrow to tba TOfil bm^
rtvoqhlMemthftt Sanaebcrilv ate btai
lihnab, marcbcd 1
Egyptiaa [ofcea: 1
face to face, and e

lihn^ marcbcd on Peli__

Egyptiaa lofcea: and aa the two anoBtf
famto face, and on tba uiaUof tbtdv*
Iiiaiah*ionel<^UM Aanriaa Ic^ow hW
idled. Theangdof the LiadBOtite

Swil

during the night. Tha BrnptiaM «n^M»
rated thii rniiUing ertcnniiMtiaac'tkrM
by the erection of a itona rtatu of SiAm

nder.mdwtnnb
UaWdLMdh

iba «iplanaUon ot H«(i
menM mnltitnda of nie* lial i*«~
bowitrioga of tha AaqnfaBMlttiM
(hat the amnud, aa tha ^Hl<<i*»

■igid^inK dI«Bt and oomMasE
tion; and tha Kgratim picMtJ*'
•o far la k(«^«irit£arBIS

tiak'hi'rib deiKi'ndi-d aiMin ao I'nlmtine with a
LTeat army. 'Hiiii m-coiul in^'aHhiQ, a» lUiitinct
fnnii the one rvfcrrei) t•^ baa been wimetiniea
lU'iiinl ; but all |>rol>aliililieii are in itH favour.
A aivue «f Jerni«lem. tboUKh mieh a lirilie luul
jiiHtln'n l<nid. ia not ver)' likely ; nor would the
aeuount tidly with th> terrible dinaiftcr which

Dverthtow, ratantad

bv two of hu aona in tb* tm^_*

UUed alao thrir ddartfanS?. WM
Armenia; and anotiMr ttuthet B^
haddoo, arcended tha vacaat An*
Aauiding to tha book of ToUk^
nacherib wh mnrdrrad fifty-fire dajt *{
Ilia return from Syria; bnt the naa|i^
HUleinent i> plainly meuit to waan S
vir>Unt death aa a Divina jnd^Dal •"'f
wicked invadon of the Jewich tenitufT- "*
naeherih, who reigned twrnty-fmr yaA^
the greateat and pmmdeat ct At AiV""

K

NTN NIN

(In. X. 8-14). He ckIIh himself "Ae I the great p&Uce at KoTunjik, of vbidi bo
kiiig,''"Gnt of kings, ""tsfouriteof the mtuij moDmiKDta ve now in the Bntiih
gods." Not only vu be a warrior, but MnsenmiandhebiiiltanotheratNebtn-yiuiaa.
~' iitensive builder. He erected | Eaarhaddon, after fighting with bia brotbal

f Addmneledi, wh alio

Downed in war I Hebrew

. , . „ , - one of whidi he | Chr.

f inTMud EgTpt, ami conquered " "

iTqrugn was oarried to Babylon [2

.... . . _.. ii. 11), uid --- '- *^- ■- ■--'

_,_._)d an Eg3Pptian EBarhaddou was also n ^ _,

king tuuned Tirfaakah, and | conquest, and built a palace there. His father
bad also defeated the Chal-
dean kinu, Nebo-Bum-iBkun,
■on of Merodach Bahuian
and Babylon received Uea
eaunordaclius as viceroy
Lsarhaddon after the ex
ample of Sar^on, also m
troduced under one of his
magnatee, the great and
noble Agnappa, a great
variety of foreign colonist«
into toe temtory of the ten
tnbSB. Hia pahicee at CaUh
have been onlf partially
eiplored and, mdeed the
grand etructu re seems never
tu have been finished, hut
seems to have been de
stroyed m some eztraor
dinary conflagration. His
palace at Nmevah boasts
of having ti supply of
matenals from twenty two

been thorc ughly searched.
Theneitking Assbar bani
pal, was nut as famous and

;he1aat^]g

in triumph— that capital 1 that since the days of Ctmias goes by ^
:b. ManasBoh abo became naine of SardanapfJus. In this reign an army

._, — , ojrded BB a contributor to of Medee and Kahykraiani attacked Nmeveh,

I palace erected at Nebbi-yunus. The I and it fell about B.C. 62S.

of the Tjftin. The nl
were bnift of brii^ u
to IS feet in lUckM
panelled with .1->» <

aoftfabiKiriiood. On tk
each of the lUa «m i

TlH» ^ beingTldN
mil* I» utificid mnH
uoA Bad oopper enufan

— ~ ii""iiim.n wan gut
^inbnlual m<Mata»—tt

DQmMi bemOM, from 10 ts
in height— iiltn* -ntli h

the thnmb^ iSTJ.
compoeod of beami wni
fe "»U«. twigi mTi.
tMing Imid acnM thtm a
pUatered with <3a.j. Hi

.- ircranogrekttrees'Gtfcrci
j nw&ng, the roonu uc d
' ;»in>w— the moat taaam I
Nimnid being neariy UO b
and oiil]> 35 j„ taeiML
ceihn™ were beautifollT ft
and often inlaid wiUi TSS
mode of lighting tfaeaa mb
taffled the ingenuitj ofiM
No bace* of window, it
found, «nd the oonjectsni
light came in throuh tk
a cimjecture. ■• Lannl M
oonfinned by the fvt thrti
dnin leads frran eratj ch
u if VBtnr needed to be a
<f- WTut discomfort ia4i
of mchBT — -^ — "

admit %ht and ndid
r .' The nme pndii

ihuwer . . u<, mmiae pnoB
vulea in Egypt Th^S

Si^^T/rlj? ]^^.?^^l ""i Koj-uujit. At I their pldod <lS^„%iy?' '

Khumbad amjt in theiiHI
foandoniu ilahi, "lim
«^ ■ . -after the un
**TPt." ThepUteerfJL:
dm and of ijyvd in fa> I
work,gi»ena«p,
of the genenJ i
N>lcndonr of tha
fif«- Theywere
their Mni^e ■{««, their t^M
orn»taeatt, th& virid Uk
picturea, their l(«y nA

NIN
d, knd they are of ^rttt variety. The
rone had statue, atueldi, Ktia. swonla,
», crowns, bowu in ivory, met&l, and
aother-of -pearl, anJ glam, have been

the excavations. The great eventa of
UK's reign have been sculptured on

and especially on marble slaba set np
IB moms of the n);al edifices. Several

hoB-reliefe have been exhumed and
' eiramined — the cuneiform writing has
ciphered, and the result has been a
ol confinnation nf the inspired annals
d in the Hebrew Scriptures, Onr
mt is equal to our gratigcatioD, when
a veritable history parallel to that of
Israel, and see the actual Aasyrian

of events recorded in Kings and
es. Not onlv do «e End mention

Jehu, Memdiem, and Haiael, and
iwns of Judea and Syria, but we dis-
inocherib's own account of hii invasioQ
Une, and of the amount of tribute
in^ Eezekiah was forced to pay him
diL 14). Nay, there has been found a
of the taking of Lschish by Senno-
irhile his general was despatched to
m (2 Ki. iviii 14). In short, these
presentotioiui furnish an accurate and

comment on the language of the
EzekieL That the seer saw the ima-
cribed by him can scarce admit of a
ir he was a captive on the baidiB of
bar at do great distance from the

The " vermilion," or red colour, pre-
■11 their decorsdonB— it is the favour-
" Captains and rulers clothed most
ily^' — they ore all dressed in the richest
ndeat style of Oriental magnificence,
nen riding upon horses"— them equea-
iree are often exhibited— the horses ore
ipirit, noble form, and bold attitudes,
decked with showy trsppioga ; while
that ride them are in asp«ct, courage,
DeanouT " as princes to took Ia."
1 with girdles upon their loins" — every
A its belt or sash, so necessary for one

such loose and roomy vestments,
ling in dyed attire upon their heads"

ilany of the scenes are those of war,
k are shown *^captains and rulers."
ons modes and stratagenis in a ric^,

a river, monieuvriDg with chariots,
the enemy, and leading home chained

ore frequently represented. The mis-
■isoners were impaled by their "bitter
ty" conquerors, and occasionally are
le dragged along by a rope fastened to
lerted in the nose and iip. Thus (lod
ed Samarid, that her Assyrian cou-
pould "take her away with hooks. ^'
e of the Assyrian wamois equals that
gyption conqueron. Battles ore fre-

portrayed on those sculptures and
s objects of worship. The composite
ignres, such as winged hnmui-headed
:., are frequent ornaments of portico
.ce, and ore the same in kind as th«

NIT
Egyptian sphinxes and Hehcew ohenilnm.

(See Chxbubih.) The lion was a frequent
ornament on furniture and jewels, and smaller
forms of the same animal were used aa weishts
(Nah. iL 11, 12).

Further research is still throwing light on
these antiquarian stories. (See ASSTOU.)

NI3AK. (See Month.)

NISROCH (2 Kl xix. 37)-the name of
the idol in whose temple 3enruu:berib was
assassinated by his two sons. According to
Boms the word means "the great eagl(L"^But
this meaning is nncertoin ; and no god of the
name has been found on the Assyrian

AuyrlanGod.

menta, nor bad any god so named a temple in
Nineveh in which the monarch could be slain.
But the origiiiBl may have come to the He-
brews in a changed or comipted form ; for the
Septnagint spells it vaHonsly, as Asarach or
Masaroch ; and it may, after all, be the great
god Asshur. The accompanying figure is
taken by Layard to be that of Nisroch.

NITRE (Jer. iL 22)-an earthly alkaline
salt, resembling and used like soap, which
•epMBtes from the bottom of the lake Natron
in Egypt, and rising to the top is condensed
by the neat of the sun into a dry and hard
■uhatance, similar to the Smyrna soap, and is
the toda of common earth. It is found in
many other parts of the East Vinegar haa no
477

ctTect upnn mmmcm nitn, mod of oonns thk
tubataiitv omlil Ui>t be tneaut by the wue maa
in Ptov. iiv. :!U. Now, m viiMgar hai no cdfaot
upon nitre, but on Htrm ot iota ita actkiii is
vny obviuiu, the Knttliah trantlation ihonld
hkve been nktron. In Jer. ii. 22 the uina woid
a^jftin is impniperlv ujmL He iklkalins eutb
natron ii ubviuusly nfemi to bLhi in tliii

Vtmm. It U MBDd, •• a
111 Kid% on tbe aartaea cl
nndSrnni Mtd ia mbo n>ti
Afrio^iii faanl>bate«r n
trunk, beiaffoMd (orthaa
b«riU»ofcr

in Upper Kuyi't, eitenilins itnelf on both (idei ' A MHm of JTa-oi the scat or dvdfiH d ii

iif the Nile (Nah.iiLMI. Inat^iul of nufdrui/e , ffod Anuunn. It ma profaafalj aa^ toki

q/ JTo, in Jer. ilvL 2-1, it ahuuld be randend 1 or thne placea. A dutanctiona^HtfiM

made bitwem dia IT* Bota'

in Nah. iii. 8, 10 and Ihi^W
tiosed by JaaakA ni bM
The otr WM 140 atadaiiwB*
feimca. Ita TwnaJBiniwiM
descnbeacinniitotI7BilK Ik
■plendour and power of Widlj
which oouU hmiidi %<«■■•
chariote from ita vioiiD^,«t>

ooDtinua^n^ Se^S>77
metropolis the iiiniiiftiaa •
the e<Gfic«a which i^wd i, **
luiuriuuanraa of the iofiriW
who inhabited it, the «al td*
thence by the Pernaa^ ol*

E:>!d and ailver ctdlceted ite*
umin^ of the aty. Th) ^
dpal part of the i^lv«*
eut bank ; on the wot «M«
Memnouia .nd the Km^

»u uuBOL T1iegTandhfl*t
™ra ITO feet Iq- 3Mi •««;
by • central avenne of O^
mauv colamna, 68 feetU^Mt
oiit the pedeata) and alnHS
12 in diameter; beBdaUtilllJ
pigantio ^ntamaat, 41 M'
mchea in hnght, a^ tf t^
inehea in carcomfeMHa B|
total leagtli of the imik'mt^
tent Theearlintmcutd^*
name eziata an O* uif\m^

I

NOA

Thebes is Osirtasin I., the contemporary of
Beph. Sculptures of the earlier Pharaohs
ve disappearecL In hieroglyphics Thebes is
itten Ap, Ape, or with the feminine article,
.ptf, the heaa. Thebes being the capital of
) ooimtry. The date of the origin of Thebes
lost in remote antiouitr. The destruction
it, as before remarked, to which Nahum
ers, was probably effected by Tartan, (Isa.
.) It was again captured bv Cambvses,
L 525. It was finally destroyea by Ptolemy
thyrus. B.O. 81. Its site is now occupied by
'eral villages.

rhebes is described as situated among the
era, — "the waters round about her whose
Dnart was the sea. ** The description is both
ia and true, for the Nile, numerous canals,
i an immense lake, surrounded this ancient
^tian dty. Its ruins are in a style of
rivalled magnificence. (See Ammon.)
S'OAH— re»^ (Gen. vi 8) — or, as the Greeks
ite it, NOE (Matt xxiv. 37h-the ninth in
Ksent from Aoam, is described as a just man.
rfect (or upright) in his generations, ana
Udng with G(^ (Gen. vi 9). The father of
lah seems to have given hmi his expressive
ne under the conviction that he was the pro-
ved Messiah, and in the fulness of his joy he
•lijmed —

**Thl8 same shall Roothe ns
In our work and toil of our hands,
In conseqnence of the ground
'Which Jeho?ah hath cursed."

—Gen. T. 29.

the midst of the universal corruption which
snpread the earth, Noah found grace in the
BS of the Lord, and was not only warned of the
proach of the general deluge, but instructed
the means of saving himself and his family,
1 % sufficient nimiber of the animal creation
preserve the several tribes. (See Ark. ) Be-
ving the Divine declaration, he prepared the
Ic, and diligently warned tine world of the
ptroachin^ judgment, but without effect.
le huge ship was, after the labour of a century,
jstructed— a centunr of warning to an infat-
ted world. God at length intimated to Noah
» immediate approach of the threatened de-
pe ; and in the six hundredth year of his life
entered into the ark, "and his sons, and his
fe, and his sons' wives with him." It rained
ty djkjrs and forty nights— "the fountains of
I great deep werebroken up, and the windows
deaven were opened. " All men perished, and
creatures, save those for whose safetyNoah
d made provision, according to the Divine
Dinand (Gen. vii. 21-23). For 150 days did
) flood raevail, with its dark and devastating
iters. There were five months of silent and
xible desolation. The water rose so high that
art or enternrise could elude its oncoming
irer: the hignest innnacles were submerged
cmhits beneath the billows. The ark,
th its motley tenants, floated securely. The
iters in due time began to lessen, and in the
renth month (the flood had commenced in
» second) the ark grounded on the moun-
na of Armenia^ what a dreary prospect

NOA

over a wide waste of murderous waters must
have presented itself to any one who looked
out from the deck of the stranded vessel ! The
surges gradually decreased, until in the tenth
month uie tops of the mountains became visible.
Forty days ttfter this, Noah sent forth a raven,
but it returned not. Then he released a dove,
but it soon came back ; the face of the earUi
was yet covered by the retiring waters. The
bird was sent out again to explore, and she
returned witii an olive leaf j)lucked off in her
mouth. The dove was dismissed a third time ;
but finding the soil arid and productive, she
remained at liberty. Noah, so taught, opened
his vessel and gave liberty to all its inmates.
"And it came to pass in the six hundredth and
first year, in the first month, the first day of
the month, the waters were aried up from off
the earth ; and Noah removed tiie covering of
the ark, and looked, and behold the face of the
grotmd was dry. And in tiie second month, on
the seventh and twentieth day of the month,
was the earth dried" (Gen. vm. 13, 14). The
family descended from the mount and betook
themselves to necessary occupations, while the
bow in the cloud was given as a pledge that no
second deluge should again cover the earth.
(See Ararat.^ The first action of this new pro-
genitor of tne human race was to offer a
sacrifice to God, which was acceptable in
his sight; for he immediately entered into
a covenant with him, that such a iudgment
should not again visit the earth, nor should the
regular succession of the seasons be again in-
terrupted while the earth remains. As a
token of the covenant thus made, God pointed
to the rainbow. He also put the irrational
creation in subjection to Noah, as he had
ori^^inally done to Adam, and enacted some
general laws for his government.

Noah became a husbandman, and partaking
too freely of the fruit of the vine, exposed him-
self to shame. When in this state he was
treated indecorously by one of his sons, who
on that account was the subject of severe
judgments ; while his brothers, for an opposite
course of conduct, received peculiar blessings.
Noah lived 350 years after the flood ; but the
place of his residence is matter of vain con-
jecture. Noah, under a great variety of names,
IS found in Eastern mythology — fictions which,
nevertheless, are all corroborative of the ancient
Scriptural narrative.

It is evident, that whatever secondary
causes were employed in producing the flood,
the operation of these at the requisite period,
and tor an avowed purpose, was miracnilous.
The deluge was the jud^ent of an angry God
against impious men. And it effected its
mission. There seems no good reason for
believing that the population of the world was
very lam so soon after its creation ; the lon-
gevity of men does not appear to have added
proportionately to their numbers. Wherever
men existed, thither there reached the flood.
It had no commission to travel farther. The
limits of its vengeance were the homes and
haunts of the human family.

479

NOA

Was the flood then universal, and did it
Bumiund the ^lobe? Various opinions have
been ^ven on this i>oint, though the maiority
tif critics and judj^es are now decidedly in
favour of a limited inundation. The lan^xuffe
of the narrative doen nut neccDsarily imply
that it was univcrsaL except that it over-
whelmeil all ilesh. In a great variety of
geographical statements in Scripture, the word
ALL has only a limited signification. Consult
and comi>are such i^assagvs as the following : —
** And there were dwelling at Jerusalem Jews,
devout men, out of every nation under heaven "
(Acts ii. 5), where the nations actually meant
are siiecified, and were but a few of the nu-
merous countricH of the wurld. **Thi8 day
i^-ill I )>cgin t(> ptit the dread of thee, and the
fear of thee, uimhi the nations that are under
the whole heawn" (Deut. ii. 25). Here,
though the langua^'e l>u universal, the countries
rufeired to are only thoHe on the borders of
Canaan. "And all the earth sought to
Solomon, to hoar his wisdom, which God had
put in his heart " (1 KL x. 24). The greater

1>ortiiin of the world in Solomon^s davs never
leard of his fame, but all the eartn in his
vicinity was filled with the rumours of his
intelligence and splendour. In CoL L 23
Paul BjHUiks of the (irtMiMtl as having been
])reache<l to every creature imder heaven,—
words which no one can understand in their
most literal nigni ficance. In all these citations,
and in many others, which arc very numerous in
Scripture, universal terms are employed to
repres(;nt a limited locality.

it wui* customary yt-an* Sfjro to refer to the
flood many geological plicuomena which prove
theniKolvi'H to K'long to the waters of an earlier
eiN>ch. The shells and animal remains con-
utH'ted with the tertiary btrata are of a far
older a;;e than tlio N<vachic dehige. It is to be
fiuestioned, t(M>, if an inundation ko brief as the
no<xl c^ould leavt> l>ehind it any lasting trace of
its existi'nce. I'rofessor Jameson of Edin-
burgh says, **T1iat great event has left no
trace of its existence on the surface or in the
interior of tlie earth." - A'<»/« on Cuvier't
Tfuon/ of the Eiirth, p. 457. The late Rev. Dr.
Fleming, of tlie New (?oll(^e, Edinburgh, in
connection with the Free ('hurcli of Scotland,
lias Ijir^ely vindicated the same opinion:— "I
entertain the same ojMnion as Linnsuus on this
snhject; nor do 1 feel, though a clergyman,
the slightest reason to conceal my sentiments,
though they are opi>osed to the notions which
A false philoHo]>hy has generate<l in the public
mind. ^ I have formed my notions of the
Xoachion deluge, not fmm 0\'id, but from the
Bible. Tliere the simi>le narrative of Moses
fiennits me to bt-lieve, that the Matters rose
ujKm the earth by degrees; that means were
employed by the Author of the calamity to
]in:serve i>airs of the land animals ; tlixit the flood
(■xhiltitea no idoleut impetuosity, displacing
neither the soil nor the vegetable triljcs which
it w\n)iK)rted, nor rendering the ground unfit
for the cultivation of the vine. With this
Conviction in my mind, I am not prepared to
480

NOA

witnesB in iiAtare Any lenuuniiig nuzki of tk
catastrophe ; and I find my rapeek for At
author!^ of revelntioai hdgbtcne^ whsBln^
on the present snzfaoe, no memoriak of kh
event **-~JameMm*« PUtoKwAiool Jimntd, a

214. ^ r

FrofeMor Hitchcock of MiwaihuiittB an
too, "That a transient deluge, like M
deecribed in the Scriptorea, could have ■••
duced, and brought into its preecnt ritTtw^
all the dilnvium which is now sfxead oftrtti
sur&bce of this continent^ will not (it HOiiti
me) be admitted for a moment by aif in*
partial observer. It has obviooily bea lb
result of different agencies and of &tam
epochs ; the result of canses amnetimeiCMilf
feebly and skvwly, and at other tims imh^
and poweifiiUy.'*

Buckland was also compelled, by the iaa
of evidence, to give up the otouob ht mv
held, as opinion shared in hy'Bana Cwim,
as to the endniing effects of dihml nto
—BridatwaUr TrmUte, i pu. M.

If the phenomena nsnally nfoiedlithi
deluge were correctly ascribed toit,mwd

expect to find human bones .

but in no cave or spot are they to Is
There are other aigmnevits agaiuttht '■
sality of the delnge, whidi we have aot^M
to ennmerate. For example, itmiqrbifH^
tioned if the ark was large <i*Mw^ tv oaWi
representatives of ereiy species. Bak2ii
theory of a limited flood be ooneot^ ^^
animals as the waters woold have doMl
were preserved by Noskh. Hie emmm^
the patriarch is given in nniveisal tem; hi
not more so than those which aie tm^kiftik
the record of Peter^s vision,— "^WhotB**
all manner of fonr-fonted beasts of the oA
and wild beasts, and creeping thinsSkM^M
of the air** (Acts x. 12). In thebttwcMti
real universality vrasimpoanble. OtfacrpW
taken from the undisturbed cones of

volcanoes, and the long ages of trreif an lit*
clear of doubl It is not easy to pivfc Art
such volcanoes as thnt of Auversnt hm^
burned since the period of the denttfL Ktf ^
we know precisely tiie habits and^anrtM
those exogenous trees, which are ofloa nAi^
to as indicating by their fibres a #
stretching be3rona the epoch of NosL V
method of ctdculation may prove fdhoA
and such trees may have been able to fin ^
months under water.

It is true that we dare not limit the po^
of Grod, yet we are alvrays to be gonM ¥
what is <^ed the economy of mirwrK J*
suiierfluouB displays of power proceed fren*
Almighty. The narrative of Genedi nM*
imply that natural causes, niirscQkiial|ri*(

round more than to the depth of 7 in .
Dr. Pye Smith remarks,— "If ire sappoi'*!
mass of waters to have been such ii*^
cover all the land of the globe, ire "^^

tl

NOB

ourselves an increase of the equatorial diameter
by some 11 or 12 miles. Two new elements
would hence accrue to the actions of gravity
upon our planet. The absolute weij^ht would
be greatly increased, and the causes of the
nutation of the axis w^ould be varied. I am
not competent to the calculation of the changes
in the motions of the earth which would be
thus produced, and which would propagate
their effects through the whole solar system,
and indeed to the entire extent of the material
creation: but they would certainly be very
ffreat. To save the physical system from
aerangements, probably ruinous to the well-
bein^ of innumerable sentient natures, would
require a series of stupendous and immensely
multiplied miracles.

"Again, pursuing the supposition, the ark

would not remain stationaiy; it *went upon

the face of the waters.* Its form was adapted

to secure slowness of motion ; so that it should

float as little a distance as possible from the

pimce of human habitation. l)ut, by the action

of the sun ui)on the atmosphere, currents would

be inoduced, by which the ark would be borne

mwwkj in a southerly and then a western direction.

To bring it back mto such a situation as would

correspond to its grounding in Armenia, or

any part of Asia, it must first circumnavigate

the globe. But this was impossible in the

tone, even if it had i)Oflsessed tne rate of going

of a good sailing vessel. It might, perha]>8,

advance as far as the middle of North Africa.

or the more M'esterly part : and there it would

sroiind at the end of the 300 days."— Pye

Smith'! Oeoiogy, pp. 154, 155.

Blany of the most eminent divines of all i^^es

liave been of ojiinion that the flood was not

umversaL It is true that almost all nations

liAVe some record or tradition of a deluge ; yet

is universal belief does not, as has sometimes

argued, prove a univernal deluge. All

_ nations have Hi)nmg from Noah, and

:iiiliabited their present countries long after the

' of their progenitor, and so have carried

them from the scenes of the deluge their

belief in its existence. Their tra-

too, have all reference to Noah, under

ariomi names.

It is needless to speculate on the causes

^bich God employed, or how they were put

_ tto operation, (iod works as it pleases hun.

r^nbe apostle Peter comi)are8 the water of

to that of the flood (1 Pet. iii. 21).

different destiny now awaits the globe ; it is

the end to be wrapt in flames — another and

:te agent shall seize it at God*s time and

oonunand.

JSOB — decrceue (1 Sam. xxiL 19— was a city

the priests, in the territory of Benjamin,

within sight of Jerusalem on the north.

tfau place David fled from the fury of Saul,

" obtained from Ahimelech, the high priest,

» of the shew-bread to satisfy his hunger,

also Croliath's sword for his defence. Por

act Saul caused the city and all that was

it to be destroyed. (See Ahimelech.)

NOD, LAND OP (Gren. iv. 16)— probably

21

NOS

designates no particular place. It might be
literally rendered (with reference to the doom
of Cain) land of wanderivOf eastward of Eden.

NOPH (Isa. xix. 13; Jer. ii. 16 ; Ezek. xxx.
13, 16) — the ancient Memphis^ in middle
Egypt, on the Nile, 15 miles south of old Cairo.
It was the residence of the earlier kings of
Egypt, and is said to have been alwut 20 miles
in cuxumference. It was the capital of that
Egypt which was known to the patriarchs. In
the seventh century it fell into tne hands of the
Saracens, and the predicted judgments of God,
on account of its idolatry and general corrup-
tion, gradually efface<l every trace of its ancient
magmflcence. In the time of Strabo there
were many splendid remains, among which he
describes a temple of Vulcan, of great magni-
ficence ; another of Venus ; and a thini of
Osiris, where the Apis or . sacred ox was
worshipped. He also mentions a large circus ;
but he remarks that many of the i^sdaces were
in ruins, and describes an immense colossus
which lay prostrate in the front of the city ;
and among a number of sphinxes, some were
buried in sand up to the middle of the body,
while of others only the heads were visible
above the sand. Some monuments were to
be seen 600 years after the time of Strabo^s
\nKit, when the Saracens ha<l i>os8ession of the
country ; but at present there is scarcely a
vestige of its former grandeur to be found.
This has led some to conjecture that its site
was overflown by the Nile ; but it is much more
probable that it has been covered by the con-
tinual encroachments of the sands, which we
see were advancing in the time of Strabo ; and
it cannot be doubted but that a large portion
of ancient Egypt has already been completely
buried by the sands from the wilderness. In
the neighbourhood of this old city are the
pyramids of Ghizeh, three of them, according
to Manetho (built by the first three monarchs
of the fourth dynasty), and the famous sphinx.
The arts rose in Memphis to high perfection.
Several excavations have of recent years been
made in the vicinity.

NORTH (Jer. vi. 1). North and south in
the Scriptures are used relatively to the situa-
tion of countries in regard to Judea. Thus,
Syria is nortli, Egypt south, Babylon and
AssjTialay to the nortn-eayt ; but the Assyrian
army always invaded Palestine from the north.
Me<lia was still farther to the north (Jer. iii 12 ;
Dan. xi. 13, 14).

NOSE, NOSTRIL. ITie distension of the
nostril by an^er seems to have given rise to
such a figurative use of the term as is found in
Ps. xviii. 8, — ** There went up a smoke out of
his nostrils" (Job. iv. 9). Jewels were worn
in the nose by Eastern ladies (Isa. iii. 21).
The left nosml was bored, and the ring
depended from it. This ring was of gold, and
ornamented with i)earls (»«ee also Ezek. xvi.
12; Prov. xi 22). Lane speaks of the nosc-
rinc^ as being yet commonly worn among the
middle and lower classes of women in Egypt
Roberts also speaks of the practice as existing
generally in India.

4S1

NUM
KUUBEB. DiTiD'a Nmuntni or m
FiorLB, a SuD. uiT.) In thii portion of
Scrlptore it ia Bid Uiat David nomband tha
paouD and incumd the mven and awful
dii^mnire of God. The on of David aonU
ant be in tha mere eniUDen>tino(rf hii abjacta,
for a eennu liad alnadr been tat-^ *-- "-
^nupmaiul of God himaefi. lloaea

auricd tbe Divine eomniand into

NaltlMT ooold it connat dm^ in tha aptait <4
pnde or vanity which might '--'-•- -*- -

eoinaa. There waa aomethinc ,

and definita in David'* wa\K»a. Hm inoba-
bil^ ia, that ha wiahed to fonn a atanr" —

anny, to lay the fbinulation of « mlBtarr

Kfjjition.bT which Ua [a>«ca amid Im aaailr
and ountunuKudy animcnted. Snch a notiMi
b ibengthened hj aume featona of the in-
__,_.rr?__.,__ itwa.Joab.thi

In the repnt wl

gave to the Viag, they m ,

o(tlie5BhtingineD,of tbeDiiniMrof "valiant
men that drew tlie ewonL" It wonld appear
that in eome part of the oonntrr aa anud
force aooampuued the oeoaiU'takaT^ (or we
iMd of them that, " paaang over Jordan, th«T
uitdud in Aioer." A etanding "mj —
UMMuiatant with the Ubertiea of the ccui — ,,
andomteoMwaad totheideaot tha thaoenoT,
whicb tiuisht iirince and people ever to look
to Jehoii£ >■ (Jud of UoeU " ~

meditatal aare«i»e war, and
of territory, liii lualiBiumt iiun>
foreiim to blri uHice aa Gud'^ uv

KlMniBS, USER OF, IX SrHTPTIi

•e was equallj

In a former

I male, aa being thi

with 1, the two mat pniijcrtiee of oiimberm.
Unity and mQltituicity, ware itrodncedi bat 3
waa the fimt perfixt number, becauu 3 multi-

Clinl 1^ 'A waa mure tbui 3 added to 3, which
not thn cane with two; for 2 >i 2 - 4. and
3 + 2 = 4. Thua, unity or trinity both beifin
the numeration Mrica, anxirding to the ligl''
in wiiicfa they were view«]. The number J _
a peculiarly aacred number. It ia the number
that makaa the circle or the trpa of perfection.
Ten ia another sacred number, sanctified in
the human form by the ten finaera and toee,
which are aaid 1^ some anatomiita ' '
diacemible in all the laivc uumala, and
to be traced in the hnoE of a horse — five in each
hoof. Hence the Beast, or Therion i>f Kevela-
tion— i.fc, the great political power of the
world, of which the Soman empire waa the
largtat repreaentative— is said, in the highly
poetical ungoaee of prophecy, to have tan
norm. It hai also eeven heads.

Tha omnber 8 ii cnriously Jiuned with 7.
Uusidans all nndaratand how. for the eeven
notaa make an octave, or aerica of eight.

Th* nmnber IS ooaatitatei the obromatia
4BS

'^-'— ' 11-r milnniiii laiwnAniiliw

aaqBBtlfUMdUMVttM^M. B*«*M

too, (ha twain Uhmh of BmriM mit

Mdft tUitaMitkuoMli: th* ««4w3B
mM^aodtha^btombrnw "

WbM3Htb«entnMfe

■■ant fauak (oddnvmb

ran snuban IumI*'): r^
-akM 1± tlw Howd Jh
OodiB^ledtlwG«d<<
Jaaok Uma ~
deaoBdot lb
h^MdZOp.

TIm nmbs M b tka a

cnartw tcnes: Bnid Udb alHta ■
Mriptnat in Mia •MMtaAwrifa
roond the Ono* aC<Ut ad
mnl^iad ligr » unkaa li-4'
JtnA sMbaMn. Mi O*
tanthtsta of ibTSMMMT 1
Me Md to hava Mb pataete
B|^ tlita va)7 pi ~ -^

Oenofeibwt* *'-
Tbtm is no
tkaiL whk~
tnindi. Ne

3Va BtgtuBes a tmr: "A^aari
vonng cow and two abaap" fl_-
*' I am gatlMins two atOn- if. I

'The nmber UWwit abo 11

with peculiar import. In tka B
we have tha ■awaloKr «( 1' '
into threo letlaa p* '-— - — -

Peter's vioon in

Patai denied Cbriat •>»» i Mrm
Lord thrice; tha mMtar of tb*
oama three jttiu miJiliiji, fault
a womaa hid laavan in tEras m
{Uatt liu. 33): and ao Mrmi
ployed. Sneh a ua ad thrsa
the Apnialjpaa, aa Stow
shown. For asainple, in
parts in tiia raward: iiL Tt
actions uorfted to Cbriat ;

Sualitiea of tha Olmrdi ait
. the false Jewi will b« i
thingi: iii. U, thm nanus ta> db wi
him whu conqnara: iiL M, tbica k
of attrihutivea aacribad to '™->-^-
tliingt vhioh tha C!llBi«h m
three thing* ^"' -
iv. 4, thraa i
.y«: iv. (C _

isane fiom the Himimi Ci/I.

dicatad of the (oar Bvteg

thriM repeated— three frfrllstl-"

NUM

three attributes ascrilxid to him (making four
noups of three in one verse); iv. 9, glory,
nonour, thanksgiving ; iv. 10, tne twenty-four
elders^do three things; iv. 11, glory, honour,
power: v. 3, heaven, earth, underworld; v. 5,
three aesignations of Christ; v. 6, in the midst
of three things; v. 11, round about three
things.'' — Stuiut's Comfnentary on the Apoca-
l^pse, pp. 134, 144. The same thing occurs in
umoist every chapter.

Four seems to have been a symbol of fulness.
Four comers of the earth mean all the earth.
The **four winds" are all the winds. Collo-
cations of four are also found often in the
Apocalypse. In ch. iv. 6 ; xix. 4, four living
civatures uphold the throne of Divine Majesty ;
▼. 9, tribe, tongue, people, nation; v. 13,

". heaven, earth, underworld, sea— blessing,
honour, glory, power; viL 1, four angels—

'' four comers of the earth — four winds ; vii.

,^ 9, nation, tribe, peoi>le, tongue; viii 5,

VKnces, thunder, lightning, earuiouake ; viii.

_'. 7, 9, 10, 12, four trumi>et8 anect earth,
■ea, rivers, and fountains of water, and the

- aky above; x. 11, prophesy before people,
naiions, tonnes, kmgs; n. 9, as m vii.

J 9, ftbove; xii 9, four gnmpa of names for
Satan I xiL 19, salvation, might, kingdom,
Authority; xiiL 7, as in viL 9, above; ziv. 6,
the same I ziv. 7, heaven, earth, sea, foun-
tains; xviL 15, pieople, multitudes, nations,
toiigues.

Seven is what is usually named the x>erfect
miinber. It had a peculiarly reli^ous meaning.
Tliree, as referring to the Trmity, was the

Smbol of Divinity. Four was the symbol of
e universe. Three and four, each having
■nch 83rmbolical meaning, joined toeether and
seven, is the union of Grod with his
which is the essence of religion,
is therefore the religious number. It
oocnrs so often in Scripti^ that examples of
it need not be specified. Three and a-half as
the half of seven occurs also in Daniel and the
^pocalypiie. (See Seven.)

2ViH too. has a peculiar use. In Gen. xxxi

7 41, Jacob speaks of Laban as having changed

^is wages ten times — a great many times.

** Xen women" denotes a considerable number

of -women (Lev. xxvi 26). So it is used with

irifp^l*^!* import in Dan. L 20; Amos vi

Xwdvt has also its appropriate employment,

pedally in the Apocalypse — twelve gates,

'elTe fruits, twelve thousand chosen, twelve

twelve thousand sealed on their fore-

^crty also occurs both as a definite and in-

nite numb^ the former having some sacred

ificance. l^us foitv davs were fulfilled

embalming Israel (Gen. L 3);iand this is

to have been the usual ctistom. Moses

, forty da^ and i<xty nights, once and

(Ezoo. xxiv. 18 ; xxxiv. ^ ; Deut. ix. 9,

. 10). Elijah fasted forty days and forty

(1 KL xix. 8). Our Saviour fasted forty

ya and forty nights (Matt iv. 2 ; Luke iv. 2).

^Ooonected with thia are perhaps Ezeldel^s

NUM

bearing the iniquity of Judah forty days
(Ezek. iv. 6); and the judgment for forty
years denounced on Egypt (Elzek. xxix. 11. 12,
13). Punishment by stnpes was restrictea by
the Mosaic law to forty (Deut. xxv. 3 ; comp.
2 Cor. xi 24). The period for the purification
of the mother of a male-child was forty days
(Lev. xiL 2, 4).

It also occurs as a round or indefinite num-
ber, idthough it may be difiicult to specify the
instances. Of tne twenty - eight items
which make up the length of time from the
birth of Moses to the death of David, ten are
periods of fortjr years — viz., the three periods
m the Ufe of Mioses (Acts. vii. 23, 30 ; Exod. viL
7; Deut. xxxiv. 7). the rest which the Israelites
enjoyed under Otnniel (Judg. iii 11), the rest
under Deborah and Barak (Judg. v. 31), the
rest under Gideon (Judg. viii 28), the op-
pression of the Philistines (Judg. xiii 1), the
mdffing of Eli (1 Sam. iv. 18), the re^ of
Saul (Acts xiiL 21), and the reign of David
(1^ Ki ii. 11). Some of these periods are
without doubt round numbers. Of a similar
nature are perhaps the rain of forty days dur-
ing the deluge (Gen. viii. 4, 12, 17), Noah*8
waiting forty days rCren. viii. 6), ana the res-
pite allowed to tne Kinevites (Jon. iii. 4).

Lastly, the number one thousand is often
used as a definite for a very indefinite quantity.

Deut 1. 11. Hie Lord God of yonr fathers make yqa
a thouRaad times so many mure a» yo are.

▼U. 9. The faithfal God, which keopeth cove-
nant to a thousand generations.

xrdi 30. How should one chase a thousand.

1 Chr. xvl. 15. The word which he commanded to
a thousand generations.

Job ix. 3. He cannot answer him one of a thousand.
zxxiii. 23. One among a thousand, to show unto

man his uprightness.
Ps. L 10. Cattle upon a thoa«and hills.
— IxxxlT. 10. A day in thy courts is bettor tiian a
thousand.
xc. 4. A thousand years in thy sight are but as

yesterday.

xcL 7. A tiiousand shall fall at thv side.

EccL tL 6. Though he live a thousand years.

Isa. viL 23. Where there were a thousand vines at a

thousand BUverings.
XXX. 17. One thousand shall flee at the rebuke of

one.

Ix. 22. A little one shall become a thousand.

Amos ▼. 8. The city that went out by a thousand

shall leaye an hundred.

2 Pet ilL 8. One day is with the Lord as a thousand
years.

Bev. XX. 2. Bound him a thousand jrears.
3. Till the thousand years should be ful-
filled, 4-7.

NuMBEB OP THE Beast. ** Here is wisdom.
Let him that hath understanding count the
number of the beast ; for it is the number of a
man, and his number is six hundred threescore
and six " (Bev. xiii 18). Many have been the
attem^jts to solve the enigma of this verse. It
has in it a deep meaning, and for its investi-
gation and solution "wisdom" is required.
The difficulty is to get an appropriate name,
the numerical power of whose letters will
amount to 666. Xateinos is a word which has
often been Bupposed to be the qrmbol intended

NUH
IjJaliB. nt* pome ■adanMNmtofiti fatten

T, »•

R ■

L. 10

H, M

ft ,„__._.. W
B JW

Tilt word* 'Airuj fAt m. Turin, Eixapli
(waalth) iMve &1m been alleged, with nun]
otlun it would be luelew to onnmentc Pio-
UmjT Seatry of finlia ia» Utal^ pnpaead

>,dc^gn, >ndint__,

w,Mm«wiUiit«bi|A
He Ukinka that Neroii

_. TTuit luiBe i( ormIIj

written in the Tklmtid Nikon Cxsax, The

viewiof the . .

ttoo of the ApoMlTpee,
dagrae of probetnliW. 1
the name intended. T

written in the Talmud

nnoMcical power of the Hebrew lettenntakina
np Ui«M name* ia tiO -t- 200 -H 6 + sot thraloO

+ 60 ■<■ am = 666. Now it ii not a Utb
ibange that there ia a Tarioua reading ol tUa

iminMr. Itencni found it, in — '—

ol the ^molypae, 61& Theemj
written Kbbo Cbu;

rheemperoi^
inimicall]r61&

Qreek mithoil of pronmiciatica, the leoood ii
Uie lAtin._ Tr> ihow; the vagariee which hare

been published on thla point, it may be added

that one tries to Rod Mahrnuet in the mntia
notnlicr, nniitbi-r lionsporte, and a third haa

tbo inueniuiis uuilncity to iiropoiie Martin
Luther! It in endeut that the writer Of the
ApocalypH winlied to deecribe a pvrsecntia^

U plain la

a....... . , j^ ____i_iL_.a_a

to take poMB^ta of tka ^ elMr
•uwUk; yatt^ in mHirt*

tea. TSbOaH^tMtwmSi

ttM* ini*t

Jut^lL l*.Gao MMIt UNkB

^.talBO.. S7.W0 SS SmMB

MuiuMii. j%Kii ai,m iKMfeB

EpknJiu iOMM turn UN«B

BwlUBln. U.4m «iM> ll5»HB

D»a, ra.nn VMV i^hik

e fro]

Lthe

a that it

tains the namUri and ordering of the Hebiewi
and Levitca after the erection anil conMcratiim
of the tabeniiKle. The contents of thii book
are very multifariiius, onwsting of history and
ceremonial institute. The hiBtory of Balaam
contained in it is both curious and instructive ;
■0 is the recoid of Korah's conspiracy. A
period of alaiut thirty-eiKht yean is embraced,
though of tlie events of the largest portion of
this intervening space we have no record.
Mocei wished to peipetoate the history of two
neat acts— the emandpatitin of the people, and
Ue fulfilment al God's promise to give Caanan
to Abraham's poateri^. All events not ne.
oenaiilr or immediately bearing on this are
omitted. We are nresentad with on acc<'unl
of the deliverance from Egypt, and the tribes
H« left at the death of Idusee close on the
frontier of the promised land. Much of the
history will be found onder the Article Mosu.

lUsbookfaMil

lore and Qod'i Mvattw; tawh»inM*>
rw^d., Mfil. Ua oonMk Bdd«G(M
bntyetimBlAM the nabdBSvtwMlMb'
^nbiOarj. Ita|nnklM7lMkM«B
de^uadb)rAaw>Eb^"8ow*M*rt*
— ij — > — -iThi liiiiii— if dMWffii
iii. IB. "I-t u therrfw. fsar.Ii^al^
imie being Itft ■>• of efttenns tatoU ibU*
of you should seent to eoua^ct <!&*(■•

NUItSB {Gon. xxiv. BB). VtM ^m*
relation wa% and ia alalL caa ^ teH*l»
portant in BHton it^Uei. b fM ii
none U regarded ■■ a «wt ct nesad ■«*
always aocompaiijiag the farida to ■■ ■•
bands hooae, and arer nsBmni^ itoaM
honooiedniest Sa it waa in andsnt Am*
And in Hindoataa the nana p^M te ^
I ehildian she h^hriped tonvj*'

towards a faTOorite

the part of the ntuae moat hi

in tcndemets and affeotiom ; and l^Ma m

force of the figimtiva nriaiMJiaM. 1m. ^

23; lTheas.iL 7. BeCeniw to A* |MV

DolBd. Boboita s^a,— i^I

like tins led mw mud to '_,

agel ThedanghteTisatMNit fwDMjMIW
to leara the inlaiinl rooli tba mtmA*
all in confnauM; tuA rates to Hkpm
gone by, each wiahw to do HwOf •;
attract the Mantion «t 1^ »■« ^M
Onesays, 'Ahl datiatt(HrtUMwWM«

•~iai.iiif«iti'aaoMS»,'H«wi«Br»

on Uw baatclifinl lotM htm *■*

NUT

'My daughter, I shall see 3roa no more;
forget not your mother.* The brother enfolds
his sister m his arms, and promises soon to
oome and see her. The father is absorbed in
thought, and is only aroused by the sobe of the
party. He then affectionately embraces his
oaughter, and teUs her not to fear. The
female domestics must each 9mdl of the poor
girl, and the men touch her feet.

'* As Rebekah had her nurte to accompany
her, so, at this day, the Aya (the nurte) who
has from infancy brought up the bride ^oes
with her to the new scene. She is her adviser,
her assistant, and friend; and to her will she

OAT

tell all her hopes and all her fears.'* — Hoberts'
Oriental lUustnUionSj pp. 28, 29.

NUTS (Gen. xliiL 11) are generally sup-
posed to have been what are now known as
jfngtadiio orpiHacia nuts, which were pnxluced
m ^at perfection plentifully in Syria, but
not in Egjpt. This nut is of an oblong shape,
and, in its green state, of exquisite tai^.
When dried for exportation they are very
inferior. The Seventy, in the passage referred
to, render the word "turpentine." Another
and distinct Hebrew term rendered "nuts,**
in Cant. vL 11, is supposed to refer to the
fruit known as wUnutt.

o

OAK (Gren. xxxv. 4, 8). There is a word in
the Hebrew Bible which is often translated in
oar version oak, but which is the name of a
tree peculiar to the Eastern world. This is the
terebinth or turpentine tree, which abounds in
Syria, Mesoiwtamia, and I'alestine. It grows
to ft considerable size, and has a rich and
luxuriant foliage. From this tree is obtained
the genuine turpentine of the ancients, and a
rich and balsamic gum which exudes from the
trunk. It is said to live 1,000 years, and
when it dies the race is renewed by young
shoots from the root ; so that the tree may in
m sense be called perpetuaL Hence the figura-
tive allusion in Isa. vi. 13, where the teil or
Unden tree might as well be rendered *'tere-
bmth." It is (»lled butm by the Arabs. One
of these vegetablepatriarchs is thus described
by Rolnnson : — ' * Tne largest we saw an3rwhere
in Palestine spread its boughs far and wide
Uks a noble oak. This species is, without
doubt, the terebinth of the Old Testament;
and under the shade of such a tree Abraham
ml^ht well have pitched his tent at Mamre.
It IS not an evergreen, as is often represented ;
Imt its small, feathered, lancet-shaped leaves
itJl in the autumn, and are renewed in the
spring. The flowers are small, and followed
by small oval berries, hanging in clusters from
S to 5 inches long, resemblmg much the clusters
of the vine when the grapes are just set.'* —
Bobinson*s RetearcheSj iii., p. 15.

For these reasons it was an important land-
BDUurk, and served to fix the topography of the
lsp^»j as we find ooA:* very often named for
the purpose of designating the locality of great
0vantB (Josh. xxiv. 26 ; Judg. vi. 11 ; 2 Sam.
XTiii. 9; 1 Ki xiiL 14; 1 Chr. x. 12).

The word translatea pkUns in several pas-
mmga (Gen. xii. 6; xiii. 18; xiv. 13; xviii. 1;
l>0at. xi 30 ; Judg. ix. 6) signifies places noted
^or <dusters or groves of the terebmth or oak.
it appears that the oak is sometunes
to in the Old Testament. In Gen.

LV. 8 ; Josh. xix. 32, the word Alton occurs,

^^rbich periiaps is rightly rendered oak. The

characteristic of Britain is not found in

_ but other species of the oak grow there.

tiah was the tereointh tree, while Ailon is the

Bashan has its oaks at the present day.

Oaks, " noble prickly oaks,** are mentioned by
Lord Lindsay as growing on the Kishon and
around mount Tabor. Kobinson mentions a
majestic oak near Hebron. The strength of
the oak is alluded to by the prophet (Amos iL
9) ; and the district of Bashan is often men-
tioned as peculiarly favourable to the j^rowth
of this tree (Isa. iL 3^ Zech. xi 2). It is plain
that the trees of Scnpture called by the name
oak in our version are not thorousfhly identified.

The wood of the oak was used for idols (Isa.
xliv. 14).

OATH (Heb. vi. 16). To take an oath is
solemnly to call on G<)d to witness or tako
notice of what we affirm. It invokes the
vengeance, or renounces the favour of Grod,
if what is asserted is false, and if what is
promised is not performed. It has been
matter of doubt among some Christians
whether the practice of taking an oath on any
occasion is not a violation of the express
command of our Saviour (Matt. v. 34). Even
those who allow the practice require that it
never be taken but in matters of importance,
nor sworn by the name of any but the true
God, as it is an act of solemn worship (Deut.
vi. 13 : Josh, xxiii. 7 ; Jer. v. 7 ; Matt. v. 34,
35; Jas. v. 12); nor irreverently, without
(i:odly fear and awe of the Most High ; and he
IS represented as a wicked man who is not
deeply impressed with an oath (EccL ix. 2);
nor rashly, without caution (Gen. xxiv. 2-8;
Lev. V. 4; Matt. xiv. 7); nor falsely nor
deceitfully affirming what is false, or without
a sincere intention to perform (Lev. vi. 3 ;
xix. 12; Jer. xlii. 5). But every oath ought
to be sworn in truth and with judgment,
having respect to the nature of an oatn, and
of the thing sworn ; and vdth feai* of God, by
whom we swear ; and only in things that are
good, and for a good end (Jer. iv. 2 ; 1 Cor. x.
31 ; Heb. vi. 17). Oaths may be sinful, even
when prescriboa by the law of the land : thev
ma^ contain things in themselves unlawful,
which no human laiivs can render consistent
with right ; or they may be enjoined without
necessity, and multiplied beyond reason^ or
administered in a maimer so manifestly irre-
verent, that they are rather an insult to
Jehovah than a solemn act of worship. The

485

(nture atkte of remrd Biid pnnwlinnint, OHUiot
oonnftenQy Uke one. In tbcir moQtlu u
oath can ba odIj Tun mockerv.

God hinualf ia Tepi«Mntad u oonfinning
U* praniaa by OTth, which ia a men fignralara
alliuon to what ii practiMd among mea (B A
*L 13, 16, 17).

The lonna of •wtanng an rariooi.
Andentl; the lifting dp of one of the handa
toward* heaven (F«. euiv. 8 : Rvr. z. 6), and
pntting the hand under the thigh (pen. xzir.
2), were lued. (See RiSBT HaxD, BWKai.)

OBAl>IAH-«m«iiK of JtkantM. Then
.. . _ i.._ .i.jj t^gi^g penoni of thi*

whom an persoDi of note.

L (2 Cfai. xviL 7) One of the nohlca whom
Jehoihuih&tKDttoteachinUiecdtieaflf Jodak

2. (3 Chr. xxxiv. 12) One of the Lerifaa
who prended at the re-conei
temple in the dnvB of Joeiah.

& (1 Ki. iviiL 3) A godly man, and piin-
<foal oKoet in the honKhold of Ahab, by wboae
imeipoMtioD 100 iirnpheti were preaarrad
from the mnrdennu penwnilion <n Jraebel,
and (uppUed with food.

BMnahave enppoeed that thii
than the prophet of the ume naiuc : i>u> um.
b better reasoa to nippoee that Obadiah the
prophet hved at the same period with Jatamjah
and EiddeL

Objutah, pkofhect op, ii the thirty-fint
in the ordvT of the booka of the Old TeetamenL
Nothing ii known of the author of theae
ancient oraclen, of which wa poueHs only a
■moil fragment. They seem to have Men
composed during the captivity. The oracle is
callL-d a viaiutL It rvlatee to the judgmenla
impendiDg over Eilom. and to the reeton ' *
and proeperity of the Jewn. Some portdoi
thi> propbcrcy aru sumiuaeil to have relation to
eventa (till future. The aimilarity of a portion
of Obadiah's girophecy and that of Jeremiah
in atrikinB [comn. Jer. ilii. 7-10, 14-16 ; Obad.
1.9). The atyio is pure and vigorotu, and
aboondu with interrogationa of great point and

OBEU-KDOM— »nrino Edon (1 Chr. ivi.
38)-a I*vite who Uved in Darid'e time, and
at whose bouae the ark n-aa deposited, after
the dreadful death of Uaah (2 Sam. vi, 6-10).
The blewing which came on the honae of
Obeil-edom for the ark'e aake encnnraged
David to remove it to Jenualem (2 Sam. vi
10-12). Obed-edom and hii aoni were appointed
keepersoftbedoonof thetabemacle(I Chr.xvL
38), and of the mered veenoli (2 Chr. iiv. 24).
OBLATIONS. (SeeOFraamo.)
ODED— ™i«in(7 (2 Chr. iv. 81— a propb«t
by whose inatniction Asa, long of Judah, waa
induced to pnt away idols out of his kingdom
and possesuona, and to renew the woialiip of
ttie true God (2 Chr. iv. 1-8). Oded was at
and whan the IsraelitM returned

^ theti

• vaCarad totathMtaa
mmaaonana, «• ana Mosdad in 1 Ck R.
lAandthBoaerina(aie.«xrin.t.

OFFKNCE ffian. ix. 33). Tbit trrm a
Qw Mond wriann cAsa meam thst ^brk
«aaa*a«riiIikdr{osaM:Q>toBn. Thata
Matt T. Sr.aari^ay* whicJi wM ^m
tomiaaaidtediKidt Bbd in iUU. i*m. C
CMwea d ^ nflniag, and wi» >rt aW
(Anwaa; ao b MatL ni. 33. In tl« *■•
aanaa onS^tmr Ii anlled. in tl» >bn
pMHua fnm Rynw, *•» rndt ct <£aa.'

ssisiisrs.,J!E.-T

Ler. xlx. U; In. tU. I4; Lake & ».
Bmd. ic a S8; irin f umi^ a aAM
ShMtntion of tba wwd and it* lytiaKim
The "oflaaaa of a« voM " (Ga]. I. Ui a, itM
Om doctrine of OInM, or ^e CRM, B • »-
hling-bla* to OMMl BM, a* it praUvt
bm^ntka, and vaittom a holyl^

OFFERlfn} (Om. I* 31, OBUnnS
[Lar. iL 7). Ab Hhriny, in a ralitvn osi
IS wbatenr ona oAen ■> a t-iftbr w *
reverenoe to a anpcrior rMan. iL II). >^
Jewish saorifioa^ and iii grDcnl all thr t^
Rtoiis SMnBota, are, nm^rly gp«UBt *
lationM. Somettmea thn smn to U ■■
indiaCEriminately, aa in Lev. ijL 1, ''If^
oblation be a aaoi&oa frf t»'a«-oB«rint,' fc
The word aacrifioa ia oonuoiully tuiil ii '
sense so genoal aa to ombrw whsKrai
devoted in any way to the smi» of tW;
but, strictly speaking; aflerin«i wo^ i^
bloodleas gjita, ■>-—-- - ■ ■ -..i-ii

iroatnnd atata, naal, brmLob^*
v, puched gt^n. fa. To*sss<«*
added, and aoaMfance Ihey «<i« Mf

a iavehsK;

often adSed, and aomrtimea Ihey '
with the <m. Pnper anorifit— '-
deatmotion of "■<»«ftl life, or un nkasi^'
blood; and alia the aatire or tm-ri^ *
of the Tietim by fire. Bii* ■
ooiwlitiited the sacrifies; h^

OFF

Drink offerinffsw&ce a kind of accompani-
XDent to the bloody and bloodless offerings.
They consisted chiefly of wine, part of which
'was poured on the victim, and the residue was
g^ven to the priests (Num. xv. 5, 7). Among
the offerings required bjr the Jewish law were
the burnt offering (Lev. i, 4), so called because
the thing offered was entirely consumed ; the
trespass offering (Lev. v. 6), in which the guilt
of tne offerer was confessed, and an atonement
made ; the sin offering (Lev. iv. 3) ; the meat
offering (Lev. ii. 1), which was ususJly a com-
pound of com, flour, oil, and frankincense,
prepared in various ways, and burnt on the
altar of burnt-offering; the pea<;e offering (Lev.
iii. 1) ; and the consecration offering. The six
fore^ing are the offerings by fire, as expressly
required (Lev. vii. 37). The drink offering,
which always attended the meat offering (£xod.
xxix. 40) ; the heave offering (Exod. xxix. 27) ;
and the tcave offering (Exod. xxix. 24) : the
last two are so <»lled from a particular motion
niied in the presentation of them. The obfa-
tion of the first-fruits (Lev. ii. 12) was regarded
as a meat offering, and was presented oef ore
the hiurvc»t was npe, the frmt being dried or
parched (Lev. ii. 14).

The Jews were required, as a general rule,
to bring all their offerings to an appointed
place — ^nrst the tabernacle, and afterwards the
temple ; and the manner of presenting them is
described in most minute detaiL

The burnt offering was to be a male without
blemish of the herd and of the flock, offered
-volontarily at the door of the tabernacle, the
hand of the offerer beingupon the head ox the
victim (Lev. L 2-4). The animal was then
taken to the altar, slain on the north side,
and the blood sprinkled about the altar (Lev.
▼. 5 : comp. Heb. xii 24). The east side of
the altar was appropriated to the ashes, &c.
(Liev. i. 16). On the south was the ascent to
the altar, and on the west was the sanctuary.
The body of the victim was flayed, opened,
cut in pieces, salted, laid in order* on the altar
of burnt offering, and consumed to ashes (Lev.
i. 5, 8 : comp. Heb. iv. 12). So of killing and
offering fowls (Lev. i 14-17). The end of
the bwnt offering was an atonement for sin
(Lev. i. 4 : comp. Heb. x. 1-3, 11). This
offering constituted a morning and evening
aamfice, and was often made on other pre-
scribed occasions. It was the most solemn of
all Uie Jewish sacrifices.

The meat offering consisted of flour prepared
-with oil and frankincense (Lev. iL 1). It was
to be free from leaven ana honey, but was to
have salt (Lev. i 11, 13). "With this was
connected the drink offering, which, as before
observed, was never used separately, but was
an appendage of wine to some sacrifices.
Bfence the condemnation, of their superstitious
practioe of using blood for a drixik offering
(Ps. xvi 4).

In this and other sacrificial observances, it
^rould appear that generally the offerer was
to kill tne victim, take off the skin, cut up the
body, and wash the different parts. The

OFF

priest was to sprinkle the blood, prepare the
nre, and lay the sacrifice upon the altar. The
Levites, and afterwards the Nethinims, as-
sisted in these labours.

The meat offmng was presented on pre-
cribed occasions. It always attended burnt
offerings and peace offerings, and also the sin
offering and trespass offering of the leper. A
handfiu of the composition was bumea by the
priest upon the altar (Lev. iL 16), and the
residue was for his own and his f amUv's use.

^ The peace offerings were vows of thanks-
giving, or a supplication for mercies, and were
simila^ in kina and manner of presentation
with the burnt offering, (Lev. iii) The peace
offering is rendered in the Septuagint safety
offering. Sometimes it is called " thank offer-
ing." It was a species of feast; only certain
portions of the victim were consum^ on the
altar, and what was left was immediately em-
ployed in some festive ceremony, either on
that or the following day.

The sin offering nad peculiar respect to
sins committed ignorantly, and was modUied
according to the persons presenting it (comp.
Lev. iv. 3, 13, 22, 27). Part of the blood of
the victim was pnoured out at the bottom of
the altar ; a part was sprinkled on the horns
of the altar of incense ; and a part was carried
by the priest into the most holy place, (Lev.
xvi.)

The trespass offering, the manner and occa-
sion of which are described. Lev. v. -vii, seems
to have differed but slightly from the l^t. It
may be remarked, that all the blood of the
trespass offering appears to have been sprink-
led around the alt^, and that it was offered
only for individuals, and never (as the sin
offering) for the congregation. The burnt,
sin, and trespass offaring were of an expiatory
character, though not exclusively so.

It is evident that the law recognizes some
distinction between sin offerings and trespass
offerings — terms which in English have an
identity of meaning. The law does not lay
down any generic principle of difference, but it
specifies the cases and occasions when the one
and when the other kind of sacrifice should be
brought. Trespass offerings were brought in
the follo^tdng cases : —

1. When a person did not inform of a crime
committed by another, he having been privy
to it.

2. When a person had touched any unclean
object, and discovered it too late.

3. When a person had rashly sworn that he
would do a particular thing, but thought of it
afterwards when too late.

4. When a person had, through mistake,
applied to a common purpose anything which
had been consecrated to a holy use.

6. When a person had refused to give up
what had been committed to his trust, or vio-
lated an engagement, or denied stolen property
which had come into his hands, or concealed
and forswore any lost thing which he had
found.

6. When any person had, through ignorance,

487

oo

iam ■omrthiM fuiUdilaD, and bacHM •ftar-
waidi RppriMd of it.

7. WlunaiiiMihadcriminBlooniMatiaBwia
■batnrtlMd tanulc ilkTe, irira WM not ndeenad,
nor hni in any other war oIitHiwd bar fraadcoi
(Lar. III. W-m To thia mar be ■^^^^
tba oaotiacliiig of idolatnma mamagea. {8aa
Xinz.19.)

a Beaidea time, a Naaaiita wlio had earn-
tnctad defilemeiit br toadiinK a dead body
(Nmd. Ti. 9-U), aad a leper who bad broi
Lilted (LeT. iiT. 1^ 24), wars to bring a
tnniaH effering.

Sm oflerinn wov enjunad —

L When the high jineat had oomnittcd

renntei-

3. On the gnat da; of atonement, for the
high mieet and the

4. Whenamairil
thnxurhen

0. Wben
ignoru

8. \1 .

oontinuird liKmorrfaage, or, after chiid-uuH^
bad reached the time of puiification (Lar. xr.
SG-30 : liL 6-8).

7. Uv. XV. 2, 14, 15.

a When a Nazarite liad touched a enr|
fir the time uf hu vuw waa oomplcted (Ni
vt 10.14).

9. On the eontecratinn of a priait or Lenta
(Lev. ii. 23; Kuni. viii. fl. 12).

10. On the puriticatinn of a leiwr {Lev. liv.
10-31).

The mnimalinn nffiringt were made at the
time of cunBccmtiuK the prieatu (Ij«v. i-iiL 22J,
from which dreumatance (unci not from any-
thing peculiar in the cereindny) the name ia
derived. (See KACKincEa.)

Tbeae ofFijrint'H had nn merit in themulvM;
tbey could nut ''make him that did theaei-
»ioa perfect an pertaining to the coniicienoe."
They were tnwB, clear and exprcMive, and
ptunted to the atonement of the Son of God.
I'N^ithiT hv the blooi! nt l ' "

of gtiata, and the aHbeii of an heifer sprinkling
the unclean, unctlfleth tn tljc piirifyinji of the
fleah; hiiwrnuchmoTogfaalltheliloodaf Cfariit
who through the etrmal ^piiit offered himavll
without »pit to God, purge your conscience
from dead works to wrve the living God?"
(HeK ii. 12-14).

OG— jTiont (Doiit. iiL 1)— a king of Buhan
of gigantic itatnre {DeuL iiL 11), who oppoaed

''*' 'e of the laiselitea thnmgfa hiji terri-

oaea, being divinely admonished of

.■■•, attempted to force hu< way thn>ti);h

the cnuDtiy, auoweded in captonng the king,
and nltimately became marter of the whole
oonntiy (Deut. iiL 3-6). Hi« "bed," referred
to in Deut. iiL II, may have been hia aatco.
pliagaa of baaalt.

le pacaaffeof

thainaUM ^ pw*
Mriad ti mwiImUbb "

ln«not Witt «• t

Eaat,^>adaI]r<B IMhdaMd attetnM

to thsirtMaa bodr. Mid Oa matemOU^
aMiattiMtrbM^ H«MBtt*Mrfdb
dgmOoaBt gf Jov and nlaja— (hiAft
andtiuonfarfaBotltfaabdMMlMmwpBH
liT. S J IbtL vL 17). (BMOun.)

OIL TBKB Om. dL U) ta nnli^lrfcMt
«i* tha Mm int. or wU ttarildb

- -Bft la Wasdad fak Am fm^i

tioa ol tta flUva. 1^ i

viL 13} TiiL 8; sL 14; xnBLlO: IKLi^Q
llMobTa norcr Kimninta averv ljir.vi;->.
thoogb aoaaa el na bImm attain a tviv-iirttiit
bdg£t. r*w liaa UAar than &» ftci. lb ■
leavea an DMdaoad m pain, and aRlM^

mnawSat like dtat ot Ute box, asd vBjda
intbagndn. llMaa>w«riaat Entyclba.M
aa it e^anda it baMBM wUts, leariiu
yellow eentn. Hm fatnt ia bke a pha h
duHMandcoloar; babgfltst gnwo, tiu: Hi
anrtirhnTiTir'i Tin>rij"hlaA- OttnaMinH

waya, and OMlati-

tnt«a anlmpcatanl

article of aam-

merce and lozuiy

(Job uiv. 11 1

Kiek. iiviL 17). The frait

beating (Dent, ixlv. —

(laa. ivii 6). The b

tuugha, and wbidi an oaOed tfaa

were to be left for the pooT. A fiill«aili*

in its vigour pradnoaa 1,000 poonda of oi.

The dive la a beutifnl and dnlbtn
and the &uit ri^ and valoaUa; baw*
frequent fignntive allDriotia to it, wkaA #
aelf-explanato!/. "Tbe fatniM «l tti •>
wai proverbial {Judg. ix. 8, ^ It WJj
evergreen, and ao bacanw n baaalihd V^
of f raah and eomtumed jpia^, tt* iw* *
Divine hleadng : "I amlikBanMadhttM
in the hooMot Qod" <F». HL $ Hkmim

OLI

sprouts grew up in graceful circuit from the
n)otA of the olcler trees, and bo the Psahnist
sings, **Th7 chihiren like olive plants round
about thy table" (Ps. cxxviii. 3). This green
and spreading tree was an object of great
beauty, and the prophets refer to it tnua:
•* The liord called thy name, A green olive tree,
fair, and of eoodly fruit" (Jer. xi 16). " His
beauty shall be as the olive tree" (Hoe. xiv. 6).
It was one of the sources of wealth, and its
failure was the cause of famine (Hab. iiL
17). The olive branch is re^rded universally
an emblem of peace (Gen. viii. 11).

The flowers of the olive might be blasted,
and so Job speaks of the wicked "castingoff
his flower as the olive" (Job xv. 33). The
fruity too, fell sometimes prematurely (Deut.
zxviii 40). The boughs of this tree were em-
ployed in the construction of booths at the
feast of tabernacles, and the cherubim in
Solomon's temple were formed of its wood.

The wild olive (Rom. xi. 17) is smaller, and
its fruit, if it produces any, far inferior to the
coltivated. (See Graff.)

The olives from which oil is to be expressed
most be gathered by the hands, or softly shaken
from the trees before they are fully ripe. The
best oil is that which comes from the fruit
with very li^ht pressure. This is sometimes
okQed in Scripture green ot/, not because of its
ooloor, for it is pellucid^ but because it is from
unripe fruit The oil itself was of a gold co-
lour (Zech. iv. 21). It is translated on Exod.
xxviL 20, ** pure oil olive beaten," and was used
for the golden candlestick. For the extraction
of this first oil panniers or baskets are used,
which are gently shaken. The second and
third pressing produce inferior oiL The best
is obtained from unripe fruit ; the worst from
that which is more than ripe. The oil of Egypt
is worth little, because the olives are too fat.
Hence the Hebrews sent gifts of oil to the
[Egyptian kinff (Hos. xii. 1), as a bribe to induce
Pharaoh to form an alliance. The inferior
quality is used in making soap. But the He-
brews used oil not merely in lamps, and with
salads, but in every domestic employment in
iirhich butter is serviceable, and also in the
meat-oflferings of the temple. It is observed
by travellers, that the natives of oil countries
manifest more attachment to this than to any
otiier article of food, and find nothing ade-
quately to supplv its place.

A press was also used for the extraction of
tbe oil, consisting of two reservoirs, usually
8 feet square and 4 feet deep, situated one above
the other. The berries, being in the upper one,
were trodden out with the feet (Mic. vi. 15).

The sacred oil, for the unction of the priests
and tabernacle, was very precious, and was
not to be imitated. It had in it four ingredients
— ^myrrh, cinnamon, calamus, and cassia, with
oil olive.

The berries are also an article of food in all
countries where the olive abounds. The tree
grew where there was not much soil, and this
may account for the expression, "oil out of the
flinty rock."

OMR

The Hebrews had a generic term to siffuify
olive fruit, yitzar. It is often indeed renaered
ot/ in our version. The translation is too precise,
though yet so far correct, a^ oil was the prin-
cipal product of the olive. The word often
occurs in the enumeration of the fruits of Pal-
estine (Num. xviiL 12; Deut. vii. 13; xi 14;
xii. 17; xiv. 23; xviii 4. and in many other
passages of Scripture). It is associated in such
passages sometimes with com, with flocks, and
with the harvest, and often with wine. * * Com,
wine J and oil," represent the three great
blessings of Canaan ; but each of the terms, as
used in modem language, is too specific a trans-
lation of the original, for they aenote respec-
tively the ingathering of the field, the vme-
yanL and the orchard. Other thinigs ^w in
the fields besides com, but it was the prmdpal ;
other products came from the grape, but wine
was b^ known ; other trees besides tiie olive
grew in the grove, but it was the chief of them,
and oil was the cherished manufacture from its
fatness. Some notion of this nature seems to
have suggested the terms employed by our
English translators. In many instances the
sense would have been plainer had they used
English nouns of a meaning as wide and general
as the original Hebrew substantives.

OLIVES, MOUNT OP (Matt xxvi. 30), or
OLIVET (2 Sam. xv. 30), or MOUNT OF
CORRUPTION (2 Ki. xxiil 13), overlooks
Jerusalem on the east, so that every street,
and almost every house, can be distinguishea
from its summit. It doubtless had its name
from the abundance of olives which grow upon
it ; some of which, of romarkable age and size,
are still standing.

The mount of Olives is about a mile in length,
and about 700 feet in height. To a spectator
on the west it has a gently waWng outline,
and appears to have three summits of nearly
equal height. The view from the summit is
ntmd, taking in the Dead Sea and the hills of
Moab, while the course of the Jordan cau also
be traced. On the top of the centra one is a
churoh, erected over the spot where, they
inform us, our Saviour ascended into heaven ;
and in confirmation of the tradition, tradi-
tionists point to a stone with the impression of
the left foot, made, as they pretend, when he
vras about leaving the earth ; that of the ri^ht
foot having been carried away by the Tunes.
On Ascension-day they come up in great
crowds, and have service here. In Luke
xxiv. 50, it is very clearly stated that the
ascension occurred near Bethany, which is on
the eastern side of the mountain, more than
a mile from this. (Compare this passage with
Acts i. 12, where the ascension is also spoken

of.) (SeeGETHSEMANE.)

OMEGA. (See Alpha.)

OMER. (See Meabukes.)

OMRl— sheaf (1 KL xvL 16)— an officer in
the army of IsraeL He was engaged in the
siege of Gibbethon, a Philistine city, when he
received intelligence that Zimri, another officer
of the armv, had assassinated the king, and
had usurpea the throne. The army, by general

489

ON

aodamatioiL. mftde Omri king ; and, nSiinff
tlie nege odFuibbethon, they f oftawith nMurofaea
to Tiiah, where Zimri resided, and oaptiued
il Zimn set fire to the hoaie he occnpted,
and was consomed. The Inaelitea were then
divided into two parties; bat after a short
struggle Omri prevailed, and iock the throne,
which he polluted and disgraced throof^ a reign
^ twelve Tears. Omri Imilt Samana, whwh
thereafter became the capital of the ten tribes.

ON (Gen. zli 45), or AVEN(£sek. xxz. 17),
is the same with ££TH-SHEBf£SH— Aoase
^thenm (Jer. Tliii. 13), and was called by the
Greeks HdiojpoliM, or dtp of the tun. These
names are given to the ^aoe because it was
the prindnu seat of the Egyntiaa worship of
the sun. It was one of the oldest cities in the
world, and was situated in ^^STPJ^ ui the land
of Goshen, on the east of the liile, about 90
miles from Memphis. Eighteen centuries ago,
this city was in ruins when visited by 8traba

Aooordinf to Josephus, this dty was given
to the family of Jacob, when they first came
to sojourn in Egsrpt ^ and we know that it was
a daughter of the pnent of the temple situated
here who was eiven in marriage to Joseph.
Here, also, in the time of Ptolemy Philaoel-
pus, Onias, a Jew, obtained leave to erect a
temple sinular to uie one at Jerusalem^ which
was for a long time frequented bv- the Hellenist
Jews. There is an apparent reference to it by
■everal of the prophets. (See passages above
cited.)

The priests in Heliopolis were a rich and
learned corporation, and Pythagoras and Plato
studied under these sacerdotal instructors.
Noting now remains but immense dikes and
mounds, full of pieces of marble, ^nite, and
pottery, some remnants of a spnmx, and an
obelisk, still erec^ of a Binglo block of red
gnmite about G8 teet in height, and covered
with hieroglyi)hics. There has been read on
this obelisk J Uorus the life-giver— the king
lit an obedient people — lord of Upi)er and
Lower Egyi)t." (See Pillar.)

ONESIMUS— /)rotf^a6/f (CoL iv. 9)— a ser-
vant of Philemon, at Coloese, who, having
been guilty of some delinquencv, had fled to
Rome ; and, being converted under the preach-
ing of Paul, was sent back to Philemon with
a most affectionate letter, commending the
penitent, not only to the forgiveness of Phile-
mon, but to his love and confidence as a fellow-
disciple. (See Philemon.)

OlSESIVHORVS-^-proJit'bearer (2 Tim. i.
16) — a primitive Christian, resident at Ephe-
sus, where he ministered very seasonably to
the relief and comfort of Paul (2 Hm. i 18).
When Paul was imprisoned at Kome, Onesi-
phorus came thither, and again afforded timely
relief to the afflicted apostle; for which he
expresses his gratitude m the warmest terms
in the nassa^ above cited.

ONION (Num. xL 6)— a well-known garden
vegetable which grew in great jierfection in
Egypt. The onions of Egypt are described by
travellers as of large size and exquisite flavour,
differing (says one) from the onions of our
490

OFK

JMWIOiy fti B

iMklaitftEilHMHa
isoftan anuliiUiiil
sbandintlio
lidkakt tUa

TIssaorial

sfoSof I

aortal aiai
BMh eiofa of satiiBK feaa » SMiaa ■•■■:
MIcioaB aatloai, nna. aad UsssU &iiia^
"iirn iTTiarilM Is o'siiaa wti isfcl

ONO (Ndi. tL
teonpying m ma
Sharao. It wm aboot 5
Lydda (1 Obr. Wii. U).
vMlsff of OhaiMihiBi,* or
Chr. iv. M: K«h. xL 9SL

ONTGHA(Exod. m
of tha aaond ia
under Divine dfreotSoaL It
odorifmna ahaU or gmn. AaptoMisf^—
is Btin foond in the Bed S^tiis AM4
whidi, when bamt^ enitai * mmH mI vih

ONTX mn)d. zxrfiL M. cr BABMD
AGAT& Tlieipordia c^imdtateriia
produotiaii haviag some raamifimoa taatat
to the hmnaii nefl, iHndk ie ttlkiaph

Gfreek. ^Ilieoiiyx _

zzv. 7)f or gem (Emtk. nv9L 14^ cdifi
twoormoieooloandkpoaediB iwmWImb
onanea. It wm vhwkmdsrci MA tOaLtm
the uses made of it (Bxod. scffS. »4 >S
TXTJT. 6^ 13), and fnm Ita bdiv wmmt'^
other hffflilj vahufafo entiefanooi (Jab
16). Perfai^pa the onyx need in tlw m
tion of the temple (1 Ohr. »*i« 9 wa t
species of marble reaemUinflr tiie oBn.

OPHEL (2 Ohr. zzv^Ti). iJ^mMd
the valley ot Oheeaemongen, and ImUw i
and the Kedron, there wm % oamkaik
elevated poin^ called Ophd. ItwMSfem#
defended by ita natoral p^^itifln Mid tf *
tower, and was eepaimted from bbmA SB
by a wall (2 Chr. zsdii 14k lUi tiW
ii perhapa intended in Bii& hr. 8L

OPHIR. 1. (Gen. z. S9) Otoe of MtiA
sons. 2. (1 Ki ix. 8Q A oooatiy ati»
East, oelebrated for its prodnotkm of §Mmk
precious stones (1 KL x. 11 ; 2 Chr. i& 1%
IX. 10). It is supposed to have baaa iriflrf
by the descendants of Joktan (GSsil x fl(
Its gold was renovmed in the tims of i*
(Job zxiL 24; xxviiL Ifi). Fram thatiairf
David to the time of J eboehaphak tti tt
brews traded with it, and tUahiefifil #
trade ^en he made Kwy^^f maetsrof BA
a noted port on the Bed Sea^ In Sikm^
time the Hebrew fleet to<dc up tfaies jm9 ^
their voyage to Oj^hi^ and faroi^a ki*
gold, i4)es, peaoocka, B^om^ ivory, ebai9^ al
almug trees.

The articles imported itam Hm phs^ ^
port from which the ahipa saaledwttAiM'
engaffed in the trade, and the tim >*f!'"'
for the voyage, all go to prove ihrtC)#
could not be anywhere in the veat «f JA*
on the continent of JBorope ; and

OPH
facta ara also mfficient to render it entdrel^
iri^probsble that it was anywhiire on the shorea
of Arabia, or even anywhere on the coast ot
Africa. It seems far mnre probable that t^

flaoe nas eituated somewbere is the East
odiefl ; but the precise spot, or even district,
cannot now be ascertaineil Not fewer than
sixteen different ooimtries have been reganied
aa the eite of Ophir. The Septuaeint renders
it Xiaiptip, and tliis is the name of India in the
CopCia dialect. Joaephm held the same
opinioD. 0|>bir, he sars, ia the Ancea Cher-
•onemis which naw belongs to India. The
tranalatora of the Vulgate were of like mind.
It has aUo been remarked by the writer of the
Article " Opbir,'' in Kitto'e Cgdopodia, that
Malacca is the solden ChereoDesQB of the
andents, and that the Datives still call tbeir
sold minea ophiri.

OPHNI(Jo9h. xvilL 24)— a cityof Benjamin
latter^ called Gophoa, between Shechem and
JeiuBUem. It is mentioned by profane his'
toriana amoiur the places tbroush which Vea-
paiian and Titus passed in their march of

H ( Judff. vi. 11) or APHHAH(Mia.

i. 10). There were two citiea of Qaa name —
one in the territory of Benjamin (Joah. xviii.
S3 ; 1 Sam. ziiL IT), and the other in that of
Ifanaiseh, where Gideon won burn (Judg. vi.
Uj YiiL27iii-B).

ORACLE (2 Sam. rri. '23). This term is
•cmetimea applied to the most holy ptsce,
whence God declared his will Co ancient Israel
(1 KL tI 6, 19-Z3 ; viiL 6). It is also applied
to the temple generally (Fa. iiiiil 2), as well
ma to the sacred writings, which were mtrusted
to the nation of Israel (Acts vii 38 ; Eom. iii.
2). The oracles of the heathen world were
gtom decepticnSi so cautiously and ambigti-
onaly worded, that whichever way the event
fell ant, the oracle seemed to be fumlled. For
«zample, one was given thus in Latin ;—

Ibitrtdibii naiuiuam peribis. The meaning
of this jargon depends on its jiunctuation.

Ibi*, redibu, naai/iiaia peribu : Thou shalt
go, then ahalt return, thou shalt never perish.
Or it may be thns punctoatcd : —

Ibii, rediiii> nun^umn, peribii. And then
the meaning is the very opposite ; Thou sbalt

f}, thou shut never return, thou shalt perish.
_ ynhns nnderetood it in the first sense, bnt in

The

Actsz:

r. 1, it SI

lifies an advocate or barris-

ORDINANCE3 (E»od. iviii 20). As used
bf the sacred writers the term generally
donotea established laws, rules, or appoint-
mants of God's government.

OBEB-mven (Judg. vii. 25)— a prinoe of
Midian, whose fate is alluded to, Fs. '"""
U; Isa. ^ 28.

ORGAN (GraL iv. 21). The "organ," as it
is called, is thoi^bt to have been whjit the
ancient Greeks called the jrfpe of Pon. It

of nnarmal
hepherds of

length. These are atiU used bytheshep

the East, and in skilful hands produce quite
tolerable music. (See Mcsio.)

ORION (Job ii. 9)— a conatellatian seen in
the southern hemisphere about the middle uE
November ; and hence aasodated with cold
and frost, figuratively represented as bands
which no human power can diiw>Ive. It is
mythically associated with Onon the giant
(Job iiiviii 31).

ORNAN. (See ABitmAH.)

03EE (Rom. ix, 25)— the Greek form ot

"0S?EaT°'0S3IFRAGE (Lev. li. 13)
are both reckoned among unclean birds, and
probably both belonged to the eagle funily.
The black eagle of Egypt might have been the
' ' ospray," and the sea eagle of modem science
the ossifrsge."

The Septuagint, Onkelos, and the Vulgate
make it the "vulture."

OSTRICH (Job rail. I3)-a remarkable
bird of the hot r^:ions of Africa and Arabia,
often attaining the height of T feet, of wUch
the head and neck make 3, It is also T feet
fniDi the head to the end of the tail, when Uie
head is stretched horizontolty in a line with the

body. It loves eolitary and desolate places ;
and is the bird intended in Job ixx. 29; Isa.
liii. 21; luiv. 13; Jer. L 39, though called
the owl ; and ita or is piercing and moumfuL
The plumage of the oaferich is white and
bhick. Its weight, which is often 75 or 80
pounds, and the construction of its body, pre-

The habits of this bird are described with
accuracy. Job ixxix. 13-18. Its timidity is
such, that the least aoise frightens it from the
neat, which is often made on the ground, and
in the most eiixwed places ; and from the same
cause the young of the ostrich ore often sud-
denly abuidoned. Hence she seems to be
regarded as tacking the OBual share of instinct
or natural affection— " The daughter of my
people is become crael, like the ostriches in
the wilderness " (Lam. iv. 3). A modem
traveller tells ua that the Arabs meet some-
times with whole nests of these eggs, contain-

OTH

ing from thirty to fifty in number, 5 indies in
diameter, and weighing Mveral pounds ; some
of than are sweet and good, others are addled
and oorrapted ; others, again, hare their yonng
ones of different growth, according to the
time, it may presumed, since they have been
forsaken bv tne dam. They often meet with
a few of tne little ones no bigger than well-
gxown pullets, half starved, straggling and
moaning about like so many distreflsra orphans
for their mother. In this manner the ostrich
may be said to be '.'hardened against her young
ones, as though they were not hers, her
labour,** in hatching and attending them so
fsr, "being vain without fear,** or the least
ooDcem of what becomes of them afterwards.
Sometimes eggs are laid on the surface round
the nests. The ordinary notion that the
ostrich does not hatch her own eggs is neither
true nor supported by this passsfle. The bird
is easily abumed, and having left her nest in
haste, loses the way back to the eggs and
young. >

The most remarkable characteristio of the
ostrich is the rapidity with which it runs, and
which the fleetest horse cannot equal The
surprising swiftness of this bird is expressly
mentioned by Xenophon. Speaking of the
desert of Arabia, he states that the ostrich is
frequently seen there, that none could take
them, tiie honanen that pursue them soon
giving it over; for they escaped far away,
making use both of their feet to run, and of
their wings when expanded, as a sail to waft
them along. (See Peacock.)

OTIINIEL^/ton of (iod (Judj?. I 13)-the
son of Keoaz, who displayed his valour in
seizing the city of Debir, or Kirjath-sepher,
for wnich exi>l(>it he was rewarded by the gift
of the daughter of his uncle Caleb in marriage.
Afterwanifl ho was made Uie inHtniment of
delivering the Israelitefi from the oppression of
the king of MeKoix>tamiA (Judg. iii. 8, 9).

OUCHES (Exixl. xxxix. (i) were probably
sockets for fsHtening the precious stones into
the shouldur-pieces of the nigh priest's ephod.
These ouches, with their stones, are supi>osed
to have served for buttons to confine the

gulden chains whereon the breastplate was
ung (Exod. xxviiL 11, 25).
OUTER (Matt, viii 12). This word, when
connected, as it freciucntly is, with darkness,
implies the uttermost degree or very extreme
of darkness, 1x)th as resi)ects depth, or inten-
sity, and duration.

OVENS (Exod. >'iii. 3). In the Eastern
caties the ovens at the iiresent day are not i
materially different from our own. The more
common way of coiiMtructing them in the :
oountr^, however, is to take a jar or pot of a
cylindrical shai>e. and after having partly
filled it with pebbles, to apply heat, and use it
for baking. The dou^h is plastered \x\yoTi the
outside, and when baked (as it is almost
instantly), comes off in thin cakes. All Eastern
bread is of this thin sort. The bread made in
this way is clean and white. The Bedouin
Arabs use three or four different ovens, Uie

4iri

OX

dsMiiption of wbkb m^

upon this ovsns vaiomd to Ib tk* KUt.

1. 2!l« moid OMk— TUB k ao
than tha Mad oT the «Mtii,iipaB

is made, until H it ■mtoiett to ba

hflttted. The fndl and firo anOn _
away, aad the doQ^ iekidcafltttot
in flat jnieose about the thirlriw rf ■ s^
xSt: Mi, 191. These aia Oe eri^^
xfiiL 6; 1 JECL zviL 13; m. ^

2l TI«sefi4ewgsieazoaBdholeiBtibs(
Stones ate first put into OIl eadaiae
kindled vpcn them. WheaiflM rti
beoomt taoiom^ily hoip the fttc is

and the dmifl^ spvead ia tfaia Hikes qpaiii
heated stone^ ead tamsd as eAca m mv b
IT. A awdeni tm^sikr tdb vlrf
this kind of breed ie left an nUft a «B M*
ovsn; aadtheovenBOBad ia AniaHviW
2) foBt wid^ead not kaetiiea 0 crCtet*^
Le Bruyn tella OB that tibej
wdDs, and that eheep aia'luB
tbsm, and cooked waola. nMerawls'
are rendered In our TenioB «—«---«— -^«
(Lev.zL35).
& ForUAUmttm.—'T^ ie n

wHfaont a bottoD^ abonft SlaelhU^iM
outside and inride wifh das^aad pbadw
a firame or soppoit. Krois madsidttali

bek>w it whea the dbdee _
heated, thin patehee of doi^ aic
the inside, and tha top ia eoim

removing the fire aa in tfae otter .

the bread is quioklT baked. To thbvii
refer the phrase^ ''oaken in the ona*(Ui
ii 4).

Convex plates of iron, pane or phi% tt
stones, &0., are often need fax hJa^ (Be
Bakb, Bbiadu)

OWL (Lev. zi 16). Four diffcnatBdtor
words are rendered owl in oor Toisiaa. erf K

is not easy to distingoish thrfr mviflA*
meanings. Though the owl is fimaft
mentioned in our Scriptm^ee^ it seldcnkasMI

denotes the bird known to as by ti»
The allusions of the ^ — '- '

to some bird that lovee eolitaij aad
places. Some versiona nnder the -^
words, translated "great owl" (Lsr. iLfll
the ibis, and the 'Hittto owl** ia thi tf'
passage, some kind of water-Urd. fl>
'•screech owP (Isa. xnriy. 14). fcadaelfltft
numster in the margin, most nave immM
the bam owL known to na as the cms*
screech or white owL It K^imtf imM
bams, and old aad deoajred boildiiHi; mA^
Europe, old towers and biiildin^ihiSir''''^

of chnrchyardk By nioht it eeela ill rt
and often makee a douivJ and ena falpV
sound, rendered more ao 1^ the "^

stillness. (See OsmiOB.)

OX (Isa. L 3)--a weU-known ^

animal, clean by the Levitioal law, staafl*
patient of labour, €d great nee in wg^em^
pursuits, and forminff a large itaa d ^
wealth of the patriiuviia (Gen. ssdv. 9; i*
43; Job id). They wen need te

PAD

(Dent xxii 10; 1 Ki xix. 19; Jobi. 14; Prov.
sdv. 4 ; Isa. xxx. 24), for drawing (Num. vii
7, 8), for threshing, or treading out grain
^eut. zxv. 4 ; 1 Cor. iz. 9), and for food (1
,J. xix. 21; 1 Chr. xii 39, 40: Matt xxiL 4).
When the oxen were employea, they were not
to be kept from eating (JDeut. xxv. 4). They
were in time of agricultural labour well fed (Isa.
zxx. 24). In Luke xiv. 19 we read of proving
A yoke of oxen— a business which still in the
East is attended to with great punctuality and
ceremony. The phrase, ** a bullock unaccus-

PAL

tomed to the yoke,** in Jer. zxxi 18, is easily
explfuned.

The wild ox is mentioned, Deut. xiv. 5, and
the wild bull, Isa. li. 20. The former is thought
to be a species of the stag, antelope, or goat :
but there is no reason to doubt that the animal
might be found in a wild state in Judea,
or some of the mountainous districts in its
vicinity. The fierceness of the bulls of Bashan
is referred to in Ps. xxiL 12. It is also the
83rmbol of a formidable antagonist (Deut.
xxxiiL 17; Isa. li 20).

PADAN-AHAM (Gen. xxv. 20), or the
PLAIN OF ARAM— one of the Hebrew
names of Mesopotamia. (See M^opotamtj^.)

PAINTED J2 KL ix. 30). (See Eyelids. )

PALACE (Pro. xxxi 28)— the dwelling of a
king. It is Often used in this sense in the Old
Testament, both in reference to the residence
of Jewish and of foreign sovereigns. In the
New Testament, and in the gospel^ it ia
specially used of the residence of the Roman
governor, which was the palace built by Herod,
esUed in Mark xv. I6 "the pnetorium,*'
also of the dwelling of the high priest (John
xviiL 15). The passat^es where tne word has
this reference occur m connection with the
Savionr's triaL Herod's palace, into which
JesoB was hurried by the soldiers, has been
described by Josephus, voL iv., p]^. 139, 140.

Tlie word "palace," in Phil i. 13, means
the prstorium at Rome — ^the barracks of the
impmal life-guards, where state prisoners, like
Paxil, pending trial were kept.

PALESTINA (Exod. xv. 14)— the country
Ijing along the Mediterranean coast, between
Joppa and Gma— Hebrew, Pelesheth. In the
authoriised version of the Old Testament the
name means Philistia^ rendered Palestina in
the English version in Exod. xv. 14 ; Isa. xiv.
29-31; Palestine, in Joel iiL 4. In other
places it is rendered PhiUstia or Philistines,
as in Ps. Ix. 8 ; IxxxiiL 7 ; Ixxxvii. 4 ; cviii. 9.
This was the earliest application of the word —
the country proper of the Philistines; for in
Szod. XV. 14 it is used along with Canaan,
and as distinct from it ; and in several of the
places quoted it is classed among nations
hostile to IsraeL But, like the term Canaan,
it gradually was employed to denote the whole
ooontiy, as in Josephus and some of the
xabbiniod writers, and in the fathers. Lender
Roman nile Palestine was divided into three
districts — Palestina Prima, comprising Phil-
istia and portion, of Judea and Samaria;
Seonnda, comprising Galilee and Gaulonites;
Tertia, or the southern portion of Judea
Moab. (See Canaa>% Philistia.)

PALM TREES (Exod. xv. 27). The palm
abounds in Arabia, Egvpt, and the whole
of Boathem Ada, from the Indus to the Nile ;
hat it is by no means now so frequent in
Palestine. Yet, in ancient times, when the
land was peopled with many industrious in-

Palmr-oalUvated.

habitants, it was very common. Allusions to
it are very freouent — as in Lev. xxiiL 40 : Deut.
xxxiv. 3; Juog. i. 16; iiL 13; iv. 5. Ancient
historians corroborate these statements, and
inform us that the
region of the Dead
Sea was noted for
the palm, of which
there were groves
12 miles in extent.

The palm tree is
f ocuod upon ancient
Hebrew coins, as
the symbol of Ju-
dea ; and Roman
coins, struck after
the conquest of
Judea, have a palm
with an inscription
commemorating
that event. It was
thus a tree so char-
acteristic of the
country as to be-
come its emblem.
(See Judea.) Nay,
Jericho was named
the city of palm trees.

The general figure and appearance of this
tree are familiar to our minus, from pictiu^s
and descriptions. It grows in sandy soils, in
hot and dry climates, but flourishes best in
the vicinity of streams, and where it can be
watered, and in valleys and plains, especially
where the water is moderately salt or brackish.
At Elim, where the Hebrews encamped for a
period, were " twelve wells of water and three-
score and ten palm trees.** It is alwa3r8
green, and grovirs to a great height, from 60 to
100 feet. Its straight and slender trunk rises
verv high before it puts forth any branches,
and its foliage is in one mass at the top. This
peculiarity affords app<isite illustration to the
Hebrew poets. Thus it is said in Solomon's
Song, " This thy stature is like to a ^ palm
tree " (ch. vii. 7). And Jeremiah has a similar
allusion, '* They are upright as the palm tree **
(ch. X. 5). This evergreen and stately tree is
the emblem of the righteous, — ** The righteous
shall flourish like the palm tree '* (Ps. L 3, and
xciL 12). The columns of costly edifices were
sometimes hewn in imitation of its trunk, as

493

PAI.

npM an igoK mA UUkI bm

Ths iduoU, vUeh K« iH»-
of ttte tnr, an oni k

doonol thfltcmrlcllKLvi. 33:
Kli. 19).

dtrict]/ flpcnking^ tho palm hoj

but &t the auiDiiitt froni furty to ei^htj twicB,
(V lMif-at>lka, upriiigfurth. wbicb an iat«DJsd
in Neh. viii 18. The loaves are set aroond
tliG tnmk in circle* of abciiiC idx. The lowor
row ia uf great length, and the vast luLvm
bend than kI veil in ■ eatve towards the eurtb ;
■B tlie dtdcB Mi'fUil, the loaves are ahorter.
ttie tree, with itH umbrageiiua top, affonliiiB
■ refiHhinR uLade (■luoK. ir. 0). In the
month of Febnuuy there aproul fnmi between
the jnoutunM of the lower stidkB and the
tnink little Mslea, which devolmi a kind of
bud, tbo (term* of the coming Fruit. Theae
^nna are conloined in a thiclc and toai^h aldn,
not unlike leather. Acamlini; to the account
of a moitera traveller, a aingle tree in Barbary
aod Egypt beara from fifteen t« twenty lar^e
oIustetB of dates, weighing from flftcm tu
twenty poundi each. The palm tree live*
more than 200 feat*, and ia moat productive
from the thirtieth unti] the eightieth year.
The Arabs ipeak of 300 use* to whioh the
different part* of the palm treo may be
u^ed.

The inhabitant* of Eifypt, Arabia, and
Perna, di-]iend much od the fnut of the potnt
tree fur their aulwiatence. Camels feed on the
•oed 1 and the leave* of broailest eiie, and
from 6 to 8 feet long, ore used for roofing.
Th« ordinary foliage ia employed in mann-
' — ' — 'ig oouches, matu, and bags. The
II jield material for fences and cages.

so that a tree ia oominonly aanndaJ tat '
three times in a Mason. Wbeo gaflainl. ItV

pressed, the remainini; mi_

water, and, after beinffin»oe.____

afF<»rdii a pleasant ariok. "nicae SB^
kinda of eym^ are ihe celebisted dtU ai*
which was RTtsatly priaed in aiident IJOMk
the Orieatala. Some Bnpnoae it ta hfli
" etrung drink" often uainett in Uie SoilMK
hut this term rather deaiiraata all ialiiiai**
liquora except wine, ^ee Sbixk. naBt;

There was another nrticlo obtained ften it'
jaice of the datc^ or sap of the tne itaf
Cttlled dcbatit or diba, whii^ wok olio oHsi*
from grapes. Thia ia rvndereil huiief i> >*
veiuon 1 and while the bonifjr of btei a dH
roferrcd to, palm hone; is the laiijti *
occaaional allnsiou, oi in S Chr. uri. i 9*

figunitivdy epoken of ii. , „_

instrument nnployed to afflict the nUE# I
Jews (Araoe iv. 9). (Seie Loctrar.)

PAJ^y (Matt. iv. 24J— a di»t_
deprives the port affected of the ,

PAM

in. The connection between tHe will and
Murt affected is dissolved. As the term
^ in the New Testament, it may import
r {^x)plexy or paralysis of the wnole
m; paralysis of one side; a paralysis
nng the whole body below the nedc, or
ralysis caused by a contraction of the
les, so that the limbs can neither be
n up nor extended, and soon become
iated and withered (1 Ki. xiii 4-6; Matt,
0-13 ; Luke vi 6 ; John v. 5-7).
fearful disease of this kind is still known
atem countries. The limbs remain im-
.ably fixed in the position in which they
at the time of the attack ; and the suffer-
I BO severe that death is often occasioned
'ew day« (Matt. viii. 6).
lMPHYLIA (Acts xui. 13)— a hilly pro-
I of Asia Minor, lying north of the Medi-
nean, between CiUda and Lyda. Peiva
mce its chief town, and it was visited by
poetlePauL

lNNAG. This Hebrew term occurs nn-
lated in Ezek. xxvii. 17. Our translators
lot know what it was. Some suppose it
a kind of balsam. Others imagine it to
le aame with a production called panax
i wnich our word i>anaoea comes), a
es of universal medicine. It may have
some kind of delicate spice.
lPER, PAPEB EEkDS. (See Book,

lUSH.)

lPHOS (Acts xiii 6) — a celebrated mari-

city, lying at the western extremity of
sland of Cyprus, now called BaffcL, It
the place where Barjesus, or Elymas, the
rer, was struck with blindness; and
e Sergius Paulus was converted to Chris-
ty. (See Cyprus.)

lKABLE (Num. xxiiL 7), or PROVERB
1 xvi 29), is a form of speech in which
thing is presented to us m lieu of some
> thing which it resembles, and which we

to illustrate (Matt, xiii 3-52). It is
ed from a Greek word signifying to throw
ler. In Luke iv. 31 the term means an
a or proverb properly so called. In Matt.
.5 it signifies a sentiment so curtly and
ly worded as not to be easily intelligible,
luke xiv. 7 it denotes pithy instruction,
led in the form of an aphorism ; and in
;. xxiv. 32 it means a lesson enforced by
Mng simile drawn from nature. Thus a
ktive of events, either real or supposed, is
) the medium by which the attention is
ted, offence is avoided, conviction is
ed, and important truth is illustrated and
"ced with great power upon the heart and
dence. The first parable on record is

of Jotham concerning the trees which
id to choose a kin^ (Judg. ix. 7-20).
her. of peculiar pomt and pathos, was
m. oy Nathan to David (2 Sam. xii

Jenoaah, king of Israel, replied to the
enge of Amaaah. king of Judah, by a
j^ sarcasm, couchea in tne parabolic form
L xiv. 6). EccL xii 1-7 is a spedee of
x>lic allegory, detailing the privations

PAR

and discomforts of advancing age. But the
word has now special reference to the figura-
tive stories and discourses of Jesus. The par-
able was a mode of discourse which he often
employed. It was a recognized national mode
of public teaching.

Our Saviour's parables are remarkable for
clearness, force, simplicity, and appropriate-
ness ; and they are always employed to convej
truths of the first importsmce. There is
nothing far-fetched about them — ^nothing un-
natural or grotesque. They are taken from
familiar objects ; out there is dignity in such
familiar description. They relate to daily
objects (Matt. xx. 1-14; Mark iv. 26-29), to
domestic labours (Matt, xiii 33), to common
occiuTences (Luke vii 36-50; x. 25-37), and to
the scenery ay which he and his audience were
surrounded (Matt. xiii. 47-50 ; Luke xiii. 6-9 ;
John iv. 35-38). Thus they were especially
adapted to his unlearned and prejudiced
hearers, and, bein^ easily apprehended, the
force ot them was instantly felt and acknow-
ledged. In beauty, dignilnr, and power, they
far surpass the classic fables, in whicn are
found many romantic improbabilities and im-
possible absurdities, and which only serve
to convey the little tniths of a worldly
prudence or a carnal policy. As high^ too,
are the parables of Christ above the tables
of the rabbins, which are disfigured by
tawdry allegory and imbecility. Nor are we
left virithout explanation, for the parables
of our Lord generally explain themselves.
The preface to them often intimates their
purpose, — "The kingdom of heaven is l&e,"
ecc So also sometimes the conclusion. The
circumstances detailed in the context also
show their design. It is this which is to be
attended to in their interpretation. Every
minute resemblance is not to be pressed. They
generally contain one primary truth. In the

gospel of Luke, a lawyer, to whom our Lord
ad expounded the law of universal love, and
had exhorted to love his neighbour as lumself,
put the question to the Saviour, "And who
IS my neighbour?'* The Saviour answered
him by reciting a parable, which described a
man whom robbers had plundered and almost
slain, whose miserable condition excited no
compassion in the hearts of a priest and
Levite, thoufi^h they saw him lying in his
blood ; but wno was at length kindly relieved
by the sympathy and beneficence of a passing
Samaritan. The lawyer^s question was. Who
is my neighbour? and the reply is. Every one
in distress, whatever his creed or his race.
This reply is contained in the story, and is
enforced in our Lord's own application of the
parable, "Go thou, and do likewise." Yet,
this plain interpretation of Christ himself has
been often set aside by perverse fancy. As
early as the fifth century, it was asserted that
the man going down to Jericho was Adam ;
that the tmeves were the devil and his angels,
who robbed him of immortality, and left him
all but dead; that the priest and Levite
represent the Mosaic dispensation; that the

4d5

PAB

good SMDMiUn la C9vM; that th« (A and
wine an die orantort nd blearing cf Bk
G<in«I ; that tba be«««fo* wUoh b* rod* !■ Ua
kimuiuty; that tbt lettiiiK of the woaBded
nan on Uiat bewt u *i«ri«a nlratioai that
thelnnutbeahureh; and P * "**~

life that now ia, aod that 1

Snchlabnrioo* triflinaim -.

tnpntatioD— a onmpM* denial «f tin nty
meaninK which the Unat Teacher pot npoa
the paraUe ItaeU . The amplMt meaning la
ganmllj the oorreot om^ It m^ be Mid
B«ienllr that " tike Ungdom of haavcn," viewed
either ai an inner pnndi^ or aa a vinbla
nde^, ii the text of our LonTi panhlea.
The iMiaMea of Chriit may be wen k the

Theidnr, MatLiULI'^t.

Ttim, M-O.

BHd niliudiut up ImperentlblT. Hus It. X-Hl

Oimln ot iduIuiImmI. HatL xlU. 11. R.

LainD. U.

HMdeatnMtuf, ■ M.

Praolou paul. - ■ W.4«.

Two'drMon,*!"l'.'.".'."!'.!Ii'.X!l.BkaTlLtl-ta

TTammtralMrtuV. KUt itUL lUL

BuBuflu, LuksLMHT.

Btohlool ilLM-n.

So^ulu who wHted f or ttulT lort. tl-U.

ButenflitDHk UliM.

LVMlbHIk IT.M.

Lou pine ot monn, t-UL

Prod^wo. II-«

nihooHrt nswud. nLl-lI.

Xkh man uid lABnu, IML

Cojn.tjiidae. iTlH-l-i.

nurlHeinil pnhMiiin ft-14.

Liitainn tu l)id iliii'jard. Uttt. ii. M&

Tmniuo«.'.V.V,t'."l.'."^;'.".ll'.!li'.liK>t.iiL»-w!

Vtonnnl, s»-t«,

MuiUinteut, ndL 1-K

•aSmu. .■"ir.r,'. '.*'.'. '.!'."■.; -it-m.

li»fciodHfa«]itapril,..,..,p...-....JobD X.1, a&

PARADISK (Luke xxiiL 43; Rev. iL T).
Thli ia a wnnl of Penian origin. It in found
ia other EaMtm tongiin, and means a gaidan,
orchard, or other encloeed place, fillM with
object* fitted to legiie the senKca, The cof
Mnmiling Hubraw w<inl iB ared, Neh. iL 8,
and renilered " f<ire*t," meaning royal fonati ;
alK> in KcuL IL 5 ; Song iv. 13. in which placei
it i> tnniJsteil "archanL" Henco it is used
flgnrfttivf ly for any place of pBciiliar liappineiii.
and patticulnrly for the kingdom of i>«rfect
happinnu which is the abnde of the blcoBed
beyond tlie grave (2 Car. ill 4), In thi> Uat
MMage it Beemfl to ba diitingaixhed from
beaveo, aa the peculiar province inhaliited by
redeenied human (piribL Pmdiae vu our
flrtt abode in innocence, and ia the name of
onr loat residence, when perfection and happi-
new a» re-enjoyed. (Sea Eazv, Thoeh ik
THE FLEKH.)

PARAH, or THE PAKAH in Hebrew (the
beifer)— a dty of Beniainin (Joiih. iviiL 23),
identified now with 1^ uah, a place lix milei
north -ea>t nf Jenualem.

PAEAM,wiLi>KUMaor,vANrf4^Jt-Z<U

PAB

(pm. xtL 71), extead'cd to th«
Bliuti. and Imai the Dntd So M
Kryi-C: eothat. in ita Ureeat am . __
tl,' .W'rt> nf Ka-Wh aod Zin. Itwaiilfl
»l-i.vti-.- -h-- Hpirac dwelt with I"

wvvrvd with blade

ttnH. Pann ia pirrfalily th-

. hiklHD ■>! Iv
nhin wildeRiaH
Xoas. z. [S; dL I%J
xjiaaue of nlntww v

el tim prophet fonwa itei
Pent ».n'i. a; Hab. tiL :

PARBAI; (1 Via. xivL
otvure, aome taldn^f it Irt
ah<l othcn i-lmtifyicg it with ttw Pia
Willi, "an open aumiiiar-tinaM.'' _-■

rAlirHKD GROUNDiImxav-nliB
Brlirvw wtinl rvndcTwI *' parched j(Rari*9fl
tho *oinp aa the Aratiie t»iio un'
deni>u* tint pmuliu inincnr pb«o
ttt ii^-«it eall.-d the aai.
It ■■ the Blowing aand : ' na
vkf«niiT illusion : " I»e Wrtle ti
a Hiuoiifinant turm. " unrfma

Hendowotk iiies iruscrirAna- ..

^L- imu^ of the pronheC ia that of a
Which '«luil1 be oompletely tranabrmfld. ^
tLi« taiiUlizinK appearance of wato. akiA*
dtt'ii t'lrtnretl and di«av«oinlaI tbt HM
tntvi-lUr. ihall not oeaae, bot AaS liMMj.j
bnliUbng pool, muidiiie forth a o *
refreshing atream, Th» phenonca^ _ . ^
td- hoa been dcaoibed by many BaMMI tJM

maiKia a ah»t of watM ii W

re rf the traveller, and l£a

;ecnTT<i>t,-t>^ fortheunaaedi)

:',7vt5?di1

- Iv, It 1* evident, thercfm, tkat ■
!''.<[' ■■h')ttAt aaid tub be aeeninllMMT'

'. 1. 1 Iht found in tlie desert «t aiD,a
■ : . i iii'-ntal auncuciua luding ^ 1
-I'll, tjubtua Cuitius ling wn ' —
1 w.iuJlt in his Lify o/ ^iexoair i
ii thus deacribad in Si, JahaV i

'<in a Bpat where the barennSaf
buodmiU ot miliB, whcra then I
e uur abxnb, twr a taoe of wal

PAR

suddenly appeared before tifi ^nps of tall
trees, proudly girding the running stream^ on
'whose waves we saw the sunbeuns dancing.
Hills clad in pleasant green rose before us and
▼mnished: small houses, and towns with hii^h
walls xma ramparts, were visible amon^ tne
trees, whose taU boles swayed to and fro m the
wind like reeds.

"Far as we rode in the direction of the
apparition, we never came any nearer it ; the
whole seemed to recoil, step for stej), with our
advance. We halted, and remained long in
oomtemplation of the ma^c scene, until wnat-
ever was unpleasant in its strangeness ceased
by degrees to affect us. Never had I seen any
laodsoftpe so vivid as this seeming one ; never
water so bright, or trees so softly green, so tall
and sUtely."— pp. 162. 163.

The figure thus emploved by Isaiah to repre-
sent the genuineness of tne blessings of Chnst^s
kingdom is both powerful and impressive.
Tbey are no alluring mockery, but real and
sabetantial, bringing peace, comfort^ and a
satisfying portion to the weary and distracted
spirits

PARCHMENTS (2 Tim. iv. 13)-the skins
of beasts were early and extensively used for
writing. Herodotus says that the lonians,
who received the art from the Phoenicians,
wrote upon sheepskins, which, he adds, the
barbarians also do (b. o. 500). Very slight
preparation was used, until under Eumenes,
a king of PergamuSy a mode of preparing fine
parchment was discovered, whence the pre-
pared skins were called by the Latins perga-
menu, which is translated parchments. (See
Book). The mode of preparing it is to remove
the wool or hair, ana every particle of flesh
from the skin; then scrape it with an iron
instrument while wet, and stretch it tight on a
frame, and then rub and smooth it with a
pumice stone; after which it is fit for writing.

Vellum is prepared in nearly the same manner
from the skins of very young calves. It is
mnch finer and whiter, and was formerly in
oommonuse. (See Book.)

PARDON (Ps. XXV. 11). The scriptural
import of this term is very imperfectly indi-
cated by the common acceptation of it among
nien. In the dispensation of grace, pardon is
inaepantbly connected with justification.
Henoe it is rooken of as the ** covering of sin**
(Fk Izxxv. 2), the non-imputation of it (Ps.
xzziL 2), a blotting out (Ps. li. 1, 9; Isa. xliii.
25), forgetting it (Heb. viii. 12), passing by it,
or removing it to an immeasurable distance
from ns (Ps. diL 12 ; Briic. vii. 19).

It is evident that God only nas power to
bestow pardon (Mark iL 7, 10-12), and that it
proceeds from free, sovereign grace (Eph. i. 6,
y), through the mediation and atonement of
JeeoB Christ (Heb. ix. 9-28; 1 John. i. 7).

Men are commissioned to preach pardon and
salvation through the blood of Chnst : but no
man can fomve sin, or pretend to tne right
and power of absolution, without direct and
daringblasphemy. (See Forgiveness.)

P^^JELLOUR. (SeeDwELUNOS.)
2k

PAS

PARTHIANS (Acts ii 9), or the inhabitants
of Parthia — ori^^inall^ in a province of Media,
on its eastern side, situated between the Per-
sian Gulf and the Tigris. The Parthians,
who were a Scythic or Turanian race, seem
to have resembled the Cossacks of our day, and
were celebrated for their skill in archery, and
C8i)ecially for shooting as they fled. The
Parthians revolted against the Persians in B. a
256, and set up a government which lasted 500
years and long disputed with Rome the
dominion of the East The Parthia alluded to
in Acts ii. was a province in this great empire.

PARTITION, MIDDLE WALL OF (Eph.iL 14),
is supposed to have reference to the wall in the
temple which separated the court of Israel
from the court of the Gentiles. In this pas-
sage it is figuratively used to denote whatever
in their laws or customs separated the Jews
from the Gentiles, and rendered the former
any more the objects of divine favour than tiie
latter. The ceremonial law. which made Uiem
a separate people, was realized and abolished
on Christ*s death — an event which unites Jew
with Gentile, and both with God.

PARTRIDGE (Jer. xvii 11). The bird
commonly called by this name is not known in
the East : but there are two other species well
known tnere. Travellers tell us that the
Arabs esteem their flesh a luxury, and pursue
them until they are weary with flying, when
they kill them with the hamd. The figurative
allusion in 1 Sam. xxvi. 20 mav express the
laborious and persevering zeai with which
Saul pursued David; and in Jer. xvii. 11
reference is probably made to the exposure of
the partrido^e's nest, which is built on the
ground, and is likely to be trampled on and
destroyed, and from which she is also liable to
be driven suddenly by similar causes.

PARVAIM (2 Chr. iii 6)— "gold of Par-
vaim." The word is not known in meaning or
locality. Some regard it as a shorter spelling
of Sepharvaim ; otners suppose it to be alliea
to the Sanscrit pdlrva, east, and to denote in
this place gold from the East.

PAS-DAMMIM (1 Chr. xL 13)-a valley in
the north-west of Judah, between Socoh and
Azekah, where the Philistines were encamped
before Goliath fell : the same with Ephes-dan^
mim (1 Sam. xvii. 1).

PASHUR— a priest (1 Chr. xxiv. 14 ; Jer.
XX. 6)— a persecutor of Jeremiah, and called, in
view of his dooxm Magor-missahibf ** terror round
about him." Another person not unlike in
character lived at the same period (Jer. xxi.
1). He advised that Jeremiah should be put
to death.

PASSENGERS, valley op the (Ezek.
xxxix. 11) — a plain described in the vision as
being on the east of the Jordan.

PASSION (Acts L 3). The word in this
connection denotes the last sufferings of Christ,
or rather his death, as the consummation of
his sufferin{j^ The expression, "like passions,"
in Acts XIV. 15 and Jas. v. 17 si^fies like
propensities, feelings, and susceptibilities.

PASSOVER (Lev. xxiii v)— a Jewish

497

PAS

feaat, appointed to oommemoimtetba exemption
or poiting ottr of the families of the Imelitei
mrhen the destroying angel smote the first-bom
of Egypt; and ahio their departure from the
land of Ixindage.

(>n the fourteenth day of the first month
(Niaan), between Uie evenings, the passover
was to be celebrated ; and on the fifteenth day
commenced the neven days' feast of unleavened
bread, llie term paM$orer is strictly appli-
cable only to the meal of the paschal lamb, or
the fourteenth day ; and the feast of unleav-
ened bread was celebrated on the fifteenth
onward, for seven days, to the twenty-first
incluiiive. This order is recognized, Josh v. 10,
11. But in the sacred histoiy the term pass-
over is us^ to denote the whole period — the
fourteenth day an<i the festival of the seven
days following (Luke iL 41; John IL 13, 23;
vi 4; xL 55). Hits mode of expression is
recognized bv Josephus^ the Jewish historian,
who uses tne exprefuuon^ "the festival of
unleavened bread, which is called the pass-
over" (Luke xxii. 1).

As to the time of the celebration of the
passover^ it is expressly appointed ** between
the evemngs," or, as it is elsewhere expressed,
*' at even^t the going down of the sun" (Deut^
xvL 6). This is supposed to denote the com-
mencement of the fourteenth day of Nisan, or
at the moment when the thirteenth day closed
and the fuurtoonth began, llie twenty-four
hours reckoned f nim this T>oint of time to the
same period of the next uay, or fourteenth,
was the day of tlu> paMMovcr. At Hututct of the
fourteenth day, the fifteenth begun, and with
it the feoHt of unleavened bn^uL llie lamb
was to Ih* Belecti'tl on the tenth day, bv each
individual or funiilv, and kept uj) till the
fourteenth day, in the evening of which day
it was t<» bi> killeil (KxckI. xii. :i-(i). Then
followed the feawt of unleavened bread, occu-
pying seven dayn ; the first and lant of which
were j>eculiarly holy, like the Sabbath (Exod.
xii. 15, Iti).
ITie ** pn*i>aration of the passover'* (John

ix. 14), or **the day of the prei«aration"

PAT

XIX

(Matt, xxvii. (>'J), wa8 the fourteentn day, or
the day itreciHling tlie firnt day of unleavene<l
bread. At the time of our Saviour's [lasition
it m> lia|>iH'ne<l that the fifteenth of the month,
or the first dav of the festival, waa also the
l)n)|)er Sabluith. Hence we find, ui^^n com-
i>anng the various hi^ttories of this event, and
its attendant circiimhtan('*3s, that at the close
of the thirteenth day of the month, when the
feast of unleavened bnrod, calletl in the largest
sense the ;w.ffxr»rrr ( Luke xxii. 1), approachetl,
Jesus directcil the lantb for the paschal sac-
rifice Ut be prt;i>are<i for himself and his
disciples. Thw iK-ing done, imme<liately after
sunset of the thirti'enth, which was tlie be-
ginning of the fourteenth, the paschal flUp]H;r
was eaten. After this sujiper, an<! in the
course of that night, C'hrist was arrested, the
next mominL' tried, and in the aft<>m(N)n was
crucified and buried. This was on the eve of
the ** preparation" for the Sabbath, and also
4U8

for the f«>tiTal (wliich f eU on the mmM.
towards the doM of the fumtesttUL tW
whole lerics of •Trnla oocmred betwsavhil
we ihoold caimrandajr and Fridaj €?««
The facte of chief impoetenoe in rsooMffi^
all the evangrlieta ec«, that the word peasnr
is applied sometiiiiee etrictly to the JimiUntA
day, and at other timea to tlie whole {atini
of noleavened bread ; that the [mmkiiw, m
paschal eupper, atrictlj apeakiii^ wm mt
brated at the bepiinmnjo; of the fouteatk^
of the month, or immedOuitely after snasetof lit
thirteenth; and that the fonxteenth, «r Itidw
of passion week, happened to be As dif a
prepantion for the feast of Qnleaveaed hwi
and alao for the Sabbath. This eonect

standing, aa to thepreciae period cf the p»
over, nrediidea aU qoeation as to mhe
Christ kept it » day prior to the time srtiBKl
for it by the nation senenUy. He kept ta
the people did, and alanff imh then. Ai0
different ▼iew, howerer, has been wim
entertained. The paarhaf feart wae a tfpi
him who ia "Chxut oar pa«over meSki
for na**— who ia the apotleae bmb of QtrLM
for na, and yet not m bone of hni bnot-
whose blood aprinkled on na aecuret m &■
the wrath of avenging justloe, and gineSM
and peace. (For a partacolar aeooat «f 9
mode of celebration, aee Fkabt&)
PASTOR. (See SHKraxBix)
PASTURE (laa. zzsil 14). TU««rf^
need by the aacred writen often ia a C^
ative sense. The placea of pasfcongi h
Canaan were chiefly thoee nninhabiled ^
which are called deeerta or wildenMMei itth
sacred writings. These were eoanetiiei A
ranges, abounding in herbage and ehnH^i
sometiines sandy plains, in whidi, hataa
there, in moist places, m little greea ffmjt
found. Such meagre spots are betttf w
sheep, goats, and camels, than rich uiei^ii^
which are neoemazy for kine. Theylilfll
to no person in particular, but an a*
mons which all may ose; thongh wamdita
Uiey are the property of tribes of pei|k
as such. The whole land of Cauia *
originxdly such a poesession, and as ^
was occupied by Abraham, Isaac, and Jtm
When the coimtry became eettkd hf^
Israelites, thcv had particolar pe<t>'^
connected with their farms. Shann i^
Achor (Isa. Ixv. 10) are named as sffarflC
mMMi iMwturage for flocks, and Gilesl m

(ashan for neat cattle (Mic. viL 14).
these widely scattered and numerons jsiti^
the phepherds and herdsmen of nk^
wandered, as their doscendants oontisai'^
do. In summer they migrate amthsaii^
the hill country ; in winter, southwud ti^
plains: thus not only avoiding the sMi^
cold and the heat of summer, bat Itft
ample sustenance for their cattle at b*
seasons, llie numerous herdsmen are e^
the c«)mmand of one who was styled the ''^
shepherd ** — a term which, with ubritiDt 9^

cance, is applied to Christ (1 Pet t. 4)l
JIA

pata:

(Acta

1)

•«^>ort tnwn of Lycia, lyius orer agiinit
Hhudea, at the mouth of th« Xontbiu, called
byPtoJemyPhiladBlphniAre- "

PATHR03 (Isa. xL U: comp. Jer. xliv. L
IS; Ezek. nil. 14) ui. M)— the Thbatt of
tbe Greeks, and Said of the Anba; the tame
with npper or Bouthem Egypt Some of the
J«m boa withdrawn to this region, and there
elTeii themselvee up to idolatry; but Jeremiah
forvwams them of the tremendous judgments
wUch awuted them. The Pathrvtim, its in-
Itmtntanta and early settlers, were descendants
of Jfisuim (Gen. x. 14). (Sea Nationb,

I>IVIB1DII OF.)

PATHRU3IM. (See Patheob.)
PATIENCE (Heb. liL 1). When roolten
of Ood, iteigmtieabisniarveUouilontr-sufferiQg
auudit numerous and heinous provocations.
Wkcm (poken of aa a human virtue, it is oft«n
landed to, described, and enforced in the
apirtlM of Uie New Testament. In such places
K dooa not generally signify quiet and resigna-
tion under evil or hurt ; but might be, as in the
■HHNgB cited, advantageously exchanged witli
Su woid pertrveraiux. It signifies rsaolute-
■m o[ mind — that habit oE calm thought which
laadi a man to bear, to forbear, to hold on, to
wut. It is needed in ^yer (Ps iL 1). It

• faith, innpirito c _ _.

„ JT blessed anticipations.

It baJna to reckon time by >
i not by s.

-luallr united under another commonbsad.
The eldest son was generally invested with thii
dignity. His ■athority was paternal Ha
was hononred as the central point of omnection,
and as tile representative of (he whole kindrad.
Tbia each great family tiad its patriarch or
head, and ^ch tribe its prince selected from
the several heads of the fooiilies it embraced.
Theae princes were called ddtri of ItratL
(See Eldebs.) The word patriarch is also
applied to tin founder of a family, or an;
illuatrious ancestor (Acts il 29). In later ages
of the Church, the same title is found, bnt is
applied to ecclesiastical dignitaries, and denotes
the supposed paternal cnoiacter of their au-
thority. The sons of Jacob, as the proi;enitort
of the Jewish nation, are called, by way of
distinction, "the twelve patriarcha " (Acts vii.
8). '^

PAUL, liUU—OT SAUL, atktd (Acta liii.
9)— was a native ot Tarsus, in Cilida, and
inherited the privileges of a Eoman citizen
(Acts xxiL 28, 291. His descant and formal
education were wholly Jewish, and the latter
was of the highest order. Under the inBtructiou
of Gamaliel, a distinguished Jewish rabbi at
Jerusalem (Acts v. 34), he became master of
the Jewish law (Acts xxii. 3; GaL i 14). He
hod been also taught a useful mechanical trade)

r all things id

* Ood'a tim*

aad must be the best time. il
riovate* its possessor above petty
MUloj'ance and chaining veia-

OTDwns the believei^-' ' Let patience
iMva bar perfect work, that ye may
be fBcfect and entire, wanting

PA^IOstRev. L 9)-an island
!■ the Egean or Icarian Sea, situ-
ated near the promontory of Mile-
toa, between Samoa and Naios,
■bmit 20 or 25 miles in drcumfer-
«BOa^ It was used by the Romans
am • idace of exile for convicts, and
tm dbtingufshed as the place to
lAieh John the Evangelist was
laidihed by Domition, a. d. 94.

Its K^ IS very thin and sterile,
Mng on ■ m^ed reck, probably
m vokaaic origin. About a mile
tmA from the beach is a chapel,
4Mdo«ing the cave which, it is
SUJ^n ■ -'■ ^' —

PATRIARCH-/otA«r of .-

|l<-fai ii. 29). In the early bietoiy of the Jews
wa find the ancestor or father of a family
l«t»iiiiii|i authority over his children and hia
^fcjlitnm^. children so long aa he lived, what-

oecording to the custom of the natinn ; for the
Talmud say", "He that docs not tnun hia son
to some seculir occupation is ss bad as if he
taught him to steal* The handicraft to which
Sa^ was trained was that ot a " tentmaker."
Tentmalung ia a common and popolar branch

PAir

of biiainess in the East, where these light and
portable edifices are in so great and constant
requisition. Cilicia, Saul^s native province,
was famed for a certain species of gfoat*s hair,
which was woven into hair-cloth. This form
of induHtry may have been his early employ-
ment ; and as such tent-doth was largely used
in tile army, this manufacture may have
Bug^ted Ui the apostle's mind the many
military figures and allusions which are
scattered through his writings (Acts xviiL 3).
His residence at Jerusalem commenced at an
early period (Acts xx vL 4) ; and he was probably
from twenty -two t<> twenty-five years old when
Christ commenced his public ministry. He
belonjTcd to the sect of the Pharisees, as did
also his father (Acts xxiii. G).

It cannot be 8U[)TX)sed veiy pn>bable that
Paul saw JvRus in tne days ot his flesh. We
have no allusion to it in any of his addresses or
epistles. It in true, he saj's, ** Wherefore,
henceforth know we no man after the flciQi;
yea. though wu have known Christ after the
flesh, yet now henceforth know we him no
more ** (2 Cor. v. 16). Had Paul meant in this
statement to say that he had known the
Saviour as man, he would most likely have
employc<l the distinctive and appropriate term
Jesus. I)ut the apostle seems to refer to such
a carnal understanding of Messiah's person,
claim, and kingdom, as was and hotl been so
common among his countrymen. He says
that once, like his nation, he entertained low
and worldly viewH of the Messiah's advent and
work ; but these dreams had for ever vanished.

The preaching of the (JostwI by the a]x>stles,
and esi)eciaUy the fact of Christ s resurrection
from the dead, on which they place<l their
chief stress, excited, of c«>iinH\ a violent oppo-
sition anion^ the Jcwh, which, l)eforc long,
broke out iii open vit)Ieuce. Stephen, an
e]n<iuent and ])owerful advocate of the new
religion, was seized and stoned to death.
Amitng the siiectators, and perhaps promoters,
of this blo4Kiy deed, wax Saul, who. we may
suppose, from the manner in whicn he was
regarded by the murderers, and, indeed, from
his own confession, was fully with them in
the act (Acts vii. r>8: comp. zxii. 20). His
tem|>erament, talents, ami education fitted
him to become a lea<lt^r in the persecution of
the apostles and their adherents ; -and he com-
menced his career with a <legrce of zeal
lM>nlering on madness. He ** breathed out
threati-nings and slaughter/' His whole si>irit
was excited a<;:aiii8t the new religion, ana he
even sought for authority to go to Damascus,
whither many of the dixciples hod fletl after
the munler of St<>phen, anci bind and di-og to
Jenisalem. without diHtiiiction of age or sex,
all the followers of Christ whom he could
find. Just l>efore he reached Damascus,
however, ho was arrested by a miraculous li|j:ht.
sr> intenno as to dei)rive him of sight. He fell
t«> the earth in helpless prostration and terror
(ActH xxii. 11). At the some time Christ
revealetl hiniHelf as the real object of his ]>er-
secution (AetH xxvi 15: comp. 1 Cor. xv. 8).
000

Thii

•a the Scripture reprttcuU it To ezpUa it
am a natmiJ phaMmmMm w to irmMlxi
Scripture. It wm the exiltcd Saviour i4i
appeared to the peraecutor: aad whom ndM
glory dimmed tae mcsridiaii "« Tib mt^
rative of tfaia oanTenioii is told thrioi ia tk
Acts of the Apoatlea — once hr the hiAin^
and twice by Pmal hiniMlf — Ae fint toM li
the crowd in JenrnJem wlien tlwy }md mm
against him. and the eeomd tane bdM
Agrippa. There is one p^nt of WKaag »
ance oietween two of these aceounta, Is Act
iz. 7 Luke aaya, "The men vhidi jomanri
with him stood speechless, hearing a vaoB|M
seeing no man;" andin AetozziL9theipidii
himself sayL ^'They that wen with Bear
indeed the Oght. and were afraid: bok thf
heard not the voice of l>tm that nsae to nt
Now, here there ia no contiadraoii. Ui
saji the men heard a sound of ene qwikat
without recbffnisins ite wofds. FsolmsAv
did not apprehend what was said fay tlwLfldl-
the conversation was not undetstood lythn;
for the^ might be so stunned fay the niin
and hnght appearance as not to be ddt ti
distinguish the articulate sooids in a mbi
which fell upon their ear.

From this time Saul became a new ba
He received from the Hps of Chrirt IniMi
commiariGn as an apostle to the Golift
"But rise, and stand upon thy feet: ktt
have appeared unto thee for USm psM^ti

make thee a minister and a

these things which thou hast seea and dikm
things in the which I will appesr vnlote;
delivering thee from the peopM, and froB Ai
Gentiles, unto whom now I send theac to c|B
their ejres, and to turn them fran dadpMSt^
light, and from the power of Satan vnlo M
that they may receive foi^givensM cf ni> ■■
inheritance among* them which are wmdStd
bjr faith that is in me ** ( Acto xxvi 16-18)l H*
miraculous restoration of his siiditk hk bsptta^
and the gifts of the Holy Spirit^ foOssidii
quick succession ; and we soon find Urn wt
ously preaching the faith he had set «rf*
subvert (Acta ix. 20, 21). Of tUi cka^'
motive and action he was not anhami^ ▼*
can easily imagine the utter sininfiiwiit "^
which his first efforts at preaching wosU ^
received— how his own party would be ddA
and chagrined— and how the Chziitiisai*
munitics would scarce be able to bAve it it
genuineness of the strange and minniffff^
occurrence : so that it is natui«]lT8iSd^*wSi
Saul ■ - .»"^^iv«u. ..

join 1

afraid

disciple" (Acts ix. 2C). We at onee
his decision and energy in his own m..
his conversion and ito fruits, as himself m^
it (GaL i. 15-17, 22, 23). To this oae poR*
he thenceforth gave all the enetsitf <i ■

mind and all the affections of his besit ^
Baking, and indeed forgetting, all olbff Jft
poses and pursuits, he seems to have itmm
to crowd into the residue of his hie '

I
i

TAU
be could'da to re|jtiir tbe injuiy he Iiad doiu
to the (sunt of Cbrut, uid tu bHow hu atrong
aod excluoive attachment to the intSKata m
Ilia Idngdom. The miraclei he wrought— tha
alltirchea he gathered— his aermonB, oratioiu,
and letter* — the extent and tacceae of hif
miMioiiatT tonre— the vigions and revelations
with vhich he waa favoured — and the Sua]
atteabttioQ which it ia generaUy aiipposed he
g»Te to the futh he had preached, by the
•n^erin^ of martyrdom (2 Tim. iv. 6^ 7),— all
idm«e him wnong the very chief of the apc«tlea.
Hi* oonvenion sanctified all hia attauunenti
mad eneraiea. That fervour which had made
him duet of bigots now created him prince of
apoatlm. That fire which burnt ao fiercely,
ud threatened to consume the very name of
Chiistiaiuty, flamed with equal intensity —
the altar to Jehovah.

Pan], on being converted, did not wwt very
long in DamascOB; and we are not tn infer
bmn the narrative of Luke that immediately
(in loving Damas<nia be went to Jeruaalsui.
Himaelf tells lu tbat he retired for a seasan
into Aratria. Ho seams to have been influenced
to this atep the more readily aa perha^ but
I^tls onnOdmce vbs at first placed in bun b^
tha lollonerB of Jesus at Dmnaacns, where *"-

*"'"~is of them were still in fresh __

.,j. In order that they might be
_ _. i of his complete change, he could
. uwt at once, with undisturbed confidence and
"; Tillina acqnieaoence, enter the places where
' be had excited fear and mistrust. Thus the
^ nmr apoatle must find out at Damascus, aa he
^ WihnnjTinntl? eiperienceil at Jerusalem, tbat
= tile fnoids of Christ were not able as yet to
^ raerave bim to their hearts. The time which
■' be apent in Arabia waa spent perhaps more in

'' spiritual preparation for the work of his life.
"^ when now he had returned to Damaecua, he
* Mmmenced making known, unreservedly and
' eaei^tically, the Gospel of Christ in the
^* nMOOKuet of the Jews, in the same manner
-? ttet he did on his fint abode in that city. As
' Ui abamce must have somewhat weakened
^V tte ramembrance of him amon^ the Jewa,
[ lad in a degree diminished their hatred of
', Um, lo it oould not bnt happen that hia re-
=^ HHiMiaiirii should let loose against bim, nith
^ •osiiieilted power, the rage of the adherents of
^Wfimner^th. It was determined to remove
= hm out of the way. The ethnarch was at
~- Wioe gained over. After a search in other
'>kn to get Panl into their power had been
^ InaDactnal, the gates of the city were watched.
', -^eca waa needed particularly on order from ,
. m^a ethnarch, aa no prisoner could be held in
V^ntodf by Buy hodj without an order from
%|a» ampteme authoritiea. But the matter waa
Of Coo madi inportanoe to the Jews to per-
Vktit tban to l^ve it entirety to the measures
be tks govanuuait. They themselves placed
fcrtgfi* of their own number at the gatea, either
Mwnar they knew Pa«I personally, or that
'''^ r might aee that the wMch was suffldeotl;

k^Mrr mig
>^Sgasnt.

TAIT

The following chronological arrangemerit
will enable the student to oonneot the prin-
cipal events in the life of Paul :—

PasTiconTersIonCActati.) n',tg

U Sunucua (OaL L IT) i al Ihe'eml ol tlirea
years In sll he eac&pes from Damascos. sod
goei— hl» Aral yislt— 10 Jeraaslom (Acts li.

From Jenuaiem Fan] goes to Cilkila and Hrrla
(aOi [i. 90; QaL 1. 11). rmm AnHuob h«
Ci sent with Bsrasbas lo Jenualnn to oarrr
alms— bii BMond vlsli (Aets xl.!u) M

The 9ni mlstiooarr Jonroa j ol Paul sod Bar-
nabas from AntJoch ooudnDei] atma two

Aher spendlDg sevenlnan hi AdUooIi (A<ns
ilT, ^1, FsBl and Bsrasbas are seat to
Janualun. M codsdU >be sposUes nepeolhiK
clrciimiiiBloa.A<>^lslMr9^TlB[t(AeuXT.t), >1

The Jen aipellsd Imm Bonu, t-B. M-H.
I^nl. on his swxnd mlsslonarr Joamej
(AcU II, W), stlar niailDg through Asia
UlnoT M Europs, BndTAqnOa uulPriKlUa
alCorinthCAcUivlU. a) It

Paul remains eighteen monlbs In Corlnlli
(ActaiiliL U). Atlerbelnirhronghlbsfore
<)allla, he ilepu^ tor Jeniiulem the raurlta

W),..^ ° "... M

The apostle winters at NIcopolli <TI tn> tlL 13),

Alter winloring In Achtlt, Psnl goei the' fifth

he arrlvps Is (he spring, sfur wintering In

If Ihsre wsa anlf one l^prlBOnnieDl, hlMeMh
happened In 64

PrDbshle manjraDai Id UisI esse. .'■ tJ-til

The life of the apoatle was oneacene of mis-
sionary enterprise. He did not boast of his
schievements, but he waa sometimes oompelled
to defend himself against caluniniators. How
eloquently he enumerates the trials and hard-
abips of his busy career! — "Are the; ministen
of Christ? (1 Bpeok as a fool) I am more: in
labours more abundant, in stripes above mea-
sure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths dft.
Of me Jews five times received I forty stripea
save one. Thrice wss I beaten with rods, once
was I stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck, a night
and a day have I been in the deep \ in journey
ings often, in perils of waters, in perils of roD-
b^, in perils by mine own countryinen, in periU
by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils
'~ '^he wilderness, in perils in the sea, in perils

jr^ false brethren ; in weariness and poinful-

ness, in watcbings often, in hunger and tliirst,
in fastings often, in cold and nakedness. Ba-
jides those things that are without, that which
Cometh upon me daily, the cure of all the
cburohea" (2 Cor. li. 23-28).

The reason why his original name waa changed
from Saul to Paul is not given in Scripture.
There is only a passing allusion to it in these
words— "Then Saul, irho also is called Paul"
(Acta liii. 0). Soma suppose that it waa
changed out of rei|>ect to oergiue Panlua, the

Koman deputy, the record of whose ix '~

601

TAU

to the faith is contained in this Mction of the
Acts of the AimmUos. The most pnibable
Mpinion is, that Taul chanfj^ed his name in oon-
formity with a common practice. The Jews
took a Hellenic name when thejr were obliged
to travel much in Grecian or foreign countries.
The *' aiiostle of the (^entiles," wh<» was to spend
•o mucn of his life beyond the limits of Pal*
estine, chose a Hellenic name when he pro-
ceeded to hi» new and exalted vocation. ^ The
Acts of the Ai>oHtles leaves off abruptly in the
account of Paulas residence at ]i<mie. It is
supposed by mauv that on his first trial the
apostle was freed, but that he was again appre-
hended, and put to death. The uniform tra-
dition IS, that he suffered mart>*nlfim, and that
by beinff beheailed. His uvkn spirit had a warn-
ing and anticipation uf his diM>m; fi>r in one
of his last epistles he says, **I am now rcadj
to be offered, and the time of my departure is
at hand" (2 Tim. iv. C). Tratfition says he
was buried without the walli*. on tlic Via Os-
tiensis. Nero is said to Iiave l>een enraged
against him bocaune by his inntructions one
mhis mistresAOr* <»r cup-bearers had been con-
verted to Christianity.

The character of Paul is one of the most
conspicuous in ancient times. To great enthu-
siasm he unitiNl indomitable perseverance : he
was** one of the grcat^'Ht 8])irits of all time."
8oftneiw <^f Hpirit was allied to tirmneM of pur-
pose—he siK)ke the truth in love. With un-
daunteil hemijau he prcacheil the cn>ss, alike
regariUcss of JewiMh fanaticism and heathen
fen city. He liked to luiild on no man*8 foun-
dation, but to ])reach the (io^tpt'l where it had
never l)een imjclaiineil ('J (\>r. x. 15, IG). Hi:*
life was 8i>ent in enter]>nse— no lalxmr was too
arduouH, no Kacritic-* tin* costly for Christ and
his cAUKe. Hirt m«itto truly wa**, **For me to
Uve is ( .'hrist." ( 'onscifntiousness and int«!>,Tnty
were very marked in him, a.s well as tenderness
and Rjnnpathy. PI very one nnirtt admire that
disinteretitedneHs whioli is incidentally ti>Id us in
Actii xviii. 3, **]it'c:ui80 he wiis of t)ie same
craft, he ai)ode with them, and wrou^;ht : for by
their occupati«)n they were tent- makers. "\Ve
iin<l the ai>ostle hinuw'lf referrini,' to this, vindi-
cating his claim to maintenance, and yet not
enforcinj; it, in 1 Thess. ii. 0, **Ftn' ye re-
memln'r, brethren, our labour an<l travail : for
labouring ni^dit and <lay, ]KK5.iurte we would
not be chargeable unto any ()f vou, we preacheil
unt«> yon the g08|)el of G<m1.'' His lalMiurH at
times must have been overwhelming with corjw-
real fatigue an<l with mental exhaustion. Some
mala<ly tendeil to brin^ him into Bcom with his
enemies - "his ImxHIv presence was weak," they
said, **and his H|)eecn contemptible." l^o such
things he was very sensitive, and bin ailment
scemx to have been chmnic Yet what Inmiility
characterized him ! I le was willing to Ije noth-
in^, that (.'hrist might Iw all. " Unto me, who
am less than the least of all saints, is this grace
given" (Enh. iii. «). StUl more d.Kis this
spirit of seif-abanement display itself when he
sa>'s. " Jjant of all he was seen of me alw>, as of
one bdrn out of due time. For I am the least i
5u2

FAIT

of the apottles, that «m not meat to VcdU

n«rs> of whom I am diiel" Yet win \m
claims and rank aa a aenrant of Chrirt «n
endangered, he ooald ▼indicate his ■jwalWip
in flowing teima. for he had seea tia rin
Saviour, Mid received hii mmnriwina fro fci
Upa (1 Cor. ix. 1).

The life of faith waa stnng withia him. ■!
he never neglected the coltore of his ova IM^
(PhiL iiL 7, 8). A free nIvatioo-jintiiaitH
by faith without worfca of lav— union to GUI
-a holy life — were the themes on wUck h
delighted to expatiate. His own refipM
experience is boautifullT nortrayed wlia h
says, *' I am cnacified with Christ : nevertkls
I live; yet not I, but Chzut liveth in me; arf
the life which I now live in the flesh I five if
the faith of the Son of God, who laved mt,
and gave himaelf for me" (GaL iL 10)L Ih
character of his preachimif is ss <SrtiBC^
marked in the oft-quoted dedazatiaB, "F*'
determined not to know anything sbmk tNi
save Jesus Christ and him crucified*^ tcL
iL 2). (See Thobit m ths fukh.)

His mental powers were oTalngli odKol
they had been assiduuusly disci^fld. Wbt
tact and presence of nund he dupkirBi a
during the voyage to Borne I Tamm, ks
birthplace, was famed aa a seat of decnilat
ture. Paul had enjoyed a donbfe uJacsrini
both Grecian and Jewish. Ptovideatt tks
fitted him to declaim alike in the Gieda
forum and in the Jewish synago^ne. He*v
trained " after the strictest sect " of hisrefipia
—initiated into all the subtleties of that man
which he was to be instrumental in oTodi**^
ing. The advantage he poasesaed in bai«
bom a Roman citucen was another pnpan&ia
on the part of God for his honoured som^'
a means secured before his hirth to pn bia
immunity when danger threatened-^ pecsig
pririlege which a mere Hefaorewcoold ootki"
enjoyed. ** Known unto God are all liif vdh
from the beginning.** An interesting ''"''!^
all succeeding ages is afforded in the »
career, and writings of this saint, apoedcflf
nuui^yr. He rests from hia labonnii asdi*
works do follow him.

The places visited by the apostle ia ^
various journeys are presented at one rie* >
the following sketch : —

After he was recognised as a diacipb 1?^
brethren at Jerusalem, he became m boU *
advocate for the truth as to excite the sb^et*
the Grecians, who were taking mesnra'
slav him. Tnis led to his

Firttjoumej/ from Jerusalem, in the oo**
of which he visited Cesarea, Tarsus {what kf
continued four years), Antioch in Syria («ix9
he tarried one year), thence tn JerusaleoL .

Sci-oTid journey, — From Antioch, S<1«"*
Salamis, and Pai)hos, in the island of Cyt^^
Perga, Antioch in Pisidia, looniom, L?'^
Deibe, Pisidii^ Pamphilia» Fcr^ Atai)>>
back to Antioch.

F'^V^^

— in S

PAXT

ITUrd poumey, — From Antioch, thioii|^h
Syria, Cilicia, to Derbe. Lystra, Phrjrguk
Gfalatia, Mysia, Troas (wnere he was joined
by Luke), Samothracia, NeapoUs, Philippi,
Amphipolis, ApoUonia, Thessalomca, Berea,
Atiiens, Corinth, Cenchrea, Ephesus, Cesarea,
and thence to Jerusalem.

Fourth journey. — From Jerosalem to An-
tioch, Galatia^ Phrygia, Ephesus, Macedonia,
Greece, PhihppL Troas, Absob, Mitylene,
Chios, Samos, Trogyllium, Miletus, Coos,
Rhodes, Pataxa, Tyre, Ptolemais, Gesarea,
and thence to Jerusalem.

F^th journey, — From Jerusalem to Anti-

Katns, Cesarea, Sidon, Myra, Fair Hayen^
lelita, Syracuse, Rhegium, JE^uteoli, Apnii
Forum, Three Tayems, Home, where tne
narrative in the Acts of the Apostles ends.

Supposed probable journeys from his first to his
§eoond imprisonment in Rome, — Spain, France,
Britain, Jerusalem, Antioch in Syria, Golosse,
Bphesus, Philippi, Corinth, Troas, Miletus,
Borne, where he si^ered martyrdom.

Paul, epistles of. These are fourteen in
number, and are unquestionably among the
most important of the primitive dociunents of
the Christian religion, even apart from their
inspired character. Each has, indeed, its own
phasis, according to the puri)ose the apostle
had in view in writing— a purpose moulded
according to the circumsttmoes of the church
which he intended to instruct, or warn, or
reprove. Addressing, in the Epistle to the
Hebrews, those who had been adherents of the
Mosaic S3r8tem, and, seduced by its gaudy
ritual, were prone to apostatize, the apostle
elaborates an argument, with exti^me care and
delicacy, to prove the superiority of the Lord
to the angels by whom the law was given, to
demonstrate the excellence of Christ the Son
over Moses the servant, and to show^ bsr a vast
variety of evidence, how much in dignity and
▼alue the atonement of the Son of God excelled
the oblations of irrational animals made by
sinful men under the Levitical statute. Or, in
nnfolding to the church at Home the crowning
glory of the Gospel in its gratuitous justifica-
tion, how wide the premises he lavs down, how
oonvincing the conclusion he deduces : the
Gkmtiles have sinned, — ^their polytheism led
them to ferocity and brutality; the Jew has
sinned, though he possessed the law. its very
possession being both the proof and tne aggra-
vation of his apostasy ; how awful, then, the
inference ! — *' By the works of the law can no
flesh be justified, for by the law is the know-
ledge of sin." But justification is of grace,
and must be so, " through the redemption that
is in Christ Jesus." Grace, however, is not
the enemy of a holy life. " Shall we continue
in sin that grace may abound?" Faith and
holiness are inseparably associated. " Do we
make void the law through faith ? Nay, God
forbid, we establish the law." Keleased from
the law as a covenant of works, bdievers are
the more bound to it as a rule of life. " They
who are in Christ Jesus walk not after the
flesh, but after the spirit." Then the apostle

PAXT

enters into a subject dear to his heart-^the
history, fates, and fortunes of the andent
people.

Again, were the question asked. To what
were the successes of the Grospel oTnng in the
early times? the ai>ostle replies, in the first
chapter of his first letter to the church in
Cormth, that his preaching was not with
"enticing words of man*s wisdom," that he
did not assume the subtleness and rhetoric of
a Grecian orator or sophist, that he did not
accommodate his messa^ to the prejudice of
his audience, so as to give his gospel a philo-
sophic coverii^ or oratorical recommendation|
but boldly, simply, and formally preached
'' Christ crucified, to the Jews a stumbling-
block, and to the Greeks foolishness." If we
wish to know how offenders are to be treated,
how certain questions of casuistry are to be
settled, how order is to be preserved in the
church amidst a variety of offices and gnifts,
the statements of Paul in the same epistle
form a clear and infallible guide. If we are
desirous of beholding an unrivalled specimen
of edification, comprised of an artless and
happy union of doctrinal tenth and practical
statement, personal history and evangelical
exposition, of official vindication and glowing
encouragements, we have it in the second
epistle to the Corinthians. The epistle to the
Galatians, on the other hand, mirrors forUi
those strong emotions of surpnse, sorrow, and
anger which agitated the breast of the apostle
as he contemplated the apostasy of that church,
and reflected on those Judaizing seductions by
which it had been so easily and sx>eedily cap-
tivated. The letter to the church of Epnesus,
so rich and elevated, resembles that temple
which was the pride of their city and the boast
of the world, and formed in itself a fit com-
pensation for the loss of those magical books
which had been burnt at their conversion, of
which 'Hhey counted the price, and found it
fifty thousand pieces of silver." Hie varied
correspondence of the apostle with Colosse,
Philippi, and Thessalomca, proves that all
Scripture is "profitable for doctrine, for re-
proof, for correction, for instruction in righ-
teousness,"— shows the fervid love of Paul for
all the churches, for those he had planted and
watered, and for such as "had not seen his
face in the flesh ; " how zealously he watched
their best interests, how his heart rejoiced in
their adherence to the truth and grieved at
any seeming defection amon^ them. At the
same time, these familiar writings furnish us
with an aomirable example of the manner in
which all circumstances are to be improved,
and all incidents turned to the best advantage
— ^how error is to be analyzed and assailed, and
the truth contrasted with it, and placed on a
firm foundation. Where shall we find such a
fatherly affection toward the younger ministry,
such cordial ssrmpathy with them in their
unavoidable trials, such minute and sagacious
counsels as to tneir personal conduct and
studies, and their public relation to the Church
—to every class, age, sex, and office among its

603

thoadk it

PAV

»«li »■ —mil Mmu t «1 mhi thajMhwl
■ mUitmrn €r Uttsi to Ttmothy ■ad TIbuT
Nor it • foghiT* *l»*e hwMth tha can nd
Hwirtr of tha gnat 4>oril». Wlut Odtt-
dMondan Mtd ^mprthj, vbrt mw" "-

firiaf note BddreMd to PUlMu^T^

Baridai, tha mind (4 Puil wu «m]_

"a. ItnovarkMt via* o( ita objM^
t (An took an azenniTc ttdXt in

iL l%«ra ia adarady aojr doebiBi* of

Chiiitkaity wUeh i* not ilhiihatad bj Faal
In acma ptntian sf thia inqliad Caidiphcnlk.
HiMlitT i* plMMd by blm in iti tnw poalUia.
M oamiBs aflar UUi, aod m biing baaad iraoa
it Tlw<laotrinMa(tlMQ«ip«lai»npoitBdad
ace ita ctUei mc anfimad. Hit atUial oodr
aalMidi

malq in Taiiety, lAat multicdieitj of a^la
and addiMi, ate to b« found in thoaa pra-
dona doonmanta ! AlOum^ Ibay bava mar-
«aea oftm to traniiMit --— — ^-— — and
tanpacary lalatimia, ycttlMV araiTwlMn bear
fkt atamp of the great and original mind of
tbe apoaua^ aa pnruad, davatad, and Mwt^nad
brtbainflnanoaaofthaHoljBpilit (Fortba
crdar in vrttieb theae Mttn wora wiittan,Hid
tba date of tbam, aaa Emhtu*.)

PAVILIOl

able tabenimcle or teat, cbieflj tuad for a king,
pciDce, or general (1 Ki, ki. 12, Ifi]. Jabn
ibinlu it wm ths cloth used for JewiiUi meala,
and which, when done with, waa drawn np l)j
a sotd, lilca a wine ikin or bottia, and bung
opoo a naiL

The Faalmirt mblimelr deacribea Jeliovah
■OROundinK biuuelf wiUi dark waten and
thick cloudi of the ikiea, aa with a tent or
pavilion (P», iriii 11),

PEACE (Judg. vi. 23)— aa in Soiptnre, a
word iif very comprebennve njeaning. It wm
the oen&l Jewish nlut&tion. " Pmca be with
jou" was the interchanged oourteay. When
the traveller entered a dwelling, ba exclaimed,
"Peace be to tMs houaa :" whan ba depaited,
Having, 'Go in
n found in "

hi* boat K
peace." Such ci

I him well. _,_. .

:i«tomK are alio found in Scnp-

Jesiu uya, " Peace I leave with yon,
u/ peace 1 sive onto yon : not U the world

S'voth, give! unto you" (John xiv. 27) — i, t,
e peace which I give ii a real bleaaing, not a
mere eipreanion of oonanon oonrtesT and
wnridljr dvility. Peace Bometime* denotea
that holy calm which reaulti from a«aured
intenat m Chriat (Bom. v. 1). Again, when
anociated with the word "gnKe,"^aa in the
•alotationa of tha cndttlea, it oompiue* every
■raritnal bleadng amied to the varied oondition
of balievera,— dl that gntoe give*— hope, joy,
tataiart, andpowar, with evei7 element of

aitidaa hwjattnd hy SolomuB ; tboo^ ■«
taaaam tfan odiBtaal wcod midit ba mnpt-

fta word paamkn wmOd be btttfr a^rf
MMefti^ Md Om word oatrMi AosU b ts»

wind. TTtaimnliii ' ^Itb

atocfc an Am oaai . . iW

hahita; tor tha ataa fcWt

tndMMM «D harj .l- ■.-.-siW
haraaMniac infiOarence iJoo nxa. »ta
(SMOantaa.)
FBi^Lafll^ xHL 45. 4Q an w^nt

davdon Hmu 1b HVen yeank, Uneta^H
M «r AMt tb* «td of duU povd. Ih aM
dMwdteM^lnlM. Ito^MTaftlM*-
wlaMaiyBiinownmatteg ; ajad Ibe moAa
■IT ba oiAad paritea aot ao mnd> hrdiHA
^ tha Mt^^.,m* tDNsn Smm
anohaaaand ancMd witliin thai^enakMm
thabod. TbapcniloTatenanfiiiDJlnd*
twa <m igto (haiBn called peari budatii*
Parian Qidf, on the wettei^^oarttfOvta,
and withe ooa*i of Javn, Soiontn, lic,id
m aoBw pa^ of BnnnM, Thvdidbw^
tainad by divini, nnj OiiaiadittvbradM'
panona brined to the bnaincaB. fkt 0«l*
paari-a^teryfaanka I* about L5 i-n^ fai« A*
aborts and 7S faet deep on an avc^e Ih
GiJierybaaina in Afvi], when Uu ataiinut
calm, and oontinnaa fiv

rinole paari ItM been I
In our vairioo nt

— B%i

.. the Old Tr-'

woid oocm ontyiu .T,,b kz^IL
^mean oryitaL In 1^i>jt_ iiL
16: xixL 10; Imi:-. iv, 7, tb

laat cited Tofenmoa !> imilMibly
beautifnl ted blub uf --

Pearli were andenttv used in
personal omamoita (1 Tim. ji. it ■
iviii. IS; 16), and r

Lay, m popuand, tJM«« n rf «H ■ ■
v; paail fiahory. ThepaMh lal !► I
Aa nan I76I and 17HM M* I
L AoH v^iob gUstnn Sm ffebrifik I
nowaKhlUtUKin Ediidtv^^rikw I
be tin pnduce of tlte Ikw. TWM I

Mwl baa heaa valued at B%m, Ikjl J

intTDdnced, it whs evidently r%>rdej aa among
the moit predoua aubstoncea (bbitt. viL 6;
Jtiii. 45, 46; Rav. ra. 21).

FEKAU (2 EL XV. 25)— a general of the
lanwlitiali trtay. He usunnated the king
Paluhiah in hii palace, and uiurped the
goTemment about ^7 B. c HU rei^n lasted
twenty yea™. He was the stem eDsmy of
Jndah; and the war is referred to in Iw. vii-
Ix. The country was invaded and greatly
Iwnoed by the AaayriaoB onder "nglath-
irileaer, and Pekah fainuelf waa the victim of a

HIAH — aoD and saccessor of Mena-

tjm. and aeventerath king of I>rael— perhaps
fS0-797 >■ c. After a reign of two years he was
' aMBi^iated by Pekah, who then, became
' •Urteenth kii«

TEKOD (Jer. L 21|— a name apparently
' ajmboliol, ^ven to Babylon or Chaldea. It
I Bl^ mean vtsitation — that is, punishment.
PZLEG-rfiFinon (Gen. x. 25)— Km of Eba.
■•In hii davs the earth was divided." the refer-
'' •SOB wobably being to some separation among
■ dw tribes of his own family — not to the great
~ Eon <rf Noah's sons.

.•A.TIAH (Ezek. xL 1) was one of the
_ . _ d-twenty men who withstood the pFiv
i jTiat, and cnuDselled the people of Israel
r- wUkeHj. He was suddenly struck dead
> iri^k Eiekiel was uttering his prediction
I' (Saek. iL 131.

- FELETHITES. (See Cberethihb.)
[.■ PELICAN (Deut. liv. 17) -a voradoue
>' tild, nnclean by the Levitica] law (Lev. li.
;- IS), of ""F"!" constructinn and habits, re-
,t aMnUiltf Ub ^oose, though nearly twice as
: 1m8& Its bill u 19 inches long. The female
,. baa an euormoDB pouch or bag, capable of con-

,^ — „ gallons of water and food. Ont

.'.of Uii* pooch she feeds herself and her young—
' iriwnce the vulgar notion that she feeds them
' CB hCT own blood. It is classed with the bit-
'.'tem and other birds who delight in solitary
jimi dnolate places, and its cry is harsh and
■'.amlHtaMlyjJob m. 29; Fs. dL 6; Isa. iiiiv.
'11; Zeph. iL 14) 1 in some of which passages
'Ami lame word is translated owl, cormorant, —
^ UttcnL which in others is tranilated pelican

, PEN (Judg. V.
-r* iririiA Uie cban

>■ varied with the n

teilali npm which the letters

IXpan hud lubetai...-.

toliic platcB, a graver of steel

icb a

used, the same which Job calls " an iron pen."
It is posailile that an inatnunent pointed with
diamond, such as glaziers now use, was not
unknown, as "the sm of Judah" is uud to be
^* written with a pen of iron, and with a point
of a diamond" (Jer. xviL 1). Pliny givua an
account of such an iuitrument as having been

2. Upon tablea of wax a metallic pen or
stylus was em))loyed, having one end pointed,
to trace the letters, the other bmod and flat,
to erase any erroneous marks by smoothing
the wax.

3. Upon paper, linen, cotton, sldns, and
paichmenta it was in very early tiroes com-
mon to paint the letters with a hair pencil
brought to a fine point, as the Chinese do to
this day. Afterwards, however, the reed pen
was introduced, which was at first used with-
out being split at the point The reed pen is
used by the modem Turks, Syrians, Persians,
Abyssinians, Arabs, and other Orientals, as
their langui^:ee could not be written without
dilGculty with pens made, like ours, from
quills. A particular Idnd of knife is used to
spUt the reed (Jer. ixivi. 23). (See Book for
a fuller account, WRirma.)

PENIEL-Zoce of Ood (G^n. ixjii. 30|-op
PENUEL (Judg. viii, 9^-the place at the
ford of the Jabbok, east of Jordan, where
Jacob wrestled with the angel on his return
from Mesopotamia. There was a town of the
same name, the tower of whicb was beaten
down by Gideon (.ladg, viii, 17). Jeruboam
rebuilt and fortified Che place (1 KL xiL 251.
PENNY. (See Measuhes, Ac.)
PENTECOST. The first feast of this
nature that happened after our lord's ascen-
sion was remarkable for the visible and copious

Peter. The first-fruits of a great harvest v

"Then

'c read in Acts ii.
Terusalem Jews,
a under heaven."
«■ jrai'i.IL.iii.,

(In COTToboralioi.. _
I.) (SeeFEABT.)

TPENUEL. (SeePmiEL.)

PEOR, MOUNT (Num. xiiiL 28}-in He-
brew "the Peor"— a riae of ground ea»t of the
Jordan, and port of the same cbun with Nebo
and Pisgah. It seems to have been the site of
an idol temple (Num. xxv. 3; Deut. iv. 3, 4G}.
(See Baal-feoe.)

PERAZIM, MOUNT. (See Baalper-

'*MREZ. (SeeMEKB.)

PBREZ-UZZAH. (See TJziAB.)
PERFECTION (Ps. L 2). That which la

PER
ncv-tion. In Pa. cxiz. 26 the
rHuuiim. ""J-", " I t»** "•■•^ "> ™^ o* "Jl
|ivrt«ti»n." Tlie [Di.'anini; hvni ■eeoi* to be,
that an th« miot JvninUe tilings id the new
of wurhlly men are bunour, wislth, ]ileftaurE,
Icaminit, mtAitrtaH tmit of Iheu ii tu Me huw
iiwiinu&i.'Bnt uiTtbiiiK but <ioJ hinuelf ii to
miaty am iiiinH>Ttal mu] (IV cxiz. Wj). The
wurd kli«> nuHUia the muni my rterioiu pnuci] iles
(if tlie ChrwtiMi faith (Heh. ^i 1), or the fuU
' ' ~ ' celliiooe, holiness, or

nici

K(3<:.«

xiii. It).

u !l). 1S«« A.10IICT,

"I'KRilA. {See I'AxrHTLiA.)

l>KK<:AM(XH(ltpv.L 11). liiiw Bergamo, ami
kcityiif Myidn,iDAi>iaMiiuir. Ilerewuimfuf
the w.-i'eii ckurrlKM Ol Ai4U adilpniwd by Juhn,
fnim wluMt lantfoaU' wr iiifrr that the city
wan fntnitnl l)y falM* triii'lim. who gnmily
eiimiiittil thu |>v<ii>iv, anil I<.-<1 tliem into many
alKqiiiNuUle errurn. It ix .[.'..'ril^l by J.>hii a>

evi.biiC'H i.f til.. f.pmiiT tim'.-nifi.'i'ni-p irf tlii*

ami UiH mini of whut in i.ui.1 to Liivu biiiu tlie
temiile uf Kwiihiqiiii.

Tlie lHi)>iiklii>ii of til'' tiHidern city i.i
nriiiuiily (.MtuiiHtiKl from 1.\I)W to lUl.OOO, and
amou; tliMil M,OUO nominal «Tiii.tl -- -

waHtlicbirtliiiLLceiif lialvn. Tlitre i

itrrR.'aiiuiHftn>yaIlilinrv.nmtainini;9)0,iW0

tlcrivnl fniui tbinplact*. -.. ,

Tbr I'lilile of the )i1uit ^■ivti'llil t>i i>bii«> tht
very i-liun:h wIhto tlm iluriiiliii ansemhled tc
vhiim John's nitMauu wnK aililrcxMil ( I't^- ii-
121. ami ahi« tlii> tionh of Autipax (Itev. 11. m.

PKItlZZITKS ((ien. xxiv. 30)-sib-nif)ing
InliulHtaiitii of iinu'allu.<l villaKf*: a tribe uf
the Caiiaaiiili'ii, 't a iioniile mintilwl with
tlwm. ami ).fi>ttcn-<I over tlic loniL Same of
tlicm cxiHbK] till the uta of Solnmon. anil
■nibiectnl liy him to tribute: and rvon
(Iiv iwriiHl of >:zTa (Gen. xiU. 7; Jiuh.
tfi; JuiIl'. iiL S; 1 KL ix. SO: 2 Chr. vi
Km ix. 1).

]>KU:jllA— on the monnments, Parta-
the ori'.,-inii] nuno of a territory of no ^reat
(Univn&iuiui. In ita proiier and more iratricted
60U

se&M, Pnd» dgnlfiCB tha oatiTa oaantif if
the Pana. whidi ia prohablj the EcnfMi
called Penis by the anciat*, and F<a to*
mndenu; but Peraia, ocaiaklsrcd as the W
dom of the Pernasa, wbid sabjagitd til
Medn, aeana to hwr* «g«««bcndMl al A>
country to the aooth of tba Me^auBOMlM
and deaerta, and to havs indodsJ &■■«
CannaoiL Mtd G«dit«a, aa wdt sa ha
proper. Of tha faw dtasi in Fobb BMliari
by the ancienta, Peiaqpolu, the tiQal d^rf
the ETeatest Peraaan "——-'■- b th ■*!
-ilehnted; and PaaaindN, anothn <f *

Sal citiefl, the burial-place of the IdanM
en their traaanrea bIhi wtn kept, WM fc
_ie noMh-eact, at no gt^tl ''Mmr* fits H*
sepulis, near the toodmi Tillaoe of HmM
Penis, as a province, ««■ diflerat b^J^
mais, which had been peopled by a S^ht
race. Elymois, the Greek deriTaaTeiJHH

comprehended, in later ti " '""' ■"

~~rt of the ooaat only whi

itiBua or Kerab, and the

Arrian. The inhabitanto of FensaBortl
ime from the Eaat, aa tbeir carij !•*>
rrtainlyindicates, and probably th^M
_.inr new canntiT eight eer* — »--'■-• — '
lliesa )irimeval aettleiB w

three noMe, Uuee aeiicalbn^ ■(
_ _. pastoral The Pasargada v«b ^ Mlh

triU-s. and to them bdca^edths ntdklM
of the Achcmeuidse. " Fnm antiqa^* iV
Darius on the rock of Behiatno, "oariMstM

..ider or imperial sssv ?"■•

meanji the great Afedo- Persian emfiie. <^<'''

■"'"'"" IheMediteTTueantotklste

ito Rg]iit,embraciiuth)<U>

of WMtem Asia (Ezra. IV. 5^ 6; btWit
«l. This empire was dirided, aocusd^ *
Hl^Tud^tus, into twenty latiaincs, sad IM
Inxik of Brtber ipe^s of 127 pstniiuK b
tbe ruck uf Behistun the roy^ rcocd^-
" Says Darius the Idng, ' By tha pW ■
Onnaid I am king ^ Onna>d ui giMli' '*
— ■ the empire.' Saya Uarins As >■•
e«i are the coontnea which ban tf*
- '^-' "^ ■' JcraceofOnnsdlii"
-Peraia, " ' "
Assyiia, Aialua, li^ypt
"^- sea. Sparta i^ lo

intumyhands;— by the_

kinj; of them — Peraia, SusiaoL ft^
^LTalu^ li^ypt ; tbasa vlil
'parta i^^ lunia: AnsHa
Cappadocia, Parthia, ZaraniHa. Asia Cv
a-rofo, Bactria, SogdianaTths Sa.-, *
Sattopydes, Arachona, and the Msdaat*
total amount being twenty-three omnlriM

The Greek IcRenJa abont the siIt 1*"
of Cynu, tbe ori^nator of this ^nat iMI^
may be safely iliscarded. AcbnaMK *!
r..va].iiame father, was prohahly (he kJ"«
last Persian immi^jntdun. H^ M ■}
Lpparently ~

numenU show, i

by Teimies, be by Cambnea I., he hj-CP* I
he by Cambyses II.. and be by Cjrsi K^ I
theUreut. the coQijuaniT of Media and fb^* I
of thismigbtyemiiire. Tbe dfscriptinpM' I
at first, or imiiMdiately after tb* cMfdrt I

PER
if the two lutioDS, ia

l^%

Media jF>tb. I 3. 18, 19). The army mvad I icnpboi

tBxt, in Jcr. iiT. 26, ore rendered
Ponani in the Septiiagiot. One of
ttia fint great acta ol Cynu was to add
jjj^ to his canqnestg; uid he be-
Mig«d and took Babvlon. From hu
■M>u>tbaistic Kfrnpathies he at once
ibowed Undneaa to the captive Jews
wonhippen, like bimwlf, oF one God
■nd aodeot oroclea had predicted sucli
gmero^tr. Jehovah (Isa. xliv. 2H)
■ud of Cyrus, " He is mj shepherd
mad iball peifoim all mypleaaure
•ran laying to Jeraealem, Thou ghnlt
ha biiiJt; and to the temple, Thi

PER

" Tbe description giyen of the bmldmg
lent UTiteis, a« by Aman corresponda
" iHipeManoe. Bnt tho cunraforra in

bai been deaphered

^1 Iff -iCry^i I,

n shall 'be "liid." iW taitl

- ■ ths Lord to his anointed, to Cyrus."
-'' In scoordance with such utter
^ the kiatorian announces—" Noi

rr* tiw month of Jeremiah migbt be
■~^ ■deomplished) the Lord stirred up
,: (he aptrit of Cyrus kin^ of Pertria that
~ ba made a proclamation throughout
_;s an his kingdom, and put it also in
'■■ , saying. Thus saith Cyrus

_" bnOd hin

;es

'SSTp

„ of Persia. All the Iringiior... .
earth hath the Lord God of heaven
and he hath charged me to

.^iainJudah. Who is there among
of all his people! The fjord his
*~ with him, and let him 8oup"(2Chr.
22, 23). The aacred vessels were
by the royal generosity, and the first
returning exiles aonn after set nut for
imion fatherland, (Ezra. I) After

, probably killed

'", and was succeeded hy his son

(ilMDb]r»e» — on the monuments, Kabujiva —
=. lia at in the name being a Greek insertion.
-■ the tomb of Cyms was huilt at Pasargads,
' tba apotwhete he had gained that crowning
" ^ioUXT ora the Medes which enabled him to

' atmcted in the genuine Persian fashion, being
% tower of moderate size;, solid below, with s
^^IMllrhral shrine, roofed above, and a very
*IT— H entrance. It was almost hid in a thick
^ I m^m Af trees, and oontatned, when fint
d by AJeiander's command, a couch,

^__ ^ igus, table, and cups ol gold, and

X^Miiy garments adnnied with precious stonea ;
*aMl It had been plundered before his second
"^ijait, on his return from Bactria, Dotwit^-
Mi^BiidinK the presence of a body of magi
^iopointed to guard it. The inscription npon
C^ ID the Persian language and character, was
^^id to b* — " I, O man ! am Cynuk who gained
^^h* "npire Fes the Persians, and ruled over
bo not, therefore, envy me this monu-

by Gmtefend and I.aiisen. the latter of whom
reads it-Adam Qurua KshAjathiva HakhA-
maiiisija—I am Cyrus, the king, the Adua-

The reign of Camhy^es was noted for a vast
invasion of Egypt, during which his army was
overtaken by terrible disasters. Some re(fard
this mogian usurpation as a Median revolution ;
others connect it with an eBort to restore the
old magian faith, or what Darius the con-
queror caUa "the tie." The usurpation !a»ted
seven months, and was quelled by a combina-
tion of the Fenian nobility, who mado Dariua
king. Dariua has thus himself recorxled the
struggle— "Says Dariua the king, there waa
not a man, □eitnerPersian nor Median, nor any
one of our family, who would dispossess of the
empire that Gaum^tea, the Magian. The
state feared to reeiat iiim. He would fre-
quently address the state, which knew tbe
old Bartiua ; for that reaaon he would addreu
tbe state, saying, 'Beware, lest it regard roe
as if I were not Bartius, the son of Cyma.'
There was not any one bold enough to oppose
him ; everyone was standing obediently around
Gaumltea, the magian, until I arrived. Then
I abode in tbe worship of Oncaid ; Onruud
brought help to me. On the tenth day of the

onui Bagayadish, then

e my weU-wisheraTl alew tl

an

botat, in tite diibict of Madik, nuncd Ni«K^
there I dew hini I ^itpomtmtd him d tha
empin. By Um gnce of Oimaid I beeam*
king; Onnwd gTMited ua the (oeptm
D^ni the kins, 'The otowb thd had
wnrtcd faon our met, that I reoovcn.

MtaUidtcd it fimlr, m u the d«;iat old :

Idld. The rites whidiGmiiiDfiM, the Hwia^
hid introdDoed, I ptnhiUted. I ntaMwM
for the rtkta th* ncrad chanti and iii illliM
vonhi^ ud confided than to die *"■■'"—
wUeh OHunita% the Harian, had deprircd <<
thoaeoffioM. T flmly — *fM— fc— i *>■» ttngA—j

boOi Fenia and H «dl^ vd the other fm-
Tincai, aa In Um daya of old ; thna I natorad
that wfaicb had bnn tak«a aw^. By the
eraoe of Ormaad I did lUa. I UMored onta
I had flnnlr MtaUidied onr bnilr, aa in the
i»j» U old. I lalMorcd, hf the onwe ol
Oimanl, in oidar that Qanmttca, tba Hagia*,

of f'irty yeais— ' ' ' ~

Maaiy hsre identifiiKl i_

hacnem* of the Boo\

ArtBierxee appears to haie

and better pnn« tiian tbe il^-ndvl tad ta
--BTolDptuaryof the Buck of Bill

ileodiet) hiinAiAtniui, iH-"(beEi . .

probftlily the Artki«nm ftUndad H
vii U-Sn; Neb. IL 16. vlwf* h
"""'" reoonl fai» k" ' ~. .-

1 last Idnf

^ ■uptiaede onr family.'
be mgning Iioqae— tba* VI

SMied
r m-
ohangipg power, ai it it alobe had iiiTine ri^it

Darini Hy>taf[di- DarayaToah Viditaapa —
OD lii* BcccadoD to the thnme, canflnMa the
deonea of Cynu with regatd to the Jawi, and
the temple at Jenualem wa* flnitbed in Ibe

in the midit ^ renewed preikarationi

_„ it Eunpi)e. He was Buccueded l^Xerie*

— KluihA3-uiihL Xenea immediately collected

_ 1 — jj^ Ylg ilrew hii leviee, like hii

m all the nntiona of that

Salaniia, the ami; was Iwaten at Flatca, and
Xerxea Sed hnmeward in diggrace, and Bought
Co&BolatioD in hie harem amidst ■ensual inoul-
esnces. An inceatuous intrigue basCened hii
end, and he wu auusinated b. c. 466. Thit
Xenea ia in all probability the Ahaaun-ug of
tba Book of Esther. The Ki*»t fe»st, pro-
longed for 180 dava. might be ciinnected with the
levy Eroni all the aatiapiea for the {iroposad
invaaion of Ureece ; and the "tribute laid on the
land and on the ialea of the aea," apoken of at
the cloae of the boik, might he an attempt to
recruit bia exhauated exchequer aft«r hi«
ignominiuu* defeat and flight. The tyrant
who iovaded Greece, who acuur^d the Hellea-
pont, laid hii royal mandate on mount Athos,
and rutbleiisly murdered the son of Pythiui,
b*« a cloae leaemblance tu the frantic and
debased monarch who repudiated bia wife
becauoe aha would nut eipoee herself to the
gaze of drunken revelleix, and who waa ao '
under the influence of an intriguing and an
tiouR favourite, aa, at his auggeation, to dev
a large body of his industrious lubjecti
wanton maaaacre and pillage.

Xenea waa succeeded by hie son Artaxeraea
— Aitakhahatra— whoas mother is njd by

it la eril daja; tai At han
in effemiaitcy and enaiK
deatik IntfietenM**^

ith hie di _ ._ _^ „

which prcetratAl Penbt, Daiiee Si
been to come extent tbc
wealth wu clD|Joye<I I
Greece to toake war npon J
Macedonia. "By hia ■'
riches, he ahall atir np all natimu ajii— ib
realm of Greece." So<Ji U iht u3irtM d
Daniel, verified by tbe nttlin. Aiamlt
was provoknl at length to iDnde the Uuat
of Ilia threat and menaciug antanaisL Utt
aai thu hut battle nw fought, whidiMWib
fate uf the Peniaa empii«.

PereepoUs, thecajutut of Darim. wastiMM
in tbe vait plain i>f Merdaabt,Ba ~
lir-n of tbe Bvtidsmir and the Eor
:ti miles nrirth-east of Sbiraa,
o.inir is Takht-i^Ien.shi.1. ox IThrfwi Mb«-
ttiy -■Fi.rty Pilhirs," The oW Poii ■»
«....'ni" to hsvp Ihi-en Par>;akarta-"Ol7 rf"
Pfi^ifiu ; " and the Grtek name dofs a* d"*
iiillruk writera tiUaftiTtbeeraaf Alni»la
'I'i. !'<'i<.mD apiiellation is Istakhr, lh«^
Mf .1 )iin in the vicinity; thon^ Ibt *M
it'i'lf "iniiiiea a pood, or artifi^J ra«iw
■Ir 111. llvTi vie with one another "
.■,..■,- ,k.,rriptionsof the ruins of
(!,!■ i,L-tii^-3.^ rindnplendoiir (if ilsl

!■ 'I i.liitf.irm on which ila p

1'- r'lil./ jmrlalB anf] aweenjiu stiarcaiW *
. I' _.M.! fr.'tt<^work.iUTo\rsofinB«n)«K
iin iiivtliic'd Bculjitf-- ' '^ _-^^

■'on__ __ ..

by three tt

the cardinal points ; while on itt

„miL 1V*L.

woj^ are Iwautifnlly oraaiueDted wA •
rebufa, not unlike those of NiiieTeIi~iq^l> m
guardians of tht! royal edifioe. AH sKMii* ■
grand and imjioainK. Towanl tbe ^'^^i'M
nnijile terrace which supporl ' ' '

pilhini. It i« difficult to oonvCT ii
correct idea of thcas superb aad en
ruinR. tbe scene is so viut ; and the f'
ia ntill pujeetic in ita fallen im.
The palactw of the Pendan deaputi K-
thsir empire— a brief gleam of s{J«iiMr, ■

•t once into diwutroiu gloom. The Iots of I Darius (aa) king. Hs beatowed on him
■mcnt and display is evenrwhen cons|ricu- tbe rmpaa. Bv thv grace of Ormazd (baa)
b ThereirerenoleMthanfiTetemcee, three Dariua become kiiig." There ii also a third.

* m already referred to, ai leading, the fint I " Says Darius the kin^. May Ormazd bring

1 tha third to a building yet
rood it. But there were stir
MT two connected wit^ othei
notuno, and in one of these
mtt ft (Capture of the royal
MHOS, llat this immense

I monaichs admits not of a
lilt. It may be questioned
•titer Cyms be eoimected to
r extent with tiie gigantic
- * '"- itread-

pewilJT pniminence. Dur-
•Utlifa the platform and the
Und oolomiade may have
Ht ooautractod, while other
(tiom are to be ascribed to
me and Artaieriea Ochua.
e palace that bears upon it
I name of Dariua ii therefore
I most andeDt portion of the |
», (or the legend is, "Darius,
tgraat King, King of kii^,
tg of llie nations, the eon of
iMaqMstheAchi

1 1 J) fj^l

1 ^^,.,,__ fM

H.

-■"^ vi'l' ^^-"l

J

I tzetnilHl tUa aenlptiire."

another slab, 26 feet long, occurs the I house, and may Ormazd protect this province
bwing inBcriptinii:~"The great Ormaid, | from alavery, from decrepitude, from Ijing.
0 ia tbe chief of the gods, he established I Let not war, nor slavei7, nor decrepitude, nur

King.

-.^^.1 1.. uue Pcmm (tyle, — "I
Tueriiii, the King of kin^. ths aon of
\rtan-rm!S, the mia of King DuiiM, tbe
Kins ArtAiprxr>s the nun of King
>, the HOD of King IfaiiuH, '
r>nc iinnird Hyttaiprt, th<

'peniinn

imiiliumtai
oauU not iMcapricaoiuhror J
bnt not tlwt thayw-™ •<'

■uwuui^Mvu ur- BoauBi

Either abowt tluA if » d
rtTcned, itml^t benmtn
"ib»«niieiit mm, Hie n---

cubineB, t

.__Biitedto the kin^ every day;
lO bad been once with hun wu
»ncl time without speciftl sum-
jny vta £ree1y practdfled ; bat
maatecB to sUrei waa carefully
IB Pereian yontb were taugbt
' to rid«, to Ehoot, and to apeak

rhe Boidii
nnall hehnet. and a tunic formed
The old Peraian dresa for the
;ht. but the looee Mediaa vest-
e of time supereeded it.
religion of Persia was pure and
wi^out images or altojs. The
lity was called Onna^, or
the great Giver of life. But
was acknowledged in oonrso of
riog of B{ieciiIation on the origin
in, or AngTomanyus. Zoroaster
e been a monotheist, as is ahown
of the Zendavesto, or perhaps he

the evil one, is never referred to
ents. Afterwards dualiiaa pre-
!»ch of the rival deities was
■ ^enii. This earlier and purer
I, In progress of centnries, in eon-
hian magianism, which worship-
:nts, Fun, atari, and espedally
is grailiially eomipted. The
ro[«hi|>pers are called Parsees,'
- a corruption of the original
(trian dualism is apparently re-
aaiah, ilv.7, " I fonn the light.

PET

■ndOTeatad>ikD«H; I make peace, and create

evil. I the Lord do all theee things."

The hmguage of the old Peruuu, as found
in the earlier portioua of the Zendavesta, was
cloaely allied to Sanscrit, u many acbolus
like Hang, Bumouf, and Stn^el, have abuud-
an^y shown. This Zend tongue i* found in
iti ucoujd Btage on the Achsmenian monu-
ments. In its third atage it is
called the Fehlvi, or Huzvansh,
and was spoken under the Sassanid
dynasty. What ii termed the
Panee followed ; and the modem
Persian, though it abounds with
Arabic forms, la yet mainly Aryan
m its Btmotore, and is m many
leqwcta inch a lucceasor of the old
tongue ai Italian is of the daerio

-istempera and calamitiei. His
Hebrsw word wbich properly rig-
nifiea the plagwe i« apphed to all
epidemical and conta^us diseases.
A.paliltnt fellow is one who ia
mischievous, and disposed to cor-
rupt and ruin a multitude (Acta
iiiv.O). OeflPLioUK.)

PESTLE AND MORTAR
(Prov. xxviL 22). The mortar wai
a hollow vessel for holding gr«n,
manna, or anythiiw else that was
to be pounded by the pestle (Num.
u. 8). Mortars are employed in
the Eaat for rice and coffee at the
present day. Criminala were some-
beaten to death m this way. The phrase
in Proverbs is meant to show that foUy cannot
be separated from a fool as grain can ha
ahelled in a mortar.

PETER-Ttjcl; (John i. M}— the son of
Jonas, or Jona, hence called Sunon Bar-jona
(Matt ivL 17), He was the brother of
Andrew, and was a native of Bethsaida. His
original name was Simon, or Simeon. The
name Cephas (a Syriac word signifying a rock,
and in I.atin petra, translated Peter) was
given bim when he was called to the apostle-
ship (John L 42: comp. Matt xvi. 18). He
had a family residence at Capernaum. His
mother-in-law waa healed of a fever by Jesus
(Matt viiL 14 ; Mark L 29 ; Luke iv. 3S) and
he was by occupation a fisherman (Luke v.
1-3). In the pi«cnce of Jesus there was an
extraordinary draught of fishes, the vast num-
bers of which Slled and almost sank the ships.
Peter was so amazed at a miracle done in his
own boat, and by his own fishing-tackle, that
he exclaimed, "Depart from me; fori am a
sinful man, 0 Lord" (Lnke V. 8, 9). Many
wonderful incidents of Peter's life are recorded
in the gospels. When Jesus came to the
labouring skiff in which the disciples had em-
barked, which had been overtaken by a storm,
and came to them walking over the billows,
Peter requested at once to join him, sod did
walk for a few moments on the water QIML
611

uul he cried, " not onlj my fee^ but alao mr
handa and my hud." Wben Joiu fcastou
thti coward]; dewitian of hu diaciple^ " Peter
"''' ""*" !'"«_ JxinL whv cuiniit I fouff

. iplet"Pe(
to him, Lunl, why caunut I follow tl
1 will ixj down n; "' ' '

t Christ's worai ware
9 and kgain, and a third

(Jiilin xiii. 37, ^).

iidfillrd. for he onca aau again, .

time with iiniireoati..Q«, denied all _^

and all kDuwltnlge uf him. Whm the band of
iiidalii<rii were abuut to lay hold on J«iw, the
Hpiritof FettT flashed up indeed; for, "haTJng
aawortl, bedrew it, and nniotethe bighpricat'i
■en'ant, and cut off hii rit[ht ear " (John ivjii
ID). But durin4; thu trial hit Maater'a look of
KvpTDViDg luVK ei»uvLcted him of bii ein, and
"Lu weut nut and wept bitterly." Our Lord
received him a^^ain into hit couGdenoe, and
hie ciiumiwiiin to Mary Magilaleue wsa, " Go,
teU the cliKciiiloa and Peter," Peter, now
reatiired, prufunwd bin attachment thrice, and
■olemnly, when he receiviil the oommi*.
■ion, "Feed my eLeep," (Juhn iii, IIL 4o,|
Un the day of^ Pentecoat he preached that
wondroiu Mnnon by which toree tbonnnd
were converted. In aimpaiiy with John he
healed a lame man at the tenipfe-gate, addnwed
tlie auembled crowd, wai impriMined, and
boldly vinihcated binitclf before the aanhedrim
(AeUiv. m. 20). Afterwards we find him at
conflict with Simon

hcaTing a

ITien V

read uf him at Lydda

ix, S'J-SO). Hii Master had work of a pecnliar
nature set apart for him, and therefore
faviinied him with a vision which taught that
ceremonial distinctimi among different races
of men was abolished, and that Jew and
Gentile were alike before God. A second time

tares or doubt ^^ hn
f orwird mddenlr, aiid ai
he waa swnad 1^ tli* im
Th* seneral impmBoo ■
a inpetficial readar of
Pater'i chanctar on^t
able : thoo^ then ia the
rated tin (4 danving Clir
in denying hillbwtBr; bl
fonaldog >i>dfl«ai^ fraoi
diadpln fonook Ua and

puticulariT- by mbm at fl
It ia avd thai Um OhiM
Peter to flwibot • ritii
vented Um. Hawaanm
fied, and wia pnt to di
dawnwanX wUla tba bn
down, waa buried neni
W^ There In. Iwww
doioa to be [dacad in tfaa
aball pnaent only anottai
reader, and that tnUwr aa i
There is an ancient —*-
the Mameitina p

the fourth king of i_ _
built. The tnditioa ia ^

PET

Whatever we lay of such stories, it is
▼err probable that !Peter came to Borne and
•uffisred martyrdom. Though Papists make
•o mvLotk of it, Protestants have no reason
to deny it. His being at Home is a very
different thing from his being bishop or
primate of the whole Ohurdh, and bequeath-
Ukg supremacy and prerogative to his so-
CiHed successors. The germs of truth seem
to be in such old traditions of Peter's having
wiiited Rome — traditions beginning in the
wery age in which this apostle left the world.
Pi^ias^ Irenseus, Clement of Alexandria,
Tertnlhan, Caius, Origen, and Eusebius agree
in the report that Peter was martyred at
Some; and there is no counter-tradition.
V Where an event that must soon have been so
notorious as this martsrrdom is so unanimously
attested, there is no reason to call its authen-
':'. tidly in question. In this last portion of
Peter's career was fulfilled the Lord's prophecy,
John xxl 18, 19.

Our Lord, when he changed the apostle's

\. name, did not at the time assign the reason;

; liiit he afterwards did so on a memorable

.' OQcasion. When Christ said to his aiMstles,

^ '*Bitt whom say ye that I am? Simon Peter

'" answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the

"^V Son of the Uving God" (Matt. xvL 15, 16).

^ Hftving made this prompt and fuU confession,

^ lie wwi congratulated by the following answer :

';. — "And Jesus answered and said unto him,

J.' BlesBed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh

.J. Mbd blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but

.' my Father which is in heaven. And I say

Z abo unto thee. That thou art Peter, and upon

r^,. this rock I will build my Church ; and the

r~T, flitaa of hell shall not prevail against it " (v. 17,

~' IQ. It seems clear tnat Jesus took occasion

_^ low to explain why he had changed Peter's

_. ftame at the commencement of his apostleship.

Z f Xhm XtDgUsh version cannot preserve the simi-

. Witv of sound and of words which the Saviour

^uySoyed ; and if he spoke in Syro-Chaldaic,

ths jrcaemblance would be closer even than it

- Hiipcam in the original Greek. Peter had oon-
^unil his MessiaJoship, and his Master says,
tlion Art Rock, and on the self -same Bock 1

- ^^jQl IndUl my Church ; t. e.. I called thee Rock
confession proves thou hast been well
— ^I will build my Church on thee. The

,viour intended to confer an honour upon
', because of his confession. That honour
deelfured in these words, ** on the self -same
or on him who had been sumamed
would he build his Church. The con-
was to be honoured by being made in
,e oenae a foundation of the church. Now,
himself is the one foundation — "the
oomer stone;" yet his apostles so far
ible him — " ye are built upon the founda-
of the apostles and proi>hets" (Eph. ii.
■IB). Hiere are human foundations lying them-
l^iClves on the Divine basis. We read, too, in
Apocalyi>se, "And the wall of the city
_ twelve foundations, and in them the names
^ tho twelve apostles of the Lamb " (Rev. xzL
L^A Not only Peter, but all the apostles are
-^ 2l

Sf

PET

foundations— Christ still being the "head of
the comer." These references to tiie apostles
must allude to their work in founding her
churches, — ^the founders of the Christian
Church are, in Oriental figure, its founda-
tions. Now, Peter was the first to confess
Christ, and our Lord gave him the honour of
being the first to found the Church. First in
confession, he was first in honour. On the
day of Pentecost he laid the foundation of the
Jewish Christian Church ; and though he was
especially **the apostle of the circumcision,"
yet he was selec1;ed to lay the foundation
of the Gentile Christian Church in the house
of Cornelius the Roman centurion. This ap-
pears to be all that the words imply : they are
merely the description of a personal honour
which was to be conferred on I^eter — a reward
for the prioritv of his confession. Such an
interpretation does no violence to the Saviour's
language. Some suppose Jesus to have pointed
to himself as the Kock ; others regard the
sentiment of Peter's confession as the founda-
tion of the Church. Such expositions are
forced, and would perhaps have never been
proposed but for the abuse of this mssage
which has been made by the Popish Church.
Personal h<mour given to Peter was not
official superiority over his colleagues. Such
supremacy Peter never enjoyed. The notion
of his being first bishop of Rome is a silly
fallacy — ^the chair of St, Peter he never sat
on ; and this passage of Matthew, so inter-
preted as we have done, gives no countenance
to the popish dop;ma. It neither speaks of a
primacy, nor limits it to Rome, nor declares
it transmissible only in a direct line of Italian
primates. Yet, as the first herald of the
Gospel after the ascension, Peter stands first
in the evangelical catalogue as "the first,
Simon, who is aLao called Peter." We find him
also named in this way, "Peter standing up
with the eleven" (Acts ii. 14); "Peter and
the rest of the apostles" (Acts iL 37). For
more thim 300 years no other interpretation
than the one we have advanced was ever
heard of or hinted at. All who knew or spoke
Greek never doubted that Peter and the Kock
are identified. Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa,
and Pope Leo the First, started the other
modes of exposition. Jerome admits that
Peter, though a married man, was the Rock,

The apostle's mind was saturated with Jew-
ish thought; to him the old economy had not
been supplimted, but it had passed over into
the new and spiritual dispensation, having
burst its national barriers.

Peter, epistles of. They are called
epistles generalf because they were not addressed
to any particular church or communitv of
believers. They are supposed to have been
written in a time of violent persecution, by
which the converts were scattered abroad (1
Pet. L 1 : iv. 16-19). The date usually assigned
to them IS between A. D. 64 and 66. Babylon,
from which the first of these epistles was
written (1 Pet. v. 13), is supposed to be Baby-
lon on the Euphrates, whioi, though in ruins^

513

PET

contained many thousand inhabitants, among
whom were very inanv Jews. There is no reason
t«i believe that this Babylon is not intended:
and in the alwence of all evidence in favour ox
any other place, it is safest to take the place
which is must generally known and mentioned
by that name. Both the epistles of Peter
express the noble vehemence and fervour of
nis spirit, his full knowledge of the genius and
tendency of Christianity, and his strong assur-
ance of the truth and certainty of all he
tauf^ht.

Peter, firct epistle of. The first epistle,
which iti the larger of the two, bears upon it
the image of its author ; for his soul seems to
have stamped an impression of itself on evoy
sentiment and action. The apostle bids the
elect strangers reckon it no novelty if sevoe
persecution were to fall uix>n them; patience
under unmerited trial became them. The trial
of faith isHuea in glory. The Saviour is a
pattern of suffering— even slaves are to bear
wrong Hubmiwively. Husbands and wives are
to cherish such love to each other as shall
enable them to perform their respective duties.
KIdcrs are U> watch over the flock with cheer-
ful and affecitiDuate superintendence ; and the
whole ( /hristian community are to be charac-
teriied hy humility. The tone and language
of tlie epistle point to a season of impending
trial ana danger. It is a warning to the faith-
ful ti) anticiimte such a critical period by a
careful preparation. Peter is the apostle of
boiie.

^ The elect strantfcrs addrewed by Peter
lived in '* Pontus. Galatia, Cappadocia, AHia,
and Bithynia." llietto provinceM are named in
a circuit, just as one would describe them if he
viewed them from Babylon. If Silas be the
same nvitli Sylvanus, then he, having travelled
in those countries with Paul, might have
broiigiit siu'h a report to Peter as, under the
8] lint, induced tue axxKitlc to write this
letter. I'eter had not niailc a missionary tour
in thoHC countries himself; yet the letter sent
by Sihu;, who was known to these churches
would be reOfdily received as an authentic docu-
ment It in undoubted that the elect strangers
were ChriHtiaiiH. Some supi^ose that thev
Were Jews prior to their conversion. Yet such
a thiM>ry cannot apply to all of them. It could
not lie Kaid of Jews tliat they had in the fuist
T»artof tlieir lives been pv<-'n to '^alxMiiinable
idolatries" (1 Pet iv. 3). Yet so many Old
Testament allusions, so many applications of
its phraseoli^y, so many thoughts clothed in
its striking and impressive diction, could have
been appropriate only to such as had f)ossc8scd
and believed in the ancient Jewish Scriptures.
Perhaps not a few of the persons to wh(»m
Peter wrote had been Je^-isn proselytes fn>m
Geutihsm before they embraced Christianity.

The stylo of this epistle has a resi-mblancc in
some places to Peter's recorde<l at^dresKes in
the Acts. The accompanying witLcs^ of the
Holy Ghost is referred to in tlie same way in 1
Pet i. 12 and in Acts v. 312. The reference
to the fulfilment of an ancient Messianic oracle
514

bqnotod with % Kmilar aptOiaitinM hi 1 rrt
iL 8 and in Aota ir. IL A Deeoliv Mb d
allusion to the denth of cmemzioB. aid tsib
instrament of torture, ths **tmi,* u fioaf it
ActiT. 30; X.39; 1 P«L fi.M. Tbe iiA>v-
iag marked zef erenoes to the Old TMaH
are found in the epiifcle »—

1 FtoL L IS, JLsfLiLIL

H,H Jis.sLILte

ILa, h.mli.i

«• h.afB.ft

■ % •••••••.•...••.•••...•••..lii^iiriH.lt

7 JPa cn&ft

"■ ■• - i|M.di.«,a.

lot ^Baal.&

■ XT, .•••.•••••• ••••...•Fkwr.Bdtl.

n, ..Jsa-B-UU

ULt. asB.xf&tt

10-13^ Fa.inii.iMi

14, U, Jsa-vftft*.

», asB.fLi.tt

lY'S, nor.z.B;

18, iLS.

V. a; ilH.

7, Pfc-lfc*

Peter hae referred to the eotttki ti ftida
his own second letter (2 Pet. uL I!9: od — '
sections of bis first epistle hnve a aawi
blance of thought and sentunent to
paragnmhs in the writings of In ''I
brother.^ Compnre

1 P*ttl. .JpLLX _

»;CoLLft

U.M^ JBflBLzB.U

164c, Gri.T.UL

W; Oil, &lLTi5;ai

ttLli

ULa.4, iTiBLill

M, Efk.l%tt,

It. 10, Boa Hi i^^

▼. 1 — tali

8, ^ iTbos^i

li, iCar.zn.»;

Bo&nlK
llkWkv^A

Peter wrote to *' strangers scattered:;' a'
James wrote to "the twelTe tribes wUek**
scattered abroad. " Some aimilarifej of ttoifibB
may therefore be anticipated^ as we pcnov**

1 Pet. L 6, 7 JSS.L1&

M. i^a

»,'A. »

iLi.a, fL

^lT.8^ v.tt

Peter, second xpistlk op. It
than the first, more general in its i
and has special reference to the maljn*— ^
ductions of false teachers. GbristisBs c
exhorted to grow in all spiritaal iMihin**'
Scoffers are exposed, especially those vbvai'
in ignorant scepticiian, " Whera is Ott pnaii'-
of his coming?** The ajxMtle erpbam^
His coming has been delayed, and sbosn tktf
its approach ought to stimulate us to gro*>V
holiness and me^tness for heaven.

The ancient Church, which was ^nijcu^lB0*
in authenticating doonments as iufsmi v
in giving them drcolation — apostrfic siiii^f^
had some doubts of the ft^^*«iii<T*i anftbB'?
<tf this epistle, Thej did not jdaoe it mifi

[ (or Rich henUtina. The i^la i
-iffsnmt — the nuoe " Qod" oocan {orty time
in the Gnt epuU«, anil only Mven Umes in th
■aooDd. In the fint, Chritt U called "Lord
«nly onoa ; but it in the common adjunct ii_
the lecand epiitle. Again, Christ is caU«1
Smtjoot cAen in the Mioand epistle— never in
Ae Bat QaoUtioDS from the Old Testament
- -« differently introdnced in the tiro epistli

Peter may have i _

mM», as we have it, i
«m the author ■ '

in Aram^<^ and the
-iy be a translation.
name to be Simon

kboot his OKU death, recorded in John
19. Haay limiUr torms ol thoul^t and
diotien occur in bo^i epistles, with a chantc-
taristic leferMKe to the flood (L P«t. iiL 20 ; S
FM. iL B). Bach features <£ the eompoaitioti
•M vnsamption in favour of its being written
bj Peter. It wonld not have been easr in the
— eond century to have imposed on the (lurches
•B eiditla foi^ in Peter'* name. Then is

'-- " " — ''-'—tweenmai^ portion*

venea in the l^ef

Compare the fDUowing pMi-

U* e^stle
T of Jnd^

Probably the original eompontion i* Jnde's
which Peter "
ISee JcDE.)

PETRA-rwAjalso called SELA (Ib. ivL
J), and JOKTSEEL—Chd-tuidHtd (2 Ki
■iv. 7) — Uie capital of Idumea, and one of
Ote most remaHubla cities of the ancient
world. It was sitnated near the base of
■taunt Hor, about three days' journey from
Joridio, and the asme diitancs fnnD mount
Sinai. The monntiine in the midst of which
K In hidden rise up froni the eaitam border
of tM Anbab, the deep valley ertending

. _. . . . i and farther
aan all, lie long elevated rii^^ td Bmeston^
to the east of whidi sbetches the plateau of
Uw Great DcMrt. The hugbt of the porphyry

PET
cliffs above the Arabab is estimated at about
2^000 feet. The elevation of the Wady Muta,
above the same, is about 2,200 feet ; and the
limestone ridges foither bade may not be leaa
than 3,000 feet. The entire breadth of tiie
mountun range between the Arabah and the
Eastern Desert is about 20 or 29 miles. The
whole aspect of this region is lea barren than
the mountains in the west; and many tracts of
country embraced in it are so abundant in
fertility as to afford striking iUnitiation of the
fulfilment (d the promise made to Esau, " Be-
bci(L thydwellinf shall be the fatnen of the
earth, aodnf the dew of heaven from above."
It i* in the Wady Muss, in this mount Seir,
where the min* of ancient Petra are now seen.
The length of the valley in which the city liee
measura from nortii to south nearly a mile.
Its average breadth is about half a mile^ On
ttie east and west it is skirted bypredpitoas
rocks, rimng to the height of from 9)0 to 1,000
feet: but on the noiu and south they are
much lower, and afford, through ravines be-
tween them, two entrances to die city. The
an(uent and prineipal entrance, however, was
from the east, by the Wadv ea Stk. This is a
deep and narrow deSle of more than a mile
long, shut in on cdther side by lofty perpen-
dicular rocks, and coursed by a pretty rivulet
which runs westward through the dty. At
the entrance of the valley tbe cliffs are between
40 and 60 feet high, with a apace between

mouth of the valley, a splendid arch it thrown
across from one diS to another, below which
the width of the passage is not more than 12
feet, and the height of the adjacent rocks
measures nearly 300 feet. The bottom of this
passage was anciently paved with *qnare
stones, acme of which still remain ; and the
whole valley forms a wonderful scene of wild
and striking sablimity. Passing westward

rus{«d defile, the path opens into • bivader

valley running farther north, where all at oner,
'™ ■'ie western pradpioe, the apleodid fa^ada

trhoie (if tills I

ot the Khamrk hnni* on the riew. Thii

ftorgfiiia work of art is htnii nut of the fi
of the rock; imil with its noble Corinthian
piUare ami niaifnifii^'Dt entablature forms the

1 wonilerfiil anil btaiitifui object in the

jniiers. The interior
, is pUin and without

one hjfty r.Hm and

•everol Nnnll chMnlipni, rendering it pmbablo
that it wan uriijinally iotewlnl for a temple.

Iteycmd tliiis in • bend of Uic Wady which
tnniH to the nnith, in situated the theatre.
It ia cut mit ot the solid rock^ of a iMHni.'ireuliir
form, .ind ca|iable of cnntaininH- between ^t.OOO
and 4.t)IIO iwrwiiu. AJl amund its lofty walla
the cliff* are full of ton.hs; while in front, on
the onjHsitu nide of the ralle;, the eye rests nn
a, miittitiidB of larce sepulchres : so that, while
atju-tefor Uie frivolities of life wui indulged
by the "trauKe peoiile who dwelt hiTe ot old
— the inhabitanli of the rock— they were con-
■tantly admonislied of the solemn realities of
death. AdvanciuK to the north-east, the city
itwif opi-ns ttiUy to the view. It occupies an
area id the Wim of the mountains ol more

ably in extent hy tile numeruus brsnch valley*

■ OB aD mitm. Tk^

ivnlat. Not bi bvfc
centra of the nlle; an nm tbr nMixt
what appears to ban bean a triom^al vdt

under vhich are three paaana and a nrf"
□t pedestals and oohimna, ABUktoAc*^
of this staiida a aunptiKiw adiiob i^
"Pharaob'sHanie,''aniiiipanisniBatBMlI '
3lpac«**q(iarak NotfartotkcHtisBBi'''

PET PET

a scdituy coIhhuil eompoaod ol wvetal bMCt, uid ftbont 12 in width, oanUitiiiiR k niche
Mnd connected wiUi the fonnd^tian of • temple, little above tke floor, a* if intended for reoai'

•Dkttend aronod. Near to this, and indeed
r the whole area, other piles of mini,
inin% «Bd parti of cfdmnDa, intetmingleal
h Uocfa of hewn stone. He strewn on the

pnAiably {ai*ate babitatione ; apd their whole

sndent city, ae well aa the power exerted in
its entire overthrow. The most remarkable
rain, neittotbo Khoaneh, is the Deir. This

Slendid excavation is idtuate high up among
e topmost crags of the monntua, nflarly on
s level with the Bummit of mount Hor, and is
spproacbed by ■ narrow nigged ravine at the
west lidfl of the open vatlev- It is cut out of
the perpendicular face of the cliff, which flanlis
It cm both sides ; and thongb inferior to the
in chaatenea and symmetiy. it ii yet
HianooiBhingworkof andeutart ItsleilKth
McroM the front ia 162 feet, iU height bnng
aqnal to this measure ; and its lower ciJnmne,
a* they spring tirmi the wall, ai« abont 12 feet
ia ■emi-aiciuaference. There is within, one
•xoivatad chamber; and, like the Khasneh,
the Deir appears to have been need as a
tample when Edom liad its gods.

Tne most ramailiable spectacle, however, in
fins eztcaordinary spot are the numi:rDU8 ez-
•avatioos faewn out of the rock in front of the
•omnndlng monntaina. WheUier these were
foimed tor temples or huToan dwelling*, or, as
ia tnost piabable, for tombs of the dead, thc^
caniKrt bnt enrpriae every observer by their
number, and the incredib^ labour with which
titer moat have been constructed. Besides
aconpying the entin fiw« of the monntains by
whiob (hn city is eneampassed, ^ey cover the
i^ale frcot of the predintons rocks in the
lariBes irtiiah branch oat on every side. Tfaay
•M <Aen Been linng one above another on the
iUs of the snmnmding cliffs; and steps cut
•nt of the rode, now much worn by time, lead
JnaD directions to these mysterious receptacles,
■ome of which mn not less than 400 feat above
ti» vall^. Many i^ these ezcavatioDS consist
gfasingleohaiobercf 10 or 20 feet in height,

v uuj uuur, as u latenuin lor ream
re offering. Not a few of them a

hnmble unadorned holes in the rode, bnt a
vast number are eniiched with various orna-
mmts, designed according to the taste or
wealth of those who formed them. The whole
face of the mountain has thos the ap^ewmoa
of a splendid (rile of anhitectare, consisting of
graceful cohimns, well.deaigned pedimenta.
and rich entablatures, almost rivalluig in skill
the works of Grecian art

A most striking and almost magical effect is
given to theee wonderful excavations by the
great variety of colours in tbe sandstone rock
m which they are formed. Many of them are
thus adorned with the most lovely and brilliant
hues. Ked, purple, black, white, dtep aiore.
and bright yellow, are blended together

colouring— I

brilliant a

ning and brilliant

s observed ii

the

ene of beauty

with a glorious sunset. The splen-

of these works of art, with their taU
columns and graceful corridors glowing in the

beams of an Eastern sun, '

and grandeur to which n'_ ^

adequate justice, and on which every traveller of

amazement, and receives from it " impressiims
which will bo effaced only at death." For
more than 1,000 years this city remained un-
known and unvisited, till Burckhardt dis-
covered it in IHIi It was afterwards visited,
with some difficulty, by Messrs. Lcgh, Bankes,
Captains Irby and Mangles as well as by M.
Linant and M. Laborde, from whose magni-
ficent work the cuts illustrating this article are
taken. Robinson, Olin, Stephens, Lord Lind-
say Wilson Kinnear, Kobcrls, SUnley, Finn,
andhoeta of other travellers, have also visited
this remarkable place— one of the strangest
and grandest spectacles of the East.

Such now is the once renowned Sela, the
city nf the rook. Petra appears to have been
coev^ with the first rise of commerce in the
East ; and there is reason to conclude that it
was a flourishing emporinm of merchandise
long before the dawn of the Christian era. It

PET

was then the oammon centre to which the
traffic of northern Arabia tended, and the
common storehoiiHe of the commooitiee and
liixuries of the KoKtem world. It came into
the liandH of the Komans during the reign of
the eiiii>en.>r Trajan, and about the fifth cen-
tury it v'os the metn)politan see of the third
Palefltine ; but with the decline and fall of the
]{<iman empire in tliefte regions, Petra Buddcoly
vaninheit from the f>age8 of hintory. After thle
Mohammedan confluent, and before the period
of tlie Cnuadcfl, ltd very name disappMrs
from the annuLt of nations. Yet no historian
has left a word on record to inform future
generations how or when perished the powerful
capital of the ancient Idumea.

The condition of Petra fumiflhes a remark-
able fidfilment of Scri{)ture prophecy. The
preilictions fori'telling its downfall, and the
utt(>r desolation of the land of which it was the
ca]>ita1, are n>corded in numerous |)arts of the
InhiIc of (j(xl (Iml xxxiv. 5-15; Jer. xliz. 7-10,
15-1 H ; Ezek. xxxv. ; Jot;! iii. 19 ; Amos L 11, 12 ;
Obacl Z-U\; Mai. i. 3. 4). These predictions,
let it be olMer^'inl, were delivered by different
prophets at different times, when as yet the
power of Edoni was in all its glory, and there
ap]>eared no sign of its overthrow. Tliey are
moKt distinct and varied. They exhibit no
mark of lx>ing shrewd guesses in the present,
and leave no iiu>anA of (^acuin', thr«>ngh a dubious
fiensi>, HhoiiLl tliey not be fulfilled in the future.
They present, nmretiver, the cause of the
ju<lgincnt» al)«Mit to l>e inflicted on Edom,
which is fully vrrifird in their history (Kzek.
xxxv. 3, ft). There has been a ctmipletc
fulHhnent of the prophecies against Kdom.
without desreiuling t'* thos«; minute and literal
det;iilH to which ho niuoli iiniHirtanee has l>een
attiiohod by several i)iourt writrn*, as if there
were not a plant or an animal mentioned in
the hi;;]ily ti^ir:itiv«> description of the desola-
tion of the hind tliat must not l>o found in or
near its <K'srrt('d cnnitil. It is said, for
example, that *'none Huall pass through it for
ever and ever" (Iwi. xxxiv. 10). Some inter-
preters tiK»k these wonLs in a literal sense, an<l
thought their opinion TmJVi'*!, lK*cause several
travellers had i>eriKlu'd in the attempt to ex-
plore it, or haa not survived till tlieir return
to their own countr\'. l^ut it was a flourishing
place in Itonian times, and many^ are going
** tlinnigh it " every year in n'cent times. The
meaning of the <'l:iut)c then is, that t<^ the race
of Esau it would cease, under Divine curse,
to \)i} a great commercial tliorouglifaro ; and
1>eyond this the oracio primarily does not
exti'ntl. 'ITio ]^r<^j>heeies present the people
trusting in the fortress of their strength and
in tlieir confederacy with other nations ftir the
I»ermanenct« of tlieir jwwer; and they exhibit
the i>ower of Omnipotence as about to Liv hold
on tne sinful and self-confident nation for its
utter destniction.

The coinci<lence between the foreshowing of
prophecy and tlie testimcmy of facts is strik-
ing. 'J*he pniiihet descriljes the destruction of
the cities of Idumea, Jer. xlix. 7, 8, la The
51b

fcrtikal

Mming mmaaawm of
the depopnlfttioii of a

ing with inhabttaat^

prophet*, Jer. adix. 17, 18; .,-.

^* The whole pUin^^Hm BonUiaidt^ncric^
of a portion of EdoBB, ^ pnMBfeed to thrfOT

an expMiM of ^ ,

waa broken by iimaiiMrBbfe mdnhtiaH irf
Whilk. . . . It might with trnth be ciU
Petrsa, not only en aooomnt of iti ta±f
moontaiiu, but abo of the elewafeBd ^
already dewaibed, whicli '

with stones, especially ffints, that it mot vih
great propnetv be called a itoif dM ittbaadk
susceptible of cnltnre. In many paem it w
overgrown with wild herfaa^ and flnrt m»
have been thickly inhabited, te tibs tnoH d
many towns and viUagea are met with «a M
sides of the Hadj road, between Msm ai
Akaba, m which direction aie abo am
springs. At present all Miteoaalnr if iwr

Thn^ wherever the obeervcr loob m tb
desolations of Bdom aiad the nmn of Pitoa
he sees not only aignal pcvMib of part kma
gre^ess. but inoonteatible evidowe of At
truth of the Bible. Thooaands of jean bn
elapsed since the propbctB of God fiist bmdl
the certain overthrow of the then powsU
kingdom of Idamea; but their wndsipifcB
of old are this day strikingly fulfilled

PHARAOH (GenTnL 15>-an Egn^
word, «»m, sigiufying nm, which, fnn *
hieroglnihical use, bewne eqmvakot to lift
adopted mto the Hebrew, and applied to apl
or ten different persona mentioneain tiieKUi
as kings of Egypt (Gen. ziL 17; miz. 1;
Exod. u 8, 11; 1 KL iii 1; zL 19*21; SC
xxiiL 29; Jer. xUv. 30). (See EoTPT.)

About the earlier Pharaohs of Scriptne *
know nothing— such aa the Pharaoh of A3»
ham*s period. He may have been one of tb
fifteenth or shepherd dynasty. Salitii^ tb
Pharaoh of Joseph's time, may have bMBO*
of the same dynasty. At all events, shfftib
period of the seventeenth dynasty are msiSIf
and rightly placed the Hyksoe, or ■bephn
kings. This clan of warriors appcan m Ar
I)age of history like a dark and myftoioM
cloud, that thunders and soon disappeanL S^
have doubted their existence alto^edicr; ^
others, like Josephus, have supposed thsttbr
represent only the captive Jews in tgfi^
Sir Gardner Wilkinson once held thiiofiaHii
but ampler evidence has compelled wB *
abandon it as untenable. The Jewish Urtooa
strives hard to identify the " pastors" v^'i'
own national ancestey. There are some M"
urcs of resemblance, it is tme, but thoe 0
also many points of stroncr diosiiiiilarity. ^
we learn from JosephusTin his book MflU^
Apion, Manetho says that '*the erapCMB^
the Hyksos into Egypt took place midtf*
kiiig named Timaeus, that they came £raB^
east, that they bmnt the cities, denoli^
the temples, and committed terriMe nvagv*
the country. Their warlike c^ef," he a^
" lived at Memphis, and laid the wbob ttfi-
toiy under heavy tribute. Long and fri*

PHA

an were carried on between the danntlees
traders and the native E^sr^tians, till at
Dgth the kings of the Thebais mustered a
■ave and numerous force, and expelled them.
I their ignoble flight they entcnred Judea on
aving Egypt, and built the city of JerusalenL**
; mav be that this last statement was held by
Mephus as fully corroborative of his views.
ct it affords no argument in favour of his
leory, that the expulsion c^ the Hyksos and
le exodus of the Jews are the same event ; for
t« Jews did not, as is afiKrmed of the Hyksos,
did Jerusalem, nor even did the^ capture its
tadel till long after their flight from Egypt;
hereas the Pali, or Hyksos, on taking posses-
Mi of the countnr, may have erected its earlier
rtifications, and afterwards retired more to
a seaboard, where they were known in sub-
quent periods as the I^hilistines. Manetho's
oonnt of the expulsion of the Jews is indeed
ized with fable. It was an humbling epoch
a Pharaoh*s vanity, and the actual circum-
inces may have been disguised in the national
cords. The Egyptian priest speaks of the
iles aa impure and leprous — a statement not
be altogether impugned. From the minute
d repeated statutes of Moses concerning
pnrosy, its colour, treatment, and contanous
ralence, it would seem that this frightful
ilady was endemic — was, in truth, the scoui^e

the Hebrew tribes. It is plain, on the
tier hand, that the Jews, when they were in
jypt, never held any rule — were imable to
nqoer for themselves any portion of the
untry, or take up arms against their op-
essors, but were for a long period in toe
QBt revolting and helpless vassalage. The
rant Pharaon was a new king that knew not
laeph. Elnowing that the Hebrews had
joved special favours from bis Hyksos
rals, he was naturaUv jealous of their grow-
g numbers ; and as tne^ were located toward
e north-eastern frontier, he was afraid of
eir forming an alliance with the shepherd
ibes which had been so recently expelled.
le motives of his x>olicy are clearly stated.
He said unto his people. Behold, the people
tiie children of Israel are more and mightier
an we: come on. let us deal wisely with
em ; lest they multiply, and it come to pass,
ttt, when there falleth out anv war, they
in also imto our enemies, and nght against

and so get them up out of the land " (Exod.
9, 10). The opinion of Pharaoh, was, that if
e Hyksos should return and threaten Egypt
th an invasion, the Hebrews, who had Been
much indebted to them, would make com-
m cause with them against the native popu-
aon. Therefore the restored Pharaoh and
I ^vemment oppressed them. " They made
eur lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar,
d in brick, and in all manner of service in
B field : all their service, wherein they made
sm serve, was with rigour" (Exod. i. 14).
16 biblical history is thus satisfactorily ex-
lined by a reference to the usurpation and
al overthrow of these msrsterious Hyksos.
It has been often asserted that some

PHA

monuments of Israelitish slavery still remain
in E^Tpt. At Thebes there exists a mural
painting which Bosellini describes as a picture
representixuD' the Hebrews engaged in brick-
making. The whole process is carefully de-
picted^-carrying day, kneading it with straw,
moulding, drying the bricks, and finally ton-
veying away such as were finished and fit for
use. Two Egyptians stand over the workers,
each with the rod of a "taskmaster.** The
tomb of Roschdre contains this pictorial scene :
and he seems to have been a crown officer ox
high rank placed over the national works.
The position of the pamtinff does not hinder
us from identifying it with the Hebrew bond-
age, for the Hebrew slaves were scattered over
the country, "throughout all the land of
^gy]^t ** (Exod. V. 12). Though their first home
was m Goshen, Under tiie Hyksos, they maj
have been dispersed over the kingdom by their
oppressors of the native dynasty. That the
slaves in these pictures are Asiatics or Syrians
there is no manner of doubt, though to decide
their nationality with dogmatic certainty would
indeed be presumptuous. All we can affirm
is, that the scene on the tomb of Boechdre
represents men with a Syrian countenance
engaged in hard bondage ; and we know that
the Hebrews laboured in similar drudgery.
The children of Israel, as national bondsmen,
may be there depicted, for we seem to see
somewhat of .the Hebrew physio^omy in
the painted labourers — a yellow skm and an
aquiline nose. It is a trite objection to
tms view, that the slaves do not aU wear
beards; for they might either voluntarily or
from compulsion have adopted the custom of
the counib^, and shaved themselves. The
representation, however, is true to the life, and
forms a vivid illustration of the statements in
the book of Exodus.^

Nor can it be distinctly ascertained who the
Pharaoh was at the exodus— probably a king
of the eighteenth dynasty— some say Tiiothmes
IIL Otner Pharaohs are mentioned in Scrip-
ture—one, a father-in-law of Merod of the
tribe of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 18); a Pharaoh
brother-in-law of Hadad the Edomite (1 KL xi
18) ; a Pharaoh who fought with Sennacherib,
called Sethos by Herodotus. (See Necho,
Nineveh, So, Tirhakah.) Of the daughters
of Pharaoh three are mentioned — the one who
saved Moses; Bithrah, wife of Merod (see
above) : and the princess, wife of Solomon.

PHARAOH-HOPHRAH, against whom
several of Ezekiers prophecies are uttered
(Ezek. xxix. xxxiL), and with whom Zedekiah
termed an alliance against Nebuchadnezzar,
king of Babylon, reigned over Egypt twenty-
five years. The prophecv against him (Jer.
xliv. 30) was literally fulfilled. He was un-
fortunate in an expedition against G^ne, and
his army was discontented. Amasis, one of
his generals, was sent to suppress a rebellion
which had broken out; but, instead of submit-
ting to his expostulations, the army made him
king, and he marched at their head against
Pharaoh, and finally took him prisoner. Am-

m

■■!■ WM iHiImmmI III Mill lilnn botlfaeMtt
mUWt foRwd th« onlwppr Bonvdi f

PHABEZ (£2. L Sl^firia mb i
&ral^ of JwUi. by Ui daoBUvJaJ-^,
nour. Aft« Um dUh ol Er aad ChM,
FhuwIwaMiMHtkeflnt-bim. Hiapoitari^
WM vaoKrom; bMwa tka wiih^' And M tl^
bcnn ba lika tk« boam «( nan^ r*- —
Tftmar Imm mto Jvdak" (Kuth It. U}.

PHARiaEEB mpantUt (Uatt. niB. 98}
-^lamini* Met «Uc)i «om antMiK tha Jmra
■flar tbdr raton bom tbor looc cutivi^ in
Bat^rloB. ndr hmm ii d«ivad horn »
Eabtcnr wnd wUcti ■gniflw lo MfanU! Imt

Piid«

Uatorr of thdr origin is bnriad inobniiri^.

it MM bTpoeiur w«n thdi

eunctoutiai, Thn >S«etad
Mwetitjr. tnd aboimdM In litai of punmBou,
wUoh tner nearei on tlie tmtbori^ of (m-
dittoB (HAL Iz. Ill; but in nuBT omw ttwy

) thdr pra

_M of tba , __

M lUns of hut, and knrkn, aad [oidi.

nuT wan repTDTed bj' our 8«*iatu', pw-
HonlariT for satentataon in Uiev pinwi and
■fan* (Matt, vL ^ 6); for piida In dtM^
MintatloM, titl««, broad pbriacteiio^ aad
taking the U^wrt aaatt atleaata andfa the
•nuwoguca (Matt xxiiL M6). OBaoowmtof
lui Mtaction of their hypooriay, aad hia opts
dnitiBci«tio& of their ccimca, they beoune
afamost imimnall* the Utter encanita of Chriit
Tbdr theolosical o[anione wore more oorreot
than thoM oT t)ie Sadducm : al the^ belivtcd
in the reramctitin of the body, and u a fatore
•Uta of ren'ards and pnnlatimenti, aa a'

the eiklencs of angela and apiriU (Acti

6). Though the tcct wu violent againit
Clirut, yet many of it« ailhcrrato were among
the early convertn. They an thiu deKnbed
by JoaaphTu -■ —

"Now, for the Pharieeei, they Ere mfanly,
and deapue dolicacice in diet, and they foUmr
the contract of reuoo ; and wliat that pre-
acribea to them as good for iJicni, they do;
and they thick th^ ought eamntly to atriva
to oboorve i¥(iaon's dictate! for practice- Hiey
alao pay a ronect to tuch as are in yean ; nor
are tbey an bold aa to contradict them in any-
thing which they have introduced ; and whm
they determine that all thinga are done by
fate, they do not take away the freedmn from
meD of Bctini; aa they think fit; nDCe their

" n is, that it hath pleased Uod to make a

nnaly. They also behave that a. _
n immortal vigour in them, and thi
'' e earth there will be rewaids i

paniahments, accnnling ae they have lived
Tirtuonily or vidnusly in thii life ; and the
■•-"-- are to be detuned in an everlaeting
1^ bat that the fonner ahall have power
ive and hvs again ; on account of wliich

Jnea they are able gntHy to pmniade the

body of the peojde, and wbataoarer tfaer do
4b(mt divine wonhip, pn^ata, and aacriBoaa,

„ ., oiad in Il«r. ilL 1
overeometh will I uako « ».ni«
otmyOod.- *^

have l>een a rendent a
Chriatdan of aoma diatiBClioa, Wl
ably oonvetted under FaoTa inK
"1).

Pbilehoh, knsTLi ml waa wl
from Kome, in 6t, paihua, wt
detained aa a priaiauK Oaaaa
of Philemon, hwl Bad to that ti
there converted to the hiA (f
Paol had begottan hin In hii be

PHI

0 return to Philemon, Panl wrote this
chiefly with a design to conciliate the

1 of Philemon towards hiapenitent
, and now fellow-disciple. The slave
ve apprehended the innction of such a
as in slave countries is usually inflicted
ways. Paul sent him back, not because
on mi^ht claim him, but to diow the

position in which Christianity had
lum. The apostle pleads forhisreoep-
oujzfa he mignt have enjoined it— pleads
3 old age and his sufferings, the personal
lip of Philemon and his instrumen-
a his conversion, while he held himself
or any debt which Onesimus might be
is master. An eminent critic of ancient
jrs of the epistle, "The apoetle craves
in behalf of a fugitive and pilfering
'hom he sends back to his master ; but
leading his cause, he discourses with so
eight respecting the rules of Christian
8, that he seems to be consulting for
)le Church, rather than manacnn^ the
} of a particular individual He mter-
)r the humble man so modestly and
ively as to show, more clearly than
an^here else, the gentleness of his
which is here mrawn to the life.** (See
as.)

liETUS. (See Htmenjbus.)
LiIP— 1. THE Apostle (John i 43)—
itive of Bethsaida, and a firm believer
Messiahship of Christ (John L 46).
afterwards called to be an apostle ; and
:ated not when he heard the mvine
)n, "Follow me." He is referred to in
nrd of the miracle of the loaves and
Our Lord said to him, " Whence shall
bread, that these may eat?** Philip
natural reply— for he was guided by
;her than faith — "Two hundred penny-
f bread is not sufficient for them, that
le of them may take a little *' (Jonn vL
seems to have been of a retired dis-
; for when the Greeks applied to him
J request, " Sir, we would see Jesus,"
not venture himself to make their
^on known to Christ, but "oometh and
Lndrew : and again Andrew and Philip
us" (John xiL 22). Still under the
) of sensuous notions, we find him again
iv. 8) sajing to his Master, " Lord,
the Father, and it sufficeth us." His
d not attained to purely spiritual con-
of the Godhead. Tradition says, that
3 ascension he preached in Phrygia,
he was put to death in Hierapolis.
tuP, THE Evangelist (Acts xxi. 8j—
le seven persons appointed to the office
1 in the primitive church in Jerusalem
• 3-5), and who afterwards went to
, and there preached the Gospel with
ccess (Acts viiL 6-8), ^ While in Sak-
Philip received a divine intimation
Lets viii. 26, 29, and 39) to go souUi-
>m Samaria, to the roaa leading from
m to Gaza. In the course of this
he found a distinguished Ethiopian

PHI

traveller on his way home from Jerusalem.
He was probably either a Jew or a proselyte
to the Jewish religion ; and had been to the
city of their solemnities to celebrate some
feast He was an officer of high rank in the
court of Candace, ^ueen of Ethiopia : and as
he was sitting in his chariot, in the leisurely
pursuit of his journey, he resA aloud, or was
chanting| a portion ot the Jewish Scriptures.
At this tu:ie i^hilip saw him, and was divinely
admonished to approadi him. Philip, without
hesifcation, obeyea the suggestion, and ran to
overtake the chariot He overhead him read-
ing Isa. liii 7, 8, and immediately inquired of
him if he understood the force and scope of
the passage. The traveller meekly acknow-
led^^ his need of instruction, and invited
Philip to take a seat with him in the chariot
The latter improved the opportunity to ex-
plain the great subject of redemption, to which
the passage so naturally led; and the result
was, that the traveller oecame a convert to
the faith of the G^ospel, and was baptized.
Philip, under divine impulse, was immediately,
separated from the oonvert, who pursued his
journey towards Egypt, while he himself pro-
ceeded to Azotus, about 40 miles from Gasa,
in the opposite direction. He afterwards
settied, it is supposed, in Cesarea. and Paul
went to his house (Acts xxi 8). He had four
daughters, who, being endued with gifts of

Erophecy, were inspired to communicate the
igher lessons of Christianity (Acts xxi. 9).

3. Philip, the Tetrabch (Luke iiL 1). (See
Herod.)

4. Philip, the husband of Hbrodlas
(Matt xiv. 3). (See Hebod.)

PHILIPPI (Acts xvi 12)-a city of Mace-
donia, formerly called Dathos, and Krenides,
or the Springs ; but being rebuilt and greatiy
enlarged by Philip, father of Alexander tiie
Great, it took from him the name of PhilippL
It is at the head of the Egean Sea, 12 mites
north-west of Neapolis. Its modem name is
Filiba. It lay on the great plain between
Haemus and Pangaeus, and was upon the great
road from Rome to Asia — ^the Via Egnatia, It
was a place of mat celebrity in inx>f ane his-
tory, and is called '* the chief or first dtyof
that part of Macedonia, and a colony." The
latter expression denotes that it enjoyed the
privile^of a Roman colony — a fact established
b^ ancient medals ; and the former may mean
either that Philippi was the first city they
arrived at in that part of Macedonia, or that
it was the chief city of that district of the
country. About A. D. 52 a church was gathered
in Philippi by Paul and Silas, the former of
whom addressed to them the aJffectionate and
grateful letter called the EpisUe to the
Philippians. This was the first apostolio
labour on £urox>ean ^und.

At Philippi Lydia was converted under
Paul's preaching (Acts xvi. 14, 15), and hospi-
tably entertained the aposties at her house.
The populace became excited against them,
however, and they suffered scourging and
imprisonment in tne most cruel form. By

621

PHI

miraculuQS power the nriflon doon were all
oiK-ned at midnight, and the bands of the priip
oncn were all looied, though none escaped.
The jailer, fcarini; that the prisoners liad
escaped, and knowing that death might be the
penalty for his seemin|^ neglect (Acts xvL 27),
was aiMiut to commit suicide. At Paul's
entreaty he desisted, and immediately applied
to tiic aixnttles to teach him the way of saly»-
tion. This they did, and their teaoiinff beinff
made efifectual by the S[nrit of God, ne and
all his were immediately baptised (Acts xvi
25^). At the solicitation ol the magistrates
tliey soon after left the city. But the apostle
visited Philippi i>robably three times, in a. ix
57 anil 5H.

PHILIPPIAXS, EPiRTLETOyistheeleyenth
in the order of the IxNiks of the ^i ew Testament,
and was atldrcssed by Paul to the Christians
at Pliili])i>i. It was probably written about
A. D. C2, when Paul was a iiriKoner at Rome
(PhiL iv. 22). llie Philippians had kindly
miniHtcred to his necefwitics, by sending Epa-

Ehroditns to him with the truits of their
enevolence (PhiL iv. 18). On his return to
Philippi, Paul acknowledged their kindness in
grateful and affecting terms, and mingled with
nis thanks some of the most sublime and ani«
mating exliibitions of divine truth that are to
be fdund in the sacred pages.

In the firt>t chapter he commends them to
G(hI, and HX^aks of his own condition, not in
dcs)Kmdency, but witli humble assurance^ as
having furthered the Gos|>eL Uis own piety
ex[>reK«eii its* blissful Rpint and hope— For
me to live is Christ, to die is gain. He ex-
horts thnn in the second chapter to unity and
lowliness of mind, tt> ditiinterertted friendship
and geilontsity; and thiii cl:u>8 of Christian
graccH he eiifurces by a beautiful reference to
the condeHceUhiou and death of the Son of God.
(Sec FoKM.) Then he bids them be active in
tlie work of their wdvation- not only holding
fast, but holding ft»rth the wonl of life. He
promiM^H to send ICiKiphnKlitus to them, and

itronounces on him a higli and merited eulogy,
n the third chaj*ter his B]»irit warms, and he
cautions them n^'ainst Judaizing teachers,
recounts his own grounds of religious trust
I)rior to his mnvernion^ declares how futile
tliey were, an<l how futile he regarded them,
s]Msiks of his earnest aspirations after a higher
confoniiity ti Chri»<t, and concludes with a
glowing do!f<cription of Christian blessing as it
affects even that vile ImxIv which the Lord
shall change Jind fashion like unto his own
glorious humanity. In the fourth chai>ter the
aiM>stle commends some Christian friends to
their notice, exhorts them to the possession of
characteristic Christian virtues, makes mention^
with gratitude, of their timely lilx'rality, ond
sends them s]dutati(»ns from his more intimate
bretliren, fnun the entire church in Kome, and
especially fnmi such of them as held a T)laco in
Cuesar's household. The church luid Iwen in
trial, and was still expose<l to danger. The
style of the e]>ist]o is marked by cheerful
animation and enlivening energy. The Philip- 1

piaa olmrcli is oouared Ib m lenetL b
■tood }Mi in Ptel'b trftifntrm

PHILISTIA, PHXLISTENES. IUMb
was a loDflrstretclL of n»-lxMvd. nadia
Egypt to Phcenici^ and ^riBg uag tht (
■hore of the MemtamnaaiL uIbh
Jndah Uy to the eMt of it ; and it «M idilrf
to them geoMnmhically Mxmewluit fiks Fortspl
to Spain. The northeni poctioii ofthatn-
torT. from Jonpa to Aahkelon, faadbaoianoltf
to Dan ; and the aoothem poctioB bid ka
aniped to Jndah: bat Phflistia HOtaM
an mdependent ezuteBcei The coimtay m
signally prodnctive, — ** laaae wwed it M
land, and reoeiTed in the nma year aa knM*
fold^ (Gen. zxtL 12) ^— "beantifiilbiitM»
tonoos; wheat, wheat,* very ooanoCiAaft.>*
exdaima a modem travencr (TloaMaJbrf
and Book^ pu 656). Garayana paHedtfao^lk
it between ^3rpt and the nerth; Grnai
AihkeUin had excellent haifaom; nd a»
meroe aognoented ita wealth. Tbe FUEite
are stigmatiaed by Amoa aa dava4nteAi
temptation of freebooten and BUHfaMn(AM
L 6). And they are denoonoed by Jod, rial
with the Pfaoemciana. for the hbm criav
"The children also of Judah andthsefeflte
of Jerusalem have ye aold mifco the Gndv^
that ye might remove them lar ham M
border** (Joel iii 6).

The Hebrew name of the counifT ii f^
sheth, and it U rendered '* Philistia*' k H
lx.8; IxxxyiL 4; cviii. 9;aiid "Philktina'h
Ps.lxxziiL7. BatitiatranaIated"Fkkitii%'
Ezod. xy. 14 ; Isa. xiv. 29^1 ; and **F^t^'
in Joel iiL 4. Yet in all these places the val
has the same territorial meaning—tlM ttam
proper of the Philistinea ; for in some of taa
it IS mentioned along: with CanaaD. cr ■
addition to it, and in others it is dastedsas^
countries hostile to Israel as settled in CaaiA
But the name Philistia — Palestine. gt^iiiBJf
became at a later period the title of w «ha
territory. Strabo speaks of Syrian Frieakat;
and Josephus uses Palestine both in iti pa
vincial and in its larser signification. Is ih
same way Canaan, in&ch meant origiul^tti
narrow I*hoenician kingdom, came to bt a
early name of the entire country.

Tne derivation of the name Phihstiseka
been contested. Some would otAOitd }
vriih. Pdatgu wanderers ; and other theaii
are no less fandfuL In the SeptuagiBfe th
people are called t^vXiimtiu^ PhilisteanB.!!^
Pentateuch^ but in the other bocAa tbef ■>
called iiWo^vXoi^ foreign tribes; and 90f
regard Philistine as a transposition ol *■
compound word. Tribes which had sttW
among other races are called by this Ga^
term, as the regiments of HannibaL v^
located in Gaul and Italy, by- the hiitea*
Polybius ; and the mixed population of G^
is described by the same appellation in 1 ^b*

The origin of the PhiUstines b hidds^
obscurity, though there seem to be mysitn^
allusions to it m Scripture. That tbey I*
been settled for a considerable period ii th^

iyzi

PHI

tiy IB evident from this, tliat the ooontiy
tnmelech ie in the days of Abraham callea
i land of the PhiliBtines ;" and " the sea of
Philistines** is also mentioned in a deecrip-
of the bonndaries of the promided land m
L zxiii 31. Others, sucn as Kitto, on the
9ri1^ of Manetho and Herodotus, regard
I as Deing the same with the Hyksos or Pali,
le leader was called Philitis, or shepherd,
that in Egypt they gave a name first to
nam, town of the Philistines, and then,
their expulsion, to Palestina or Palestine,
Mid of their adoption. But if the Philis-
were in their new country in Abraham's
, their rule in Egypt, and tneir banishment
e Hyksos, must be greatly earlier than the
d assigned to it by Manetho. The
berd dynasty usurped uieEgsrptian throne
long axter Abraham's visit to Egypt, and
A uierefore not xx)ssible for them to be
hilistia as a settled nation at the epoch
led in Scripture. Nay, their land is gifted
nrael by promise, alonf with that of the
r tribes which formed the population
knaan. It is said in Jer. xlvii. 4, "The
. will spoil the Philistines, the remnant of
xnmtry of Caphtor.** And Jehovah, by
nrophecy of Ajnos, asks, '* Are ye not as
ren of the Ethiopians unto me, O children
rael? saith the Lord. Have not I brought
nrael out of the land of Egypt ? and the
stines from Caphtor, and the Syrians from
" ^Amos iz. 7. ) The close connection of the
stines with Caphtor is indicated in these
8 ; na^, they seem to be called the Caphtor
mt. ii. 23, — '*The Avims which dwelt in
aim, even unto Azzah. the Caphtorims.
h came forth out of Cfaphtor, destro^rea
^ and dwelt in their stead.'* Azzah, which
ly another spelling of Gaza, shows us that
atia is meant, and the assertion is, that
dispossessed an earlier population, the
18, which dwelt in villages ; for Hazerim is
roper name, but means unwalled clusters
uses. The Avites, if not wholly dispos-
dy were forced to the edge of the desert ;
' the Avites from the south ** are spoken
. connection with the five lords of the
stines. The question recurs. What is
itor, and who are the Caphtorim? for the
stines were brought out of Caphtor,
they are the remnant of the country of
itor. The Targum, with the Syriao and
ate versions, take Caphtor to mean Cappa-
^ others suppose it to be Cyprus, and not
r regard it as the island of Crete. Now,
I was a tribe of Cherethites in Philistia
m. XXX. 14), and these may have come from
», though it may be rash to suppose them
sune with the lifeguards of David, or to
ose that Cherethites and Pelethites means
ma and Philistines; for the terms, as
oius supposes, may mean '* executioners
xrariers.' But the Caphtorim proper are
imeval race; for we resA in Gen. x. 14,
d Pathrusim, and Casluhim (out of whom
FhQistim), and Caphtorim.*' TheEgyp-
Daaluhim are the origin, either in race or

pm

country, of the Philistines, and the Casluhim
are bretnren of the Caphtorim. The Philistines,
whether H^ksos-Pah or not, were therefore ol
Hamite or Egyptian origin, who had migrated
voluntarily, or who, on oemg driven out» had
formed a new settlement in the maritime low
country of Canaan. Yet there seems to be
some connection with Crete also on their part ;
for on a tablet of Kameses III. at Medinet
Habou there is pictured a naval battle with
the Sharutana. apparently named also the
Pulusatu — pernaps Cretan or Cherethite
islanders — while another bodv of Cherethites
forms a part of the Egyptian forces. Caphtor.
after all, may be only another form of tne old
name Copt, Eg3rpt, AKinrrov, or Kebthor;
for .^EWpt means the isle or coast of Caphtor
— the Nile being occasionally ctJled a sea.
The Philistines mav therefore be regarded as
a colony from Caphtor, expelled, it may be,
durine some of those mjrstenous movements of
the Hyksos ; and a portion of tiie wanderers
may have found their way to Crete^ as well as
to the fertile plains of the five cities.

The Philistines are characterized by the
possession of five towns which formed a kind
of confederacy, thus named in Josh. xiii. 3 —
**five lords of the Philistines; the Gazathites,
and the Ashdothites, the Eahkalonites, the
Gittites, and the Ekronites; also the Avitca.**
In enumerating the cities of this PontapoUs,
Gaza commonlv stands first, and Ekron last.
The "five lords *'^ are often referred to in
the historical notices occurring in the books
of SamueL

The Philistines are first noticed in Scripture
in the davs of Abraham, when they seem to
have had Gerar for tneir capital, and an
Abimelech for their sovereign. By the time
of the exodus they were known to be a fierce
and warlike race ; and the Hebrew tribes were
not led into Canaan through their country,
though it was the nearest way— the reason
assigned being, "lest i>eradventure the people
repent when they see war." Joshua made no
systematic attempt to dispossess them, though
some suppose that three of the chief towns
had been captured and held also for a brief
season^ but it is expressly stated that the
PhiUstmes were not conquered, but were " left
to prove IsraeL" So that in subsequent times
the Philistines and Israelites were often at
war; and that warfare was frequent in the
unsettled period of the Judges (Judg. iii 31:
X. 1; xiii. 1). Samson was at lenrai raised
up as the Israelitish champion ; but he was left
to do individual and spasmodic feats of heroism.
The nation was so sunk in soul that it could
not be incited to concerted effort; na]^« 3,000
of them taunted the grim soldier with the
challenge, " Knowest not thou that the Philis-
tines are rulers over us?" and would, in their
cowardice, have delivered him into the hand
of their enemies. Roused into desperation, the
Israelites at length gathered their forces at
Aphek, but were defeated, and the ark, which
was afterwards carried out to the field of batUe
as a superstitious charm, was taken and carried

523

to tne Vhilutine*, to iih>rpni eraty nuo hii ] and di

■iun, and hii coulter, uid hii ax, and tiii I will eienta (iMt *M

mtttock. Yetthsjiliwl&filpfwtliamatkiclci, with fnrian* (afaobi: Hd

and for tho coult«n, and fur the forks, and for that I am tha Lord, «MB '

the UH. and to ahan'rn the jtoaila. So it geanoe npo* than" flbli

cunetn iian in the day of battle, that there airiiilinanwMwaB M""

: npitlicr iwnrd nor tjiear toimd in the had bUm tha, P«ain

»». and to ^an'rn the jtoaila. So it geanoe npo* than" flbk.
Q the day of battle, that Uure airiiil manwM waa MUbd

..-_ - n-ord nor tjiear toniid in the had blbn tha,

hand of any ol the people that were withlUa, aa thaj n

Saul and Jonathan: tint with Saul and with eontinMdtolH)ldGaa;iad
there found " (1 Sum. | ^er a fin nontiia' Apu

. 17-32). One can acarcely picture the mboie*. Antiodm'

,__.! , ..-.:__ . ■-'*-' "--d not and the Maoo■^ —

I, and fmioQi ""■'*"[;*■

liiL 17-22). One can acarcely picture
mtlancholy condition of a people that had
the heart to xtrike a blow lor freedom,

who, though thi-y had plucked up a i

u-j^... !.i — Vcn to atrute I towna

lurace, had not a wespun with wMcik to ibike towna and *»"pT» Tht
. Ills PMIixtincs were ultimately beaten; arnia at Imgthniiata tha oo

and David, tliiiu>;h h .

tvred and slain liolinth, took refuge a

Need we wonder to read 1 Bam. | Mipear M iodom
vmr neigUwoiB

r. 02. At laitth came the fatal Geld <rf th& neigUwon hy thiir

tiilboa, when Saul frll, and hia anny waa [ onalal^ita.

acattered in imnic and confuninn. atnagfy fortifitd, fatftvi

At the conimenceniuQt of David'a reign they [ long and tenihle digaai - i
ehowed a bold front against him, but tlu great hava Bad* tone pwyew i
warriiiragain and BKSin defeated them (3Sam. ahowB in tha daaoiiptaon d
T. 17-25; Tiii. 1; III l.-i-?^; ixiL 8-17); and 1 B- ^' * *-■-—■

they were aUo quiet during the reign cf vd

Solomon. Occami mally af tvrwardi we hear of bom tha ■

them wftrinu war in the old spirit, aa in the r —

rfij,'nof>atlah, 1 Ki. »v. 27; and again, IKL L.,

XVI. IS, 17. Ilie i'hilistinea paid tribnte to and perii^M thmr iaflidb
Jehoehnphat (2 Chr. xviL 11); but in the tbdr priaoiMn (Jvdf. xir.
reign of .Tehoram, hia iim, they orenran the j tinea were iiiwiin liniilwl
country al»»g with the Arabians^ committed Daoco, 0Tthaflih-«d,lN)i|
frightful depn-dationi, and earned off the wiuh tMoriea Bt AiMod am
r<>yal family and harem (2 (^hr. xxL 10, 17). waa fannil at Eknn; BDd

jniit (he Dagoa,

were carried witii tbd

pm

BI9 and when they were smarting

Be judffment, ''They called for

and the diirinerB, aaying, What

o to the aiic of the Lord? tell us

we shall send it to his place" (1
. The prophet Isaiah reproves his
e as being "soothsayers, like the
**(clLii6).^ The practice had there-
2 diaracteristic and proverbiaL The
£ the Philistines, u we may judge
B, was originally of the same class as
old Phoenician, or a peculiar dialect
he speech of Ashdod " differed from

language" in the days of Nehemiah
24). ^ee Ashdod, Daoon, Ek-
^ Gaza.)

SOPHY (CoL ii 8). This term de-
system of opinions embraced by
^, both among Jews and Gentiles,
cureans. Stoics, &a, in the apostolic
Kvii 18). (See Ck)L0S8iAKS, xpistlb
iRBANB, Stoics.) As their S3rstem
d according to human traditions and
iples of worldly science, and not
to the doctrine of Christ, it was vain
t and therefore a proper subject of

Tim. vi. 20).

polar philosophy of everv age has
its theology — from the Platomsm of
mes to the Hegeliamsm of modem
It is too often the natural offspring
sanctified mind, the result of that
ich will not bow to the truth of
, disparages what is repugnant to its

rejects what is above the sphere of
ehension. It has existed in every

Church. It was the germ of almost
resies of former days. That spirit
io many sects to tamper with the
id exclude or receive the sacred
from mere fancy or opinion — ^that

them to set aside the deeper mys-
he faith, deny the divinity and de-
htonement of the Son of God, and
e Grospel to a bare annunciation of
rce disting[uished from any human

amelioration and improvement— is
» of Neology. It rose with Cerin-
Jie Ebionites. It animated Mardon
lanichees. It guided the Arian in-
m of the fourth century. It is the
ocinian exegesis. It has happened
d in Germany to prodigious learning
ful talent, and has appeared adorned
{peculations of abstruse psychology,
hd phantasms of Teutomc imai *
the subtle researches of philoJ
id love of novelty thus often I

Men forget our Lord's impressive
, "Verily, I say unto you, whoao-
not receive the Kingdom of God as a
, shall in nowise enter into it."
:HAS. 1. (1 Sam. i 3) A son of Eli,
for his wickedness. (See Eli.)
d. vL 25) A son ot Eleazar and
of Aaron. He filled the office of
it to the Jews for nearly twenty
is zeal and promptitude in punishing

PHOB

the sin of Zimri, a distingtiisbed Simeonite,
turned away the anger of the Lord lupaanst tiie
nation, and secured to him and his family the
ri^ht of perpetual succession to the Jewish
priesthood. This promise was fulfilled; for,
except the interval from Eli to Zadok, the
prienhood continued in the family of Phinehaa
until the destruction of the temple and the
captivi^ of the nation. Phinehaa was re-
markable for his aealous attachment to the
purity and intmity of the Jewish church
(Num. zxv. 7; Josh, xxii 30, 31). (See Elx-

AZAB.)

PHOENICIA, of which Tyre and Sidon were
the two great capitals, was a narrow tract of
territory stretching along the eastern shore of
the Mediteiranean, and was, in its strict and
proper acceptation, about 28 nules long, and
about 1 mile in average breadth. In a wider
sense. Phoenicia comprised the whole sea-
boara from Orthosia to Pelusium — ^a distance
of 450 miles. But, in the ordinary accepta-
tion of the term, Phoenicia was about 120
miles long, and about 20 in breadth. The
origin of the name is uncertain. Some derive
its name from Phcenix, one of its ancient
kings, and son of Agenor ; others, from the
Greek word 4>^i»t^, a palm, as that tree
grew in abundance in the countnr. Others
refer it to the Red Sea, or sea of Idtimea —
^ohi^ being the same with *€pv0p6tf
"red.** But while the Greeks called the
country Phoenicia, its own people called it
Canaan — x**^ — ^ term signifying low country,
in contrast to the high table-land in the in-
terior, and denoting ultimately the whole
reffion of Palestine. The woman who is
called in liCatt. xv. 22, '* a woman of Canaan,**
is styled in Mark vii 26, " a Sjrrophoenician."
In the Septuagint the Hebrew term Canaan
is often rendered Phoenicia. The Punic in-
habitants of Carthage, a Phoenician colony,
on being asked what they were, replied,
according to Augnistine, in tneir own tongue,
" Canaanites."

The country was well watered, fertile, and
thickly studded with towns. The streams
which flow through it rise in mount Lebanon,
and are the Eleutherus, the Adonis, thie Lycus.
the Tamyris, the Bostrenus, the Leontis^ ana
the Belus. Its old towns, besides " Tyre and
Sidon" (a phrase which often denotes the
whole country), were Accho (St Jean d*Acre),
Orthosia, Arka. Tripolis, Botrys, Berytus.
Dor, &c The narbours were excellent, ana
the country was famed for its extensive com-
merce and distant voyages.

The Phoenicians were Hamite by descent;
and their migration to the Memterranean
coast must have taken place at a very early
period. Herodotus says that they came from
the shores of the Red Sea; and Manetho calls
the Hyksos "Phoenician shepherds." Phoe-
nicia, as a portion of Canaan, was never con-
quered by the Hebrew tribes of Dan^ Asher,
and Naphtali, to whom it had been allotted in
tiie partition of the country. But the relations
of Israel to Phoenicia were URually peacefuL

525

PHOS

whollj unlike its warlike entanglementi with
PhiliiftiA. Hirftm^wMereraloverofDaTidf
and Hiram*a "lervants, ihipmen that hM
knowledge oi the eea,** were tent to man, in
part, the fleet of Solomon. Phcenicia began at
a remote epoch to occupy itself in oommeroe
and navi^fktion. As merchants, navinton,
luid oolomsts, the people had no ecjnaia, nor
even rivals, for many ages. In ancient times
their coonlary was a great warehouse, in which
might be found all the necessaries and luxozies
ofhuman life ; and it was long and justlyoon-
sidered as the emporium of the East Their
commerce by sea extended from their own
shores even to tiie British islands, to 8p*i% to
the ports of the Mediterranean, the Blaick Sea,
and the lake Meotis^ According to some fan-
ciful etymologists, our own country derived iti
name of Britain from these Phoenician navi-
ffators and merchants, who designated these
islanda. from the minerals with which they
most aoounded, p3M ma, Barat-anac, or Bra-
tuiae, from the abundance of tin and lead
mines found in them. B^ land they oanied
on an exteuBive trade with Syria, Assyria,
Penia, Arabia, and India. Phoenicia sent
out several colonists to various parts of the
world; and Carthage, Utica, and Gades an
indebted for their existence as states to^ Phoe-
nidan founders. As an evidence of their skill
in navigation, it is stated that some Phoenidaa
adventurers m the service of Necho, king of
l^gyijt, undertook, and completed a voyage
round Africa, sailing out of the Bed Sea, and
ri'tuming through the straits of Gibraltar.
Their ships were rcnownwl over the world —
efliMiciolly those that traded to Tarshish in
Si tain: nome of Uivm were propelled bv flfty
oaTH. Xenophon describes tne order ana com-
pact arrangements of a Phoenician sliip — eveiy-
thing being in its proper place^ anu no room
being lost Mining ui>erations tor silver were
carried on on a large scale at Tarshish, and
great wealth was carried home by the traders.
The {MMiple of rhrenicia wor8nipi>ed Baal,
whose name si^itios Lord ; and Astarte, the
Hebrew Ashtaroth ; and the Grecian Aphro-
dite was also one of their superior deities.
Ijarge troops of ]m).stitutes were her priest-
ettrtos -along with emoscidatcd men, and men
for the pnu-'ttco of unnatural lusts. This wor-
shi]) was tolerated in Jerusalem in Solomon^s
reign ^1 Ki. xi. 5). Zidonian women were
found m his harem, and they introduced and
patn»nizcd their native superstitions. Human
sacrifices were also offered on great occasions,
as alitn in the colony of Carthage, llie name
Baal is associated with man^ proper names, as
Hannilial, Amlrubal ; and it had also spread
over PaU^stine. l^e death of Adorns, or
Thammuz, another Phoenician deity, was
annually Lamented by the Phoenician women.
>Izekiol, in his vitiion of the abominations of
Israel, says, " He brought me to the door of
the gate of the Lord's nouse, which was to-
wards the north, and hehoid, there iot vomen
^oerping for ThammuzJ* In Tyre was also
placed the magnificent temple of the great god
520

ni«o£ thi
□viTdaitjii

of Phonica. Hw

also wonhippod tiM Mnran Ai

the Mme in namtMr as tba plsmts

Thar interocNUM witfa dklnllrihiU
them, ontheirrBfeiini, toindldfBiBfldMKa
"Phcniiaan figman?* wm tht tnvdM ih
of those daj«; «ad Pimie futt wm |hmW

at a lat«r tiawc Tbroofl^ tiwir ^

■peenlatknw they wm oftsa II-
f rands— flhrewdncM dssaianted iitol
They aaiiMtiinM practiaed jAtMj. aiif
had • tnda in aUm a Mmsl m 41^ Bi
Phoenician mesehMife BomfltiBMi Mik iikt
pedlar (Pkt»w. zzzL M); muiBmmw^m
for Canaan, or PlMmicui^ ''thsbahMBW.
oeitardinhialiand*{Hoa.siL7)L Qmmwk
Boma often traoad tlwir owiiuitfua ti K*
oonnewith F]uBBici% f or its imkii Ih^I
Inxniy and datiaaamuuL

Hie Fhcnnieiana who akiDad la aMiV
and arithmetio; and to themJsaUii^fc
invention of Ictfeera^ AeoariSamfn'BmMtk
Cadmus, a Fhoenidan hf InA, MM*
dnoed letten into <}reeoa. t^ aw 4
noted for the mamUactoa of iaelMkli
glass of Sidon, and tiba pmpb of Tfi-

As the Phoenieiana wen of Bmi la^
their langnagawaa idantioal vilh As «B
Hebrew, or tongao of Canaan. HshHV*
the ipeech of Canaan iHien AhnhnBM*^
eojonminit. ThoPimietoHiase
after many years* aepantionfroBi
ooontiy, preeenred a doee nasmHi
brew, as was noted by Jerome and i

The coins and the nnmeroos ii

coincide. Explained fay Heliev wfeft
Melkarth, a name of Baa( mcaas "kiiirf*
city;** Carthage ia *'new town;* 9jn>»''
hill on whic^t stood, is tbeaameaiBM*;
Dido, "hisloTe.*'iaof theeamerootMDin'i
Haanibali8"tha giaoe of BaaL' Oas*
rifidal tablet found in 18i5 at Vm*
seventy-four ont of ninetr-fiNir Ina *
found in the Old TeatameuL la USSsi^
oophagns was dieoovered at Sidoa, ni jf
inscription on the lid haa been ilalffctni
showing that it oontained the body of Aiiv*
aser, who calls himself "iiiissiaaff rf^
Joppik and eztenaiTe com teiritopni**
root ot Dan.**

No remains of PhoBnician Iitcfstac hp
been preserved. The fragments of SsBEbi^
thon are now regarded aa a foigwy IflJ^
BTblius^ thoogh he profeaeee to tiudili''.
Phoenician into Oredc (See Siooi. Ml i

PHBTGIA (Acta ii 10)-« hugtai^j
finite district in the western pomai^
Minor, havinjg Bythinia noraT ni
south. Its chief towns wvraCokose^lA
and Hierapolis. Some of ita iiilnlsti^' ;
at Jerusalem, and among tbeeonvtrt^i^'
day of Pentecost The Astrict wm ■■•■!-
once visited by the apostla Paol (Adij^-'
zviiL 23). The It^"w>im proviafls of l^JPi
did not edit in the ^ri?gtW daya (Bbfl^:

ATU.)

PHU
•HUT (Qen. x. 8), or PUT (Nih. HL 91,
t the third aon of Hun; and hia dncend-
^ lonietdmBii called Libjiani, ore mppoaed
In ^e Maori taniMM. or Moon of roodam
ta. ThejwTvedtJiB^yptiansuuITjrriaiu
■ddien (Jer. xlvi. 9; Saik. ixtu. 10; uz.
K»iTiu. 6).

■HYGELLUS (2 Tim. L IS)— > peraon
itiimcd along with Hermosenes u bang
ng thoaa of .Aua *ha hod tamed awky
n the apoitle. The two doMrten mait
« been personi of some note Bnd influence ;
what were the reaaona and notnn of this

•HYLACTERIE3 (M»tt niii. 6). The
iaii wold denote! pramatiom; and ma;
tratn eithar <jie praamng of the worda of
Iwr i& the manKUT, or the preserratioD of
pamon from danger, as by the amuleta
nna of modem I — "i—

ji a litentl inter]^«tatdos of that

■gtt when Ood commuidi the HelnewB
tava the law as a sign on their f oreheada,

nbered that our Lord does not .^- . —

oiwiea for wearing them, bat for matring
n broad, ont of oetentation ; and it ia atiH
n whether the worda Trferred to ought

intheOrBt'of which

d. xjii H-a ; on the third, beut, ri.4-9; I
ha fourth Dent. li. 18-2L Theee piecei of
lunent, thui inscribed, they endcoed in a

B of tough aldn, making a aqnoiv, on one
of which ia placed the Hebrew letter
(p), OS in the preceding cut, and bound
1 round their loreheadu with a thong nc
nd when they went to the aynagogue.

a only at the morning prayer.
I the token npon the hand wbh required,
d OS the frontlets between the e;ee, the
• made two rolls of parchment, written in
0* Ifltten, with an ink mode on purpose
with maeh can. They were rolled up to
Int. and enclosed in a sort of ease of black
skiD. Tbej then wen pat npon a sqnora

the thon„ .

knot in the form of the Hebrew letter irocf f],
it was wormd about the arm in a spiral line,
which ended at the top of the middle finger.

PHYSICIAN (Mark v. 28). Fhyaicians
an mentioned in the time of Joseph |Gen. 1.
2); and many suppose that medidne was
among the professions of Egypt, and that
Mows was teamed in it. Egypt, as Pliny hoa
remark sd, abounded with diseases. Hetodotos
laya that in Egypt each pfayndan practised
ordy for one kind of diaease ; so that swarms of
them must have exercdsed their calling on the
bonks of the Nile. Each family most have
bod a variety of them — ocolista, aurista, deu-
tiata, kc, — BO that we need not wonder at ^e
employment of the pluial nmnber in Gen. L
3^ where it is aaid that "Joseph odmmanded
hia servanta, the phTsidana, to embalm Ms
father." The medical akill of Egypt waa
famed in other countries. The Penum aove-
reigns, Cyrus and Darius, employed E^,,

Caiciona, There ia alao in Scriptore ol
t evidence that the heaUng oit^ in soma
branches, waa a profeaaion (Prov, iviL 22 ; Jer.
viiL 22; xlri. II; Ezek. in. 21; Hatt. ii.
13; Luke iv. 23; CoL iv. 14). The aUusionB
in these veraea verify onr statement. This
science at such a psriod muat have been
>le, and it coneiated principally of external
icaldona. The wound waa closed, bound
np, and molli£ed with ointment (lao. L 6).
Tlie balm of Gilead waa highly prized for

__11 1 purposes. When Aaa was seized

with gout, he was condemned for trusting
too much to the phymciana {2 Chr. xvL 12).
The woman apoken of in the gospels "had
suffered many thinga of manv pnyracians"
(Mark v. 26) ; nay, Luke, himself a phyaician,
aayaof her that ahehad "apuntall her living
upon ^yaicians, neither could be healed <3
ly" (Lvikeviii. 43).

PIBESETH (Eiek. in. 17)— the Babatta
at modem geographers, the ruina of which are
•oppoaed to be diacemible between Cairo and
Sin, or Felnnnm. It lay upon the Peloaiaa
Inancfa of the Nile. Figures of a celebrated
Boddess wor^ipped there on preserved in the
British Museum. The twenty-second dynasty
"f kinga reigned there, of which Shiahi^ was

PIECES OF SILVER (See Silvih.)
PIETY (1 Tim, V. t) ''Let them leam
_rst to show piety at home." This ia the only
place in the English Bible where this word,
now so common, occurs. In this verae it meona,
like the Ijttin pietas, natural affection on the
part of children ; and the word pity ia only
another form of it.
PIQKON. (3« DoTi)
PLHAHIEOTK (Eiod. liv. 2. 9; Num.
triii 7, 8)— an Egyptian word signifying
place where sedges or marsh plants grow.
of the 1 '"--

truL and lome yean after.
iMidencs " » -. i

Jemulcm

Pit

after the; left Egypt. 8«iw UnOj it «itb
Ajrad, Dear a ivie plain Actchiag to the na
wtatof Bnea.

PILATE (John lii. 1), or PONTIUS
PILATB (Matt. xiviL 3), wai a]ipouited tiw
" - r <if Jndi*, A. D.

' • of CllMf I

. , ._ Hii pnip«r

waa CenreB) but ha went np to
at itated pnioda; and tbongh hii
chief duty nvpectMl the revenues, he eienaaed
bia Judicial anthority then (John xiz. 10), in a
palace or frnvemment honie prorided for Uw
purpiiea (Jnha iviii. 2H). Hia admiaiattatioD
waa excenlinKly offeiuive, fur he bnnuht into
J«ruB»]em standanbi with the ampenir* imaga
on them. Profane history tella ua that ha waa
aocuitnmrd to aelt juhtice, and, for money, to
prononnw any »entencB that waa derind. It
mentinOB hin rapine*, big injuries, hia murdsra,
the tormentH he inflicted on the innncmt, ajid
the penioiu he put to death without form or
procuw. In abort, he aoonu to have been a
man th.1t eierciiied eiccseive cruelty during
all the time of hia pivenunent (Liike liiL IK
He waa I'nally recalled and fianiihed, ■«<]
died in eiile. moat probably by Buiclde.

Tliia obanwter of Pilate render* mM*
reniarkalilo the fact, that »heu Jeatia waa
anaiiined before him, he wna not only anxioni
to avoid trying him {Luke «iiL 4, Tl. but ha
once and ci([Bin, in tbe moat aolemn and im-
prciwive roanner, even in prtaeuee of hb
maliciiiiia and bloiidtliirdty peraeonton, de-
clart'd biH conviction iif his perfect iiuocetice
(liuke iiiiL 14; .luhn xix. II). He even re-
niiiniitratcil with tbem on tbo iniquity and
DtiTeaMinnbleneiu of their conduct, and would
tain have thrown uiiiin tbem the whole re-
■[iiHuiiliiUty uf the lU-vd they wure aUoot to
periwtnte. Thia tiiey amunicd in the moat
dreadfid imiimeation ever uttered by human
Una. — "Hia hliHid be oil uh and on oiur Jiildren"
(Uatt ixrii. 3^). Titate, moved probably by
a fear of bwinKhi-i oHice (Jolin ifi. 12). not-
withitandinit liiii full cnnviction of bia inno-
cence, Hcourtceil liim. :in<l then n-M^ned bim to
tile hnudii uf an ciiniyud multitude to be
crucilieiL

He ilirccted the form of inscription which
waa pbtced un tlie crmsi and when the Jewa
wouU have jierauaileJ him to alter the phraie-
oL>^, au aa to reiiri'iient Him claiming to be
kinii of the JewK, and not as bein)f ni in fact,
I'ilato, cuuwiims pnibabtv uf having abcody
aacrificed justice to ei[wJiencyor popularity,

fi>rt>nl]lturity refui^d to do it (Jahn lii. liJ-22).
e Ksvf Jueepb the |>rivilo;{c of removing the
boily from thu cnwa, and jilacing it in his own
bmib : and, at the solicitation of t^e Jews, he
atiiKiinted a guard tu protect it from violation
(Watt uvil ST-fiU).

PILLAR n':ioil. xiii. 21). Thii word U
nseJ in the Bible for the moat part ineta-
phuHcally. Thou, a pillar of lire, cloud,
Bnoke, &c, denotes a fire, a cloud, or a column
of smoke in the form of a pillar (Kiod. . '"

In Is^ah idx. tha predictiao it.*
shallbea "nillar" toflie LordoaWt
the land of Egypt. "_

Judg. XI. 40). It 1

here reie]

a here referred to

PIL

▼ah ; but the prophet Jeremiah (xliii
!dict8 the desbmction of others oon-
with idolatrous worship of the sun in
smish or Heliopolis. The preceding
resents one of those dedicated to the
th a translation.

LB OF Absalom (2 Samu xviii 18).
ond prince, during nis own life, erected

▼alley of Jehoenaphat a pillar, or
, as a monument to himself, to per-

the remembrance of his name; as at
ne he had no children to preserve it.

ISALOM.)

iB OF Salt. (See Salt.)

JSD (Gen. xxz. 37)— the same with

jOWQ. " Woe to the women that sew
to all armholes, and make kerchiefe
le head of everv stature, to hunt souls ! "
dii. 18). In this passage those women
nded who utter f alsie prophecies, and use
rt and device to iJlure to luxury and yo-
isness. Woe to those who sew or em-
luxurious cushions for all arms, making
, bolsters, head-coverings, kc.^ for per-
e^ery stature, age^ and conditions; so
adapted in their dmiensions as to suit
ing arms, and produce their full volup-
effect — ^thus makinff effeminacy more
ate. These are like toils and snares
ch hunters secure their game. (Com-
nos vL 4.)

B (Neh. ▼iiL 15). The original word
a class of oily or gummy plants or
ad probabhr means here the cypress, or
ee of that family. In the place referred
Hebrew reads '* branches of oil,** which
X. render cy]are88, A different Hebrew
I employed m other two places; and
I the pine is there the prderable ren-
The pine is a stately and beautiful
d hence is used as an emUem of the
ing state of a church. Pine forests are
1 many places in the East (Isa. xli. 19;

^ACLE (Matt iv. 5). The word trans-
innade signifies not a summit, but, as
n in itself imports, a wing; and the

the temple to winch our JLord was
)y Satan was probably the elevation
9 roof of Solomon's porch, to which there
passage by stairs. It overlooked the
m the east, and had beneath it a per-
lar depth of 600 or 700 feet; for at this

the valley a wall had been carried up
el with the grotmd on which the temple
-some historians say 750 feet.
S. (See Flute.)

VTHON (Judg. xiL 15)-a place in
n, identified now with Fer*ata, two
QQ a half south-west of Nablous.
rAH. No trace of the name has been
ast of the Jordan. It is supposed to

ridge over against Jericho. (See
r, Nebo.)

DIA (Acts xiii. 14) — a province of
inor, north of Pamphylia. Antioch,
within the district of Phrygia, be-
2m

PIT

longed to Pisidia, and was called Antioch in
(or of) Pisidia, to distinguish it from Antioch
m Syria. Paul laboured in the Gospel not
only at Antioch, but throughoat the province
(Acts xiv. 24).

PISON (Gen. iL ll)-<md of the riven of
Eden, identified by some with the Gimj^es,
and it compassed the land of Havilah : it is
supposed to be the Pasitigris ; but perhaps it
remesents the Indus.

PIT (Oen. xxxviL 20). This is spoken of
an emjlty dstem, or a reservoir, wnich the
Eastern people are in the habit of preparing
in those regions where there are tew or no
springs, for the purpose of preserving rain
water for travellers and cattle. These osteins
and trenches are often without water, no
supply being to be had for them except from
the rain. It was in such a dry dstem that
Joseph was cast. In old decayed dstems the
water leaks out or becomes slimy ( Jer. ii 13).

The word is often used for the grave (Ps.
xxviii 1; xxx. 3, 9; IxxxviiL 4), and for the
place used to entrap ^^ame (Ezek. xix. 8). The
pit here spoken of is usea at this day in all
wild counmes. A deep hole in tiie earth is
covered very slightlv with boughs or shrubs,
upon which is plaoea a living lamb, which, by
its cries, allures the lion or wolf; and when
the beast makes a sudden spring upon his
prey, he is caught in the pit below. This
affords a significant figure of the devices of
crafty men and devils (Ps. cxix. 85; Prov.
xxvi. 27 ; Ezek. xix. 4). (See Abtbs, Cibtebn,
Conduit, Pools of Wateb, Water.)

PITCH (Gen. vi. 14). This word is sup-
posed to be used in the above passage, and m
Exod. iL 3, for a sort of bitumen or aspnaltum,
elsewhere called slime (Gen. xL 3; xiv. 10).
It is obtained in a soft or liquid state in pits,
and on the surface of the Dead Sea— hence
called the ** lake of Asphaltites." The naph-
tha becomes dry and hard, like mortar, when
expo«ed to the weather. It is found at this
day in masses of wall and other ruins on the site
of Babylon, and is now employed for tiie like
purpose in that part of the world. It seems
to have been plentiful in the vale of Shinar, as
is attested by Strabo in the sixteenth book of
his Oeography,

PITCHER (Gen. xxiv. 14). The custom of
drawing water in pitehers stUl prevails in the
East, an earthen vessel with two handles being
used for the purpose. The '* letting down the
pitcher upon the hand ** (Gen. xxiv. 18) justi-
fies the inference that it was carried upon the
head or left shoulder, and balanced with the
right hand, and when presented, was rested on
the left hand. Often in the East, at least in
modem times, the pitcher has an ear or handle
through which a string is passed, and by which
it is conveniently carried, suspended over the
shoulder.

PITHOM (Exod. i liy-<mt of Pharaoh*s
treasure cities, public nanaries, or places for
the storage of grain. It is supposed, from its
relative situation, to be the Patumus of the
Greeks, inasmuch as the facilities of access to

^7^

tonn for tta« jadgment of Uod (Kiod. ii. 14).
It i* alio und to denote any MTere caUui^
or KOUTBe (Uuk v. 29, 34; Laka tu. SI).
The Judgments of God on Phinoh an laDcd
plague*. ThelEutern plague b a ipedea of
tTuhoii, alrmg with butio«i. (See PHiHaOH.)

PLAIN [Deut. L 1 ; iL 8). The Hebrew
abounde in deecriptiTs local tscma, which an
oEten rendered " plain " in our venioD. Una —

1. Abu.— a giaaiy place or mMidaw. (See

a. AsAUR— adeiertoftcnuMd,of ttelowtr
vaUey of the Jordan, with ita oontinDationa
from the Dead Sea tiiward* the tartem bnmcb
of the Bed Sea, and called " tlie Aniiah "by way
of euliieiice, (l)eut. L 1, 7; iL 0; iJL 17; Joah.
iiLlS) T. 10; 1 Sam. ixiiL 24; 2 Bam. ii. »;
2 Ei IXV. 5; Jer. xxxix. 4,B; Zech. iiT. 10^
Ac) (SeeAUBAH.)

3. SHBPKELiH— "low country ;" eapecdally
applied to the coimtn between Joppa and
Oau. and called the Shaphelah (Jndi. uTlB ; 1
Chr. iivii. 28; 2 CLr. it 27; Jer. xviL 26;
in. 44; Obad. IB; Zech. vii. 7). It n-
appean ai the name of the Spaiiiah town
SeTille.

4. Bik'ah— rendered "plain" in Gen. li 8;
Neh. vi. 2; lea. xl.4; Eiek. iii. 23; Dan. iiL
1 ; Amoe t S. EUewhere it ia tranilated
" Taller," and ipedally denotes the valley
' • ( fietweei " ' ' " '-

angci of Lebanon,
' ' ■ -Jitha

lying fi

vernacular, el-Heka' .

6. KiKEAH— thelow gniundnkirting the Jor-
dan (Gen. liiL 10, 12; lii. 17, 2,1, 2S, 29;
I>eat.»iiv.»: SSanLiviiL23: IIU. viL46;
S Chr. iv. 17 ; Neb. iii. 22 ; liL 28) ; caUed the
"region round about " in Matthew.

6. Ml HHOR— properly a "pWn" or "level

1>T the naked aje) pUced 1

nedi or new (OB JimililM
Tauraa. Hi^ NPPMT I
April, and hanoe aiv «
return of aptinfc tha aiMiri

PLOUGH (Id^ U.
ploogMog i« nuntiaMed ac
Job. It ia aba mntia
for aorinff proparly mawi
CTTgioal wwd ii elaewlw

ooultm, we mar wea t
4 and Joel IB. Ill adi
litenOj folfiDad. Tbap

.On'CS

PLXJ POO

mother limb or pieoe projected, which hud, yet euily brokeo. The innde of ths

rpensd, and ton up the euth in & pamrqruute ia of » bright pink, with ikbasj

oner. At the pmeat d*y they have putdtionii like thou of the oimnge ; »nd kboimdi

■ra oonntries piooghs which are an- with k juice which is both iweet and a<id, and

■oden. Ttavellera describe plougha of a great multitode of little white and porpliih-

raotion as ubuaI in Syria, r^ aeed& (See- »ection of fruit in the pn-

chiefly by oowb and aaee. ceding cut.) The eeeda of the plant mm

la one ox or one asa ia used. The an excellent medicine, and th« rind is used in

irovement was the addition of bandies preparins the finer kinds of teathei. It waa

by which it might be more easily highly vdned in the East, and was one of the
species of fmits which the spies brought oat

ceea of time the TSriMis forms of the of Psleatins. Henn IV. of Spain chon this

nt aa known among otUMlres were frait for his royal anns, with the iDiittn.

houKh it is probable that the best of " Sonr, yet sweet ; " intimating that in a

IS inferior to the w

IB-LINB (Amos riL 7, 8), PLUM-
aa. xxtUI. 17) — a line by whioh a
; or leaden weight hangs, and by the
on of which the exactness of perpen-
y may be ascertained.
^ (Acts xvii. 2g}. Th,e qaoUtion,
are also his offipnog," is portdon of a
er snppoeed to be tslien from the
itns, a dtiien of Cilicia, and of oonrsa
oan of PauL Ar^tus was spewing of
a deity as the author and upholder of
[s; and Paul attempts to persuade
lat if this sentiment ts tme (as it
ully is when applied to the true God),
Id worship him, and not a senaflleee
graren by art and man's device." In
[^ is a quotation from Epimenides of

ihonld be thus tempered with

(See Pbopseot, country

Pigure* reaembliTU the pomegranate in
appearance were worked into the high priest's
robe (Exod. ixviii. 33}, and were also used in
the ornamental work of arohitectiire (1 KL
vii.18).

POMMEL (2 Chr. iv. 12, 13)— the same
Hebrew word being rendered "bowls," I Ei
viL 4L It is from pomutn, an apple, and
means a ball-shaped protub«anoe — a boos or

id Paphla^nia west Many Jews
resided here in the tune of Christ (Acts u. 9),
and the Gospel was early inteodaced and
entertained by many, whom Peter addresses
in his first epistle. Mithridates had been one

Aquila, Paul's oompanion, was of tbil
— — [Arts iviiL 2)- It "- '—

,, POLLED (Nnm. iiL 47). Wben
1 noon, poll means a head ; and when
t verb, it means to cut the hair &om

(2 Sam. liT. 26).
.UX. (SeeCuTOB.)
5GRANATE (Nnin. riii 23J-or
af^t (that is, haling many grams or

It) — grows wild in Palestine (Nnm.
Deut- viiL 8: 1 3am. xir. 2) and
B well as in Persia, Arabia, Bgypt,
le paitfl of Europe, Africa, and the
itates. The &uit is of the size of an

when cniltiTated,
is of a beautifiil
colom (Song 17.
3 : vi. 7) and of
a highly grateful
flavour (Song iv.
13). It was some-

reference may be had Id
. ii at first men i bnt ii
>er, when tOe frcdt is ripe, it aavunee
liab-Ted colonr, becomes thick and

POOLS OF SOLOMON. (See Solohoh.)
POOLS OF WATER (EccL ii 8). The
most noted pools in Scripture are — Bethesda
(John V. 2), Gibeon (2 Sam. iL 131, Hebron
{2Sani.iv. 12), Samaria (IKLxiii. 38), Siloam
(John ix. 7), the Upper pool (2 Ki. iviiL IT ;

COKDDIT,

WiraB).'

POOR (Matt nvL 11). Under the Jewish
dispensation God accommodated almost every
kind of offtrins to the case of the poor. The
poor man turtle dove or handful of meal was
as acceptable as the rich man's hecatomb.
God seems to take special notice of them. He

S pointed tlie gleanings of fields and vineyBrda,
g increase of the seventh 3'e>n^ and {urt of
the third tithe, to be theirs. They were not
to be kept on the point of starvation, and their
life bateh' sustamed. They were to have
seasons of folness and rejoicing. In the year
of JDhilee thsv were on a level with their
brathren. All the dtixena that year were
pentiotieTs alike on the bounty »( OH- When
tha third tithe, at ths end of three yearsi waa
■ ■ the atranger, the tatlierless, sod
.. ..-e to come and aat and be satisfied
wdoome gueata at the national featiTal
_!_ ,,. — _ aWTj. Christians an

expended, I
widow were

POP

also charged to provide for them; and a
blewing is iiromised un such as wisely consider
their esse and help them (Ps. xli 1-3 ; Gal. ii
10). Judfces are chanred to do them justice,
but not unjustly to favour them for their
iM)verty (£xod. xziii 6; Lev. ziz. 15; Pi.
Ixxxii. 4). God claims to be the special pro-
tector of them (Pmv. xiv. 31). In the support of
the ptMir, the problem to be solved is, to give
the iMior man so much as shall keep him in
comtort ; but not m much or in such a way as
shall tempt him t*> dissolute abuse, to want of
frugality, forenight, and industrious provision
for conung age or A]>]iroaching dlnease. (See
Bfocar, r>'BT, Plfdt.r.)

POPLAR (H<«. iv. 13). Probably the white
po]>lar, common in the south of Europe, is here
meant, as it is a handsome shade-tree, and
hence might be choeen for idolatrous worship.
It is veiy common in Syria and Palestine.
Soini* KU]>i>(Me it to be the storax tree.
PORCH. (See Dwelllnoh. )
PoKCH, Solomon's. (See Temple.)
PORCH'S FESTUS. (See Femtub.)
PORTERS (1 Chr. xvi. 42)— such as attend
the gate of a city or house, to open and shut it
(2 Sam. xviiL 26; 2 KL vii 10). The temple
had 4,000 of them (1 Chr. xxiiL 5). They
were classified, and had leaders or directon
(1 Chr. xxvL 1-13 ; 2 Chr. viiL 14).

PORTION (Nch. viii 10). Among the
Egyptians, Greeks, and Hebrews of ancient
time«, the |xirtion of foixi intended for every
guest was set before him separately. Some-
thing of the M&me kind iH common at the court
of Pernia. >Vlien it was intende<l to confer
s]>ecial honour iij^m any one, a )M)rtion much
gn'iitvr than common woh given to him ((.ven.
xliii. 34). A '•worthy i>ortion" (1 Sam. i, 6)
meauM litonilly a donUt: ^ntrtion. I'o be a
**l>ortion for foxes" (P». Ixiii. li)) is to be slidn
and left unburied, and so to be food for the
prowling jiickaK

POSSESS K I ) (Matt i v. 21). The iK>R>*e«8ion
of devils, wluch in oiUm mentionitl in the sacred
Scriptiircft, is generally regarded as an actual
and complete {^ossoHHion of the facultieH, held
by one or more evil Ki)iritH, and manifesting
itself in varioiiH dirH.*aseri of the mind and body,
such OH melancholy, madnew, epileiisj^ Ac.
They are represented as ** going out of per-
BOUH, and entering into them. When a
man iH curetl the deni<»n is said to be **ca8t
out," even bv Christ himself, who is the
**lVuth." ** 1 adjure thee to come out," said
Christ to the demon on one occasion. Can we
fU]>|K>8e him by his language to give currency
to a false view of the miracle he was working?
They speak and are Hp<»ken to —ask and answer

2uestions— express their knowledge and fear of
!hriHt— are threatened and oonmianded— and,
indee<], are always treated and regarded as liv-
ing, active, sensiole beings, llie same degree
of ])owur which was |^ven to Satan in the case
of Job may be exercised in various forms, and
with greater or less malignity, on others. Nor
is there anjrthing more irrational or anomalous
— so far as we know— ia the fact that evil
C32

POT

■piritt ahonild hare power, vate As pm^
ment of God, to ejMoatalnswniiaflMfcam
than tlwt holy •!!««]■ dmald be aBib|il ^
mimster to his porpoMs in anotW (HahL i ]I|l
It is much mora diiBculft to nooadk Ikt )m
gua«<eof the Mcredwziten with thsidM Art
poaseasioiia, ao called, were mmhr bgdQrd»
ease* aff ecting the mind, andkate fk
sufferer to euppoae tiiiwaW pcMnmd,tiBi
is to admit that the pnewwrinn wm nl:
though an entire ignorance of ths mtmi
•piritaal ezistenoee preventi ns frai aAt
standinff how It ormhl be (oomEL 11^ lI;
MwkVL 12, 13; Luke iz. 3842: z. 174%

PrmTmiaral pnwiiTiiiin wm aoniMniNi
for the victima of it are Mid to be "kiUr
but it was more than an oidinaij Bihilf :ft
was insanity, for the zeatored denoaiM iiiii
to come to hia " ruht mind :** but it vmmi
than a common &enzy. FomBmmkwm
ascribed to Satan, bat to hia dcmoM. BaiiV
is the KKil, not the phyncal frame of Ma-4i
poMoanon of it he mayleave to ImnbBriWj
allies. Peihapa in many caaea of "

powewion ainwaa the weakemng _._. ,
the nervoua syatem being ezhaasCed aadii^

dned, the demon was wooed to his iedd
occupancy. PhymcianB of high note, wks

Eaqmnd, admit that thexe ancaaeiof

■ion stiB.

POST (Job iz. 25)~a memenger or
of tidingt(2Sam. xwuL 87; J«. £ 31). 1k«
is reaaon to beUere that penom, flsit cf M
were trained to the bnaineai of iaBniii|;Hl
we are told by profane hiatamai of tkievh
travelled from Tyre to JemaaloB, a
of 100 miles, in twenty-four ■miMMiii
To convey intelli^noe quickly, Cytm
posts that rode night and day, m ttri
ofourexpreBseB(K8th.iii.]3). Nolli«
was known fr#r a journey by i— «<*

The expression (Ezek. -*fe ^ t
set up their poMt &y OoitM
alludes to their valuing an.,
idolatries and traditiona equally
statutes and ordinances

POT (Job xlL 20). The word b«e1i»
lated poi is rendered teate ( Jer. zzir. 2, i^
(1 Sam. ii 14), and ealdnm, (2 Chr. xxxt.1I
In Pa. Ixxzi 6 reference is pioUb^b'*'
the cloie-wrougkt baskets which tfaeSMW
labourers now use as we do the hod fordflf
ing mortar. The same Teeael is pnMtr*
tended in Judg. vi 19; 2 KL z. 7; J« ni

Pots, rakges fob (Lev. zL 3J% pwWJ
means the excavations for the fire, am"*"
the pots were placed. Such ezeavatiov*
still found in Persia and Arabia^ aad «■■"
in like manner. (See Ovxzm.)

POTIPHAR (Gen. zzzvii 3^-^ ^
guished officer in Pharaoh's comti whs cM*
Joseph to a place of trust, and oomMb*
him the chwge of the household.

POTI-PHERAH-^a'* ova (Gea i&J
—a priest or prince of On, mm^ fathtfM^
Joseph. (See OsA ,

POTSHEBD (Isa. zlv. 9)->the fnp^*
an earthen vessel (Job ii 8). When «dk'"t

POT

9 are brought into colluuin, bong Bliks
B, facb bresiu the other into piooea. Not
ta6 unequ&l cotitoBt between man «od hie
T. (S«e POTTIB.}

TTAGE (6«L M». 29). At thi. d»y, in
paiti of the Eaat, lentilM are biuled or
d, like beans, wiUi oil and nilic, and make
I of a chocolate oolonr, which u eaten as
ge. OtbHT inandienta were owd, a> in
I of modem tunei (2 Ei. iv. 39). (See

FUBT.)

TTER (Ronu ii. 21)-~a mannfactorer of
auware. The manner of workins the da;
liape i* alluded to b^ the prophet (Jer.
3), and ma; be seen m some bnnohes of
lodero manufacture. The freedom of the
r to make what lort of vevel he cbooeei
le wheel, and to mould or mar it at faie
an, a need ■■ an illustration of God'a
lion over the works of hie hand* (Pe. ii.
a alao the pauages before oited fmn
niah and Romans). Hie Enrptian* ex-
d in this art. Many beaatilal vaaes of
Bte fonn and colonring iiave been pre-

■hip, prayer hi

PRA.

temptation of the character and attribatea of
Ood, however tbey are displayed ; and it im-
pliee a grateful aenae and admowledgment of
paat mercdea. Expreviona of praiae abound
in the Pialma of David, is almoat every variety
of fdroa and beautr ; and tb« nature of th«
dotv, M weB aa nm pnmr manner of it*
peifoimanGe, quit be beat aeoertuned In ■
oili^eBt study of hia langoam and apuit
PraiM natnrallf followi the bestowment at
nriritoal gifts. Bi
In hearen, where al
promised, praise ii
occupation.

PRAYER (2 Bam. viL ST) is the eipre^on
of our deeirea unto God. It is a privilege with
which our Maker has favoured us, and a
neoeaeary pait of that obedienoe wbicti he haa
required vF us, to pray without eeaaing; In
erarything, bjr prayer and iniqilicatioD, wltll
thankaginng, lettmg <mr tmnesta ba made
known imto Ood ; praying dwaya with all
prmr and SDiniliartiwi (E[«. vL 18; PhiL iv.
6jITheaa.T. IT]. Connderedasadutyofvtn-
V has been l^pided aa eonaiHting of

Buch "praiae in ocanely.''
re all ia enjoyed that Ood has
1 ia the ddightful, the eternal

FoneratVork,

WER. ''For this cause oogbt the woman
re power on her head because of the an-

(1 Cor. iL 10), The word power in this
may mean the wife's veil. ■■ a symbol of
ibiection, or of the husband's power over

^e "angels" are not spies or persons
lo inspect the mannen and ritea of the

» of God.

man unveiled in the church would have
d scandal, and given rise to vexatious
ions,
,£T0RII7H (Hark zv. 16). (See P^sl-

AJSE (Pa. zxiiii. I). In the ordinary
ioie nse of the t«m, it denotes an act <»
ip, and ia often nsed synonymously wiUi
^ving. It is called forth by the con-

invocatiDn (Fs. v. 2), adwa-
tion (2 Ghr. xx. 6) oonfeanon
(Em ix. 6), petition (Pa. viL
1), pleading (Jer. xiL 1), pro-
feanon or salf-dedicatiou IPs.
Ixiiil 26), thankfiriving (Pa.
oilvii : 1 Tim. iL 1), blessing
(Ps. ciii. 20-22). The Jews
had stated hours of prayei^-
both for pobKo and private

nyer — third hour, sixth
IT, and ninth hour. All
these parts of prayer an in-
timately oonneded. If we
invoke God, we cannot but
think on hia majesty, and
adore him. If we adore him,

own nnworthiness, and oim-
feaa our sins. If we oonfeaa
our sins, we vrill certunly
pray for their foreiveness, and
plead with Giod to pardon
and sanctify na. In the idea and hope that
theae our supplications are heard, we give
ouiaelvps to wd, '^^ present our fervent
thanksgivings. Praise naturally succeeds

(jod ia the only object of piwer. Hia
throne of grace is to be approached by ainful
and dying men tbrou^ Christ, the one Medi-
ator between God and man, and in entire
idence on die Holy ilpirit to help our
--•-"-- •-' while we pray in CErirt's

Sj for things agreeable to
, promised to

God-iwiU. Godh
in hia Word ; and
ment of these Divine prom isea for Christ's sake.
nie promise is God V it oannot be belied —it
is sealed in Christ's blood, it cannot be false ;
wa mnst therefore pny in faith. It is vain
' il there be no sinoerity of heart (Isa. i.

IW"

PRE

PREACH (Isa. Izl 1> To peach ii to
diacouFHc ) )ublicly on religunu aubpecta. From
the earlietft period of awocUtioiu for the
worship of God, preaching has been the chief
iniitnuiient by which the knowledge of the
truUi haH been spread (2 Pet. il 5; Jude 14,
15), and in still to be so (1 Cor. L 21). We
have an account of the ancient mode of preach-
ing in Neh. viii^ from wliich time till the
appearance of Christ public preaching was
umvcrsal; s%'nagi»gue8 were multiplied and
well attended, and officers were duly appointed
for the purpose of order and imitruction. John
the Baptist was e8]>ecially oommisaioned to
preach the coming of Christ, the Great
Teacher sent from God. Since the introduc-
tion of the Go8]i«l the preaching of it has been
Knerally reganleil an a nucred profession, and
s for the most ]iart been confined to an
appointed order of men. Preaching is. in
short, a characteristic of Christianity. Keli-
gious teachen arc appointed, under this new
arrangement, to ex]M»tmd the sacred books of
Scri[)ture. The teachers of old were also a
priesthtKtd, chiefly engaged in the presentation
of victims. But the sacerdotal office, being
typicaJ, has been abrogated ; and the Christian
mmistiy, though thcv conduct the worship of
G^od, and int^ret nis gracious oracles, are
not a priesthood. They belong to no sacred
caste. Tlie Christian faith has but one high
priest, Jesus, the Son of God. The office of
the Christian pastor is not to atone, but to
preach the at4>noment— the altar has^ been
su]ienicded bv t)ic pulpit, and the offering of
sacrifice, liv ( hristian inHtniction and devotion.

PRKDF'STIN ATE (Rom. viii. 2l>, 'SO). (See
Elect.) Wv nwntjo only from the Articles of
the Church of Kii^^'land the following pregnant
sentences:—

** Ah the g<xlly consideration of prcdestina-
tion, and our cloctiou in (lliriKt, w full of sweet,
pleasant, and uns]»eakable comfort to godly
I)er8ons, and such us feel in themselves the
workinpr of the Snirit of Clurist, mortifying the
works of the fie^n, and thoir earthly members,
and dra^-in)7 up their mind to high ana
heavenlv thin;?i», as wcsU because it doth greatly
eHtablish and confirm their faith of eternal
salvation to he enjfiyerl thnmprh Christ, as
because it doth fervently kindle tlieir love
towanls God : ho, for cunous and carnal per-
sons, larkinic the Spirit of Christ, to have
Cimtiniially iioforc their eyes the sentence of
God's prefl(*Htiuiitioii, is a most dangerous
downfall, whert*by the devil doth thniHt them
either into doHjK^ration, or into ^Tetchlessness
of most unclean living, no less perilous than
desperation.

Furthermore, wc must receive God's pro-
mises in such wiso as they be generally set
forth to us in Holy Scripture; and, in our
doings, that will of God is to be followed
which we have expressly declared unto us in
the Word of God." In predestination there
is regard to the purpose for which— in election,
to the mass out of which— the choice is made.
(See Elect.)

634

FBI
PREPARATION (Matt xziS. 69. Th

fint d»raf tlMfMrt ^
"the day of prei»ntiflB,"'lieeMM i&
were on that day made nedr for tiie ■&»
nitiee <rf panrhal week. ^eeFAHcni.)
PRESfeYTKBY a Tfan. ir. 14Ha cart
ooanca of prailiyien tot evdniqr ii»

or

PRESENTS a Sam. ix. 7Hgifti«(i»
hugs iritk which men m authonty cr ki^
esteem are approached, la nmaf &in
ooontriea at this day even the eanaoa pa|h
in their familiar vuite take a iowa^ «■
orange, or aome other token of nspid, to it
person visited. Dreasn are stxD, si ioi '
aoommonpreeentin theEast (SeeGm

PRESSES (Isa. zvi. 10), or PRBSS-FJ
(Hsg. iL 16), were vesaelB or cartemphaih
the side of a hill, into which ths jmi
grapes flowed when it was pnmti tit If
treading them with the feet, or lij pi^
them with a n%m^<^iw^ (Pkov. in. if : Iftft
xzL 33). Such am now need in Fam. Ik
upper yeasel, bein^ 8 feet sqnaie sbI44«
is used to press oat the jnice^ whrt^ lai i#
another dstem below. (See Wm:)

PREVENT. This Woid in Fk eoLff
and in 1 Thesa iv. 15 is nsed in ito po^
meaningo-to go before. ** Tkef eht m
alive shall not prevent,** that is, n bdai «
anticipate, them that are adeepi. &Bn^
is, that the dead in Christ shan IMS bifai*!
livhag are changed. The word is dsv ni
in tibe sense off hinder— going bsfae flsil^
check him.

PRICKS (Acts iz. 6), or posd^-k«
sharp-pointed sticks, which wtn wed to ^
cattle, &c, by pricking them. Ike cs^
sion in this passage! ^to ^kV ^I'l J*
pricks," was a proverb, and otiginalsdislii^
that restive oxen often posh thondw'
kick back affainst the goads, and tinistto^
themselves the more deeply. Heaoe As P^
verb is used to denote the f oDy sad wti^
of resisting lawful authority orthe nMsiiio*'
conscience. A great number of heslbniRi^
use the proverb familiarly, and alwsp toVT
nifv the absurdity of such rebeUioa.

PRIEST~-a contraction of the warif^
bjfter (Gen. xlv. 18). This has been thefo^
name for nunisters of relk^ion in all sfV f^
countries. In the sacredSsiptozvs it M*
one who offers sacrifice. Aevioos to At
Mosaic ritnal, the offering of sacrifiMl'
tained to private individuals. Fathai^
the priests of their own families, and of
at the domestic altar. Perhaps a moit |
priestlv office existed, such as that o-
by Melchisedek. But when the iliiiniM^
bv Moses was introduced, a pai^nutf •f'
of men were appointed to that special i***
(Exod. xxviii. ) with very solemn and iiap^
ceremonies; and from uiat time theoMI
of sacrifices was chiefly restricted to tlMM^
were duly invested with the pnedtr ^
(2 Chr. xxvL 18). All the male po$fm*
Aaron were priests. (See High Pbdebv-)

The priesthood was a high and sokm ^

PRI

le Jews. Theirs was the work of
I and atonement. Their dress was
and all its parts are minutely de<
a. Scripture. Nothing was idrt to
I taste or caprioe. They were to
1 breeches or drawers, reaching from

nearly down to the knee8(Exod.
, where the reason of this portion of
adgned). They were also to be closed
3 reaching to the feet, fitting close to
and bound with a girdle. It was to
red. The girdle of needlework was
colours— "Wue, purple, and scarlet.*'
d round somewhat like a scarf, and
ong down at the side. The he»a was
:red with a turban, somewhat in the
. crown. The h^h priest had other
ornaments peculiar to himself. (See
xsT, MiTBB, Tabernacle.)
eets were to be especially pure, and
casions they ware bound to avoid
1 defilement. They were to refrain
ordinary forms of mourning for tiie
'om all intoxicating liquids tnevwere
, when they were about to omdate.
y blemish or defect disqualified them,
bat speaks of their consecration says
)f a requisite age. Perhaps they
ler the same regulations as the
Their office was to take chiurge of
hings— the sacred place, with ul its
•maments, and furniture, the fire of

the lighting and trimming of the
d, the replacing of the show-bread,
ig of incense, and the presentation of

eans of sustenance, thev had a tithe
Levites, or a hunoredtn part of all
oal tithes, certain portions of the
the first-fruits, and the redemption-
ith the fines and penalties which the
xibed for certain violations of its

(See Levites.) They had also so
», with an allotonent of surrounding
or their residence. David divided
ihood into twenty-four classes, each
officiated in its order.
Bcipal employments of the priests,
.ttending on the sacrifices and the
rvice, consisted in the instruction of
3, and the deciding of controversies
ions arising under tne administration
Irish law. They had special charge,
e public health, as in the case oi
In time of war their duty was to
irk of the covenant, to consult the
sound the holy trumpets, and to

the army (Num. x. 8, 9 ; Deut. xx.

full account of the manner of their
Dn, dress, duties, &c., see Exod.
; Lev. viii 1-36. As a body they
d the sacerdotal work of Christ, who
nd Sacrifice — who offered the obla-
now pleads its merit in the Holy

ELLA (Acts xviii 2). (SeeApoLLOS^

N (Luke xxiil 19). Persons were

PRO

confined in prison previous to trial; and this
seems to be all the incarceration which the
Mosaic law warranted (Lev. xxiv. 12). Im-
prisonment does not seem to be among
Mosaic punishments. It was conmion, how-
ever, in Egypt. In later times, also, confine-
ment was often inflicted as a p^ialty upon ths
prophets of the Lord ( Jer. xxxii 2).

The phrase "spirits in prison" (1 Pet iii 19)
has afiforded no little difficulty to expositors.
Some suppose that the apostle refers to
Chiisfs preaching to the antediluvians by his
Spirit in Noah. The natural and grammati-
oal interpretation of the word is, that Jesus
between his death and resurrection— in the
spirit— went to this prison and preached to
the spirits in it; ana these spirits seem to
have been those of men who perished in unbe-
lief in Noah's flood. But what is meant is
beyond our knowledge. Others hold that
Jesus went down to Hades (see Hell), in the
period intervening between his death and
resurrection.

PROCONSUL. (See Dkputt.)

PROCURATOR. (See Govebhob.)

PROGNOSTICATORS (Isa. xlvii 13).
The phrase '* monthly prognosticators" is
rendei^ in the margin, perhaps rightly, "that
give knowledge concerning the months. '* Thery
might thus be a species of almanack makers ;
and we know that such a practice was quite
common all over the East.

PROMISE (Heb. xi 39). In this passa^,
and in some others, this word does not signify
the pledge to bestow a blessing, but it denotes
the blessmg inromised. It is not the promissio
but Uie promissum. The old worthies of the
Hebrew nation died with the promise that
Messiah was to come, but without the thing
promised; for he had not come in the flesh
when they were summoned to leave the world.

PROPHECY (Matt, xiil 14), PROPHETS
(1 Sam. X. 5), or SEERS (1 Sam. ix. 9). The
term prophet ia an Anglicized Greek word, and
literally denotes one wno speaks for another or
in another's name. In Exod. vii. 1 we read
as follows : "See I have made thee a god to
Pharaoh : and Aaron thy brother shall be thy
prophet ; and here we see that prophet is one
who delivers another's message. Abraham
(Gen. XX. 7) is also called a prophet— one who
ix)re a near and peculiar relation to Grod. The
Hebrew term rendered prophet is said to sig-
nifjr one elevated or excited, so as to pour f ortn
animated oracles; or, according to others, a
person sprinkled or baptized with the Spirit of
Grod. But in ordinary language, to prophesy
is to foretell, under Divine inspiration, certain
things which are to happen. Of course, pro-
phecy is a revelation from God, made through
man to man, respecting future events (2 Pet.
L 21). In a stnct sense a prophet is one to
whom the knowledge of secret things is revealed,
whether past (John iv. 19), present (2 EL v.
26). or to come (Luke i 76-79).

Different modes seem to have been employed
to convey to the prophets the knowledge of
future events. Events seem to have passed

535

PKO

befcm Uieir mindji like a frfctnre or pAnonnus
and that ther describe its parts in saccesnon,
as one would an extended landscape. This, it
is HupiKwed, will account for their often speak-
ing of the occurrences which they predict as
passing at the moment, or already passed: as,
for instance, in the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah.
They saw Uiings in space, not m time. Ob-
jects and symbols were prwented to the
prophetic eye waking and sleeping, and some-
times there was probably an articulate audiblo
voice; but in whatever fonn the oommmd-
cati<in was made, the imprewiun was doubtless
as distinct and vivid as were objects of ocular
vision. The Spirit of ])rophecy, seating itself
in the rational iMtwen, informed, enl^tened,
and eui]>loyed tn(.*m to undeivtaud anddecbure
to othen the will of (vod. The prophets did
not al«'a3rrt know the time of the future events,
<Mr the meaning of what was commtmicated to
them. Hence it is said that Daniel and John
nuMle imiuiries tun to the meaning of certain

Sfirtitinri of tlieir revelations, and thev were
istinctlj^ ex]»luined to them (Dan. viiL 15, &c;
Kev. xvii. 7, Ac: comp. Dan. xiL 8^ 9; 1 Pet
i. 11). (Hhem, on the oontranr, maintain that
there is no sufficient ground for this opinion,
and that there is every reason to believe that
the faculties of the prophets were purified,
strengthened, and elevated in a supernatural
degree; that they understood distmctly the
subject of prophetic revelation ; and that the
obscurity in which the pn)i>hetic writings are
involved in our view ariseH m>m our inii>erfect
conceptions, and not from any want of clearness
in the prophecioH themnt-lveH. Hut it seems
plain, that while the ])nii>hetH mi;^ht under-
stand their own ora^'leK, tney did not alwa3nB
know the |)eriiKl of their fultilnieut ; for Peter
affimiM that they "KoarchtMl what (time) or
what manner of time the Spirit of (.'hrivt in
them <lid nignify.*'

'llie |iretliitioni* were Hoinetimes announced
by the iiiHtphetiA t4> the )k'«i]>K* Inith in OHsem-
biies and by writing (iHa. viii. 2; IviiL 1, &c. ;
Jer. vii. 2). Sometimes they were ]M.>Hted up
on the public gateH, and sonietimert announced
with the mo8t affecting tnkenn u|M)n the per-
HOUH or in the conduct of the iirophuts, tliat
the pn^lietionn they uttere<l were tnie,(Ii«a. xx. ;
Jer. xi.x. ; and xxvii.) itix\ did n<it leave him-
self without a witnesH in iHroel. The firophets
were his Hi>ecial amboHHAdorH. There was a
KUCceHriiun of them from Samuel to MalochL
Their jMiwer wam «)ften hi'.;her than that of the
sovereign. They were the theocratic agents.
Again and agiun in the JewiHh hiHttiry do we
reail of their achievements oii behalf of God,
and one central theme was the c«)ming of the
MeH<«iah.

The heathen iKtets are called prophets, be-
cause it was HupiKMetl thev wrote under the
influenect of the go<ls (Titus 1. 12). (See Poetk. )

llie U*nu prvphfay is also used analogically
(1 C\ir. xi. 4, 5; xiv. 1, &c), probably because
thiwe who exercised these functions were
regarded as under the direction of the Holy
Spirit. So it is said tlu&t Judas and Silas
53G

PSO

propheta; and in Acts xu. 1, Oit Amp
were in the dnudi ai Aatnch MrtnpnpiMto
■nd tf af h<ira f lial k **<*«'S*i i-^wtnidii
1 Cor. xii. »: aoa aLo Aeli xxL 9: likl
aO; B«T. ZTiii. 20). Tha Nfv MkMI
prophets wwa penooa who aQ|oy«dthi iiV»
natural influence of the HoJrGluik, I ~
in the pafalic airmbiise with Ihrt
and ovnpowering impalae iriiidb
the eariier nMaMngcn of JehofviL
rank they were next to the aporika At
name is also applied to the saoed ■■■■

&Chr. zxF. 1). It maj be odtr htmm
iriam led the oonoert (Exod. zv. a^ ft)lW
she was reckoned as a nophstsH. Ifiiri
melodies, ehanted as of oUsBBOMthsHikH^
were aeoomjpanied with Uafa sififiiiMat

IsaiiJi, Jeremiah, t^Jh^ and IMd m
called the greater prophets, from As and
their books and the extent and iiiijiiilini'*
their prophedes. The others are sdbl Ai
minor or leaser pmi^ieta.

One chronological airangemflnt of thi p»
phedes, and the oitier in which thynh
most inteUigiUv read, is as foUov^-M
Jonah, Amo% Hoaea. laaiah. llksh, lUa^
Zei^uuah, Jersmiah, Hafaakfcnk, OMiik
Eiekiel, Danid, Uasgai, Zediamh, MAiii

A useful olassiiicatian of the prochsli mim
the fint eight to the period beiote tks Bif
kmian oaptivity; the ^y^ next to ~^
near to and during the captivity; ^.
three last after the return of the J sm
Babylon. The historioal books of thsM Iha
periods illnstrate the propheticsL Thij w
all uttered within a period of about 400 wm

The pn>phets were the (Evince, the paai^
phers, the instructoTB, and thegnidei of fls
Hebrews in piety and virtue. ToMif gesaifc
lived retired, llieir hahitafams and nsdea
life were plain, and simple, and eosMli^
but thcir^ style is fignratiTe, aad ii din
clothed with the rich and gorgeoos hsM d •
]>oetical fancy. To understand their ooda
we must have a oorrect appreciatidB of Ai
symlH>lB which they employ.

False prophets were to m visited with «iV
penalties. It was sinning with a Ufb M
to speak in God's name, when helw v^
conmussioned them (Deut. xviiL SIH> M
impostors, in order to gain a fleeting popsiai^
spoke so as to please their empik>;wi cr v
audience,— they prophesied " anooth AiiV^'
crying '* peace, peace."

l^ROPHETB, 80NS OP THK (2 KL fi. 3» #*

pn)bably pupils of the prophets, tnineditV
them in a knowled^ ut reiigiim and in UP
of devotion and piety. These schoob d tt*
prophets seem to have been establiiM if
Samuel; and from them God miglii
from time to time his appointed iDft
Amos seems to regard it as a thinff ua
that though he was a pn^et he W not ^
trained in such seminaries (ch. viL 14). ^
ha])s they were employed as assistanti ti>se
])rophetJi, and stood in the relatioB ^>^
evangelists are supposed by some lo ■i''
borne to the apostles.

11

P
\\

\^
r

\\
\

e, " that it might be fulfflled which
'* Ac. (Matt i 22). does not alwavs
le event happened or was brought
other pmpoBe than to make good
sn ; but often merely that thus, or
ler, a certain prophecy was aooom-
1 the purpose of God fulfilled.

LED.)

is one of the evidences of revealed
is a miracle in wortds. The pro-
tcripture are so strange that ordi-
y could never have dreamed of the
old. Babylon was in her glory
I foredoomed her. Tyre was the
tions" when Ezekiel K>retold that
lid be but a bare rock, on which a
lermen might be seen drying their
1 foretold the slavery of Ham.^
known in clear and precise terms
davery and dispersion of the Jews,
m so enable a man to foresee and
re events. God sp«du by him,
therefore bound to listen to his

:TESS (Exod. zv. 20). Prophetess
' only the wife of a prophet (Isa^
abo a woman that has l^e gift
^ Among these were Miriam,
umah. ana Anna.
[ATION (Rom, iii 25). The word,
occurs in our Scriptures (1 John
J denotes, in the original use of it.
a person who, in some ap^intea
the wrath of a deity or pacifies an
ty. A word of kindrea origin is
anslated sin offering (Ezek, xliv.
and atonement (Num. v. 8), the
Heb. ix. 5), or the place or instni-
pitiation, where the blood of the
was sprinkled by the high priest
atonement for sm (Lev. xvi. 14).

BEAT.)

YTE-ineomer (Matt xxiiL 16)-
m by the Jews to such as were
)m heathenism to the Jewish faith,
anding Hebrew term so rendered
Testament translated ''stranger.*'
I rabbins mention at least two
lelytes of righteousness, who fully
le Jewish religion, ana were ad-
le enjo3niient8 of aU its rites and
)rosel3rtes of this class are described
21); and proselytes of the gate,
ed heathenism, conformed in some
the Jewish religion, but were
r limited privileges. Some hold,
at this distinction is without
nd that the only proselytes were
raced the whole system of Jewish
>ee Stbakgbb.)

:B (1 Sam. z. 12). This word is
sed as s3rQonymou8 with parable
!9). Strictly speaking, a proverb
Qoral sentence expressing an im-
Lciple in a striking and forcible
le Oriental nations delight in such
IV maxims, which are often clothed
Lftnguage. (See Paeable.)

PSA

Pbotibbs of SoLOMoy, THS, oonstitate an
important portion of the Old Testament, and
are the twentieth in order of its books. The
book is a collection of wise maxims or sayings,
chiefly of Solomon^ concerning ahnost every
duty and relation of life. It is indeed a stcure-
house of wisdom, and abounds with the most
plain and practical rules for the regulation of
the life and heart It is difficult to know
whether Solomon created all these proverbs.
Some may have been in common ciroulation
which he adopted and sanctioned. We are
told, however, that Solomon spake 3,0(X) pro-
verbi.

The first ten chapters contain cautions and
exhortations on a varie^ of subjects. From
ch. X. to ch. xxii 16- we find what are strictly
speaking proverbs. From ch. xxiL 17 to ch.
xxiii. we have important instruction addressed
in a connected form to a pupil supposed to be
{Kreeent Chs. xxiiL-xxix. constitute a collec-
tion of inspired proverbs, which there is some
reason to believe were derived not exclusively
firom the lipe of Soloilkon. Ch. xxx. contains
the admonitions of A|^, of whom nothing is
known; and ch. xxxi., the counsels given to
king Lemuel by his mother. Lemuel may
have been, if an actual person, some neighbour-
ing foreign Idn^. The general similarity of
the matter which constitutes the book of
Proverbs may weM account for the mingling
of authors, without resorting to the presump-
tion that Agur and Lemuel were none other
than Solomon himself, under a fictitious name.
It IB said by judicious critics that the canonical
authority of no part of the Old Testament is
better ratified bv the evidence of apostolic
quotations than me book of Proverbs.

The style of tiie Proverbs is rhythmical ; and
some sections, such as those in which wisdom
is personified, are nervous and eWant poetry.
Its sentences are generally so briei and pointed
that they are easily borne on the memory.
They are the ^winged words'* of inspired
sagacity, basing itself on extended observation
and on a wide and varied experience. Such is
their comprehensive wisdom, that they are
profitable both "for the life that now is, and
for that which is to come."

PROVINCES (Esth. i. 3). The word here
means kingdom, or rather satrapies. (See
PsbsiaO

PSALMS — holy tonga (Luke xxiv. 44). A
I)salm is a poetic composition adapted to
music, vocal and instrumental, but especially
the latter. When "psalms, hymns, and
spiritual songs " are mentioned together,
*' psalms'* mav denote such as were sung on
instruments; hymns,** such as contain onlv
matter of praise; and "spiritual songs,** sucn
as contain doctrinc^L history, and prophecy for
men*s instruction (£ph. v. 19).

PsALMB OF David, the, constitute the
nineteenth in tte order of the books of the
Old Testament ; and their right to a place in
the canon has never been disputed. They
consist of inspired hymns and songs, medita-
tions and prayers, chiefly of David. It is

637

■ipeaki to aU e^wrimcc, uid amken* the
BUieeptiliilitiei of tha hulj citholio Cbimti.
Yet perliapa Uwre ii no portion of the Bible

liy itit pnjtrwwl admiivn uid BX].

'llii* lynci of the Bwoet sinktiB of IrmI hkTS
licviifinfiuied by cruile KnJTMn ipecDlatioDi,
Li[u>illy opivwed to ecliijhtened pic^uid loaiM
vru jitinn. (.In tlie one huid, theji hare bacn
Hu lU'i^niiled Hid Kculjmied UM to be vi«wad
(Wl iltHcrihed at men oi]<4 on wv, victoty, or
peace ; hymiu uf fricniliihip, gntitudc. or
IiBtriotlBm, >ang by the priHthood round th«
alUr, with the accinnpuiiDimt at timhid,
hnrp, or ririnn. On the other hand, they hmre
Ui^ to Bpiritiuliicd by s morUd ^etiam, and
their niyitic sccwii have beeo «> multiplied bj
> Iiolyilyiuunic eiegeiiii, that >U ^ue«Uou M
thuir age uul BQthonliip, their onifiiul oom-
p<witi«n and uie. their hiatiiriukl allndoni,
OrieDttil aiiirit. and poetic forma, have bc«D
iMnti'Dii'tuouiiIy set aniile aa timnsinii fanm
that biiiKliu^ vhich beloDgi to "the
' "- ■ litter," and total'- ' — ^-

i>t the letter," and totally foreign to that frca-

don and lutieriority whii"" " '

uioted with newnem

. nly the {"Kdioa of David ace mot in

thcmariviii eitiieT so difficult of apprvhanooiD
or K) intricate in their style aa to form any
eicuiw tiir inch cunfused and fantastic abcnra-
tirini" : for theee relics of the Hebrew muse an
niuiiilu in itructure, eicniiaitti in l-nyi*]^, and
■tiikioi! in imagery, lliey are rich m ths
beautiful creations of impitssionod ffsniua, and
teeming with all the oontagioui ardour of
Kasteni minstrelsy. They are animated, at

tbeGrrt: . _^ _ .

an idea by a seriea c< n
the atfle common toth«
of Oriental poebT' doa
thoM critical Uwb iridi
nted mider ooMer diM
Ute taita of bim wIm tn
dilb of Iiebanoa, whmt
glotT<( Carawl and iba
and tb* whit* aUff «■ tl
where ha ib»j rsm ca
uodottded ImaiiiH. «ad
the fie% viMy^v^ an
in hiiananca tlmni^wi
mannd.'* llie (bit qa
ban a Undnd fedta^ i
o«r ipiiit mw tluill& I
ttw noBO and inMMrv a
Tha BiUe i* » rSO^
be folly midentood I7 n
aa ha-ra the mind *nd
Anthor: and tim PmIb
Um Blue for Uia pupa
dcTotion ii tha bcKt <« I
tMSt not <f docMne— an
moraborp«c«uda to tb
toea. llieyara tbe laiv
enM, withiriddine one
ii not " mated anwr."

standing nt other paiti
more ii it initimaiabla
form a nib}«abT* lllMto
the Jot, the bnmOi^. Il
and the dntioy of a ddd
portion of aimUBrezpsia
pailmiat will bo to tbi
tongue, a dialect not fooi
euTaTen mlv eb "tiia

PSA

uJ advancement and the path by which,
;h Divine grace, he has reached iL
I not to be forgotten, at the same time,
he psakns contain a prophetic element,
f 80 called— an element of actual predic-
I reference to the person and work of the
ih. The questions that perplex critics,
ire — How far such an element pervades

Are they aU predictions ? If not, how
of them point to the great hox>e of Israel ;
those acknowled^edto refer to David*s
Son, is there only a simple and plain
3cy, or is there a double sense ; and does
Aim admit of two applications — a nearer
literaLwith a more remote and spiritual
Dg? Here opinions vary and verge into
les. Some find Messiah in every psalm,

find him in few, a section of modem
8 discovers him in none. The New
nent is an infallible ^oide ; and whatever
e said of some of its references to the
estament — that they are mere allusions
»mmodations — it appears to us very
that many portions of the psalms are
I by the Lord and his aposties as pro-
oracles directly fulfilled m the life and
and ascension of Jesus of Nazareth,
e then warranted to apply no psalms to
save such as are quotea in the Christian
ares? If such a hmitation be an error,
n error on the safe side. At the same
it would be rash to affirm that every
inic psalm has been ouoted or referred to
I writers of the New TestamenL While,
we take the New Testament as our
may we not re^^ard as prophetic some
psalms similar in structure, langua^
>irit to those which are (quoted by m-
authority as oracles bearing witness to
aunate Redeemer ?

I Anthology is sometimes called Tht
r, a term derived from the word psaltery
rasical instrument used to accompany
lijrmns when sung.

tiUes of the psalms sometimes have
ice to a choice of tune^ or instruments,
tain some directions to persons appointed
them to music, or to the leaders of the
or to something peculiar in the subject,
, or style of the composition. The con-
» as to their meaning are various.
of them will be found explained under
espective names. Several of them seem
jk the peculiar tunes to which the
I were set. For example, aijaleth
kT, " the hind of the morning,'* the tiUe

xxiL : Jonath elem rechokim. '* the
n the oistant terebinth trees ;** tne title
Ivi, appear to be the first lines of some
t Hebrew melodies, to the tune of which
lew compositions were respectively to be
d.

book consists of fiveparts, each condud-
;h a doxology — viz. , Fs. i -xli. ; xliL -Ixxii. ;
Ixxxix. ; xa-cvi ; ovii.-cL ; but it is
« one book (Luke xx. 42). The reader
«ily mark these concludix^ doxologies at
d of Pa. xIl. Ixxii., luxxix., cvi, cL, in

PUB

our English version. The first two sections seem
to have formed the earliest collection, and to
have comprised^ to a great extent, the odes of
David (Ps. Ixxii. 20). This seems to be indi-
cated by the critical note, "the pravers of
David the son of Jesse are ended. '^ This
remark is no portion of the psalm, or of in-
spiration, but onlv a marginal note of the
compiler^ most probably Ezra. Other psalms
are ascribed to Asaph, the sons of Korah,
Heman, Ethan, Solomon, Moses, while addi-
tional names are found in the Septuagint. In
the Hebrew, and in some of the old versions,
the pealms.are differently numbered ; and the
Septuagint adds another psalm (clL) supposed
to DC penned by David on his victory over
Groliath. Ps. vL, xxv., xxxii, xxxv., xxxviii.
IL, and cxxx. are called the seven penitential
psums, while Ps. xxv., xxxiv., xxxviL, cxi,
cxii, cxix., and cxlv. are alphabetic psalms,
so named, because in some of them every line
begins with a new letter of the alphabet, while
in others a larger space intervenes between the.
succession of the letters. In Luke xxiv. 44'
the word *' psalms" means what is termed the
Hagiograpno, or the third great division of
the Jewish Scriptures, comprising all not
included under the terms, " tne law and the
prophets."

PSALTERY (Ps. xxxiii 2)— was a Baby-
lonish instrument. In our version of the Bible
the name is given to otBer instruments; but
the eenuine psaltery was a stringed instrument,
as mr as we can learn, like the ten-stringed
lyre or harp. (See Hakp.)

The modern instrument caS\.edLp9altery is flat,
and in the form of a trapezium, or triazigle cut
off at tiie top, and is strung with tnirteen
strings. It is struck with a plectrum, or small
iron rod.

PTOLEMAIS. (See AcchoJ

PUBLICAN (Matt. xviiL U]— an inferior
collector of the Roman tribute. The principal
fanners of this revenue were men of great
credit and influence; but the under farmers
or publicans were remarkable for their rapacity
and extortion, and were accounted as oppressive
thieves and pickpockets. Hence it is even said
that the Jevrs would not allow them to enter
the temple or the synagogues, or to partake
of the public prayers or offices of judica-
ture, or to give testimony in a court of justice.
The revenues of a district were set up to com-
petition; and he who offered most was ap-
pointed collector. In ordei\ therefore, to pay
the government what he had promised, ana at
the same time to enrich himself, he often
and naturally resorted to vexatious and op-
pressive modes of increasing and levying the
taxes.

There were many publicans in Judsea in
the time of our Saviour. Zaccheus was one
of the principal receivers, since he is called
"chief among the publicans*' (Luke xix. 2);
but Matthew was only an inferior publican
(Luke V. 27). The tJews reproach^ Jesus
with being a "friend of publicans and sinners,**
and eating with them (Luke vii. M),

A town <rf thii lumt ia mentioiwd, It^ livi
19. which is mppciHi] to be tlw iiUnd of
PhilB, in the Nile. Brit far from BjOM, vhtn
uv fnund Diagnilicent niiiu.

Pl'LSE-nR/< {-2 Ram. irtL SS)— eoanc
in, u ptaoe, bauu, anil the lilu (ItalL L 12,

'1-

PUNON (Ni

icnt ilurintc '
Inwlitish Juunwyii

with l>hai-no, an H .

riipjwT minn, and rituated between Petc» and

PURIM. FEAST OF. (Sm

mmt ilurintc tha oincluding period o(
Iiinvlitish ]uunieyins>. It haa bam hint
with l>hai-no, an Kdumite town '

''pl'R o

Fba«to, K. ,

PUKIFICATION (Luk* iL
Clean, Wjiuhihh.)

PlIRri.K (Kiixl XXV. 4). The pBipk
dye to famiiiu oiiinDc th<? Orientali in anoent
iUts WW much used 'iv thi- Itabjloniau (Jer.
X. U; RatV. ixiii. 1^; xxvil IG). The haoK-
iriKi of tlid temple ajid Aome of the piieMi
Karmenta were ri this colour {Eiod. ixv. 4;
sixv. 6; xxix. ai: 2 Chr. ili, U). The rohea
lit myitUy nmt iliHtinction wen of {xuplej
and hrniu thu inh-ndml griMdnew of Ae iiwult
iiinl miickny of our Saviour when tier put
on him dunnji hiK triul a iiurple robe (John
lix. 2, B). The colrnir called i>urple waa prob-
alily scarlet, for tbe term ptirpls was am^ed
' n-hicb red entertNL It waa

QUATIJi (Exo<L x

in the hMBu * vooUm
tko Binplir expUtna tk
ring Id Oriestal tale^
tlMlwlt,' On oo* M>J
" it ii fi

■miHl Um bodw till <
msDts takanpdl tlM<
is then tnokad inat tl
Ibafalda.-
Ha wrad t

nanifiea Utenlly pnUM
tuko to the OM poinl

indMUadlj o

Aat whkli ia *biira dM
PUT. (Sae Pbvt.)
FUTEOLI (Aota: i
now JViBHof*— a oi^ B
NapIcL ooatainin^ alxi
farmmy cdefantcd fm

r'nga. Tbe haiboor
bertinltilT.
PYOARGfDent. rf
bird of the eagle kind
denotea a boantifnl qa
the monntain goat, nam
Bison ii pot in Am B*i|

a part of the l hanstadbiidBj aadwlMl

fmid miraciihnuly mptilieil to the Israelites in a laiga h

the wildsniess (Pi. hxviii 27). Quaili an Thej vers pmbablv i
KUlt common in the denurta of Ajabia. and are I aalted. as manT idaoM iJ

QUA

It. It may have been some noted
lolatroua worship in the vicinity of

5RNI0N (Acta xii 4). When Peter
bave been delivered to four auater-
tldiers, it is to be understood that he
ed by four men at a time — viz., two
on with him (ver. 6), and two before
-and that they were relieved every
B, or at each successive watch of the
four others — ^making in all sixteen

r OF HEAVEN (Jer. viL 18)-the
which the moon was worshipped by
ilia — an idolatry practised also in
Jerusalem. CaKes having the image
m stami>ed on them are supposed to

RAC

have been presented in sacrifice, as a part of
their idolatrous worship. (See Ashtaroth.)

QCICKSANDS (Acts xxvii 17). Refer-
ence is had in this passage (as is supposed)
to two verv dangerous sands or Si/rUa on the
coast of Africa, over against Sicily, which
were continualhr shifting their position, and
forming powenul currents, by which ships
were drawn from their course.

QUIVER (Ps. cxxvii 6)— the box or case
for arrows. The word is often used figura-
tively (Isa. xlix. 2; Lam. iii 13). In Jer. v.
16 the slaughter and desolation which should
be brought upon the Israelites by the invasion
of the Ghaloeans is expressed by calling their
quivers an open aqnuchre, or their arrows
certain death. (SeeAsMOUB.) ,

R

kS, (Ezek. xxviL 22V— a country
of Arabia on the Persian Gulf,
th Tyre in spices, stones, and gold;
tposed to have been settled by the
is of Raamah, grandson of "Ham

IeS or RAMESES (Gen. xlvii
xiL 37; Num. xxxiii. 3)— one of
treasure-cities or public granaries,
trtified for the security of the stores,
tell us of a mass of ruins found at
n village of Abu-kepshib, about 40
Suez, and near the canal connecting
with the Nile. The central ana
location of this place i>oints it out
>le site of the ancient dty. (See

H, orRABBATH "of the children
'* (Deut. iii. 11), was the chief city
imonites, and was situated in the
of Gilead, not far ^m the source
ion. It was here that Uriah lost
he siege of the city by Joab (2 Sam.
i afterwards it was captured, David
ana the head of the army (2 Sam.
lS the capital of the Ammonites, the
iCTaenta are denounced a^dnst it in
•phedes (Jer. xlix. 1-3; Ezek. xxL
»). Its modem name is Ammdn,
ues from the Jordan, where exten-
are now found. After one of the
it was called Philadelphia. (See

TH-MOAB. (SeeAB.)
(Matt xxiiL 7) — a title of dignity,
gnifying great or chief. It was
le Jews to distinguished teachers of

NI (John XX. 16)— a Hebrew word
my masUTf Mon-neur^ or simply
I sense of the pronoim being lost,
sgarded as the highest title of
3ng the Jews.

kCf (Jer. xxxix. 3, 13) — ^probably
dan, and read Rabu-emga on the
L Nergal-sharezer bcnre this title.

^HADNBZZAB.)

RABSARIS—MKf eunuch (Jer. xxxix. 3,
13). Two princes bore this name — one who
came with Tartan and Rabshakeh to challenge
Jerusalem, and another who was present at tne
fall of that dty under Nebuchadnezzar : his
name was probably Sarsechim or Nebushasban.

RABSHAKEH— dUe/ cun-bearer (2 KL
xviii. 17) — ^was sent with Rao-saris, or *'the
chief eunuch,** and Tartan, messengers of the
kinff of Assyria, to Hezekiah, summoning him,
in the most insolent and blasphemous manner,
to surrender his capital The history is re-
corded in 2 Ki xviii 17-37.

RACA— twm (Matt v. 22) — ^a Syriac term
denoting perfect contempt of the individual to
whom it IS applied.

RACE (1 Cor. ix. 24). The word which is
rendered race, Ps. xix. 5, signifies toay^ road,
or path. Races were known to the Hebrews
(EccL ix. 11). The Eastern couriers are usually
taken from among the strong or distinfuishea
officers of the king*s forces. Hence the sun,
in the above passage from Psalms, is repre-
sented as an officer honoured by the Almighty
to bear the announcement of his power through
every clime of his dominion, in language silent,
but expresdve, and equally intellinble to aXL

When the word occurs in the New Testa-
ment it alludes to the Grecian games for tiie
trial of strength and skill in running on foot,
or horseback, or in chariots. To wm a prize
at these games was conddered as the highest
honour to be attained on earth. The most
strict and laborious preparation was made
for it A Greek author, Epictetus, says on
the subject — "If you would conquer at the
Olympic games, you must conform to rules,
suSnut to a certain diet, refrain from luxuries,
discipline your body at regular periods in heat
or cold, drink no cold water, and sometimes
not even wine.** In alludon to such hard
preparatory gymnastics, Paul says, "I keen
my Dody under.'* ** Every man that striveth
for the mastery is temperate in all things**
(1 Cor. ix. 24-27). The contest was governed
by established rules ; and so, says the apostle,
''^If a man also strive for masteries, yet is he

641

lUC

D<>tcroim*(1,exn'litbeitrivFUwfaUy''(ZTlm.
il fl). Tbiaw whu ointendttl tiir the pin wen
iltrrgtHl iif clotbinz; aviiiy imi«<liiDeiit wm
Kiuuvcil ; the {iriic wn* in full view ; uid tht
cniWD wH placed ni<t>n tha cuniiueror'i head
the tnnmi-Dt the imnis wu procliuiiicd (Phil
iii. la-M; aTim. iv. 6-fl; HeU liL 1).
The ^luHionn U> Uie Uredui ^unei
piHKit'^ ~ ' "'■■' — ' '■-'■■ —

B beuitif 111 Mid atnlung. dms-

II— Chuiul Dm.

tif evetj uniHxIiniiMit hy vhich their aiiiritiwl
■)>ecd may be lc«*nLil ; thej- are not to weuj
in wvU-(luinK, n<ir diiiiiit till they reach tht
nnd -where to evury one who h«« Rniihed the
niunie the prizu of eternal life will be iciTtn.
To cnvniira([>- lu amiilst trial* and wearineH,
the iiriu il new exhibited— glury ii fully por-
tnvyL-d in Scrijiture, that we may forget the
thinpi wliieh nrv behind, "anil press toward
the mark f<>T the jnize ■ J the hi|{h callinic"—
the "crown of ngbtinnimciui'' givun by the
LnnL the riKhteoiu ilmlije. SjiK'tnton were
rangeil on Uith siilea nf the iwc-ixiune in these

RAI
ingto ttw nMMnn of the nil (« Eh) "W
God luUi dirtribntod fat WL-

RACHEL— <««(GaL nix.ll Ihnh^fc
of I^bui. tha wife «< the p«fewA J«h iri
the noUier of Joacmk ud Baia^ |b
Jacob.) TIm buw of Ibehd iei^ It*
prophet (Jar. xxsL IS), flannln4|r:«k
tutcmal MHMtor td the Mm (H^
and Mnn—artit and the Bntetrb^^
is nippoaed to hBT* bean nUDiditai —
tribe* WBT* canisd into nptirinhMlti
Euphratee, AnmibrweMn^rfMMi
by the eTaagetirt in Matt iL U^vtaiMi
who «>a boiiad in tbatTidBitr.iii«««
renew har lamentatacoia at AidNPtoBe
maaj of her deaomdauta ai fiDn&iikr
barpui edict of Herod. (8eeK*MiJ

ordinaiaj- named Tt«*>«l« tk W.^ ta
wishto modifrthtoogeniiw liapiHuirf
caUherRsbahthohoBtHi. IhridiWtH
appean, howDrar, to be e«tM^»M>

l^me^ nnil amiini; tlii'm the furmer virion
iKxiin^ri] an lumoiimblit nnil coDspicmiua place,
■ -" We are eifflnii.i»iir>l about liy a ereet cloud
ofwitlirsi>ei<,° amuBsof iiidiantniiddclii,'hted
onlnokers, wrarins the iniMmiiiliblo crown.
AIliiHiona are also tniule to the Itoman rireui
.■<n<I it* lil.K»ly iportii in 1 Cor. xv, 32 (see
)'.t:A»T), and aU> in I Cor. iv. 9. The apostle
nifi'n to the iireimnttion made for aucuuis in
pugilistic Dimbats in thLio wonlH, "not as
one that bcateth the nir" (1 Cor. ix. m

Hie Udc* within which eadi competitor ran
e marked and chalked ' '

not (MBunmi b A* Uiri

though tber hnd been 1b Wfc A"9
me bow women an bpt aa^M h rf
ODontriee, we can acarce npnM Oat ■)■
good cliaracter oonld be foq^ m nAaW
tion. She xa»T hnTe been attkhidk^
Ufa to lome ct the liewitajM taab ■
had heard of the larselitv, and gf^kW
of God towarda than (Joab. E Ml);^
when the two ainea aant outbrJaAM^
to Jericho to explore the land at ptMa4«
concealed tfaem fnim the tdHeea akii*
Kut in sntrch of them, mil at a cMM^
time let them down bj ■ ond, >tp(ntlci«i^
of tha dty wall, to which ha booH iM
and f ullowinK her diiectiou; tby mfi
It was agreed between ho' aid tb» «■■*
ihe should take » ecarlet thi^td aail Ma*
in the window or aperture thraogh «UdAf
had escaped ; and when the cihr wat ilMM
her houae and aU that wen m it AaK*
protected (Juab, a 17-S31. Tbe lakBC
received frmn Rahab inilmxtd Je^ia k f
forward at once to the iiega of J«i^i^
when the city waa taken and bomt, iif
and her family were reamed and |MM
accordinsto the pronuae of the raiei U*'t
17-25). The faith of Kahab ucNlM*
(Heb. xL SI; Jaa. ii 25L Sb ■«■
Sahnon, of the tribe of Jndab— tkn bM^M
an ancestreai of Jeetu (Uatt. L SL

The term lUhab is med poeb^. ■*
•criptiveof EgTpt, in Pi. IxzxviL 4; 1B*>
10;Isa.lL9. The Serentv mden^l"
lea-monster in Job xxvi 12. In Hehrt,)^
ever, it is dilTerentlr spelt fran thi aM'
Rahab of Jericho. (See EarPT.)
HAIMENT. (See Ctonua.)
RAIN (tim. il 6). Thefon>egf&«iS
aliusioni to this subject cannot be anntM'
without some knowledge of t^ aaiM '
Judoi, (See 9EABOHa.) Bain falti nv^
quently during what we «aU the c^ N*^
mun November to Apoil.

RAI

jiwerfiilly for several dftys, with thunder and
l^tning, and a strong wind. In the summer
•■on, Irom May to October, the earth is
Bched, vadnre is destroyed, and vegetation
Vgaishes. The first rain aner the sommer
•ooffht nsuaUy falls in October, and is called
M fanner or autumnal, because it preceded
•d-time. and prepares the earth for cultiva-
■L The latter rain fidls in April, just
4ore harvest, and perfects the fruits of the
flrtii (Hos. vL 3; Joel ii. 23). (See Cloud.)
fiain is a favourite s^bol of divine blessing
Ml* xHv. 3, 4 ; Hos. vL 3). It is also a fi^pire
rwffcandimpressive discourse (Deul xxxii. 2).
mmdous storms of rain and wind are com-
OB in sudi warm climates, so that we are
rcSkHj reminded of the Psahnist^s words—
Tha obuds poured out water : the skies sent
ife * sound: thine arrows also went abroad,
be Toioe of thjy thunder was in the heaven:
m Ik^tnings lightened the world : the earth
■i^Sed and shook" (Ps. IxxviL 17).
BAINBOW (Rev. iv. 3)— a natural pheno-
■noil which consists of two arches, and is
miji formed on the part of the sky which is
qpoKtetothesan. It is never seemexcept when
m isn shines through rain, and his rays are so
fntv'^ as to produce the rainbow. The same
iflDcmenon is produced by the spray of a
■twfslli and even by throwing water up
a brush or syringe, when the sun*s rays
« through and be refiected on an op-
Bur^M^ The same laws by which this
is produced were no doubt in operation
I the deluge ; and we may suppose, there-
in that the bow was then employed or
ifMiinted as a sign of the covenant that the
Hi should not be again destroyed by a flood.

** When Kdenoe from creation's face
BnchantmentfB veil withdraws.
What loTely Tisiona yield their place
To cold material laws."

Tlie phrase, "I (ia set my bow in the clouds**
l«n. IX. 13), might with equalpropriety be
■ndated, *^I Aare.set,** fta The languaae
the covenant would be in substance— '* As
mly as that bow is the result of established
wi which must continue as long as the sun
id atmosphere endure, so surely shall the
oirld be preserved from destruction by a

j£LlSIXS. (See Grapes.)
BAM^ (Mic. VL 7) — a dean animal by the
Kemonial law, and used for sacrifice (Gkn. xv.
. In prophetic language the ram denotes
ywer and wealth, and also cruelty and op-

The ram of consecration (Exod. xxix. 26) was
dificed when the iniests were invested with
leir office; and the putting of part of the
ood of this sacrifice on the three extremities
tile body aptly denoted the consecration of
le whole boay to the service of the Lord.
BAMA (Matt iL 18), or RAMAH (1 Sam.
19), was a small town situated on an emi-
snoe in the territory of Beniamin (Josh, xviii
f)y and About 6 mueB nortn of Jerusalem, on

RAM

the way to BetheL The name Bama, or
Ramotb, signifies an eminence ; and hence is a
constituent part of the names of several places,
and is sometimes used generally for any high
place. It was here that the Jews were assem-
oled after the destruction of Jerusalem by
Nebuzaradan (Jer. xL 1) to take their depar>
ture firom their beloved country, and to go as
captives into a land of strangers, if not of
tyrants. It was this place that Baaeha, king
of Israel, once possessed and fortified ; but the
king of Judah by stratagem wrested it from
him (1 Ei. xv. 17). Near to Ramah Rachel
was buried; and she is represented by the
prophet (Jer. xxxi 15) as weeping over the
foes of her children, and refusing to be com-
forted because of their captivity. There has
been no little confusion in the accounts given
of the various places named Ramah. Iu»bin-
soiL after vanous inquiries and arguments,
finos the Ramah now referred to in a place
called er-Rflm, half an hour west firom Gibekh,
and two hours north of Jerusalem.

Another Ramah, called Ramathum-zophim^
was also the place of SamueVs birth, resioence,
death, and burial, and where he anointed Saul
as king (1 Sam. L 1. 19; ii 11; vii 17; viii 4;
xix. 18 ; XXV. 1). This Kamah, or Ramathaiin.
or Ramathaim-zophim, of the Old, is supposed
bv many to be the Arimatkea of the New
Testament, where dwelt Joseph, in whose
tomb the body of Christ was bunea (John xix.
38); and Nebv Samwll, which others, as
Stanley, identiry with it, is a conspicuous
eminence 4 miles north-west of Jerusalem.
But Robinson argues quite conclusively —

** The tradition, that here is the tomb of the
prophet Samuel^ necessarily includes the sup-
position that this spot is the Ramah or Rama-
thaim-zophim of the Old TeRtament, the birth-
place, residence, and burial-place of that
prophet. That this was a different city from
the Ramah near Gibeah of Saul (now er-R^m),
on the east of the N&bulus road, is obvious;
for the latter is only half an hour from Gibeah,
Saul*s residence, and its situation does not at
all accord with the circumstances of his fii^
visit to Samuel, when in search of his father's
asses, nor with David's subsequent flight to
Samuel for refuge. But the same dbO&cuHies
lie with almost equal force against the suppo-
sition that the present Neby Samwll can be
the Ramah of the prophet. As such it could
not well have been unknown to Saul ; since, as
being the highest point in the ooimtry, and not
more than an hour and a half, or two hours,
distant from his native place, it must have
been before his eyes, if not in Gibeah itself, yet
whenever he went out into the adjacent fieuls.

**But there are still greater difficulties.
There can be litUe doubt that the visit of Saul
to Samuel, above alluded to, took place in
Ramah, where the prophet entertained him in
his own house. At his departure in order to
return to Gibeah^ the prophet anoints him
as king, and describes his wa^ home as leading
him * by Rachel's sepulchre, in the border^
Benjamin.* . . . Every step taken from

did amnenU; ciiit io thu region, Kimawbani
nut fu dutjuit from Lyrld^ kdniita of littla
<iae<itiun. But dues thu gi> to ibow mj
oinni«tinn liRtween thii R^natbran and toa
iDiHluni Itamlehf Id ttaeU it oertainlr doM
ni>ti anil after ha^'inK had the lubject loD^
befiiru mv mind, I BDi cunjtimined to iibnit
that the balance ol pmbaliilitira Mami to be
againrt the identitv of the two. The two
aainiii, Ramah ^Itamathem) and ll«mlA_
initrad of lieiog identic*], or even Umlpwl
an tntally diimw buth in etmtHtigr «nd
meanini;. Kanilrh ngnifies ' aand,' and k thua
Bp]ir(i]iiutel; apfjliud to the town aa attnatod
in a candy plain: while Ramah ia 'a height,
hill.' and u therefore here wholly inapplicable.
— iii^ |jp. 40, 4L

"Sainuel mbh deivraded from an aimaliii
named Zuph, an Ephrathite of Bathlahem;
hia city wan tailed in full Ramaduun-lopfain],
and lay B]i|iwent1y in a tract apcikoi at aa the
land (if Zu|.b. I'ndn- these c^cinnataooca the
name Bainathaim-i'iiihim pmbablj nKnifiea
nothing more th&n 'KAmah of the Zoptutaa,'
or doacendnnti ot Zuph. But where are we to
look for thia land and city of tha ZophitaaT
Saul, dejiartinK from Clibeah uf Benjamin in
■carch ni hi* father'* awes, went Grat through
t Enhiwm on the north, and tbroodi
-' --■ -'— ■ -■ "— ugh dr

L and then

i:frt;

other placeiL an<

land of the Benji ,

to wnith), and came to the land of Zapb ' (1
Sam. ix. 4-6) and the d^ irf SamneL Aa he
returned fnrni thia dty to Gibeab, Hiparantly
after traTcUine iomo dittance, he waa to paaa
' nrar Rachel^ ae^idchre, in the (■ontham)
bonier of nenjamm, at Z«luh' (1 Sam. i. S).
These circuiDatnncw abow oundnaively that

piaoa euiaa jvud. tha i
It WM »ppauit«d for oim
(Dent. Iv. 43). Dtni^l
king* of Imal lUa pfaa
aeveral wan bttiaeau tl
Damaaena. wtao had ool

kinoa erf Ii

KLtoI ~ -

ot tha N<«eb la i.
with Bamath-lAi; cv <

RAM SKOra ^xod.

baavUtol aiticla oaanmaa
Tniker and HoniMov ^
dyad red, mmlar to wh
leather (Mmp. S KL iiL
RAKSOU(MBtt. zx. :
jiiiiii fid til iiiiiiiliaii Hi
or aUve (I Cor. tL UL
Under tha Lcnrttiwl b«
quired of vraiT Itnidtta i
ap, at the time tha ««aM
(deling la called a m
monej (Esod. In. U-U
half a shakel, or abo«tt oni
Miuqr. It waa to ba na
the plague ; and »tmy p

gtiage to illatr«ta tha graal
redcmptiai. SMtdtand'
aiiiipimii fiiiiiMlaath iii an
bat theTCBimet effect the *i
■onl. We ara bonght wit
' le— tha blood oTCfaibt.

RAZ

}royideB for the raven (Job zxxriii 41 ;
ni 9; Luke xiL 24/. Wliether the
mt oat of the ark by Noah periodically
1 to him, is not asreed. According
literal reading of the Hebrew, of the
an textj and the Chaldee, it aid ; but
•nt opinion is supported by the TjAX.,
ac, the Latin, and most of the fathers
lii 7). (See Elijah.)
DR (Num. vi 5). Oi its form we know
. The Nazarite was forbidden to use
its use was enjoined on the priests, who
bo shave all their flesh " at their con-
a (see also Ezek. v. 1; Ps. xz. 7).
igue is likened to a razor which cuts
t shaves (Ps. liL 2). (See Beard,
^fiFE, Shave.)

RKAh — noose (Gren. xxiv. 15)— the
I Labiui and wife of Isaac The dr-
ices of her marriage with Isaac con-
one of the most simple and beautiful
I of the sacred histoiy, (Gen. xxiv.)
aac.) After she haa been married
jrears, she became the moth^ of Jacob
VL, and at the same time received a
kble divine intimation concerning the
lestiny of the infants. When thej
>, Jacob became the favourite of his

and this undue partiality was the
I much domestic misch ief . (See J Acoa )
led before Isaac, and was buried in
m's tomb (Gen. xlix. 31).
ilAB, RECHABITES (Jer. xxxv. 16,
le Rechabites were a tribe of Kenites
anites (1 Chr. ii 55), descended from
I, or Jenonadab, the son or descendant
ab (2 Ki x. 15), from which last thev
heir name (comp. Num. x. 29-32 witn
16 and iv. 11). Jonadab appears to
en zealous for the pure worship of
id was associated with Jehu in the
ion of the idolatrous house of Ahab.
r to preserve their independence as a
race and a separate tnbe, and as a
igainst surrounding idolatry, he estab-
rule for his posterity, that tney should
neither land nor houses, but should
tents ; and should drink no wine or
Irink. In obedience to this rule, the
tes continued a separate but peaceable
living in tents, and removing from
[> place as circumstances required,
udea was first invaded by Nebuchad-
they fled to Jerusalem for safety,
pleased God, by the prophet Jeremiah,
at them to the wicked inhabitants of
•m as an example of constancy in
Mlience to the mandates of an earthly
Ter. xxxv. 2-19). They seem to have
itiallj incorporated into the tribe of
eh. iii. 14).

highly interesting facts are known
igtne present condition of the so-called
tes. They still dwell in the mountain-
pical country to the north-east of

Thev are called Beni Khaibr, sons
*; and their land is called Khaibr,
ve no intercourae with their brethren
2n

BED

the Jews who are dispersed over Asia, and
are esteemed as falte hrtthrei^ because they
observe not the law. They cannot accompany
a caravan, because their religion permits them
not to travel on the Sabbath day; yet their
country is so surrounded by deserts, that unless
in a caravan, it can neither be entered nor left
safely. But it is a question whetiier these
persons are Rechabites, or only Jews of some
stricter sect.

RECONCILE (Eph. ii 16), RECONCILI-
ATION (Heb. ii 17). These terms as used
by the sacred writers imply the restoration of
man to the favour and grace of God through
the atonement made by Jesus Christ (2 Cor.
V. 19). They suppose a previous state of vari-
ance and hostility, such as must necessarily
exist between beings so perfectly opposite in
character as the holy God and his fallen^ sinful
creature, man (Rom. vii 5-25). Two OLstinct
terms are employed in the New Testament,
and are both thus rendered. The one of them
used in Matt v. 24 seems to denote mutual
reconciliation — *' be recondled to thy brother ;**
—make him, if possible, one with thee. God
reconciles the world, as he does not impute
men's trespasses unto them. Men, who were
enemies, tne objects of God's judicial dis-
pleasure, are reconciled bjr the death of Christ ;
that is, the death of Corist enables God to
forgive sin, in harmony with the strict require-
ments of his law. (See Atonement.) When
the Philistines suspected that David would
appease the anger of SauL by becoming their
adversary, thev said, " Wherewith should he
reconcile himself to his master? Should it not
be with the heads of these men?" not surely.
How shall he remove his own anger against
his master? but how shall he remove his
master's anger against him? The injunction,
" If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there
rememberest that thv brother hath aught
against thee," means, "see that thy brother be
reconciled to thee," since that which goes
before, is not that he hath done thee an
injiuy, but thou him.

RECORDER, or REMEMBRANCER (2
SauL viii 16), was apparently secretary of state
and a confidential adviser of the sovereign.
The office appears in connection with Davia

REDEEM (Exod. xiii 13). According to
this command recorded in Exodus, i^ the first-
bom of man were to be sanddfiea — " All the
first-bom of man among thy children shalt
thou redeem." But after the idolatry of tiie
golden calf, and when the Levites did the work
of God's vengeance, thesr seem to have in-
herited, so far, the sanctity and blessing of
the first-bom. The first-bom of Israel and
all the Levites were numbered, and the f omier
were redeemed, each by a Levite being taken
in his room. But the number of the fint-bom
exceeded that of the Levites, and this surplus
that could not find a Levitical substitute paid
each to the priest five shekels for their redemp-
tion. All the first-bom afterwards were re-
deemed bv a similar payment (Num. xviii 15|.
The first- Dom of clean animals was to be sacn-

515

RED

fioed. The first-bom of unclean animalB, rach
M the am, wan to be redeemed with a lamb ;
if not, it wan to be kiUe<l (Ezod. xiiL IX) Re-
demption ahio ai)plied to the land (Lev. xxv.
24). \Vhen alienated, the original po8M88or
mi^ht at any time bny it back. It was never
sold. It could only be mortgaged; And it
alwaVB re verte<l at the year of j ubilee. A house
withm a walleil city, if not redeemed within a
year, waa ** establiKhed for ever to him that
bought it." (See Rakhom.)

REDEEMER (Job xix. 25). To redeem a
perwon is to purchase his liberty for him.
The price \w,u\ is calle<l the ransom. (See
Ransom). Sinners are in bondage to sin,
and of course they are in the bondage of con-
demnation. The Lord Jesus Christ having
given his life or his blood a ransom for them,
redeems thorn, and is therefore calUnl their
Redeemer (Matt xx. 28; 1 Pet I 18). This
ransom, though sufficient to redeem all men
from cai>tivity, avails only for the redemption
<}f such OS accept it and believe in the Son
of G<xL Not only is the ransom paid, but
{Miwer is put forth Ut secure their emancipa-
ti<in— **the prey is taken from the mighty.**
(See Redeem.)

RED HEIFER, (See Heipkr.)

RED SEA— a gulf of the Indian Ocean,
called in the Hebrew Yam Suph, or weedy sea
(Ex«hL X. It); Ps. cvi. 7). In the New Testa-
ment, as well as omon^ the Greeks and Romans,
the usual a]>]H>llation it bears is the Red Sea —
a name apifarently ori^nating in the reddish
api>enr:u)ce given to itrt waters by enonnous
qiiaiitities <if murine animalcuhe (oscillatoria
rubesccnn) Mhich at ctrrtain H«'asoiis are scon
swiumiiug on its surfo^'c. EliR-nlierg and
otherri who have recontly iiavi;^'attHl this sea
have o))84.Tveil this 8iIl^'uLlr plieuomenon^ and
tU-scrilk; tin* ai»iK'arancc nnnhictul by it as
similar to that priwluced by a mixture of red
li'iul with water. The IUhI Sea is the sea of
Edoin or Idinnea, wurdri meaning red.

The name llvd Sea wivs originallv np]>lied
)iy the ancientM to all that part of the Indian
Ocean lying bctwec'ii the ]>eniusulaH of India
and Anibia. But the t<.Tni is now restricted
to the Arabian (lulf. I'his gulf, conimcoidng
at the stniits of Rab-el-Mandeb, runs inlani^
in a north-weifterly direction, t^iwards the
M(Mlit«^rraiiean, iixmi which it is scivarated
only by the isthmus of Suez. Tlio whole
length of this g\ilf ih alxiut 1,4(K) niilen, and on
au aveiuge its breailth is 150 miles. At its
northern extremity it semrates into two
minor gulfs, which encl«)se fnttween them the
]>eniusula < »f Arabia. Akaljah. the Cjistorn arm,
calleil by the (iret>ks and Romans ylUanitis,
is about 112 miles long, by an average breadth
t)f 15 miles. Towards its extremity were the
i>orts of Elath and EziongelKT, memorable in
Scn])ture histriry as maritime stations by
which tlie Hebrew kings endeavoured to estab-
lish a commerce with the East (2 Chr. viii.
17). It is apparently this brunch of the sea
which is alluded to by the prophet in <lenounc-
iug judgments against Euom, who dwelt on
G4(>

FED

itanorthani bImwm, — "The cntbiinondtf
the noiM of their HJH, at tbe or the bm
thereof wma heard in the Bed aea* (J«.iSl
21). The wertean am, whidi tmaatka i
litUa above Snez, ia odJed the GoK of Sm(
and is much more impoctant than thtottva
Bible hiatocy, cm aooonnt of iti ciaiwiia
with the children of Imd ia Aor ente
from Egypt. It ia about 190 miki kit vtt
an average breadth of 21 milei» aid it at
part it ia aa wide aa 32 mileL Thereanaaf
indicatioiia to prove that this golf VHk ■
uident times much deeper and moit cxtaan
than it ia now. The marine apptanrnmi
the now dry aofl give evidence of Aa; ■(
many cities formeriy mentioned at nsprt
are now considerably inknd. The laali
risen, and the *' tongue" of the Bed teli
been dried up (Isa. zl 15).

To the reader of Scriptine the Brf b
derives its peculiar interest frum thi maA
wrought by God in dividhig its «ata% lU
his people Israel might escape from tit ^
of Pharaoh. When the reality of tht moA
is admitted, it is not of vitsi impartiHi It
settle at what particnlar spot the triba ar
have crossed from the land of their oty—
to the opposite shore ; 3ret a devoot mai^
not be unconcerned to know what koB^v
sacred narratiye appears most to fsnW
the place of passage. We obssrfs is Ai«^
set, that we can have no mnpathy «i&te
who, while thev admit the fact of mia^
strive to accoont for this, as theydofortM
all othert in Scripture, by some allcfdl |lp
cal causes less than BupematuraL Aadsiw
we may add, can we agree with o^hsi^
employ as aiiniment, in defence of a i^p*
place of passjufe, the allegaticai Attfcj
scope is afforded for a greater extent of aia*
thain elsewhere. Kecei\-ing the laqgMS**
the sacred narrative in its ob^-iou nii^C
we must believe that the divk&ur of ^ **
was the effect of a true miracle; Sotsite^
extent of this we rost for infonnadon m S^

question is, WhatdMV

the miracle pcrfoflH'

turc alone. The
Scripture say was

Did Israel itast through the sea «^^^
3 miles broad, or where it was 12 Jg
Kitto, in the Pictorial Bilte^ WiImb, !■ ■
work entiUed The Lands of tfu BitU, A
in hit TrartU in the East, &c., and tl^ '
fix on a place for Uie passage tddcb ifl|^
to us to mvolve the latter altematinL "^
with Canon Trevor, Drew, and otho^^.
the passage opposite to the Wady iWm
Imt I)r. Robinson, in his Bibtieal Ar-^
places it near Suez, and ddfendi ha
with great plansibiUty.

The tribes started man Rameses, i
in Goshen ; at the end of the second digj^ ,
were at Etham, *' in the edge of At ^j^\
ness ;*" and at the end of the third ^jQl
cam|>od by the sea-shore at Pi-hahiroth.^*^
wc are told, "they departed ttom Rfctli* |
and passed through the midst of tbeM^
the wilderness, and went tJkrte dsjM'dM'*f !
the wilderness of Etham, and pttcb>''^

I

1^

BED

1** (Num. xxxiii. 8). Suppodng them
e crossed not far below Suez, they would
be nearl^r midway between Kameees
[arah, having jommeyed about 36 miles
scene of their deliverance, and about 36
between that and Marah*

difficulty pressing against Dr. Wilson's
' is the breadth of the sea at the place
I, taken in connection with the short
n which the tribes must have passed
[h it. Granting the measurement which
V ilson and Olin give to be correct (though
ces the sea considerably narrower than

do), some of the people, from their
m. in the encami)ment, must have had
IS than 12 or 15 miles to journey in order
^ the other side. But the entire nation
1 during a fragment of a single night,
he morning watch the sea returned to
length," overwhelming Pharaoh and
hosts. Israel, then^ had passed through
i before this; and it appears naturaUy
able that such a host, consisting of
than 2,000,000 persons, with all their
and herds, cotila traverse the distance
ed in the time to which the narrative
ssthenu

the whole, it is probable that they
1 not far below Suez, where the sea at
ime was probably 2 or 3 miles broad,
lace anpears to suit the whole circum-
) stated m the sacred narrative regarding
previous and subsequent three days*
ying. It agrees wil£ the time during
the passage was made, and it seems to
only place of the Red Sea at which the
of an east wind could effect the miracle
ed. The arm of the sea, stretching in a
iasterly direction, was, as the shores
, then wider, and extended farther up
low; and though the sandbank which
lent constitutes the shallow fordable at
)b-tide may have partly existed, there
no doubt, from the facts just stated, that
t was in (^uite a different state, so that
»age was impossible without a miracle.
Studey gives no direct opinion; and

the Gferman geographer, supposed that
rossed at a point aoove Suez which is

he eve of their deliverance, then, Israel
. Pi-hahiroth, encamped for the night
he ^tiguing journey of the day. At
mmand of God they have at Etham
id off '* the ordinary route to the wilder-

and with a mountain shutting them in,

i Pharaoh said, "They are entangled"

ist "between Mlgdol and the sea." As

ening dosed around them, the fearful

flew through their camp that the

pursues them hard behind; and had
fch of the approaching host not been

it is probable there would have been
; till tne Lord's redeemed i>eople had
dghed as the captives of Egypt. But
enemy urged on, expecting tnat soon
uld overtake them, that mysterious
7y which the Lord led Israel tomed

RED

slowly round to the rear of their encampment.
It formed there, towards the pursuers, a doad
of darkness, into which the courage of £gYpt*s
boldest warriors feared to venture ; and now-
ever chafed at the delay, thev must, where
they are^ pitch their tents for the night
Meanwhile, in the camp of Israel the people
trembled and murmured at their l^er. That
noble leader trusts and prays to God. and it is
not in vain. At the word of Almignty faith-
fulness he lifted up his wondrous r^ over tiie
sea : a strong east wind comes forth— super-
naturally raised, supematurally directed— '^tiie
waters were divided, and the diildren of Israel
went into the midst of the sea upon dry
ground." It is night but they see clearly to
order their march, for a cloud of light, the
glory of the Lord, is their rearward. Their
ranks are long extended, for. supposing them
to go 1,000 abreast, they would form a line, with
"their flocks, and nerds, and very much
catUe," nearly 4 miles in length ; and against
the morning watch thev have aJl pasfed through
the sea. As the night advanced, Pharaoh's
hosts are aroused by the voice of their watchers,
declaring that the tribes have moved from
their encampment, and. venturing in the track
of that impenetrable doud, they eagerly pur-
sued. The entire army, the pnde and power
of Egypt, is in the bed of tne ocean. The
deep utters not its voice to tell of the imminent
danger ; they are thrown into confusion by the
castmg off of their chariot wheels. At last,
vexed, awed, and troubled, the^^ would fain
turn from their perilous enterprise, but it is
too late, — "Thou didst blow with thy wind,
the sea covered them : they sank as lead in the
mighty waters.'*

It is no objection to this view of Israel's
passage that it ascribes an agency to the wind,
m dividing the sea, inconsistent with the idea
of supernatural power as alone effecting mir-
ades. But Divine power produces miraculous
effects either by acting independentiy of
natural causes, as in raising the dead, or in
seeming opposition to their usual results, as in
putting clay on the eyes of the blind for
^ving sight— an application which might of
itself tend only to add pain to privation — or
in supematurally directmg common agendes
for accomplishing a supernatural result. How
the wind acted it is impossible to a&y.

This wonderful work of Jehovah is fraught
with peculiar practical instruction, and is there-
fore the subject of frequent allusion in the
Scriptures of truth. To it God himself fire-
quentiy refers, for the purpose of stimulating
ms people to gratitude ana fidelity (Isa. xliiL
3). To it saints in their devotions often delight
to allude, tiiat they may derive from it argu-
ment in believing prayer, and subject for
thanksgiving in adoring praise (Isa. n. 9, 10;
Ps. IxxviiL 13). To it inspired prophets point
in glowing prediction, as they give assurance
of a greater redemption which God will work
for Israd in tiie future, from this great deliver-
ance he wrought for them here in the past
(Isa. XL 15, 16). If presumption in sin require

647

BEE

■nlemn wiming againat retbtiii^, M Fhanoh
did, frequent reproof, it meeta it here by the
•ea, while the voice of truth calls to oonnder the
jiidKmentof old (Pcl Ixvi 5; Ixxxix. 10); and
dotfH faith in (i(Nl long for some ground in
tniHtink' hiR iM»wer and love ? it meets it in this
memorial (»f the heart and hand of Him who
chan^vth n<»t (Ina. xliii. 15, 10, 18, 19).

KK£1) (.Ti>b xL 21) -a pUnt of the gran
family. 'Hie liamboo and citmnum cane are

a»ccies of the reed, and S4> are the calamus and
Bf;. Fihh-iMiU'H, canvm and roili (Matt. xxviL
!210 are f«»niK*<l <>f it. Thexe ]>lant8 flourish in
murrthcii, «»r in the vidnity of water-cuun«es :
honrt* the alluHitm, J<ib xL 21-2JI. It is often
iiM'd )iy tho wu n.*«l writcra to ilbutratc w^eak-
ni'Srtnnd fraunlity (*2 Ki. xviii. 21; Im. xxxvi.
ti; xlii. 3; Kzt'k. xxix. <i; Matt xii. 20).

lU'ttlii M'crt' iils«> Used as }h*ti% are now (see
Pkn), an<l als4> ta* nionriiiring ruds (Kzek. xL 5).
(Sot' MEAsniEs.) Fn>ni their height and
NlcndtT Rha|K', ]ilantM of thin kind are moved
liy tht' sli^'htcst breath «if wind (1 Ki. xiv. 15);
and hiMice iiuthint; amid Im; more unini}iortant
in itsolf tb.in miicIi a motion, and nothing more
Htrikiu^'ly iUurttrative of hi'kleneiis and insta*
bility. l*hiH fi'wvA point Ut <iur L(»rd*s self-
jui.svitTed <|iu'Htion — " What went yo out for
t» sif? A rct'd nbaken with the wind? *^^ A
bniisi'd n-od Ih the imacrcof frailty (IV xlii. 3:
riini|>. Matt. xi. 7; LuKeviL24; Kph. iv. 14).
(See Hook. Ui i.ki'sh.)

]{KKI>, MKAsritlNli. (St'C MEARrUtX.)

IIKKINKU (Mai. iii. .S). To roHne was to
BCi>arutL' the <1roi«s fnun the ore and rii*ciire the
jHimnrtal (I.s\. i. *2."»; .Tt-r. vi. 2l»). niiswonl
iH tffton ust'd hL;»jrati\fly by tin- Hacn.il writom.
ItM i>t'«-i]liar fnnv in tlu- i>a<sav;e ({U«>U><1 from
Malucbi - "hi' shall i«it :ut a n-liner" - will be
Br«'n whi-n it is rcuivnilK'n-d that rotiners of
nilver sit with their vy^'H htt>:ulily tixed <iu the
funiaco, tliat tln-y inuy watch the ]irocet»s:
niitl that Uir jtrnci-ss it« miiipU-to and ^ivrfocteti
only whm tin- iftincr m s his own inU4^ in
thi- nii-ltol nia'^'^. Wlicn ( Miri»t hci'h bis image
iKifiitly nflr«trd in tlie holy lif«' and C4>n-
vrrs;itioii «if his i't«i|i!«>, the object of the
relinin;^ iintt'Mf is aci.'oiiiplishcd.

KKKICK. (Sot- City.)

1JK(;KNKI{AT1(L\ (Matt xix. 28; Titus
iii. .^0. This tcnn occurH in no otluT jiatbta^^es
of the En;(li}4h llible. It M^'nifies l>emg b<»m
ALrain. Am used by Mattht'w, the meaning of
the wonl will dc]icnd un the punctuation of
the ]iassa;^'o, and will either refer to the new
hirth which thr foUowern of l^hrint had iindcr-
pinc, or to the reTiovation or cunioimniation of
all thingM at I'hrist^H nccond advent when
thtrrtf 8hall l>e *' new heavens and a new earth.**
llie lai4t ifl the most natural construction. By
*' the wanhin^' of rej^'enenition," in the second
i>aM«;i^'c, is t«) Ite understood what is siguitieil
nv otlier words conveying precisely the same
idea, and which are of fre<{uent occurrence:
Our Saviiiiu* says to Nicodemus, ** Except a
man l>e lx»m again, he cannot see the kingdom
of G<m1" (John iiL 3). Chrifttians are described
as "bom of GckI" (John i. 12, 13; 1 John ii
548

REH

, ▼. 1, 4). ThiBj arc aln m«— ted »
bcsottanof Ood, or bv the wad of God (Jia
LliB;lPet.L3,23). And tiie mk ttsf ■
nbatanoe iauietutcd under tht idea flf a m«
CKAtiaii (2 Cxir. ▼. ITU ai«oe«iQgcltt»Biid
(Rom. xiL 2), a mwwiiv of the Bob Gte
(Titna iiL 5), a zwrarRctMi ham ttt ddl
(Eph. iL 6), a being qnickeiMd, Ac. fJS^^^
5.) B^geuCTrntion, tncn, may be ngndtiv
the ooDUDunicatkm of apiritnal fife to a ml
previoualy dead in tifiapaf i and nM^bf^i
almighty enogir of the H<^ Spmt nibf
use of the wwd of troth as tha luiUi— r;
in ooDseqnenoe of which ^vias opcniMBlb
soul begma to amvefaend qiiritiial tU^plii
new light, to beUeve them in a b«v wmm,
to love them with an affection not bcfioR i^
and to act henceforth from new noCini m
to new enda The eff eeti of iijananitini m
not bat be Tery pevceptifale m ths ^mik
penitence and contrition for an whkh ii !••
dnoed; in the aitlent braaUungi ite ^
knowledge of God, after oonmnfy tob
holiness, and oommnnion wHh him ttn^
Christ Jeans ; and in the land and tatiBA
feelings which ■pontaneooaly flow fra lb
regenerated soul towanla all men« aadcipalr
towards the hoiuehold of faith: far to W
brethren of Christ the aool bom of GodoHil
but entertain an affectioa of pecofisritaii^
and tendemeai, bnUi becnnae they bdaf^
Christ, and becanee they pQ«i]iM and wm^
something of the lovely image of Bin Art

Kehob belonged to the tribe of Aabcr iM
xix. 28). The word is also found in 2 te
\iiL 3, applied to a ])ei«tm ; and in tk iM>
b(M>k (cb. z. 8) it iA aj ipansntly qukca cf ■ i
town or diictrict of Syria.

REHC)1U:)AM— one feho mUirgtt Hbc ft^
(1 Ki. xiv. 21)- aon and sucoesscr of SahM
ascended the throne of Jndah at tbe aft ■
forty-one, and reigned eerenteen TBtt& ^
the commencement of his career he kad*
o]>portunity to conciliate the disoootcnlivki^
had been excited by the burdens inf^
during his father*8 reign; but, xejectiiif Ai
wise^ counsel of the aged, and adoptBr ^
precipitate counsel of the yoang, he ^^
nis subjects by the most insolent and tjnMi^
reply to their petitions and leprescnlitiM.^
Chr. X. 114), and hastened a diriiiot 4 ^
kiugilom. He added insnlt to uisi— -'
" My father chastised you with w^ Wl
will chastise you with soorxMons." IVi <d ^
tribes revolted (see Jeroboam), tearing i^
and Benjamin alone in their aUft^aatt to ii
house of David. Kehoboam pwyosed M ■*
to employ force for Uie poipose of red«i(
the rebels, but was divinely aduMoiikfd*
forbear (1 Ki xii. 24). Continual wan P^
vaileil, however, between the two pwrti*^
Chr. xiL 15). In about three yean aAirJJf
division of the kingdom the tnbei of i^
followed the tribes of Israel in their ic^ '

Ll

BEH

pTftctioes ; ftnd for this they saffered the in-
vmsioD of Shiahak, king of Egypt, who deso-
]4Kted the country, ftnd threatened the utter
destruction of their dty; but upon their
repentance the scourge was stayed, though
they suffered immense loss, and were made
tribatary to the invader (2 Ghr. xiL 2-12).
"We are told that a history of Behoboam^s
nign was written by Shemaiah and Iddo (2
Chr. ziL 15), but it has not been preserreo.
On some of the monuments of Shishak have
been ^soovered several effigies of captive
Uiga, and among them one of Rehoboam, the
■on «ui successor of Solomon. The name
flliffh^^ 18 written by lirfanetho, Sesonchis;
mad in the hier<^l3rphi(», Shesonk. The repre-
sentation of this striking scene is on the wall
of tiie palace-temple of Kamak. Each figure
has an oval oontaming an inscrintion attached
to it, and in one is found the epithet, ** Joudah-
nudek" — disguised Hebrew for king of Judab.
-The figure thus described has the Jewish
ooontenance, beard, and head-dress. The
other names are those of Jewish towns. The
Bunrament seems therefore to represent
SUaihak's triumph over Judah. (See Shishak. )
BBHOBOTH (Gen. x. 11)— Ineaning ample
(Gen. zxvL 22) — is supoosed by some to
in the passage dteo, either the spa-
of the streets or the extent of the
of Nineveh. But it u-as apiiarently a
■emmtecity.

KBHOBOTH BY THS RIVER (GeU. XXXVi. 37),

: the birthplace of Saul the Idumean king, was

. probftUv a town on the Euphrates^ the site of

_ ' iHiich u supposed to be occupied by the
V vtodem town of er-Rahabeh.

Behoboth is also the name of a famous well

, of laaac, near to Gerar, found by some in the

r' Wadr-Ruhaibeh (Gen. xxvi 22).

_: BEINS (Job xvi. 13). Tliw word, which

rly signifies the loins, or region of the

is used figuratively by the sacred

to denote the seat of the affections and

... ?TffiLIGION (Jas. I 26, 27). Tlie word
hare does not mean godliness, but only its ex-
~. tnmal form, as the Greek term so translated
Z linifiea. It is outer religious service.

^BElfALIAH (2 Ki. xv. 25)— the father of
; V^tkMhj the conspirator, and the assassin of
-- Firicahiah, king or IsraeL

KEMMON^METHOAB (Josh. xix. 13)— a
". toim of Zebulun (1 Chr. vL 77), identified with

Bnmmaneh, 7 miles north of Sazareth.
> BBMPHAN (Acts vii 43) — probably a
_— nr given to some planet (or the star-god,
.;=-Brtnm) whidi was regarded as an object of

- nonfaipi. The image of this object of their
liolatty. being endcmed in a small tabernacle

—^v portable case, was carried about from place

- t» place like other baggage. Such were the
4miee, Acts xix. 24: comp. Isa. xlvi 7.

"Vhnt the prophet caUa Chiun (Amos v. 26),

"^e martyr calls Rcmphan, Probably the

^ilmJji ngmiy the same thin^ in different lan>

Wli^JiLU — Heorew and Egyptian. (See Chiuk.)

J^ND (Gen. zxzviL 29-34). To rend the

BEP

garments, or tear them (2 Sam. xiii. 31), was
nrom the earliest period a sign of ^ef or peni-
tence. Jacob and David did it on various
occasions, and so did Joshua (Josh. vii. 0) and
Hezekiah (2 Ki. xix. 1). The high priest was
forbidden to rend his clothes (Lev. x. 6; xxi.
10), probably meaning his sacred garments.
Perhaps those referred to. Matt. xxvi. 65,
were such as were ordinarily worn, or merely
judicial, and not pontifical earments. Some-
times it denoted anger or indignation, mingled
with sorrow (Isa. xxxvL 22; xxxviL 1; Acts
xiv. 14). The phrase, "to rend the face"
^Ter. iv. 30), alludes to the ]>ractice of intro-
ducing paints into the flesh, particularly the
eyelids. (See Eyelids.) The practice of
rending the garments on any occasion of sorrow
became so frequent that it degenerated into a
mere formality ; and therefore the prophet says
to the people, "Bend your hearts, and not
your garments" (Joel ii 13).
BENEW, BENEWIXG. (See Begener.v-

TION.)

BEPENT, BEPENTANCE (Ezek. xiv. 6 ;
Matt ix. 13), is a change of mind, accompanied
with regret and sorrow for something done,
and an earnest wish that it was undone. Such
was the repentance of Judas (Matt, xxvii. 3) ;
and so it is said that Esau found no place of
repentance in his father Ittaoc. although he
sought it with tears (Heb. xiL 17) — L e., Isaac
womd not change what he hod done, and
revoke the blessing given t«) Jacob (Gen. xxviL
34-40).

Bepentance unto ltpe is sorrow for sin,
grief for having committed it, and a turning
away from it with abhominco, accompanied
with sincere endeavours^n reliance on God's
grace and the aid of the Holy Spirit, to live in
humble and holy obedience to the commands
and will of Groa (Jer. iiL 10; Matt. iiL 8;
Acts V. 31: xi. 18, 2;^, 2 Cor. vii 8-10; 2 Tim.
ii 25). Tnis is that repentance to which is
promised the free forgiveness of sin through
the merits of Jesus Christ.

The expression, "For the gifts and calling
of God are ^%'ith<)ut rc])entance," in Bom. xL
29, denotes f/cncrafly the stability and un-
cliangeableness of God*s commands and pur-
I poses, which will not be changed or revoked
from an^ change of mind or purpose in him ;
and particularly in relation to the Jews, that
God was mindful of his covenant with them,
and that it was firm and irrevocable. *^

When God is said to rejient, it does not im-
ply any change or sorrow, for he is of one
mmd (1 Sam. xv. 29; Job xxiii. 13; Jer. xviii.
7-10) ; but it denotes a courne of proceeding
which, if pursued by men, would be in<licative
of repentance or change of purpose. For
example, if one attempts to build a house, and
because he is unsuccessful, or di8a]>X)ointod in
the appearance or construction of it, puUs it
down, such a course indicates regret and
sorrow. So when it is said of God, that when
he saw the great wickedness of the world, it
repented him that he had made man on the
earth (Gen. vi 6), the expression is to be

549

]m!rai' muit be hmrd; but >■ thei

vtn only vonli, or Ktinkcn fur fnn ,, .

the; were jtittly liable tu the ceniure which t
this psMiuge implieg.

REPHAIM (2 Sun. xxiiL lH), or "TiUe;
of thi- iriaiiU" (.I.Mh. XV. 8 ; niil 16)-» re.
nuirkft1>ly ffitile volley (Ina. xriL 5) Mtvecm
llEtlilrlivui anil Jcruiuili-m, fiTmeilr inhabited
I>y a iMv uf eianbt (Uen. liv. S), and fanunu
f'irtwijiifDHvi.l'iivii-liirimiivertbeFlulutiiKa
(2 Sam. V. IK-*; ; I Chr, li. 14; xiv. Ml).
I'lTliaiu the Itfphaim were the uldeat inhabi-
tant«> vvvn |irior t<> the Cnnxuiitea who came
froni the vait, anil of vhiim the Emimi and

of t&eir tonplr. w
too much oocapiad
mnleat tha followen
of Cal^

e nf the

ItKl'lllDIM (E»>il. x^-ii. 1)-
■tati'ini of thu laroeliti'ii, nn tha wmem trm
i>f tlio K»l Sea, nut far fmrn SinoL It u
dlatiuKiiiiilKHl ae tho |ilace where water vu
tniraculoUKly euiijilii-d tu the miinmiring people
(Kiod. xvil l>). and nL«> fur Jiwhua'i victory
over Amalck IKiud. xuL H-10). Here, too,
Ji'tbro and hie family cnitie to viait Mown, and
unitdl with the eldvni of Iktoi'I in acti of Tor-
■hip (Eiml. xviiL 1-1-2: comp. Exud. UL 12).
It waK |.rolmbly in the Wady Ft' — '"■^—
IiUce it in Waily e*.Slifikh.

the

the Jews in Alaxandna
bcated, and their ante
while Petronina waa len
to Mt np the Mnpenv^
"AH hereupon," aa Jo*
with conatematjon,'* (L
reoiaili that tha Jew
einperoi'e parpoae, wa
threw theDuelvea on thi
and lamentation, qciu
heada, and walked wil
their back, as men
In the midet of thi*
loipA their animoaitj t
aeaeon, and then had tb
RESURRECTION (
there ahall b« » rcaonei
dead, both of tha Jwt ■
mental doctrine of tha C

Othen

Tliiii

iilacc ie calleil Meritmh (mrift a
■■ ■ uf the B.

■ ^™t

nearly Rynonjrnmus. An uwil, I'it. L Ilj, it
may mean either that the [lenoni deecribed
are vitlioiit knowled^ (cutnp. Jcr. iv. 22;
Rom. i.i»);i3T that, >o f ar ■« any kowI worki
are concerned, they are n-jectiil ; or that tbeir
euppuecd i^ud worlu, like bivw coin,
e|>uriuiu anil unciirrent (2 Cor.xiiL 6-7). _

rise nol^ then la not <
Chrirt i« not laieed, tliei
are yet in our wism. No
and forcibly prcaented jl
'■■- reaumctiini tA Jea
. .^haaied (Pi. zvL 10; 1
Jhrut himadf repadedl
^diL 3l The jn«cwiti
prevent it ; the failnra d
and the meaaima taken I
4. The atory of tha Boma
How could thef all baaii

coDld they toU what'h
elamben? And if they

KEU

irly proved^ and being proved, it

connrmB, m the fullest manner.
jid divinity of his character ana
owB the efficacy of his atonement;
nee, earnest, and example of the
. of his people (John ziv. 19), and
kt all juojnnent is oommittea into
xts xvii. 30, 31). It is a sufficient
le cavils of infidels on this subject,
Is no evidence from reason or the
oature againtt the resurrection of
rhile there is much, very much,
these sources in its favour. The
for itself a tomb and dies and lives
grain committed to the earth is
ath the dod and dies. Indeed, so

is the natural conviction of the
id on this point, that no nation,
ribe have ever yet been found who
3me form, recognize the doctrine of
dstence aiter the deatli of the body ;
.viction is satisfactorily met onlv by
and sublime doctrine of our holy
lich brings ''life and immortality
^ohn V. ^). Because Christ rose,

his shall rise. His resurrection

" But now is Christ risen from the
•ecome the first-fruits of them that
or. XV. 20). Not only shall they
se he rose in their name, but he
ge their vile body, and fashion it
s own glorious body. " " But some
y, How are the dead raised up? and
body do they come?" jl Cor. xv.
ipostle, in answer to this question,

there is close connection oetween
ction body and the present body,
ween the grain sown and the har-
. Identity in respect of the mere
A material particles which form
t body cannot, and need not> be
Yet there is such identity as con-
-sonal or si>ecifio sameness^ suiting
poses oi reward and punishment
ting the idea of a r«-suiTection— not
bion. The bodies of Christ^s people
3r animal, but spiritual bodies, or-
3rve the spirit, not the soul, or t/ri/x*^
esurrection— fitted to dweU in a
ere flesh and blood cannot enter" —
in nature to the immortal essence
vithin them— for ever beyond the
sease and the prey of death (1 Cor.

(See Soul.)
N (Gen. xxix. 32), signifsring he-

was the eldest son of Jacob and
t lost the pnvile^es of birthright in
3 of a grievous sm (Gen. xxxv. 22 ;
md his posterity was neither num-
oweifuL

TBIBE OF, took their portion of the
nd east of Jordan, between Amon
th, and Jazer on the north, and
, and Jordan west, called Misha or
is the same district that is now
(, and is still famous for its pastur-
1^ east of Jordan, they were among
ried captive to Aasyxia (1 Chr. v. 26).

KEV

BEUEL— a son of Esau (Gen. zzzvL 4).
and another form of RagueL (See Jrhbo.)
Other persons bore the same name.

KEVELATION (1 Cor. xiv. 26) —an ex-
traordinary and supernatural disclosure made
by dream, vision, or otherwise, and different
fiom the common process of mental reasoning
fDan. ii 19). (See Inspiration, Tbanob,
VISION.) The apostle Paul was favoured with
many special revelations (2 Cor xiL 1 ; GaL i
12) ; but the most peculiar and extraordinary
communication of this character was made to
the a^osUe John in Patmos; and it is hence
sometimes called, by way of eminence.

The Book or the Kevslation. This ia
the last in the order of the books of the Bible,
and is commonly called the Apocalypse, from
a Greek word which signifies revelation. It is
supposed by many to have been written about
the years 95, 96. It is called the Revelation of
St. John theDivine^ because to him was more
fully revealed the divine counsels than to any
other prophet under the Christian dispensation.
It has been observed that hardly any one book
has received more curly, more authentic, and
more lasting attestations to its genuineness
than this. But its canonical authority has
sometimes been called in (question. The fana-
tical rhapsodies of the ancient millenarians led
many to call in question the authority of that
book on which their reveries were based.
This was wrong. If the Chiliasts misinter-
preted the Apocaljrpse, their opponents should
have shown tne absurdity of tneir expositions,
and not have thrown discredit on the Apoca-
lypse itself. The current of extomal eviaence
is wholly in its favour. Ignatius, Polvcarp,
Melito, Origen, Clement, Jreracus, and Ter-
tullian refer to it as a portion of inspiration.
That John the apostle was its autnor was
fuUy believed in ancient times. There is a
great similari^ of style between the Apocar
lypse and the fourth gospel

It seems to have been written to comfort the
early churches under persecution, and its key-
note is the success of the new religion over
every opposition. It is but an expanded illus-
tration of the first great promise — ** The seed
of Uie woman shall bnuse the head of the ser-
pent." Its figures and symbols are august and
impressive, and remind us of Isaiah, Ezekiel,
and Daniel. It is full of prophetic grandeur;
awful in its hieroglyphics and mystic symbols —
seven scab opened, seven trumpeto sounded,
seven vials poured out; mighty antagonisto
arrayed acainst Christianity; hostile powers
full of maugnity against the new religion, and
for a season oppressing it, but at length de*
feated and anninilated, tiie darkened heaven,
tempestuous sea. and convulsed earth fighting
agamst them, wnile the issue of the long com-
bat is the universal reign of peace and truth and
righteousness— the whole scene being relieved
at intervals by a choral burst ofpraise to Qad
the Creator^and Christ the iCedeemer and
Grovemor. The book must have been so far
intelligible to the readers for whom it was &8t
designed, or it could not have yielded them

551

TIEV

either hopo or conuort It if iIm full of
Chriiit. it exhiuitd hii cloiy m Redeemer
and Irovernor, and describee that deep and
univenuJ hcmiage and praise which the **Xiainb
that was shun '' is for ever receiving before the
thnme. Either Christ is God, ur the saints
and angels are guilty of idolatry.

It would far exceed our space to recount
the many and opposing interpretations which
have t>een given of Uus book in ancient and
modem times. Some are simple and some
oomi)lex ; some looking upon it as almost all
fulfilled, and others reganung the greater por-
tion of it as yet to be accomplisheo. Between
Mede, Faber. and Elliot, on the cme han^, and
LUcke and Stuart on the other, there stretches
a wide trulf. In the hands of its expositors it
resenibkii a munical instnmient, there being
no variation or fantasia which ma^ not be
Iilayeil u])on it. Some authr>n find its fulfil-
ment in (V>nistantine*s elevation, others in
Luther^H Koformation. One discerns its com-
pletion in the French Ilevolntion, and another
sees in it a i>ortraiture of the ]irinciples and
struggles of tiie voluntary ctmtroveniv. Wood-
house and Meile, liicheno and Croly, Faber
and Kill* it, Newton and Stuart, have con-
structeil opixiKite systems with equal tenacity
of purfNiNe and ingenuity of ctmjecture. In
the nieantiuie we can only add tliat the year-
day thiNiry reouints defence, that the purpose
of the AiNicaiyiMe neeils to be more clearly
define<l, and tuat fortuitims similitude of
events in not to m(»iiM our inter] ^retation of
pnn»lK'tic HyiiilmK \Vc have only room to
exhibit oiic of the Hunplor vii-ws of the
AiHii-alypst*: —

Tw«» ritiofi are mentioned as overtlirown,
and a third is c.xtaMishod on tlieir niiiis. By
SimIohi irt ni'-ant Jonisalcm, oh is evident from
tlie mention of the "temple'' and **h<»ly city."
hy Ba1>yl(in is meant Kume. Ilioo two
citiert are i>vortlin>wn, and the New Jenisalem
is eHtablinhed. JenisiUem is the Hyml)ol of
Judaism and Babylon of Paganism, lK>th of
whicli systi'ms are at length overtlirown ])y
the spread and {Kiwor of Christianitv. The
wlmle pniphccy may Iw amim^l tlius, — 1.
IiitriHlurtion of tlie Kevon epistles to the
seven churches. 2. Prv]>aration for the great
events t<i fi>llow— seven seals. l\. S^hIoui, or
fleniMileui, n-presenting Judaism, destroyed
by a si'ries of calamitii*s -seven trum)>etA. 4.
Birth of Christianity, the child of uncomipted
Judaism, and preservation of the infant from
destruction bv tlie sin^cial inter} >ositi(m of
heaven. 5. liabylon or Bome (in its first
form as a marine monster), t. c, persecuting
Paganism, dustni^ed by a series of calamities
-^seven vials. Inder this ]iart there is a dis-
tinct alluHion to Mohammedanism, a compound
of Juilai.im and Paganism, whicn^ under the
Saracenic power, overthrew Chnstiaiiity in
the East, sc. 6. Babylon in another form —
the panal despotism, a comix>und of itasanism
and Ciiristianity— Bal)ylon finally and com-
pletely destroyed— conflicts and victories suc-
ceeding the Beformation. 7. llie millennium —
552

ftdnmudHB li

batikBlr

&

and

beayenlT woild. fSee

Oe CWfMMW and /iilcfprvtafM qf Ik Ja^

REVENGE (Jer. zt. 15). or ntm«sd
forerily is expraa^yforliiddai bjtiwdifiMlw
(Lev. sx. iTTlsTl P«t uL 9^ WkaMi
■poken of as a rercnger, it ia m the aw HB
in which he Is nid to be fmkm or Is bi
jealous Qod^ or to repent He &m llifta
mfinita jnstioe and holmeaB which mdd mt
does from anger and maUeSp or ottvaMr
pssnon or emotion. The tern is ml to
denote the effect of God*B deali^i^ adm
the motiveu (See Ahokb, Atbm.)

REVENGEIL (SeeATOOL)

REZEPH (2 Ki nx. ISK FtMtitf^M
where Resa£a now is. £mai90toJ0Hhii^
of the EnphntesL fiMhAmyA ■ ' "
among the citiee conqDered bj the
(Isa. xxzviL 12).

REZIN (2 Ki. XT. 37)-~a kii« of
or Syxia. who nuMle wa

under Abas besieged J

Tiglath-pileser U., the aDjof

is lefeiied to on the Assynaa .»«..»...-

REZON (1 Ki xi. 23), son of Ebik
revolted from Hadadeser, and liaiisfiM
a company of adventurers, and ate aikac
seversi incursions into the oaatiT mtm
Damascus, he finally anooeeded ia eteMl
the crown, and beosme a eore vaStiB to
Israel in the days of David and SokBOL

RHEGIUM (Acts xxviiL 13). nor Rcfp^
is a maritime dty of Italy, on the soulhis*
point, about 10 miles from Mesimaia Si^
and opiMisite to it, where Paul tsRwd a iif
on his way to Rome.

RHODES (Acts xxL 1)— an ida^ ii *•
Tjevant, off the south-west puint of in
Minor, containing a city of the saae mk
It is 40 miles louff and 15 hnad, nds^
celebrated for its spools, and fortM iom^
ing state of the arts and sciences, as ed ■
for a colossal statue 105 feet in hoehki itai^
ing astride of the barboux^s moraiL as tM
vessels could pass under it. It stood ttgF*
years, and was then overthrown br as cv
(luake, and the brass of it loaded 900 ossA
and weighed 7*JO,000 pounds. In the ffta^
century Khixies woe the residence d ^
knights of St. John of Jerusalem. M ^
island Paul touched on his way fxtsn VihW
to Jerusalem. It is supposed by sow ^
the name Rhodes is derived frani ths a^
tude of roses produced on the isHaol ^
Rhodian coins have a flower on thcn;^
it is not a rose. The modem tomi oeeiP'

about a (luarter of the site of the mrh.
One of its harbours is stdU called BhodiiiJll
no traces of the ghuy of the iaaut of^
are discernible.

RIBBAND OP BLUE (Num. rv. «). ^
this portion of dress a pecoJiar aaiulii^*''
attached: and it was in all pcobaliB^f*
part of Clurist'to tobe, called thsb«if^

I
r
t
a

r*

r-

J.

*

y

RIB

nxTnen^ which the woman touched, and by
Uie toucnimr of which she was healed (Matt
lx.20).

RIBLAH (Num. zxxiv. ll)~<ine of the
boundary cities on the north. Another place
of the same name is probably the Biblth men-
tioned by modem travellers on the Orontes,
30 miles south of Hamath, It was doubtless
m pleasant place, and therefore chosen by the
UnffB of Babylon as a residence. Pharaoh-
aecMoh stopped here on his return from Car-
dwwnish (2 Kl xxiiL 33), and deposed Jehoahaz,
pottinff Jehoiakim in his place; and here
Nebaooadnezzar abode while Nebuzaradan,
Ua chief commander, laid siege to Jerusalem.
HHher the prisoners were brought when
£edekiah*8 children and many others were put
to death, and that king himself deprived of nis
9J9B ana cast into prison.

RIDDLE (Judg. xiv. 12). The word is
ttfipHed to parables, proverbs, hard sayings,
quaint conceits, all^orie& queries. Orientals
qMcially fond ca sucn verbal ingenuities

idpnxzles.
BIGHTE

.GHTEOUSNESS (Isa. xlv. 23) is an
itial attribute of Uie Divine nature; and
iM it IB frequently used, is nearly allied to, if
aot the same with, justice, holiness, and faith-
fobiMB (Ps. cxiz. 142; Isa. xlvi. 13; li 5. 6,
8; Ivi 1). It is also used to denote the perfect
obedience of the Son of God (Rom. v. 18, 19).
^Iie '^'righteousness which is of faith" (Bom.
& 6) is the righteousness which is obtained by
tbe grace of uod through faith in Jesus Ohrist
atom. iiL 21-26; x. 4, 10; 2 Cor. v. 21; GaL
a. SI). ^ Righteousness is veiy commonly used
for nprightoess and just deaung between man
tfid man, as in Isa. Iz. 17 ; and for holiness of
fife and conversation, as in Dan. iv. 27; Luke
i 6: Rom. xiv. 17; Eph. v. 9.

RIGHT HAND (Ps. xxi 8). The right

kmmd is the sjrmbol of power and streng^ ;

ifbenoe the effects of the Divine omnipotence

un often ascribed to the ** right hand of the

Mont ffigh" (Exod. XV. 6: Ps. Ixxvii 10).

Tbe right hand commonly denotes the south,

tm the left hand denotes the north (Gen. xiv.

IIQ. It is said to have been the custom among

iSb» Jews to swear by the right hand, and that

' tida Is implied in Isa. Ixii & It was certainly

flommon to lift the hand in swearing (Gen. xiv.

tt; Dent, xxxii 40). To give the right hand

^••0 a marie of friendship ^GaL ii 9). Hence

liie force of the expression (Ps. cxliv. 8),

** Their right hand is a ri^ht hand of false-

bood." Tne right hand bem? a most useful

member of the body, e8X)eciaJQy to labouring

■len, to cut it off implies the greatest sacrifice

pCatt. ▼. 30). To be seated at the right hand

II a token of i>eculiar honour (1 Ki ii 19);

and when the expression is used respecting

Otrist (Acts viL 65), it implies his unequalled

dkrnity and exaltation. The right hand being

iSed m conferring favours, became a symbS

of ha{fpine88 — "At thy right hand there are

«leo8iireB for evermore** (Ps. xvi 11).

RIMMON (Josh. XV. 32), or REMMON—
fomegranate (Josh. xix. 7). L A dty south of

RIZ

Jerusalem, in Judah, belonging to Simeon,
rebuilt after the captivity.

2. RiMMON. or Rehmon-hithoab (Josh,
xix. 13; 1 Chr. vi 77)— a dty of Zebulun
belonging to the Levites. (See Remmon*

METHOAB.)

3. (Zech. xiv. 10) A town in the southern
section of Judea, first belonging to Judah, and
afterwards to Simeon (1 Chr. iv. 32). There
were other places in Judea of this name.

4. RiMMON-PABEZ— an encampment in the
wilderness (Num. xxxiii 19).

5. A famous rock or fastness in which the
defeated Benjamites took refuge. A village of
the name occupies a hill-top between BeUiel
and the Jordan.

6. (2 Ki V. 18) The name of an idol wor-
shipped in Damascus. Naaman. who was in
the habit of attending the king in ms idolatrous
services in the temple of Rimmon, seems to
have been perplexed about a question of duty
as to continuing this practice. (See Naaman. )
The full name Hadad-rimmon may mean the
sun-god who rip^ the orchards.

RINGrS (Isa. iiL 21) were used for ornaments
(Jas. iL 2) and for seals (1 Ea. xxi 8). That
they were sometimes used formerly as they are
in modem times is obvious (Ezek. xvi 12) ; and
we are told that the servant gave a golden ear-
ring of half a shekel, or a quarter of an ounce
weight, to Rebekah (Gen. xxiv. 22). This
present given to Rebekah has been supposed to
oe a nose-ring : it is said that Abraham's mes-
senger "put it upon her face." (See Nose.)
Rings were doubtless worn as ornaments fur
the hands (Isa. iii 20. 21 ; Luke xv. 22 ; Jas. ii
2). The nnjg^ was also a token of authority,
and the giving a ring the sign of imparting
authority (Gen. xli 42; Esth. iii 10, 12; Dan.
vil7).

Rings are worn, too. as i^nkle-bands ; several
are put on the leg, tne one above the other:
little bells are sometimes attached to them, or
they are hollow and filled with pebbles, and
they produce a tinkling noise as the lady walks
along (Isa. iii. 18). A cnain was also sometimes
fastened from the one ankle to the other. (See
Clothes, Seal.)

RINGSTRAKED (Gen. xxx. 35)-cir-
cularly streaked.

RIVER, THE (GJen. xxxi 21). The
Euphrates is often called "the river." The
Nile is called, by way of pre-eminence "the
river" (Exod. iv. 9). It is used fi^^urativelyto
denote great abundance (Isa. xlviii 18). The
word river, or brook, or valley, often stands in
our version for what is now called a wady —
not a perennial stream, but a ravine through
which water occasionally flows after the rains.

RrvER OF Egypt— the desert, brook, or
wady, El-Arish (Num. xxxiv. 3. 6). It formed
the south-western boundary ot the promised
land ; and it was a kind of northern boundarv
to Eg3rptian territory, there being only a wil-
derness between them. It is sometimes called
the Rhinocohira.

RIZPAH (2 Sam. iii 7)-« concubine of
Saui A very affecting evidence of the strength

553

ol maternal fcelina »■» si ''en •"? •>*' '*'"' ■^*
watfhrd duv wid oiKht, for muif montha (piob-
klily from Starch tu Octalwr), over the bodic*
vt her two Bi>n». who h»rf bntn put to • riolent
lirnUi liy the llitomitei", «nJ the carpma of
which had remiuiiHl on the itahi
that tinii-, & Sun. xxll

ItOAU-k f<>m c^ tha nuw
niM (I !<aiii. xiviL 10).
RORIIKRY. («« Theft.) _, ,

ItUKEti The inii.ra* articlM of Hcbnw
dien luTe bum dcMSibcd uiular CuttHn.

BOC
Hn. Tlnu-k Amu te Mt n4rl«in.fll
KOCK (Dent. toL 1«. .Tfci BAamM

— — dlBtilkctiTtl

The Oriental natinnii. bmrfViT, lind character-
istiu coHtuiucH, vadi i>vi|>Iu having M>methiDe
in Hluttt iiT tuxturv )ii,t-ti1inr tii itx'lf— iw may
be Hwn in the aniit'^id I'vit, uiiirh eiiilaim
itM-ir. (S«e ('l^>T>iEH. Media, Fehhea.)

Mk Finn thua tli-wriln-a a villagv :— " A
tniriinu WwmililoKi- <•[ biit» it ii>; the greater

Sirt Imllt <■! abow, ti> Iw Mire, biit vitb low
mm, rarely a hiJc (iir a wimtiw— ilarlt, mif-
fiiratinK'Iiii>kiii>calinil«t: anil the namiw liinea
wnv one mavi u[ liiii' iliiBt and ilimghill*, on
the lan^t i>f which rat i>r lay tn-o i>r three
nivQ, uiii> (if H'hiini avi-meil to )>« the elivlkb.
11ii-y Miens iituuklii;( and talking' with nniie
wilil-loiikiDi; men, viiuliini from the fartliur
Tm*. Urn anil thtre an old cmiiu ix!e|wcl
tint frum ntic nf the lun'rU t<i Imk after us, nr
tn lee tliat her chilli did nut get under the
bfimnH' feut. Vba wiiinni were drdned in thu
nnivim'Bl hlup k-jhti, but iild aitd foiled ;
dirtj cbith iierveil inrtn
the liethluhem wnni'n ;

drifl viMaecH a dime row oi suver i-uuj wan
Tan;-v<1, helnict-fonhion ; and Novcral of thrm
had ruilu iiilver brai'iOctii i>n their wriata. We
were Klad to en-ape frum the dn«t and dis-
at.Twal)le smell which in gieciilinr to these
villatffH— ariKinK chiefly from tho fuol tbey
bum- and ninAio our way to the quarr)'.'* —

2 l.1ir. nr.U,*

re oftm rdodk

aa pUcM of (htbtr M
•ayn of the pn*. "^
enbraes the ruck tct Mi
of m ^her" |Job nnt

- - avea, ajul ia tU) .

1 in ruclu, and ia high placM, nd B
a" (1 Sam. ziii. 6; Iol iL 10, 19). Bi^
re abo places of aeciirity. Saawa did
I the tup of the rock Etam (Jadf. f-
j the Benjamitea tooli refngs is Ihi >^
immon (Jud^. IS. 4B), Bidaatnthni''"*"

„ hy dvdliw{kn

and thou puttert thy neat in » iQck'iSK
xiiv.21); and la^ah ■iIlg^ "Ha^flM
rm high 1 hia place nf defence ahtll bt >•
munitinniof rucka" (laa. xixiu.16). OiaU
picture! the pride and aemritT of Ik n^
city of Petra (Obad. 3). Bo^ in a idV
country alfoTded a cool and Tcfraafaiic Mk
—■'the «hadow of a gr-eut rook in ■ »•?
Luid " (laa. ixiii. 2). FartncMca nf^
impregnable were f reqnent in Paleatmr, <■>■
which ia thui deacribMl — *■ And betna ■■
l>a»idAFfc4t by which Jonatbao aon^ttop'**'
uuto the Philiatinea'garriaon, then watiiM
rock on the one aide, and a sharp nek*'''
other ude: and the name of the one «h BM
and the name of tho other Bench" (I ^
liv. 4, 5). Hivtw of bees nocadcvallymi^
in the mck; faene« the unanife td t^boi
le, " With honey out of the rock Ai^I

ROD

sfied thee.** The conies, wild goats,
ad doves frequented the rocks (Job

Prov. XXX. 2b; Song ii 14). Houses
nded on them (Matt, yii 24), -and
ire hewn out of them. Thus ^aiah

following fulmination at Shebna: —
iiast thou here, and whom hast thou
i thou hast hewed thee out a sepulchre
[le that heweth him out a sei>ulchre

and that graveth an habitation for
1 a rock ? "* (Isa. xxii. 16.) The hard-
sterility of the rocks are alluded to in
; xxiii 29: Amos vi. 12; and water,
le, gushed out of them (Num. xx. 8,

ix. 15; Ps. IxxviiL 20; cxiv. 8; Isa.
.). Kocks were sometimes rent by
kes, as in the scene of terrific grandeur
• during Elijah^s retreat (1 Ki xix. 11).
tem to have been built on them, and
red as places of idolatrous worship.
1 is often applied to Grod, especially
salms, as he IS a defence and refuge
iiL 1); and to Christ (1 Cor. x. 4).
LB, Mountain, Peter, Petra.)
Gen. XXX. 37) or STAFF. This word
as significations in the saored writing
I a^ snoot or branch of a tree, and in
e is applied figuratively to Cluist —
ut of the stem of Jesse " (Isa. xi 1),
ie tribes of Israel as springing from
(Ps, Ixxiv. 2 ; Jer. x. 16) ; for that
pports and strengthens (Ps. xxiii 4:
1; Ezek. xxix. 6); for power ana
' (Ps. iL 9 ; ex. 2 ; cxxv. 3 : Jer. xlviiL
u xix. 14 ; 1 Cor. iv. 21 ; Kev. iL 27).
dgnifies thoS6 sharp afflictions witn
Ki disciplines his people (Job. ix. 34 :
eb. xii. 6, 7).
igin of the figure is very apparent in

allusions. The staff Dears up the
> does God*8 presence support his
3eople. The staff was like a sceptre,
ta of dominion — Qod^B rod is his power

the aspect of a punishment. The
hrist*s strength is that Grospel which

proud mim, and triumphs over a
I world. Tne parent uses the rod

his disobedient children— so Grod*s
s discipline his people, and give them
rence for their Father.

»A68INO UNDER THE (Ezek. XX. 37).

according to rabbinical tradition, tiie
I the Jews to select the tenth of their
)v. xxvlL 32) after this manner : — ^The
are separated from the dams, and
in a sheep-cot, with only one narrow

the dams were at the entrance. On
the gate the lambs hastened to join
s, and a man, placed at the entrance
1 dipped in ochre, touched every tenth
I so marked it with his rod, saving,
I be holy in the name of the tenth."
JOEBtrCK. (See Hart.)
L. (See En-rogel.)

(See Book.)
3, HOUSE OF. (See House.)
N, or ROMAN CITIZEN (Acts

The privilege of Koman citizenship

BOM

is illustrated in the case of Paul— showing that
it was hereditary, that it could be won by
merit or purchas^ with money, that a Boman
citizen could not be scourged or imprisoned
without a trial, and that he had the privilM^
of appeal from an inferior tribunal to the
emperor at Rome.

ROMANS, EPISTLE OF Paul to, is the
sixth in order of the books of the new Testa-
ment. So much is the phrase, the Church of
Rome, associated with idolatry and persecution,
that the mention of an epistle to an early
Christian community in the city of the CflBsars
suggests many stnuige associations. What
ideas, and how opposite in their nature, are
at once linked with the mention of this epis-
tolary correspondence, — early successes of the
Grospel — Jesus of Nazareth and his humble
and devoted adherents— the effusion of tiie
Spirit at Pentecost— the mission to Cornelius —
the labours of Paul— the progress of the new
religion in the midst of bloody opposition
from the trembling guardians of the altars and
thrones of the earth, and its victorious march
from the dwelling of the centurion in Judea
to the palace of the Caesars in the eternal
dty. oa^ were not chosen to disseminate
the m3rBteriesof Christianity— men whose minds
had been disciplined by studjr, or had been
conversant with lofty speculations, and who
could reason on the points of dispute with
logical acumen and rhetorical fluency. The
arm of the Lord was revealed in enabling the
untutored Gralileans to effect a revolution so
wonderful, and extensive, and speedy; for even
at the period when this epistle was written —
about A. D. 57 — ^the faith of the Roman saints
"was spoken of throughout the world." That
the diurch in the capital of the empire con-
tinued famous in her purity of woiship and
character for some time is not to be doubted.
Yet, alas ! how soon the gold became dim !
Errors in doctrine and ceremonial observances
had been gradually induljg^ed prior to the time
of Constantino ; under his patronage and that
of his successors such errors were multiplied
and legalized ; a spirit of secular ambition and
splendour was created and fostered; a foreign
power was introduced into the government of
the churdi, till at length was fully developed
that predicted system which, first appropria-
ting tne wealth, and then assuming the gaudy
insignia of the pagan ritual, substituting angels
for genii, and mturtyrs for deified heroes, now
proudly claims the appellation of the Catholic
Churcn of Rome, entnroned amid the broken
arches and prostrate columns that strew the
seven hills, tne kindred remnants of a past and
fallen magnificence.

This epistle was written at Corinth, a. d.
57, 58, just as the apostle was leaving that city
for Jemsalem (Rom. xv. 15 : compare Acts xx.
2. 3, 16; Rom. xvi. 11, 23; 1 Cor. L 14; 2
Tim. iy. 20). The Roman church was com-
posed partly of converted heathen^ and partly
of Jewish Christians. The Gentile converts
claimed the same Christian privileges with the
Christian Jews, but ref usea to sulnnit to those

555

{

m>7 take of th« mter of life fnwlj. Hun ii
a ngnlar mtithod in the eplatle, irhkih, iudatd,
momblea a, fonoal dueoMion mora tlun a
familuu' letter.
The ajiwtle bcgini bj ibinriiuc

depnkvity and impiety of the be ,

and hii jillegaljotia, black and butninK tbongh
th«7 be, are amply bone out by pagan tMs-
ranny. The (inutile world waa *eruy guilty.
Nor yet waa the Jewish world in a mora bvour-
Bb1« condition in the aisht of God. Nkv, if they
■inned, tiuAi guilt wai acomn^aniad Of many
hdnoniaiKiaTationa. They enjoyed the ncaclsa
of God, whiuh coDilvmniid all who violated the

!=..!_. 1 rm^ entire bomao race arc

anil tliis ii the fir«t and

jKom. iii. 111).

But if there be ealvation, it muit be of God
and of grace. All have Binned, and they can-
not, tberefnre. be the authnra of their own
salvation (Riim. iii. 30). lliey who are wnd
nre jiutitied, and that fiieelt, by bis sraoc.
(^Ihrist died to satinfy tHe requiremcaitxn law;
Cod'a lighteuniniuaa ia thus declared in the
remissioD of sin— yea, he ix just while he
jiutifiea the ungodly. And so the inference
n, "Thervfure we conclude that a man ia
juatiGed by faith without the deeds of the
law" IBoin. iiL 2SJ. The gratuitous nature of
thii justification is seen, too. by its being nf
faith—" It ia of faith, that it migfat be bygraee ;"
and thii is evident from the iMerj of Abra-
ham, who p-wseosfd tbe righteoiianiH of faith,
and is oonJimied by the experience and lan-
uuBge of DaviiL iTuatifiiation brings iieace,
hope, paUence. (" - ■

The human ri
connection with

e all guilty, from th«r
in— Adam (Rom. v. 13,

Hodn, a&d

involTa aaj a< ,

The oommon nUsim

we regard Mt£aiMit<

The dokth ehap&r 1

statwaww^ ahinrtBc 1

•i^"

^ andoo-boiii

tnie, nnder mSeiinff aa
length of fiaal riery — <
vHLSl, 32).

affeetimi o( Ua own cm
tionbe eoveted, iUutn
the aorenisit^ of Ood

and eat what pagan han
tered, ae whidi might h
associated with the ritas

n of its glory __

iBon to faUen kodnelpleu humanity.
I£E [Act* uviii 16), the capital of the
a empire, and once the metropolis of the
, ia ntnatod on the river Tiber, 16 milea
ti mouth. It ia said to have bdeo built
snulna, B. O. 750; aod though at first it
wd a HDgle hill of lees than a mile id
i, it included in the day* of its gloiy
(•ome Bay fifteen) hilli, covered a tem-
10 Dii]«B m circumference, and had a
UioD of 1,260,000-a half, perhapa, of
Tere slaves It bad 150.000 hollse^
• the mamioiu of the DobiUty; and it
9n temples crowded vith pagan deitiee.
Dnnre contained the dvilized world, and
nUion of more than 80,000.000. The
M ^ven up to the grosMst idolatry and
■tition, while in uta and anoa sue was
•Hj the mintiead of the world. Thi« waa
Me of Borne at the birth of Christ.
- tomed a part of her immenae empire,
•taj JewB were TeaJdent in the city. At

h nncettsdn— probably eonn after the
! Penteooat (Acta ii 10). We know that
ly >i A. D. 64, eight or ten yean after a
b waa eatabliibed there and addreased by
(Bom. i. 7; ivi. 19), the empeixir Neni
weed a furiona pervecution a^inst ita
OB, which the emperor Domitian re-
L A. D. 81, and the emperor Trajan
1 cot with im^acable malice, A. D.
, SeMona of nmeriiig and repute suc-

ceeded each other alternately until the rei^
of Conatantine. A. D. 32S, when ChriatJanity
was eatabliahed oa the religion of the empire.
The modem city is celebrated, not only

dem cit^ u
18 of ita fom"

t for the n

greatiieaa. It ia the
great achool of paintera, atatuariea, and archi-
tecta; and the lovers oJE the aita from all
quarten of the globe are found at all tjmea
within her walls, or on a pilgrimage thither.
The majestic niina, the grandeur of the
churches and palaces, the religioua ouatoma,
the bouudleaa treaaurea of antiquity and art,
and the reoollections of what Rome waa, may
well produce the highest degree of "

in the mind of the traveller to tha

BOOF. (SeeDwELUKCS.)

ROOM. In Matt iiiii. 6 room means
place or seat. The " uppermost room " is the
uppennoataeatonthacouch. (SeeDwELLIHOB.)

B0FE3 (I EL XI. 31), and C0KD3 (Joah.
iL 16). The putting ropes upon the neck was
signincant of great eameatneaa and diabvas.
So when the dty of Calus was beaieeed in the
time of Edward III. of England, SIX of the
noblest and wealthiest dtijKna, with ropes
aroond their necke, prewnted themselves to
the Idog, and offered their Hvea aa a nnaom
for their fellow .citizens. The "cords of ain"
(Pros. V. 22) probably denote the power of
unful habita ; and in laa. luiiL 20 and Jer.
I. 20 allnaioQ is made to the construction of k
tent. The " silver cord" (EccL xii 6) ia nip>

pn««d to refer to tlie ipiiul ni

M to ita tonn uiil coluur, it m>y be not iiuptlj

K03E (Song iL I)— in the EMt the prids of
fl<iw«« for fra^nuice, colnur, wad gracetnlnni
of form. It wan used omonc the uicienti in
crown* and chsi>lrta, ftt fwtive meetinn, aad
at religioui aocniicea. A trvTelliir in Perria
d«icriliea tvo ruM tree*, full 14feetIitBli, laden
with thoii»anil« of flowars in eveiy degree of
npaniion, and of a Mooni and delicacy of acent
that imbued the whole atmoaphere with the
moat cmiaite i*rfume (laa. i.iv. 1, 2). The
Tale of Hhamn. from ita anil and poeiUoD, was
fitted to priKlin* the rose in great perfection.
Hence the aUusion in the pansagea above dted.
HevenJ varietiea of roaea itill grow in Fale*-
tine 1 but many are dupaerd to think that the

luuioUf maanm vo UBDOV

BimiUENTS (CU
t fint BDd lowMt n

aco^ding to the *aak I
young besinnen.'' Hm
the watM," aignifiM tfai
of the Jewiih religion,
knowledge impMtil in
alphabet ia to a lugn^
aiy prindplei aia to thi
or chaniriry. Ilia w

BUM

QAme occurs again in the list of
iom. xvi 13, as that of a person
r was a believer. The identity of
iduals can neither be proved nor

(See Aruicah.)
(See Tail.)

sa. xiz. 15) — a well-known plant
; and miry ground (Job viii. 11).
ge first cited it probably means
portant class of people; for not-
the many uses of tne rush, it is
ivithout value. (See Book, Bul-

'he word represents two Greek
tt. vi 19; Jas. v. 3. In the first
whatever consumes what is trea-
the second case it may sipnif^,
>hrase, that t>ami«hing which is
rust.

tautu — a Moabitess, married to
n of Elimelech and Naomi, who
thlehem-judah, because of the
joum in the land of Moab, with
iSj Mahlon and Chilion. Ozpfth,
.bitess, was married to GhiUoa.
' family must have been sorely
1 thev became voluntary exiles,
lem^elves to this

" Obscure retreat,
mbrance sad and decent pride,
scenes which knew their better days.**

,tions of Providence are often a
dn a wheel ; " but " faith and
'■ the duty of those who are tried,
these incidents is that of hope.
!^ rises in clouds sets in glowing

I of Scripture entitled the Book of
:hiiig picture of Oriental domestic
liressing bereavements of Naomi
aghters-in-law, her affectionate
r their welfare, their devoted

0 her, but especially the disin-
of Ruth, which would admit of
)r8ake her mother-in-law in her
simple purity of heart, the noble

1 justice of Boaz, and the evident
g providence of Grod, are the

tender story.

Slace of her temporary abode,
aomi a land of darkness and
4ple bereavement had made her
te. Alone and among strangers
. childless widow. She had fled
but death followed her, and three
tested his melancholy ravages,
i not remain to weep by them,
rd that plenty again siniled on
he wished to leave the ashes of
"she went forth from the place
I,*' accompanied by her daughters-
. and Kuth. It appears to have
Ltion of both, when they left the
athers with Naomi on her return
, to have followed their mother-
idversity, that they might lighten

RUT

her grief and cheer her with their presence.
Naomi represented to them her desojate con-
dition^ the probable privations that awaited
them m their lot with ner, and the ^ef of soul
which she endured for their sakes, m tiiat the
hand of the Lord had gone against her; and
finally, with affectionate appeal, urged each to
return to her mother's house, imploring the
Lord's blessing upon them, that he might deal
kindly with them, and grant unto eadi " rest
in her husband's house." ^ Orpah, it may be
supposed, was of a more timidf and less wee-
tionate disposition; or probably she had not
renounced the faith of her country for the
worship of the true Grod, as Ruth appears to
have done. She trembled at the wjl picture
before her: and, in the emphatic words of
Scripture, " she kissed her mother-in-law, but
Rutn clave unto her." Naomi again entreated
Ruth, as it were in further trial of her sin-
cerity, to go back unto her people as her
sister-in-law had done. Ruth's answer to her
mother-in-law was, ** Entreat me not to leave
thee, or to return from following after thee :
for whither thou goest, I will go ; and where
thou lodgest, I will lodge: thy people shall
be my people^ and thy God my God : where
thou diest will I die, and there will I be
buried : the Lord do so to me, and more also,
if aught but death part thee and me." Over-
looking the vicissitudes of life, her affectionate
heart brings down the trial of that love to the
end of time, to the lonesomeness of the tomb;
and, in conscious stedfastness of her purpose,
she solemnly calls upon the Lord as her witness
that unto death she will perform this mission.
*' So they two went until they came to Beth-
lehem." Sad and heavy journey ! Many
past associations must have pained the elder
traveller, especially when old and familiar
scenes greeted her vision on every side — scenes
of youth and mirth, where the maiden had

t'oined in the village dance— scenes of domestic
>liss and honour, where the wife and mother
had spent years of plenty and peace. Naomi's
appearance in Betmehem created great aston-
isnmenl^ insomuch that the city was mov^
concerning her, saying, "Is tnis Naomi?"
Their congratulations recalled her sorrows.
They named her Naomi— p^ecuian^; she bade
them call her Marah — bitterness — for her name
and her history had been in mournful contrast.
It was the time of barley-harvest when Ruth
and her mother-in-law arrived in Bethlehem ;
and although it is not expressly stated, it may
be supposed that poverty induced Ruth to
have recourse to the expedient of gleaning in
the fields after the reapers, to provide for the
maintenance of herself and mother-in-law.
Having therefore obtaiDed penmssion of her
mother-in-law, she went forth to glean, and
"her hap was to light" on the field belonging
to Boaz, a kinsman. How strikinghr this
illustrates the minute providence of Grod
towards his creatures ! Simple and natural as
the incidents of this history are, they were all
arranged bv the hand of God, and were sub-
servient to nis purposes concerning Ruth and

659

■tisntftr with hii own huiiL Hs aim gav* hu
yirtinff men oomniuidment that they ■^^^'^'^ 1st
bf r " ginui tTBD auiimit the nbatvH, and n-
liiikc hiT niit." Ruth thui fouDcl a rich reoom-
IH'nw"fn-vanlt.Thprcim.l<iet Soihe dwelt
with ber DHithrr-in-law, and "wmt ont with
the lnai>li«H iif Itcuu Ui Klcan, antil tha end of
tiarlvr-harvHt.''

Hit aiiTH'annicP and mnilaet cnulil not pM>
■II this wlnlv iiuolvvrvnl liy Itoiii. aba cna-
tiniinl h«r iliuty taak without a niunniir. Nor
liwl thi- kinilnew of itiiai f[ii>tvred HI7 |>»-
Kiimptinn witliin hrr. 'Vhe inviting attanboiH
.>f y..utbfiil - •--- '- " " '-

hi-ri tlnfir (iffldauR nvanl mik'ht anno; bar;
l>iit*hndi<ltu<t"fi>ll»H'"tlii'm, "wlwai
<>r rich- (Kuth iii. 101. She wai at
richly rvwimU-d with the n'eoltli and al
■if ttiini. imil finally i-nihrinni in the bo
Ijcini; iiiicwtmw tn cmp who •■ir* the ■
(J I«n«.l t.. nni- whi. ' "- -

lh.-'M.«""""" ""

liu wmt til thf ftntc of t1ii> ritv. and whra
the kininum nranr than liimwliC imatei by,
lie miAv him turn aMde, and oonverBcd with
liim ciinivniini; the inhmitanee of Klimalwh
j\» thi- kinniian declineil iinntharing it for
Iiimwlf, Hoax ratlvd U|>iin thv elden ud all the

Imnilu t» )■■■ witnmwa that he had boiuAt all
hat WAH KUiKcIrah'x, and Mahlon'i, and
Chilinn'K. at the hand of Nai^mi. alio Bnth,
thii ModlaU-ra. the mite of Molilim, he had
liurchanil to W hia wife, "to nima up tha
name of the drad »n Uih inheritance." '^TIkd
nil the iwoTilv that wcni in thi- L'atv. and the

pn-inUnutuni of Um «
UwOoapil. Thiabcnk
intmdtiatioo to the pia|

of tha bnnki ot tb» ix
nganlMl ■■ » kind of M
of Jndga*. la tlM oU <

•Ua kBgeri^. J«Me «n
an old tnao in lUta dn
xrii IS). Tbo Jsws bi
among tbo H^iograpb^
Tha book ooatafiu i
indiTidoal dmva «—— ■■H
bw only foor chapttaw, ■
at ita doaa aome b^ilr ia
facta, ita ptuBuatai daa
watcUnl cara«C God^ t
M tear and tenrt him
heathen blood was not n
of a Hehnw alBtiaem.
book authentioato thaoMl
of Ttinl life ia beMitifnIl

s

LCHTHANI (Alatt xxviL 46). This
of the exclaination of our divine
er in the extremity of hiB sufferings
e cross. It is in the first chmse of the
leoond psahn in the Syro-Ghaldftic
and answers to the words, hagt thou
mei

LOTH (Rom. ix. 29) — a Hebrew
gnifying hoiU or military bodies pre-
>r war; and when used m relation to
i, indicates his power and majesty.
)TH, THB Lord of, or Hosts. The
sto has been referred to angels, to the
f bodies, to the people of God, or
nnies of IsraeL

3ATH (Exod. xvL 23). This was the
'en to the Jewish day of rest. It is
ew word signifying retL Since the
tn era, the dav ra rest is properly
he Lord's day, Decause it is now com-
.tive of Christ's resurrection from the
nd there is tiius connected with it an
late remembrance of the whole char-
id offices of Him to whose service and
is to be devoted. Sunday was a name
y the heathens to the firat day of the
ecause it was the daj on which they
ped the sun : and this name, together
Me of the otner da]rs of the week, has
itinued to our times. There is reason
ve that as soon as man was created,
dowed with capacities to love ana
God, he was required to consecrate at
e-seventh of his time to the special and
e service of his Maker. The sanctifi-
)f this portion of time is regarded
out the whole of the Old Testament as
mental principle of duty ; and no sin,
perhaps idolatry, is threatened with
penalties than oabbath-breaking.
x>mmandment which stands forth in
er of the decalogue (Exod. xz. 8),
mber the Sabbath day to keep it holy,**
led on the fact that the seventh day
Bed and hallowed by God himself, and
requires his creatures to keep it holy
This commandment is of universal
petual obligation. The object to be
ished by the institution is general, and
to all people everywhere with like
Wherever there is a human being
of contemplating the character of the
9 Being — ot studying his revealed will,
onsidering his own immortal destiny —
imandment requires him to consecrato
one-seventh part of his time to these
jposes. In truth, the fourth com-
int cannot be annulled,
abbath of the fourth commandment is
re-enactment of an earlier statute.
; of the seventh day, as we have said,
1 with man's existence. The Creator
1 the seventh day" — declared it to be
ibove all days, a day on which his
hould assuredly rest, and "sanctified
2o

if— «et it apart as a holy day— a day to be
observed in a pious spirit, and for religious
purposes. On that day Grod himself rested—
set an example of abstinence from the work of
the previous six days to the world. This first
or patriarchal Sabbath is therefore to be
observed as a day of rest and religious enjoy-
ment. It was ordained for man as man —
for unfallen man. The physical frame needs
repose — so man is to rest every seventh day;
his spiritual thoughto need revival, and on that
day of release from secular occupation his
mind is to contemplate the wisdom, power,
and goodness of his Creator, for this eany rest
was consecrated in connection witii tiie work
of creation. So long, then, as man exists, and
the world around him endures, does the law of
the early Sabbath remain, it cannot be set
aside, so long as its foundations last Man, aa
man, is required to rest eyery seventh day,
and emplo]^ this sanctified leisure in devout
contemplation of Him who formed tibe world,
with all its furniture, and adapted its numerous
relations to us, so as to preserve our life and
minister to our felicity. This early Sabbath
gave origin to the weekly division ot time, and
to the notion of peculiar sacredness which
attached, even among heathen nations, to the
seventh day.* This was the Sabbath referred
to in the wilderness, and observed by the
Hebrew hosts ere the descent of Jehovah on
Sinai, and this is the Sabbath re-enacted
specially for the Jewish people in the fourth
commandment. Man is to rest, and the
work of creation is to be commemorated. It
is not the Jewish Sabbath, properly so called,
which is ordained in the foui^h command-
ment. ^ In the whole of that injunction
there is no Jewish element, any more than
there is in the third commandment or in
the sixth. The Jewish Sabbath, as such,
has certainly been repealed; but Uie original
Sabbath still rests on its first authority. The
Jewish Sabbath was indeed the patriarchal
Sabbath^ with certain superadded elements
and obligations. These have passed away
with the transient economy to which they
were attached ; but the primitive statute is not
therefore repealed because some temporary
additions and ratifications annexed for a time
to it have been annulled. There seems, more-
over, in the fourth commandment, provision
made for that change of day which nas been
effected under Christianity. It makes a care-
ful distinction in its langui^ between the
seventh day absolutely and the seventh day
relatively. Its command is, "Remember the
Sabbath day;" and it adds, "wherefore the
Loid blessed the Sabbath day.'* Thus the
first Sabbath, forming part of the moral law,

'Ifsoy quotations mii^t be given in proof. The
very in^anaity and intricacy of the attempu to ezfdain
this traditionary regard for the seventh day <m other
principles show their fUlaoy, (Selden, ik Jmt NaL «t
(Ten. UL 18, &0.)

561

SAB

xemains yet in force. The enactmenft on
•which it reeta L^not affedM by change of day.
It Htill demandti the rest of the seventh day,
after six days of toiL The iirindpal difference
now lies in the object of commemoration.
The Christian Sabbath, not overlooking man aa
a creature, regards him especially as a sinner;
and while it still bids hmi adore Gtod the
(.-reator, it siiiumons him ijarticularly to con-
fide in God tlie K«<leemer, and sets before him
the Saviour's triumph in his resurrection from
the deaiL Our Sabliath combines both man's
relations as a creature and a sinner, but
assit^ns to the latter a peculiar and iust pre-
eminence in its change of day. ana in the
ediiHdng glory of the event wnidi it com-
memorates.*

For these n^asons the day has been naturally
changed, and changed by divine authority.
'Hie lint day of the week was the usual day
on which the aixwtles met for divine worship
—which, as (■hristians, they celebrated. The
language of the New Testament implies that
it was the usual periinl; ami the very inci-
dental mention of it without further explana-
tion corroborates the tnith of our assertion.
Moreover, it is called *' the Lord's day." The
early clisciples, who were Jews b^r birth, kept
both the Jewish Sabbath and Ohnstian Lord's
day. The fact is undeniable; nay, the
practice continued in the Church for several
centuries, lint the two days were observed
in a different manner and with a different
imrpose. l*aul himself apiicaled to the Jews,
and said that he ** had committed notliing
aguinKt the cuHtitnis of our fathers.'* The
oltservanoo of the Jewish Sabbath as a fast,
or a HeaM)n of prei^aration for the Christian
first day, lini^.Te«l through four centuries,
and gradually fell into desuetude. The
Council of LaiMlicfa, a. n. 'M'A, at length
rei)n)l>ated this pnu'ticc, and condemns those
who alistain fmni work on the st^venth day,
*' for it was Judaizini^ ; but on the IjORD's day
men should rest as Christians.*'

• The reconls of the early churches all show
that, in <ilM>diencc to aiNwtolical enactment,
they kept sacn'd the first day of the week.
IgimtiuH bids those to whom ne wrote keep
tlie liiinl's (lay, *' on which our Life arose."
Justin the inart>T says, ** On Sunday we all
assi-nible in common, since that is the first
(lay on which (>(kI, having' clianged darkness
and cha(w, miMle the world, and on the same
day our Saviour, Jesus (Christ, nwe from the
dead. For on the day before Satunlay they
crucifiefl him, nnd ou the day after Saturday,
which is Sunday, he ap|H'ared to his ai)Ostlcs
and disciples, and tavtihi them the thiiifj* which
vc ctijoin you to vbservc^f However confused

•The rolfttlon of tho Sabbath tn Jadninn Is analo-
fToiis to that of dreumcimon — "Musoh travo you clr-
rumi-iHlOD, not boeauPA it is u( Mosps, but of tho
fatheni" (Jnhn viL TJ). (Michseliii, On the Lavs of
Mo$a. ilL IM.)

t Optra^ i. 'nx. Jpoae, \M^. Justin calls tho flrst
day or the woolc Sunday, as that was its usual name,
tho name givon it by tlie world.
GG2

SAB

tll6 PKT'UNIB pUCUOB oC

■eema to be, it nppenfyboth fraaUiitfnn
to tlM reninracticm of Chiktnd totiwiMto»
tiom c^ the risen Sft^kor, tbit ht
dirine anthoritjior nD Chrinn pndi

rising. Barndhnit, m <dd •• Ignati^ an
"We obwire the dgbth day wA |^ta
in which Jams niM from the dttd.*' Bi»
yaius of Corinth » nya, "To-dij(thtliBtM
we obMnra the Iiord'i HoiIyDey."t AA»
asiniaffimia, "The LcndtniMCeiNdtkSi*'
bath to the Lonl'a day.'t Eiwlw»«h*
knowled^ of CSixistiaa aataiuhisi a^ ai
doubts, ezpreaBea hia mind tha% ia Ui oa*
meat on theBlat Paahn, iriuch mImM,*!
Psahn or Sonff for theSabfaah Day:"-''1li
Logos (Christ) hy the new ooronatteMM
and ttanaf «wTed Uie f eart of the Stbhilh Is it
morning light, and gare as the mnholcf tn
rert, the wmima Loin's day, the Int d^rfit
week. OnthladaywedothoMr'
ing to the spiritual law iddcfa
for the priests to do on theSabbsth: lOl
proper to do on the Saltetfa we mm ti^
forted to the Ixnd's day; . . . itiifr
livered to us that we ahoQld msst oa tlaiM'
This statement is quite dear, sad to ti
point The fathers wers but mca, 9«t M
record may be so far tmsled IW ^
against the Jewish Sabbath as sa iKtmtm
repealed ; bat all agree in dechuri^ Art it
LonTs dav is for Christians; and thij i^
not into laboured ar^gumeats lo pnm ii
divine authority, just because no one e«<^
bold enough or ignorant enough to call ii a

?[uestion. What inspired apoitlBi <fiA ■
ouniiing the Church, tney received as Glri^
injunction.

The simple rule as to the mode of sisa*'
ing the day seems to be thi% -thrt Alt
shotild be a cheerful resting sU tki ,^
from such worldly employmentisadisacitiai
as may be lawful on other dsyi^ and Af
spending of the whole time in ttM psUk*
pri^-ate worship of God, except so asch a
may be occupied hy works of neeBair'
mercy. To test the propriety of sbj tf>5
pursuit on that day, it is only needful toa^
whether the doing of it will tend to t4<<i*
us in holy exercises and affections, and ii 1^
paration for the heavenly rest; orwM''
u an act of necessity which caaaoi be Y^
poned without serious injury. (See Pkilt)

The following are among the leading a^^
ities of the Bible respecting the ^oAm
its proper observance. ,

The profanation of the Sabbath the oaira
national judgments (Neh. xiiL 15-15; Ei*
XX. 16, 16; xxiiL 38, 47). ^

The divme institution of the JewidiSdkP

• Ep. 5 ih.

t KAiqiuim !kicrm: South, L 180, ted eA . *.

X Opera, IL H4. Wo have not glwn s •■*i^
references that mixht have been qootttd S^f
Sardis, in tho second centnrj, wrote s tookeqiS
on the Sabbath, but it has been lost We Bsg*?
referred to Irenn*iui, Clement of Ale:iP*n<Ma TR*
lian, ('ypriRD, Origen, Basil, Ephiem,

i

~>'

I

<

SAB

(Gen. iL 2, 3; Exod. xz. 8-11; Dent v. 12, 15;
Esek. XX. 12; xUv. 24).

Servile labour forbidden (Exod. xvi 23, 29;
jcz. 10, 11 ; xxiii 12 ; xxxiv. 21 ; xxxv. 2, 3 ;
Dent V. 14, 15 ; Jer. xviL 21, 22 ; Mark xv.
42 ; xvi 1, 2; John, xix. 14. 31, 42).

The change of the Sabbatn from the seventh
to the first day of the week (Gren. iL 2 : Exod.
JCZ. 11 ; Lnke xxiiL 56 ; John xx. 19 ; Acts xx.
7; 1 Cor. xvL 2: Rev. i 10).

Tlie duties of the Sabbath enjoined (Lev.
ziz. 30; xxvL 2; Ezek. xlvi 3; Mark vi. 2;
liake iv. 16, 31 ; Acts xiiL 14-16, 27, 42, 44 ;
zvu.2,3).

WoncB of necessity and mercy to be done on
ibk day (Matt xii 1-3, 5, 7, 12, 13; Mark ii.
83L 27 ; iii 2, 4 ; Luke vi 9 : xiii 15, 10 ; xiv.
3, 5: John v. 8-10, 18; vii 22 ; ix. 14).

Blessings promiiscd to those who keep the
SftbbathOm. Ivi 2, 4-7; Ivui 13, 14).

Threatenings against SabMth • breakers
ffixod. xxxi 14, 15 ; xxxv. 2 ; Num. xv. 32-36 ;
Jer. xvii 27 ; EkL xx. 13, 16, 23, 24 ; xxii
8, 14, 26, 31 ; xxiii 38, 46).

Sabbatn privileges taken away (Isa. i 13;
liMD. i 7; li 6; Ho& ii 11; Amos viii 11).
Ghiiitiaiis can sever value the Sabbath too
highly. It is a precious boon to the Church,
and a blessed gut to a weary and sin-laden
irorld. It points us back to the bowers of
Eden, which we have forfeited, and bids us not
despair ; for it is a pledge and a foretaste of a
aobler inheritance in a better country, where
there is an everlasting Sabbath.

** How welcome to the saiut. when preRned
With six dayH' care, and noise, and toil.
Is the retaining day of rest,
That hides hun from the world awhile.*"

Sabbath-dat*s journey. (See Measures.)

SABBATICAL YEAR (See Feasts.)

SABEANS. (See Sheba.)

aACKBUT (Dan. iii 5)— a musical inRtni-
ment, supposed erroneously to be the sambuca.
It 18 sometimes described as a stringed instru-
nent; and it is said that it had four strings, and
WAS play^ with the fingers, and had a very
pene&attng sound. In process of time the
■tringa were increased to twenty. It was of a
triangular form. But the sackbut was a
different instrument.

It is mentioned in a mo<lem work on thi.s
•object that one of these instrunientH was dis-
oovered in Herculaneum, where it had been
for nearly two thousand years under ashes;
the lower part of it was made with bronze, and
the upper, with the mouth-piece, of gold It
vnB presented by the king of Naples to Gcoi^
liDL of England; and from thid model the
modem trombone, used in military bands with
■o much effect, was fashioned. According to
this account it was a wind instrument.

SACKCLOTH (Gen. xxxvii. ^). This
was A coarse fabric, made of black goat's hair
and other materials, and worn cither as a sign
of repentance (Matt, xi 21) or as a token of
snonming (2 Sam. iii 31 ; £stb. iv. 1, 2 : Job
TwL 16; Ps. XXX. 11; Isa. xx. 2; Rev. vi. 12).
Scnce the frequent occurrence in Scripture of

SAC

figurative language connecting sackcloth with
mourning and darlaess (Isa. L 3 ; Ezek. vii
18 : xxvii. 31 ; Amos viii 10).

SACRIFICE (Gten. xxxi 54). In addition
to the distinction pointed out under tJ^e word
offering (see Offsrinq), it may be observed
that sacred gifts were in use from tiie earliest
periods of the world (Gen. iv. 3, 4).

That no nation has been found destitute of
some species of religion is a fact well attested
by the nistor^r of our race. Belief in a Being
superior to himself is so deeply rooted in the
breast of man, that it impels hini. in every
state of society, savage or civili^^ to adopt
and practise some form of devotion. Nor is
this impulse inconsistent with tiie dictates of
reas<m ; for if there be a Being above him who
superintends the affairs of mortals, and is em-
ployed in rewarding the virtuous, and chastising
the vicious, it is man's interest, as well as his
duty, to endeavour by every means in his
power to secure the favour and avert the dis-
pleasure of this almighty agent. But how is
such an effect to be secuml? How is this
indissoluble relation between heaven and
earth to be turned to the best account? Is it
not by the: presentation of sacrifice? or why
has this rite formed so prominent a part of
every religion?

Is the origin of sacrifice human or divine?
Scripture does not decide. But the univer-
sality of the practice forms no objection against
the opinion that the origin of sacrificial
worship is divine ; because, since all men are
the offspring of one common parent, this mode
of propitiatmg the Deity by sacrifice would be
handed down from one generation to another,
and the custom would be retained, though, in
process of time, the rite was perverted, and
its design obscured^ amidst the fooleries of
idolatry and superstition.

Sacrifices of animals seem in all likelihood
to have been ordained at the fall, to be offered
as confessions of guilt and as emolems of faith.
The ** coats of skin" may have come from
sacrificed animals, as no animal can be sup-
ix>sed to have died a natural death so soon
after its creation, nor can it be supposed that
any were slain for food. For another argu-
ment sometimes adduced in favour of the
divine ori]^ of sacrifice, see the article Abel.
The theories framed to account for the human
origin of sacrifice, as if it arose from the old
custom of making sacred feasts or ratifying
covenants, are strained and unsatisfactory.
Sacrifices formed a prominent jtart of imtn-
archal worship : and the sacrificial coile was at
length conflolidattid at the descent on mount
Sinai Though we rearl of the practice ere we
read of the command, yet the priority of the
former im])lies not the non-existence of the
latter, as God does not countenuice human
inventions as portions of his worship. ^ " If ye
know these things, happy are ye if ye do
them.*' Who can doubt that all the sacrifices
pointed closely and constantly to the Lamb of
God? They proved that (Jod was merciful,
and showed the channel throucrh which his

5G3

favour WM to }ye obtaimiL The Jewuh reli-
giim, howcvrr, omtaimtl •complete sj-stem of
MUTificiul ritfi*. ami nniuintl Uieir Bcnipuloufl
«il»s*TVum*e. AmtnHiiu U» the law of Mtises,
MurriticeH oi\il«l i><'t he ntTmNl ii|Mtii the altar ex-
o-pt hy thi* prii'st**, iiur lit any othiT]>Iac« than
in the court nf < ■inI':* saiictuun' 1 1 >vut zii. 5-*2S).
Animal i*aorifires wt-re of i«»\ir ^tmcral kintls
--vi7», burnt utferinp*, nin utforinijR, trcMjiaAs
offfrinKHf au«l \h-acv ntFt-rinvrH. \Ve have a
jiaKicular atfunnt nf tliorie in the first seven
chaptcm of Leviticus. The three kinds firnt
nientiitnetl hail an ex]>iai4try \irtue-that i^
thry niatle at^mi-nient for thoM^ that offered
tlioni. Tlie ptju'o otferin^ wi-re more par-
ticularly wu'ri!ii-i'!» expre>'*ive vf y^fratitude and
}>raine fi»r nu-n-ies rtt-i-iviNl, or of supplication
or nu'n*ies di'-irnl. Hnnit iitfi-rin;i.i, however,
were not excluMvrly expiatory in their charac-
ter, but h.'Ml ill tlu-ni also a meaning of thank-
ful and ationiu' worsliip pre-eiited to the Most
High ; and in thcin all sunie n'^'anl was haii to
the guilt of xin. HImkI jxtured out, in sacritioe
of any sort, could have no meaning other than
that of atonement. It was solenmly omse-
c^att^l by the I^>nl to l>e an expiation for the
so\d, and aciHinlingly never floweil aUmt the
altar with< ttit a i lesign < tf callin;; to remembrance
the l^\i^teni'(' itf sin, and svmbulicaUy washin^^
away its t- vil. These sacrifices wen* vicarious
in nature - offentl in the room and making
expiation for the guilt «»f the offfudt-rs. They
foresha<loWfd the great atoning sacrifice of the
S<tnof (iimI, (Lev. xvi. 10-M; Heb. x.)

The wi>nl i^ simn-tinii's ustsl fi-niratively
(lb)m. xii. 1; Ib-b. xiii. W 1»»; 1 Pot. ii. r>),
ami till' IIS*' of it iiiiplii'^ tliat the duties en-
jt»iiii'd uinliT the tiu'ure nrx' to Ih.» i»erft»nne«l
with a virw to (todV gl try. anil not without
the alieti:itii>n of soim-tliing from ourselves
which i> dediiMtfii to th** l^^ml as time, [>ro-
I»erty. fa^i'. tVc. (Ts. li. 17.) M^at offerings
and drink ofbTiiiL's wrn- blondh^ss saci'itices,
always coiiiieeti'd with each otiier, however,
and generally conm-eti-il with blinxly sacrifices.
(Se<" Ai,t.\h,*Hh;h 1*111 E>r. Okfkkinc.)

HAC'KILK(;K (Horn. ii. )i2)- the crime of
violating or profaning Kicred things. The
•lews at some ]MTi<Kis wen.- eminently jr^iilty
in t)ii:4 partieuliir, inaitmueh a^ tiny withheld
the titlift iin<l offerings ^hit'h (mnI reonin'4l of
tliem (.Mai. iii. M-lii), and eonverteil his holy
temple into u market (Matt. xxi. 12. l.'f).
• SADDICKKS (Matt. iii. 7) a Jeuinhsect
oft«'n mentioned in the N«'W Testatuent. Ac-
cording to flewinh trailitioii, its founder was
Zadok, a dis<*iple of Antig»»nus. who was presi-
dent of the Jewish sanhcdnm, and lived alx^ut
n. c. 2(i<). IVrhaps this Za<lok w:is the high
prii'st of Still imon's reign, and hi-* dertcendants
may have originated the sect The Sailducei^
seem to have heeii cloaely connei'teil with the
priesthood lliey tau;;ht that tliore were no
liiture rewards or punishments ai>iM tinted unto
men, and conseipiently m» worM of retribu-
tion, and no anu'els or spirit4, and no nMumH!-
tion (.Matt xxii. 123; Acts xxiii. S). The
Uuctriue of these Rceptical materiivlists was
5o4

• SAL

received by few though inch u did cAlna
it were oommomv persuns of weahh ud fy
nity. Ab asect, however, they hadno iiiflCHe
over the people. It hu been tbon^bt dot iW
Saddacees received only the Pentaleadi; bd
there ia no real foundation fur mdi a cha^

l*he Sadducees, as well aa the Vhaaita,
were bitterly oppoevd to Chriit, and ofta
contended with tum on the points which wm
jieculxar to thtsir sect ; but they aeem to hm
mustered thi-ir strength and to have wm
forth with all their power a(;aiBSt the ansda
when thuy preached the resurrectica dUm
from the dead, which single fact waa a doAr
blow to their system. The sect of the &d^
ceea maile some figure in the third ocotar,
and again in the eighth ; but fur a ]tja* tw
Iiast they have been extinct.

SAFl-'ROX (Song iv. 14)-a vell-kam
fli»wcr of the CT^ocu8 zamil v. uaed for mediaii
pur|Mwea, and also for yeDow culooriai^ IV
stigmata of the flowers are gathered aid |R-
|iarcd.

SAINT (Heb. tL 10)- the title gi«i fcf
the sacreii writers to beliei-en in C>hridK»orttB
people <if i;od (Pa. xvi. 3: Rom. L 7; tiilS)*.
The literal im(>ort of the term ia kolg <me: tui
in Dent xxxiiL 2 and Jude 14 it pnbabSf
means angela. When it is apuhcd tu bxs, %
ia to such as lead holy lives» and sive erUesfit
of being renewed and sanctitied. Ai that
can be no ahsidnte certaintv. however, reinel'
ing their real character in &e si^-ht iit iradl aB
human diiusions as to who are U* be repm
or treati*d as saints must be fallacii>u-iw

SALAMIS (Acts xiii. 5t wa^ thi; prindpil
city and sea] Mtrt of the isUnd of CyvnicaBi
rev'eived the (locipel fn.im Paul and Banubii
A. i>. 44. (See I'vpRrn.) Very httle of tbi
ancient t<»wn is standing; but on tite ioruak
> <if the city an^ foimd tlie remains <i a boi^iia;
, *JiM) (wt ill length, and G or 8 high ; ako aivse
chun'h, anti iH>rtions of an aqueduct, bv vbifk
water was brought to the city from a distaact
of IM) mileA.

SAU'HAH (Deut iii. 10). now kn.i«iJ»
Sulkluul, lies on the i<outli-east otmer of d«
territory ttf Manasseh. east of Jordan.

SALKM (Gen. xiv. l^<) has l>een fKorn^
8Ui)i>osed to i)e the place which was aftervaiOi
allied Jenisalcm (cuuip. Pk. lxx\-i 2|. B^
some think that the placi- of which Mekhiasdi^
was king was the 8haleni of ii^en. xxiiii 1&
or the Salim of the New Testament {•»
Salim), and that the Salem of the psahostii
a contraction of Jerusalem. (See JcBraALSL)

SALIM (John iiL Si], or SH.\LEM v^J*
xxxiii. IS), or SHALIM (1 Sam. ix. ft, *«
south of Ikthshcan and we»t of Knoa. Isii
still called SaliuL It is 2 miles wi.*»t e( tk
Jordan and C miles sonth of Dethshean. i
place still named Ain&n Enon is in the vioaitf.

SALMON. (Set» Rahak)

SALMON (Pa lx^^ii. 14), or ZALMOX
(Judg. ix. 48), was one of the high hills vfaieh
cnvin^n the ancient Shechem. ami alTieda*
l>asturage for Jacobus flocks. (See ZaLXOS.)

SALMONE. (See Crete.)

SAL

SALOME (Mark xv. 40), the wife of Zebe-
dee, and the mother of James the elder and
John the evangelist, was one of the followers
of Christ (Matt. xxviL 50 ; Mark xv. 40 ; xvi.
1), though she seems, like many others, to
hftve mistaken the true nature of his kingdom
(Biatt XX. 21). Some suppose her to nave
been the siater of the Virgin.
^ SALT (Lev. iL 13) is abundant in Pales-
tine. From the water of the Dead Sea an
excellent table salt is obtained. On the eastern
•hcxre it is found in hmipe often more than a
foot thick, in places which the lake had over-
flowed in the rainy season. The stones on the
■hoie are covered with an incrustation of lime
or sypBum. Branches and twigs which fall
into the water from the bushes become encased
in salt; and if a piece of wood ia thrown in, it
■oon acquires a bark or rind of salt From
this fact some have attempted to explain the
transformation of Lot's wife into a pilmr of salt
(Oen. xix. 2G) ; while others suppose that the
eacpreasion is figurative, denoting that she was
made an everlasting monument of divine dis-
pleasure (salt being an emblem of perpetuity) ;
and others still think that she was miraculounly
transformed into a solid column of salt (See
Lot's Wifk)

The uses of salt are sufficiently known.
Most food would without it be insipid (Job
▼1 6). Salt being thus essential to the enjoy-
ment of food, the word was used to denote
the subsiiitence which a person obtained in
the service of another. Tliua in Ezra iv. 14
the words translated, *'we have maintenance
fram the king's palace,** are in the original,
"we salt (or are salted) with the salt of the
palace.** And even now among the Persians
and East Indians, to ** eat the salt*' of anyone
is to be in his emjiloyment. Salt was altK)
uaed in sacrifices (Lev. ii. l.'i; Mark ix. 40).
New-bom children were rubbed with salt
(Ewk. xvi. 4).

No plants can germinate in a soil covered
with salt. Hence a **salt land*' is an un-
fndtfiil, desert land (Jer. xviL 6). Salt was
also used as a visible emblem of sterility.
When Abimelech took Shechem (Jud^. ix. 45),
he **beat dovm the city and sowed it with
■ilt,** as a token that it should continue deso-
late. In like manner the emperor Frederick
BarbaruBsa, when he destroyed Milan, in the
year 1162, caused the ground to be ploughed
and strewed with salt

On the other hand, as salt renders food
saTOOiT, it is employed as an emblem of holy
life ana conversation (^f ark ix. 50 ; Col. iv. G) ;
and in Matt v. 13 Christ calls his disciples
''the salt of the earth** — i. c, of mankind— be-
eanae the latter were to be enlightened and
improyed b^ their holy instruction and exam-
ple. Chemically, salt does not lose its savour ;
DQt the salt used in Palestine is not made by
boiling sea-water, but is vei^ impure ^ and
earthy \ and when ex]>oeed to rain and sun it be-
comes msipid. Specimens of it in abundance
may be seen round the southern shore of the
DeadSeiL

SAL

Salt, oovenant of. As salt is a preserva-
tive from corruption and dissolution, it was
customary at the ratification of solemn treaties
to present a vessel of it, from which either
party ate a few grains. Hence an indissoluble
and perpetual covenant is called a "covenant
of salt'MNum. xviil 19; 2 Chr. xiii 6). To
taste salt together ia among the Arabs still a
proof and security of i)erpetual friendship.

Salt, pillar of. ^ee Salt.)

Sali% pits of, or salt-pitb. By the salt-
pits (Zeph. ii. 9) we are not to understand
quarries from which rock-salt is extracted, bat
such pits as the Arabs^ven at this day, make
upon the shore of the Dead Sea in oraer that
they may be filled when the spring freshets
rabe the waters of the lake. Wnen the water
evaporates, it leaves in the pits a salt crust
about an inch thick, which furnishes the salt
used throughout the country. Pits of this sort
seem to be alluded to in £zek. xlvii 11. In
Josh XV. G2 a *' city of salt" is mentioned in
the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea.

Salt, vallkt of. At the south-western
extremity of the Dead Sea there is a plain of
considerable extent, the 8oil of which is entire-
ly covered with palt, without the slightest trace
of vegetation. There is here a mountain which
is one solid mass of rock-salt covered occasion-
idly with layers of marie anil chalk limestone.

The Ghdr adjacent to this mountain, which
separated the ancient territories of Juoah and
Edom, is probably the valley (or plainj of salt,
where David*s army and that of Amaziah
vanquished the Edomites (2 Sam. vuL 13: 1
Chr. xviii. 12: 2 Chr. xxv. 11).

SALT SEA (Num. xxxiv. 12)— the sea into
which the Jordan empties itself, and which is
snjiposed to occupy the ground where once
Rtooil the "cities of the plain,** in the vale of
Siddim (Gen. xiv. 3). it is also called the
** sea of the plain** (Deut iii. 17), and, from its
geographical location, the " East Sea** (Joel iL
20). The Greeks called it Atphaltitts, from the
bitumen which it yields ; and the Arabs, the
Sea of Lot, Its usual a^vpellation now is the
Dead Sea. Almost no living thing exists in its
waters— gloom, sterility, and nakedness sur-
rounding it on all sides. It lies in a deep
caldron, surrounded by hmh clijffs of bare
and grim limestone n>ck. The idea of poison-
ous exhalations rising from this dark and
solitary sheet of water is now given up : for
Robinson and other travellers have seen nocks
of birds flying across it re{>eatedly without
injury. Fishes and shells are sometimes got
on its shores; but they have been brought
down by the Jordan, and they immediately die
in this supersalt flood. After earthquakes or
other physical convulsioiiM immense lumps of
bitumen are seen floating on its surface.
Nitre, sidphur, and pumicenstone, with other
traces of volcanic agency, are found along its
margin.

The Dead Sea is about 46 miles long, but its
lengtli varies according to the season of the
year and the quantity of water discluunged into
it Its breadth at Ain-Jiddy, the ancient En-

505

SAI<

gu4l<li, is about 9 f^*ograpbical miles. The
clitlH on itii wcHtem siile are ab<»ut 1,500 feet,
aiid the hi^:httit on itn eastiTn are estimated
at above 2,U<K). llie water is intensely salt,
rvniarkably clear an<l ]>ure ; but naiueous and
bitter. One truvi^llcr Ha>'8, "I went till up
t<i the knee int<> the Hea, and t«H>k some water
into my uioutli. It wan imfNttMible to keep it
there. Itri iialtni'HH m even t^'ater than that
of the ocean, an<I it ])riMbiceri a sensation on
the lipii similar to that fruu a stnwff solution
of alum. My boots were scarcely dry when
tliey were a1re:uly covered with salt; our
clotlies. hat.'<. haniLs faces, were impregnated
wiUi this uiinenil in leM than two hours.**
KobiiiA.'n savH, t«H). that he liathed in it, and
yet, thiiu^h he cuuld not swim, here he could
stantl, sit, lie, or Kwini M-ithout any difficulty.
The author of K^'then declares that ue
could not swim at all : his lei^ and feet were
lifteil high ami dry out of the lake, his stmke
was thus baffied. and that, havini^if come out,
he found ere he LM>;;au to drei«K, that, in conse-
(luoncc of the rapid eva] Miration, his skin was
tiiickly encruHtM with sulphate of maij:uesia.
The causes of thirt bunyancy are obvious. The
water is stnaiirly impregnatetl with saline
sulhttimces. having; lime, uia^meriia, and soda,
neutralizt'd with hydn>chli»ric and sulphuric
aciibi. It jieldrt alxiut one-fiturth of its weight
of salt by eva]M»ratii>n. This Hea is 8upposi*tl
by many to (K.vu)>y the vale of Sidilim, on
which hUhkI the live (ities of the plain — Sinlom,
Cioniorradi. Adniah, Zelxiim.and Dela. *^The
whole laud thereof is brimstone, and salt, and
burning, that it is not r<own, nor K-areth. nor
any grass gnnvetli tlu-nrin, like the o\erthrow
of Sihlom and (lonntrndi, Adniah, and ZeU^im,
whieh the I^ord overthrew in his angiT, and in
his wni,th '' ( 1 >eut. xxix. 'J.'»). Sonie of the older
travellers atfinneil that they B)iw the ruins uf
these cities umler the wat»-r.

The I)ea«l Sea ha-» no outlet; and it is com-
pute 1 that the ilonlan dischnrr^es into it
upwanls of t;,0(K),000 t^ms daily. The re-
ceived o)>inion now is that it L^^e^ its watem
by e\a]Miiation. The evajMtration is very
great in HUeh a eomitry, and espeeially in sucn
a hiK>t a basin confined by rocks. It was
conjei'tun'd in foiiuer tinics that the lake
had a subterranean outlet ; others imagined
that the Jordan of old flowed Houthwaril into
the I ted Sea. liiit the land to the south i>f
the Dead Sea mm in l»econies hi^h, and a cliff
from ](K) t«» I'rO feet in height of sandstone
runs diriH-'tly afpiss the Ghor. All the tor-
rents and stri.aius to the south bent towards
the Dead Sea How northward \a) it. If the
•btnlan did not flow to the southward ])rior to
the catastrophe of Sodom, where did it temiin-
atif ? An oiunion is now enti^rUiined, m ith some
pn»l>ability, that a lake of smaller dimensions
anciently oxist4Ml in the valley. Gen. xiv. '^
Would seem to imply that the old cities were
submei^^ed; but the i>o))ular belief is not
otherwise strongly sustained, llje convulsion
that tToatetl or elevate<l the Arabah, as it is
How foimd, munt liave been incompai'ably older;
5U(j

BAL

and it moat Iiato been vioas^ « » ■>"*
terrific scale. There is no praof dt vxffvi-
ogical change within the higfeorie poMLbii
there are m
cities were

from heai

The deuivasion of 'the Dead^Sea bdoir 4t
level of the Meditenaaean has ifrw^ neal
traTellers. The earlier aooonnUvaeilnB-
ance with each other; but all agree ^ lk
depression waa remiulcaUeL The Deed Saa
about 1,316*7 feet below the lerd of the IW
tcrranean. Thus —

g^P"***^''?' «hej)«u» 55««. IHK

Pas* back of *AIn Ter&beh, alK>n> DMd Sai, UKS
Elevation pf Jenualem above the Hedifier-

ranean .,..««

EleraUon of Jerusalem akove Dead Sea...aiC-9l

The difference of depression between Tibni
and the Dead Sea is said hj Lintaflt
Symmonds to be 9SI feet tliii gim tbt
Joplana fall of 16 feet in eveiy ge(»i|ihieil
mile between the two lakes. But son s hb-
tinuous fall is a rare thing, unless whoe An
are shallo^-s and rapids. The Anwiiaa a-
pedition sailed from the lake cl TOxmal
the wav down to the Dead Sea. The w^
tion of the Jordan was found to be wit
difficult and dangerous, from its fraqfiflrt
and fearful rapids. Ideutenant Lynoh aJm
the secret of the depression between lib
Tiberias and the Dead Sea, by the toftvsi
course of the Jordan, which, in a JiiMW
of GO miles, winds through a coone d M
miles. Wit!) in this di»tance, liratesac
Lynch and his luirty plunged down no k*
than twenty-seven threatening raiods. bctfds
many othera of lesis descent But the difi«lcB«
of level iK'twcen the two seas is not diftincty
asct-rtainetl. The water of the JoidaB «•
swi'ct to within a few hundred yards of ill
mouth: that of the Dead Sea was deToid d
smell, but bitter, salt, and nauseoos. Cpa
entering it, tlie boats were encftuntend by
a gale, and ** it seemed as if the bey**-
so dense waa the water— were encountsift:
the slwlge-hammeni of the TiUns in*ie*i i
the oppouiug waves of An angxy sea.** T»
bott<»m of the iiorthem half ^ thif ks ii
almost an entire plain. Its meriditiiuJ liv^
at a short distance from the shore, sciiwnry
in dejith. The deeitest soundings thus far ww
188 fathoms (1.12K feet). Kear the sboR ^
l)ottom is generally an incrustation «rf »k:
but the intermeiliate one is soft mnJL ^.
many rectan^ilar crystalft, mostly calw. *
pure salt. The southern half d: Uie «» i«*
shallow as the northern one is deep, and s*
alM»ut one-fourth of its entire lei^^^ the deptk
does not exceed three fathoms (18 feet). W
st^uthem bod has presented no cr\-st*k ^
the shores are lined with incnistatioDii d ^
llie op]K)site shores of the peniniiala iiui ^
west coast present evident marks uf ^tt^
tion.

The summit of the west bank of the IW
Sea is more than 1,000 feet above its stabA

SAL
ry nearly on a level with the Mediter-

u a cixrioiis fact,** tAjs Lieutenant
, "that the distance from the top to
^m of the Dead Sea should measure
ght of its banks, the elevation of the
nanean, and the difference of level
1 the bottom of the two seas, and that
>th of the Dead Sea should be also an
multiple of the height of Jerusalem above
bus the bottom of the Dead Sea forms
ibmerged plains, an elevated and a
ed one, — ^the first, its southern part, of
nud, covered by a shallow bay; the
northern and largest portion, of mud
gustations and rectangular crystals of
; a great depth, with a narrow ravine
; through it, corresponding with the
the Eiver Jordan at one extremity,
I Wady el-Jeib, or wady within a wady,
other. "The slimv ooze.'* 8a3r8 Lieu-
Maury. "upon that plain, at the
of theDead Sea, will not fail to remind
xed historian of the dime pits in the
here were joined in battle four kings
ve.*' (See Jordan.) The following
ae of the analyses of the water from
id Sea. The difference in the results
B on the part of the lake from which
ter was taken, and on the time of
f , whether before or after the rainy

first is bv Prof. C. G. Gmelin, of Ttt-
1826; toe second by Dr. Apjohn, of
, 1839: the third by Prol James C.
of PhUadelphia, 1848; and the fourth
srs. Thornton and Herapath, published
Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal^
The pomt whence the water for the
lahnris was obtained is not specified,
lalysed by Dr. Apjohn was taken half
irom the mouth of the Jordan, near the
f the nuny season, and naturally ex-
. less amount of salts, and a lees spedfio
. The standard of comparison for the
gravity is distilled water at 1,000.

Rravlty,

PSOF.

Qmruv.
...U12

Dr. Bofllng
Apjohx. point
11£8 iv* F.

of calclom, 8-2141

of magzie8luxnfll'7734
of magnesium, 0*4393
of potassimn,.. 1'6788
of sodium, .... 7*0777
of manganese, 0*2117
of alominnm,.. 0*0688
of ammonium, 0*0075
of lime, 0*0627

24*5898
75*4602

2-488
9-870
0-201
0*852
9-880
0K)05

0-075

18780
81-820

100*

loo-

ter analysed by Prof. Booth was drawn
ieut. Lynch from a depth of 185 fathoms,
\ feet, and shows a greater amount of
d a greater specific gravity than any

SAL

Prof. Booth.

Spedfio mvlty at80«, 1227-42

Chlorlcto of magnesium, 145 Wl

„ ofcaldum, 81*0748

„ of sodium, 78*5587

„ of potaimf um, 6-5800 •

Bromide of potassium, 1-8741

Suli^te of mne, 07012

964-1867
Water, 785*8188

iooo^^

The water for the fourth analyms was taken
from the north-western shore, about half a
mile west of the mouth of the Jordan, in the
month of March, 1849. This analysis, there-
fore, mi^ht be expected to compare most
nearly with that of Dr. Apjohn.

MX88R& Tborrtoit axd Hsrapath.

Spedilo erayity, 1172*05 Boiling point, 221° 7S F.

Chloriae of calcium, 2*45iM)55 per cent

„ of magnesium, 7'822007 „

Broioide of magnesium, 0*261178 „

Chloride of sodimi, 12100724 „

„ of potassium. 1-217860 „

„ ofanmionium, 0D06999 „

„ of aluminum, OrOBSHi „

n ofmanganese, 0*006998 „

„ of iron, 0*002718 „

Organic matter (nitrogenous), 0*061780 ,,

Sulphate of lime, 0^)67866 „

24-055664 per cent

Besides the above salts, there were faint
traces of carbonate of lime, silica, and bitu-
men, and also doubtful traces of iooine.

SALUTE (Matt. x. 12), SALXJTATION
(Luke i 41). The salutations of the Jews
were usually of a religious character, at least
in form, and were attended with much cere-
mony. Sometimes there was nothing but the
simple exclamation, "Grod be with you," or
'*Peace be with you** rButh iL 4). To this
last and most common torm striking allusion
Ib made byour Saviour (John xivTs?). (See
Peaox.) The time occupied in the ceremonies

IV. 29; Luke x. 4. The prohibition in this
last passage, ** Salute no man by the way,** is
probably designed to secure tne dose and
undivided attention of the apostles to the work
before them^ and to prevent the loss of time or
the waste ot thought on mere matters of form
and ceremony.

SALVATION (Exod. xiv. 13), or DB-
LiVJfiRANCE, supposes evil or danger (comp.
Ps. cvi 8-10 with Isa. bdii 8/^; but m
its ordinary use, in the New Testament espe-
cially, the term denotes the ddiverance of
sinners from eternal perdition, through faith
in Christ "The dayof salvation** (2 Cor. vi.
2). the " gospel of salvation** (Eph. L 13), and
other like phrases, are employed in this sense.
They all suppose mankind to be lost and
mined by sin, to be in a state of gmlt, dan-
ger, and deplorable misery, and therefore ex-
pom to the just and drradful penalty of tiie
divine law. The salvation which the Gospel

567

oflen ituJndM In It tb« pudon d *a^ and
delivvmioB fraa iU povcr, polliitian, and
aiMMineBns: and abo the nnctiGMtUoD of
the loul Mul tha loyi of tlie etanul worid

T 9) Hence it i( jiutlT called eo 0r«al aalvk.
tion (Hi'bL ii. 3).

SAMARIA. L (1 Kl liiL 32.) The central
province or lection of the land id Canaan,
taaving GaUlee on the noith and Juilea on the
(outh, ni callnl, in the time rd Chriet, Sa-
maria. It included tht poaeeHioni of Ephr^m
Mid Bfini—rh (ties SuiAaiTlVB.)

3. SiMAiu*. ciTT or (1 KL in. «). tram
which the aIioti! province had ita name, waa
ntnkted about 4Q milca north of Jeniuleni,
Mid a shiirt iliitance north-weet ot Nablona

ehrchetn). It waa foundnl hy Onri, lung of
rmcl, a* the caiiitikl of Inuel or the ten
tribal (l KL ivi fc ; 2 KL iU. 1). The teni-
torv wai purchunl nf Sfaemer (hence Shomeron
—ijamuu), uid fortified (J KL X. 2). Itwitli-
■tuod t«r> unsuccnaful Kr^et b; Benhadad,
king of Hyria, anil hii powerful alliea (1 KL
XxJ, and wu finnlly (ubdurd bf Shalmaneaf-
in the rrini of lliMheL but nut till aftvr
■idir of tlirt-e yemi (2 Kl iviL 1-8).
Previoui tii ita fall it was KJveu up
to every ■]i<n.'i>i of eennuality, op-
lireniun, uiil idolatry. It recuretnl
it« pnwiirrity, bowvvi^r, and reached
the hi-ih'ht of ita k-1»ry ia the tiOM
nf Ilrrud tliu Urtat who eulatged
anil wkimed it. and by whom itwia
called Stl,n*tt (Arab., lkbuttiytX)-m
name wliit'h in Idtin would be
■if Aiwuatin,

hii%«

ar <i tlM ^ td Aa^d' ttm

btiitbnM, that the kad WH MlMr*^?*
Itainbi^taBta b tha Ampim mmiAl^
that tha SwMtitMm an qnacbah*
heathen ooloiUBta. TbcTM«ini«.(.i*>
tovmabedbnulMAJawaaMlGeiaK B*
ohanoter hw «Dn<MMmdad witk tk* i*»
lien. TImt aakM] tk Jawiah ptMt te li«
HDoDe then, Midbe^wiliaUf Ina^tM

tidi^aniSi

ti«Mwriu*r

Wh«B tber

wed to unit'

the ton^e^ tlioj

iv. 9. lOK ™™_™ »

Jewi, th^ aOrmod ttafc thar ««■ ltm,m
eolidtid •qnal wJTilMW; lMt«h«iMia
itefth* J«m^th^ r Md

itbtK

rbntai

Thx idtuatiim ia extreniuly lieautiftd
and irtnina by laturo— miTU »o th»n
Jeniwli-ni. It Htanila on a fine lat^
iniuiatal hill, coiuioiucd all niuud
liy a lipud dceji vnili'y; and. when
fortilifn), iiiukI have lic^n, acunnliog
to tbt uni'ii-ut mcala of warfare,
impri'inmblc. The valley

iinded by four hJUn. which

tutht

,top.

(■own with pain, and planted with
fit; trees anil olive trMi, u in alto the
vftlley. The liill of Samaria itKlf
riwH in tiTr«oi-> to t, heii;ht equal to
«ny of thoiie in ita vicinity. The
im-iH'nt villa^B i> email and poor,
anii the ascent to it very itecp ; but
viewnl fnim a diatance it is eitramely in'
ing, from ita natural Hituatian, and tht^ n
mn ancient convent, which are very pictiir
HAMAR1TAN8 (2 KL iviL 29) - tl

habitanta of Samaria; but in the Ni".v '_

ment it ia applied to the peo|>le tl: it \K,r

e anted in Ssiuaria, in the puce of I li'' ' mI'I'
raelitea, by the Afuiyrian kinR (2 Jvi viii
20). Having deported the laraeliCia.'^
tion, he aent into their land colnnin cf
people. TliiiM) mixed and married n

they were Sidoniaiu. Thla defiltJ cfisii (B* 1
iv. 1), the hoetile eourae pnrvaed h "^ 1
before the Peraian kings (Neh. iv. 1), cmm^ I
with their conetruetion of the Haai< ^ J
xxriL U-13J, their eer^atiMi fwo * J
n their place of worwiip, and rv^ |
(if their famous temple on GerrBnUl*!** 1
5^,53; Johniv.30,2I),rei)iler«lthauiD«f I
Iwtween them and the Jews very bilMr («* ^
X. 6; John iv. 9); ro that tie »e»J "
Sunaritaa waa with the Jew a tem

SAM

id ooDtempt (John TiiL 48). The
B expected a Messiah (John iv. 25},
of them followed Chnst (Ads viiL
zv. 3). (See Shxchbm.)
mt of this ancient people yet remain,
been visited by modem trayeUers.
MS to show a copy of the Pentateuch
•B of age, written by Abishna, the
linehas. Copies of the Samaritan
h were first bronght to Europe by
le in 1616. Others were procured
;)ense of Archbishop Usher. It is
w text in old Hebrew or Samaritan
J with characteristic various readings,
les of Samaritans are now few, and
r diminishing.

LR-NEBQ—firrerf^ of KdM (Jer.
-probably an ecclesiastical title borne
4harezer. (See Babylon, Nsboal-

( (Acts XX. 15) — an island in the
a, or Grecian Archipelago, at which
lied on his passage from Oreece to
. It is situated a few miles finom
of Natolia in Asia Minor, and is
miles in circumference, containing
than 12,000 inhabitants. The sou
rtile, producing oil, wine, oran^^es,
and is capable of fine cultivation,
at p»resent found in the island ; and
>ntained a temple of Juno, whose
re yet visible. It was the birth-
*ythagoras, and the burial-place of

"HEACIA (Acts xvL 11)^ or 8amo9
—an island in the Archipelago, 17
rcumference, lying off the provmce
a. and not far from Thrace. It was
Paul in his passage from Troas to
It was once called Samos ; and the
leia was annexed to distinguiBh it
amos above mentioned. The name
late; for it was inhabited by emi-
in Sambs and Thrace. Once cele-
its mysteries, it is now inhabited
' hy fisnermen, and in many parts is
ith forests. Its modem name is
a.

N — mm (Judg. ziii 24) — son of
ind for twenly yeKtB a judge of
?he circumstances attending the
on of his birth are remarkable (Judg.
see Makoah); and he was du-
for his gigantic strength. Con-
le wishes of his parents, who were
»f the law (Exod. xxxiv. 16^ Deut.
married a woman of Tinmath,
B city. On his way to that city he
a (Judg. xiv. 6-9), and afterwifu^
lie carcase of the beast a swarm of
he ate of the honey himself, and
to his parents. This gave nse to
, which ne propounded at his mar-
promising a valuable present to
\o would solve it within seven days,
he^ would make a like present to
' failed. Unable to solve the riddle
, they resorted to Samson's wife,

SAM

who, by the most urgent entreaties, had
obtained from him a solution of it. By cruel
threats they extorted from her the secreL and
told it to him. But he knew their treachery ;
and though he kept his word, smd made them
the present, it was at the expense of the lives
of thiri^ of their oountr3rmen. He iJso forsook
his wife, who had been tiius false to his
interest. On returning to Tinmath, with a
view to a reconciliation with his wife, he found
she had married again, and he was not per-
mitted to see her. He immediately caught
300 foxe& and fastening a fire-brand to every
pair of them, let them loose upon the fiel<u
and vineyards of the Philistines, and spread
fire and desolation over the country. The
Philistines, to be avenged, set fire to the house
where Samson's wife lived; and she and her
father were burnt in it. This wanton bar-
barity drew uiwD them again the vengeance
of Samson, who came upon them and routed
them with immense slaughter (Judg. xv. 1-8).
(See Fox.)

He then took up his abode on the rock
Etam, in the territory of Judah, whither the
Philistines came to revenge themselves, laying
waste the country on evenr side. Three thou-
sand of the men of Judan remonstrated with
Samson for thus exciting the resentment of
the Philistines; and he consented that they
should bind him, and deliver him into tiieir
hands. This they did; but in the midst of
their exultations ne burst his bands, and fell
uiwn his enemies, putting 1,000 of them to
death and the residue to flight (Judg. xv.
9-19). It was on this occasion that he was
miraculously supplied with water from a foun-
tain opoied on tne spot— not in the jawbone
with which he had slain the Philistines, but in
the place where the bone was found and used.

Alter this Samson went to Gaza, where he
attached himself to Delilah^ a mercenary
woman, by whom, after a vanety of arts and
stratagems, the secret of his great streng^
was discovered to lie in the preservation of nis
hair— for he was a Nazarite (Judg. xvi 17).
The Philistines came uiwn him while he was
asleep, removed his hair, bound him with
fetters of brass, put out his eyes, carried him
to Gaza, and threw him into prison. Having
thus secured their formidable foe^ the Philis-
tine nobles assembled for a feast of joy, and, to
add to their merriment, they proposed to have
Samson brought. So a lad led him in, and
sat him down between the two main pillars of
the house where the nobles and a multitude
of people^ both men and women, were assem-
bled, besides 3,000 persons ui>on the roofs of
the cloisters around, beholding the cruel sport.
Samson requested of the lad that had charge
of him to rest himself against the pillars on
either side of him. This being granted, he
prayed for strength, and laying^ hold of the
pillirs, he bowed with all his might, carrying
the pillars and the whole structure with him,
and burying himself and the vast multitude
within and around the courts in one common
destruction. Samson is ranked with the com-

569

i

of IL<

Huuuh, the uranti of Sunual, dwelt io
KkmBthium-xopbinL a toim situatod oq tlu
■nutliMti border of moant Ephcaim, » tew
niiloa Dorth-uvat of Jemiialem. Althougli
cunnnHed vitb Bethlebno by hii ancefton,
the father of Samuel wu ■ deamuUnt of
Ije\i. throQKb his second aun, Kohath (1 Chr.
vi. '^-31). IClkanah hiul a nmod wifa, named
Peninniui, who had luadv him the father of
iwvenl sua* aii4 daughtcn: but Hi
favou-' - ' ^

a dnMuuHtancK which provukc . .

i'ealcjiuy, mxd naturally led her (o leaaa auu
.ann her rivaL The childleM Bt>onM wai
taunted with ber barrenncsa Even the Mk-
Noiu of lacred Holvmnity were not free from
diimeatic iliiiiuietude. On one of the annual
vinita to the tabernacle at Sldloli, when
EtkaosJi and his household bad gone up "to
wonihip and to sacrifice unto the Lord of
boats," the iqiirit of bis beloved wife wia filled
with aoffuiiih by the nnceasins provocatums of
herrival: "shewciit, and did not ekt." The
affectionate and tender words of her hniband
(1 Sam. i. 8) fiuled tu soothe her ; she ron in
bitterness <a soul, went to the tahemade, and,
proatntin^ btr»clf before the Lord, beaouoht
hira to piW her diitreaa and give b«t ^'a
tnan-cbild ; vowing, in the event of a faTom-
alile reiponae, to consecrate ber firat-boni to
the service cj God, and mark his special
devotedness by training; bim to some of tha
peculiar habita of the Naiaritea. Bannali
continued " instant in prayer " till intempted
the high priest, who had

by the rebuke of Ell tl

more favmuably of m
FmDi all the apacial •
"the gioij had dapa
filled the laicMhood-
•uredness «< tha •
mads "thenaalnB ttt
the cfleringa of laaol'
and example, "nud*
traugnaa.^ And wi
endencv that tha pa
Lava it so;" bat nsti
Qotobaoure Ukat, aa w
Mtw and ootidncL ao 1
ttaay miniiland in bolr
the offeriBc a< tlw La
need, a child giran in a
aad dsvotwi to Mwrod 1
wa« well fitted to dn
•zoita the hopaa ofthoi

£ief, t
-ilioeiaf.
iiiatiT&

rrisal^ andampkjad ]■
Lord. TtSMaiaUUyti

earl

DaiiatiT& Whilsnt''
linen aphod, al

of tha demtad ddU di

with h«r own handh .

M

SAM

"open vision "

The "oi>en vision" had been
tecatue the widcedness of Israel was

Bat, notwithstanding these things.
b then depart from his usual method
known beforehand the coming of
judgments, and Samuel was em-
mvey the awful tidings. After the
the day, Eli and his youthful at-
1 retired to rest, and soon Samuel
d by a thrioe-repeated caU from
being^ the first of such divine mani-
he cmld knew not the voice which
, but supposing that his aged
quired his presence, went at every
]ood before the priest. ** £11 per-

the Lord had called the child,'*
him how to act. Samuel obeyed,
peared again, and made known his
oracle foretold the swift destruction
ked house. This was Samuel's in-
x> the Drophetic office : and soon did
f revelation become familiar to his
jr. Samuel be^[an and continued
^ imder the gmdance of Grod, who
itted the words of his servant to
dfilled ; so that all Israel knew and
amuel as a faithful prophet of the
ovah appeared again and dwelt in
L from the sanctuary there, as from
place of thimdering," the voice of
ity was received by Samuel, and
• ail IsraeL

he substance of all that Scripture
amuers childhood and youth. His
ance on the oage of history is in
important ana resx>onsible charac-
he prophets x)oesessed under the
)cracy as the representatives of
King." For a considerable period
een made to reap the bitter fruits
ced doings. They had been smitten
r the Philistines; the ark of God
ken from them by their enemies ;
ions, a family of priests, had been
e day ; and all that was excellent
med to have departed. * ' Ichabod —
5 glory?" Twenty long years passed
the traces of these calamities had
itirely effaced. The ark, though
ptivity, had not been restored to
place. But the desi^ of these
ts had been accomplished. The
of the people had been arrested,
brought low, and now, in a spirit
itence, "all the house of I^ael
ter the Lord." This was a fit
e prophet to proclaim and asseort
Dty of Jehovan. He was true to
Idaster, and at once preceded to
icerity of Israel's gnef, and the
their aspirations arter the God of
I, by demanding the entire aboli-
vonhip, and a thorough prepara-
t to serve him, and nim alone.
x>mplied; and Samuel invited all
eemole at Mizpeh^ that, in their

might intercede with the Lord on
. The tribes met at the appointed

SAM

dty, aoknowledg^ed their transgreasion, ex-
pressed their penitence, and with fasting and

Erayer renewed their all^^iance to the Kmg of
eaven. Here we have ^e first intimation of
Samuel exercising the functions of judge in
Israel (1 Sam. vii. 6), probably because that
day he was chosen by the assembled people to
fill the office which had been vacant smce Eli's
death. The placing of themselves under the
prophet's regency, as Grod's vic^erent, was a
formal confession of the anarchy, confusion,
and misery which their lawless conduct had
produced, and a formal placing of themselves
under the government and protection of Him
who had been the Divine Ruler and Keeper of
loraeL The benefits invariably connected with
such a position were soon experienced as in
times of old.

While Samuel and the Israelites were sq
interestingly engaged, the lords of the Philis-
tines made war a^inst them. At the people's
request, Samuel offered a lamb for a burnt-
offering, and began to ciy for divine protection.
His prayer was neard. "The Lord thundered
with a great thunder on that day upon the
Philistines," and. by his powerful voice, so
filled them with oismay. that they were easily
vanqiushed and put to flight before the men of
IsraeL Samuel remembored'to give due praise
and thanks unto Jehovah, and erected an
"Eb^iezer" to commemorate the signal vic«
tory they had won b^r his ahnighty help. This
effective triumph entirely prevented any more
attacks from PniUstia during " all the days of
Samud." The fame of the prophet was now
thoroughly established. In every respecw he
had shown himself worthy of popular con-
fidence. He was confirm^ in the regency,
and made an annual circuit of the country to
discharge the more special duties of his office.
His head-quarters were at Bamah, where was
his own residence, and where, alJM), he had
erected an altur to the Lord. Under his reign
Israel was peaceful and prosperous.

Nothing more is heard of oamuel for several
years. It ma^ safely be conduded, however,
that during this long period the prophet-judge
continued faithful to Grod. and taitnful to the
nation over which he ruled; and also that
under an administration of inte^ty and jus-
tice Israd dwdt safely, and enjoyed its rich
reward.

But a different scene now presents itself.
In his old age Samuel had devolved the duty
of judging upon his two sons, Jod and Abiah.
The young men widked not in their father's
footstepSk Fear of God and hatred of cove-
tousness were no prominent traits in their
character. "They turned aside after lucre,
and took bribes, and perverted judgment."
Such procedure could not but be offensive to
the men of IsraeL Their reminiscenoes of
Hophni and Phinehas, and the fearful state of
things which prevailed under their misrale
during the dotage of Eli, were too vivid to
permit a tame submission to the ini5[uitoua
doings of the sons of SamueL Breading the
wont of evils for the kingdom, and rushing, at

671

wbiuh would be entulpd In the Hon of all
mnoDatnnce, and with " the manner tJ the
king that ahould irign over tbem" folly Mt
forth, the MOpIa pergiited in their demand ;
and namuel, under divine diractiim, at length
onniplii'd. Saul the son of Kiih, wu obowD,
anointed, and drsijjned to the regal cfflce.
The prnjihH then invited the tiibei to meet
liiin at AIii;<ch, and after another pirinted
rpmonittrance imiceeded tu chontethem a king.
In McurilancB with iireWoiii indicationa of
Ond'a will, tlie lot feu upon Saul, who waa
brought forth, and hailed ■■ KiTereurn br the
scdiunatiuiui of the people. At Gilgil the
people were aRsin auemhled, and Saul waa
lormally inxtalled into the kingdom fay " lacti-
ficr* and otfcrinei before the Lord. "And
iiU Iho men of lamel rejoiced greaUj." (See
Saul.) Samuel took advantage of the circnm-
iitancvii, and called every man of them to wit-
ncMs before the I<nnl and before hii anointed,
to the integrity and uprightneM of aU that he
bod done aH judge in the mi<)(t of them. With
<me voice the {leople tentified to th« eXMllence
of hi« government lie then firooaadad once
more t<i cull atlentinn to the wickednen they
1 demanding a king, and
to vindicate what ne had
n thunder and in tau-
jmt. AU tJie pp'^ile trembled, and implned
the pniphet'a praycn on their behalf, OonfcM-
ing that tn all tlivir other einathav had added
"tliii cTiL" Hamuel exhorted them to hope
»tiU in God, an-l continue fidtliful in hia «arvioe^
then ihould tliey enjoy hi* interceuion amd
inctniction; an.l, what wu far bettCT, then
ehnuld they enjoy the favoor and blefdng of

Kur a short space Sanl ruled well in Iirael ;

ught of Ood and mat
peri^ in d U* w»y,

of every i^w, ^Im ■

the fama whidi the i

• fitted toexdia.

Fidelity to Jehonh ■
of Inael duiactara
Especially he waa a :

SAM

8 are necessarily much intertwined,
to which the history relates were in
t sense seasons of trouble. By the
of the later judges, the nation had
d into a state of lawless confusion.

as they were, b^ the division of
» distinct oommunitiee, each section
led a degree of independence alto-
ompatible with national oonfedera-
roeperous tranquillity. The annals,
which record a transition from this
the chief persons who took part in
tant changes, necessarily possess a
»e of interest. Samuel is first intro-
he sacred penman, who fills up the

chapters oy a notice of the eztea-
rcumstances of his birth ; a glimpse
state of religion and morals whidi
»d both rulers, priests, and people;
; of Samuel's call and introduction

rhetic office; the calamities which
in a warlike engagement with the
, when the sons of Eli and much
-e slain^ and the ark of Gk)d taken
le election of Samuel to the ofBce of
s success in battle; his upright
,t ; his peaceful reign ; and his stnct
to religious duty. The saa«d
oes on to teU of the regency of
Dus; their misrule; the disaffection
if the people ; their resolute demand
to reign over them ; SamuePs fidelity
ocracy, and reluctance to yield to
r clamour; and the anointing, selec-
proclamation of Saul as the first
n IsraeL These things fill up the
chapters. ^ Saul now occupies the
[ of the history for a considerable
here are briefly noticed his early
r; the expostulations of the prophet.
Qouncement that the kingdom would
from the son of Kish and given to
he choice and consecration of David ;
:holy and distress of Saul ; his fre-
B with his neighbours; his enmity
.vid, and frequent attempts to take
life; and the inglorious death of
1 Jonathan his son in mount GUboa,
ael had been vanquished by the
. This last event is recorded at the
ok first. Much of the preceding
M^ever, iA taken up with the history
xrhere he plays an extensive, though
ndary part The inspired narrator
vid's introduction at court as a skil-
in, for the purpose of soothing the
print of Saul; his encounter with
lis consequent fame throughout all
I subsequent exploits, his dangers,
apes while "hunted like apitftridge
tuntains" by his inveterate royid

orian proceeds in the second book
details of David's history^ There
d his gradual progress to the sum-
v^e'r; his taking of Jerusalem and
^ it the capitu of the kingdom;
g up the ark from Gibeah to the

SAM

metropolis; his resolution and preparation to
build a temple to Jehovah ; his various wars
and singcdar successes: and his enlargement
and ^ settling of all the borders of IsraeL
David's respect for the principles of the
divine government, his attachment to religious
matters, and his eminent piet>\ are set forth
with due prominence ; and his faults and
misfortimes are not overlooked. No attempt
is made to conceal his distrustf ulness in equi-
vocating to Achish. his wickedness towards
Uriah and Bathsheba, or his haughtiness in
numbering the people. The domestic trials of
the royal psalmist arising from iwlygamy.
that bane oi Oriental households, are noticed
with sufficient minuteness ; and the multifarious
evils which accrued to the kingdom and the
monarch from Absalom's unnatural rebellion,
are preserved iir graphic and striking colours.
A specimen of the divine son^ of David,
corresponding almost entirely with the eigh-
teenth in the book of Psalms, and the last
effusion which '*the sweet singer" penned,
are ^ven towards the close; and the history
terminates abruptly, after mentioning the
numbering of the people, the jud^ent which
followed, and the becoming pemtenoe of the
kmg and his smitten subjects. Throughout,
the narrative is varied and enlivened by frag-
ments of Hebrew poetry — such as Hannah's
song (1 Sam. iL 1-10), the song of the bow (2
Sam. i 19-27), and David's thanksgiving (2
Sam. viL 17)— poetry at once beautiful in
composition and interesting and elevated in
the sentiments it breathes.

The authorship of the books of Samuel, and
the date of their compilation, are matters in-
volved in considerable obscurity. An old
opinion ascribes the work to the pen of Sam-
uel; but it was imi)ossible for him to have
written it in its present form, — otherwise he
not onlv recorded his own death, but very
much tnat occurred after that event. The
notion is founded on the words in 1 Chr. xxix.
29. But these words by no means prove
Samuel to be the author of the books which
bear his name, though they are fitted to sug-
gest a very probable solution of the difficulty.
It was customary with the prophets to keep a
register of all the leading events of the times
in which they lived (1 Sam. z. 25), and to such
records the passage quoted from Chronicles
mav refer. Samuel, Kathan^ and Gad lived
and occupied prominent stations as prophets
during the most important periods of the times
of David. In addition to the changes in the
government, and the events of Saul's reign,
uie re^[ister of Samuel would naturally contain
the chief points of David's early history ; the
narrative of the prophet Gad. who attended
the son of Jesse in ms wanderings (1 Sam.
zxii 5), would embrace the leading points in
this section of his life : and the writings of
Nathan would fill up wnat was lacking of the
events of David's reign, and the occurrences of
his more advanced years. The works of these
three seers, therefore, would contain all the
materiala of the books of Samuel The oom-

673 .

SAN
fiiler had bfdiTP biro alw the tnoli of Jadicr— •
cnUedicoi nf natiim^ odc«, from which the ' 'Song
of tha Jlaw," uid, it ouiy be, most of the oUur

ioctic f ngroeDti. were eitnctsd. It ii thos-
nn A cmDiiilBtion from reoordi contempor-
■neoiii with the eventa which thejr nunte,
mud euinot Iw placed later in oompoalion than
the mifti of Refaotioam. At the Mine tame
the cndibilitr itate on a mnat auTe wotd of
tMtimonv— the authority ut the New Teata-
menL Actiiiii.22; Heb. L G,arenmiB:tivd7
nii.,ti^ fnim 1 Sam. liiL 14; 2 Sam. riL 14
nevEnl objectiotu hare been taken to the
harrotiny and consiitency of the comnlatuni.
(See Kitt<re Cudapadia nf BiUieal _.
whtrv ibeH nbjectiiiD* are diecOMcd.)
llie ticnenl Ipinoiu which tbeae am
■Initpfft and Gttul fiexbilnt fdTonr"i
tiuD in righteoiiHneia " may be brlcflva
lip in the wyiDK of nn aiimtle,
IinifiUble unto all thinga, having proniae of
tha life that n<>w iK. and of that which ia to
Clime." Fidelity tu the God of heaven, m the
IciDR who rcipiHl in Jeahunin, in thinga drii
aa well aa aacrtd, and a etrict and full pnfoim-
aDce of every ordinance of his appomtment,
Vitt invanii1>ly followed with penonal, and
d<ime«tic, and national prosiwiity, while the
mi|HiHite conduct was never left unpimiahed.
< 'ih1 nlwayn diaplayi-d himwlf aa the watchful
lardian of Ilia anveivisn rightB. Whether ia
„.e venurnhle Kli or the anaioted Saul.
ncKlrct of iliity or inien impiety mnived ita
" jnBt nT<inii>mBe nf ivward." Whether in
the " I'hilrl Suniiiid" or tli« renowned David,

nuthifity, and every act of holjf obedience,
wiiti the a]iiini1<ati»n, and waa followed by the
UfMnuKof.Trhnviih.

HANBALI.AT (Xth. ii. 1(1), the goveniot
of the ISanuiritaDH, uiu a native nf Honm or
Honinaim, ami Ih henre cnUnl the Horonite.
Ho woH vurj inimical to tliu JewK, ami

s;

!) i> to prepare o
4 to a holy tih

thatcm|ile(N'«h. vi. 1-!)).

8AKH'IKY(E».-l.xiii
tft apart iH-miinx or tliinin ti - -
Siich a, KvuiUilic iiw of the phnue ._ ...^
■.■nnimon In the nhl Toftanient. The tenn
NUH^tliiitinD, when apiilied to men, denote*
that ctfLvt lit (iixra SiJrit o|Kni the soul, by
wUch it iu made " meet fur the inheritance of
tlie HuntH in lisbt." ll coniprehendi all the

e races of hnowTeilfni, faith^ love, n-iientonce,
umili^, ftc, ami tlw exerciiie of th<^n towards
Ciod and nuin {3 TlicHg. ii. i:t ; I Put. L 2). It
i» a pnnm* by which the wiul ia cleanBed from
the|>..lliitiimBnddeliv.Ti>.lfr..m the power of
■in, nod at the aanic tiiiio enduwl with tfanee
Hiiiritiial trmcea above named, without which
there could lie nci tiwte ur titnesa for the ]oyi
•IT em|iliormi.>nta of Hie brarvnly world (Heb.
Xii. 14). Manctification i^ the fruit of union to
Chriat hf faith ; nnd it is in the knowleJito
and belief of the truth aa it is in Jeans that
the Bool heooinea thu subject of the aanctUying
jnflacnoea of the Biiirit (John iviL 17). from

thii inward intMuaUiw PMb^iI
wurd and wocL It fi «"^
liistingniahed fnan ^ adtl^ri'
divine pankn an'
(Titna itll-Ul.
tifying himaalt (John iriL Kh
to the row wUA mmti MM
•et apart to » baly m. T

lu-.-it aeeret and ibemI alki( k ■
th.^ adc of the a

the high priest tUe ,-

a year, im Uie dard >1^M
iv. 6). It is aba «PlM tojL
tha £oIy place (NiM.KUfl

wharT^ifT^ «n4'%i9
bread, altar of ineegiL AafMNP
1 Ki . .n J (q (jm vImu MMiL''

th« •' aanetnaiy ol *?^'>JM1
strong place and M«Tlnl*4^^^
t- (;«l. tha stic^ it la^S^*

id also ^plied to ■bU^^^I'e,
public wpnhip nf ««(?'■.¥'_-
l«.-»van. when God lad&NrM

toTcrerdwdl (A. a
>U'n to the Jewish nnetuiTi
lir„ti.-ctod prtty criiuaik

i<i..i shelter iaaOedaMll
i:/.-k. li IfiJ. (SecTiBB .-
SANDAia. (SeaCloilPj
SANHEDRIM. (SetOceWii ^
SAPHIR-a lows of JaMJlfc^J
Varit.118 identiGcationi hin "■H
at one of two or thite vibt* Jj
.Sawofir, south-out cj Adididl*
near I.vdiU.
SAPPHIRA. (SwAKiWlM
aAPPHlRE (EiikL ii™.!*
ftone, and sTirpaMed in '""'^ *
linnincas only by the diimond. <''.
d,.ep i7iirt, like the sky (•b^'.ttM

olluriou. Ei<*i XDT. li);E»±i!vl

'I'hp E>»[ilihire was the f"™ fBft!
high pnest's breastpUte. Iti'P""''

"s'aJIAI-: „

duced tu us at the time d bo M
Abram, in these agaiSa^ <"
t^aru was barren; aodihshadW
went forth with her hosiod ta ,
CliiildcvB, and they dwelt ia Bi^^
of the famine which w*a soteTa^
('iHuuui, Abram w«it toa^"«*l|g|
Kuuwine that his wifewaaniT J!u
upon," he trembled for her«figW"5l
if it were known in ^ypt th* J^g
spouae ; therefore he penraadsd ^%B
unto the EgyptiaDa that ^ **.
suspicions trtn ■** ?

Pharaoh, ami be

SAR
im hunta. Had Dot Ood
oinculoDi maimer for her
to be feared no affort of

■re uved her ; for a woman
ito the li&rem of an Eaatcm
re for life^r at all eventa
he king. The Lord plagued
3f Sonu, Abmm'g wife, and
her to her huebandj reprov-
acbery, and sent bun awaj
ni long«d for the fulfilment
imagined that the coulJ
refore permaded Abram to
aid to be bis ucondary wife,
w I m&y obtain chil^uen W
^gnancy tilled her with pride
, eicited with piudon, nn-
Abram, as if he had been
ai^B inoolence. Hagar ded
b'a hoiuehald; but, warned
■ned. God appeared i^ain
promised hitn a son of ^rai
from henceforth he should
e princess. Again the Lord
ibraham in the plaini of
wed the promise which he
1, of Sarah's having a aon.
Sarah overheard the oonver-
led between the Lord and
T heart was filled wiUi nn-
led in deristaa at what aha
sihility of the promiae being
tbat with God nothing ii too
t Abraham and Sonb so-
. and agun praotiiied tbe
I Abimelech which they had
Fbaraoh, calling e«ch other
. It is a dngnlar fact that
e retjuned her extraordioary
of such an advanced ase.
interfered in a remarkable
i reetoratioQ to her husband;
^proved them by his eitra-
and generoeity. According
the Lord, at the time ap-
-e Abraham a eon in his old
iced over the birth of Isaac
be waa also to be tbe mother
obeae"-

BAR
when she was an hundred and Beven-and-
twenty years old. Abraham mourned tor hn ;
and she was buried in the cave of Haohpalah.

3ABDINE. (See 3ARDIDB).

SARDI3 (Bev. L 11)— a dty of andnit
Lydia, and the site of ons i^ the aeven
chnrcbes of Asia. Its modem name is Seit
Kslesai, and it li«a about 30 miles aoath-
if Tbyatira, and 2 miles south of the

village, inhaHted
it is one of the I '

caravans. The _„ , _

Cyms,aad afterwarda deinlati

quake, tiie mins <A it being still visible » little

shepherds, though

— of the Feirian

la plundered by

"■ byar — ■•■

reform

' It might
Bd that, amid the jo; of her
be no room for bittemese;
the son of tbe bond-woman
^ant spirit could not brook
le comnmnded Abraham to
id-womaa and her child,
other obtained their freedom
misflaL It is worthy ot re-
I Sarah's disposition on some
ve been, she was yet in sub-
band,— eha hereell dared not
her BOD away. (See HaOAB.)
of ber, tbat she "obeyed
bha loid;"her fmtb is also
e eleventh chapter of the
ebrews. Nothing more is
<ut her age and death. She
ba, in the land of Canaan,

the south of the present town.

Nothmg is now to be seen but ■ few mod huts,
inhabited by ignorant, stupid, filthy Turks ;
and the only men who bear the Cbrisnan name
are at work all day in their milL Everything
seems as if God had cursed the place, and left
it to the dominion of Satan. A modem tra-
veller says, — " I sat beneath the sky of Asia, to
gaze upon the ruina ot Sardis from the banki
of the golden-sanded Pactolus. Beside me
were the cliSs of that Acropolis which, cen-
turies before, the hardy Median scaled while
leading on the conquering Persians, whose
tents had covered tbe very spot on which I was
reclining. Before me were the vestiges of what
had been the palace of the gorgeous Crceaua ;
within its walla were once congregated the
wisest of mankind, Thales, Cleobulus, and
Solon. Far in tbe distance vrere tbe gigantic
tnmoli of the Lydian monarchs; and aioand
them spread those very pl^ns once trodden by
the countless hosts of Xenes, whan hunyine
on to find a aaDulchre at Marathon. But al^
all had passed away I There were before me
the fanos of a dead religion, the tombs of
forgotten monarchs, and the jialm.tree tliat

bigbiy valued for seala and ornaments. Tbe
fineet specimens are from Jndea and frc:m
Sardis, whence the name. (See SaRDOHTI.)

SARDONYX (Bav. iri. 20)-a predoog

stone combining the appearances ol the

•ardius and onyx, whence its name; or it

mar resemble the former in colour and the

675

c I leric*, cometimM iilsallficd withBiufaaddoo,
liii gnudind. .

SAItOX. (Sm Sharon.)

SAIUJECBIM (Jer. xuar. SKperiwpa

the same with Nebushubui (whioh ■ml

SATAN (1 Chr. iiL l)-« Hebrew word
ni^ifyiiie an mrmg ; and in Beriptun it i*
ciimmoDlr applied to the devil, who u the
GQcmy 01 God and the great tempter and
deettuyei of the sonla of meiL Ita use ia
Uatt. ivi. 23 denotn the iuflnence under
which I'nei acted. (9e« Divil, Fonsiaam.)
HATYH (lu. liii. 21; lUiv. 14). The
Hebrew temi here rendered Mfyr i* trandated
drrilM {Lev. ivil 7), and ffoat (Ley. ir, U).
It i> a fabled creature of GieA mytbolog;,
eoDipounilediif amaDuidagoat, and lappoaied
to be the deity of furmta and mral plaoaa.
Luther rcndem the term FeldceiiteT, JUId
■ ■■-; MichaeliauHaWaldteofetwiiid-doil;

Eive the rendering wild goat
terallf, hairy ihaEgy moDStetl; biii
the eiprcMiim, " ufyn iball dance than,'

Ac., dvnntca that the place shall
ruile, wild, uncultivated wiute.

SWL-oMktd (I Ram. ix. 2)-tbe first king
ot Israel, wu the son of Kish, of tbe tribe al
UenjamiD. His pvrAonal appearance was ao
remarkably flue and nolile u to be puti-
cnlarif mentioned by the sacred historian.
It happened that tomt ann of hia father's had
■tiayed away, and he took one of the sarranta
and went in eevch of them. In the course of
tfarir wanderings they came on the third day
to a place where Samuul the aovr (or prophet)
roiided ; and the Mrvont iiro]K«ed that they
■hoold apply to him for informaticin. Thu
they did. Samnel, having been divinely ad-
mnniahed of the appmach oCsaal, and iniitmcted

slave tit jMlonn, do]
evil s|nnt aeiaad Un
beat Mnotified, aad h
daA hypodiaaidri*—
Mia oondoct towHda :
the extreme^ ud aboi
manly and gMtetoBa I
his detilL the FhOiadi
fomidable ■• tointini
and in tha milbt <rf |

sooght in vain. In <
two of hia anTMnts i

noeh needed. ThaoRl
power orer qririti, Oa
nse of the on
thewidMdlL

the fsaiM i

Sanod irai uaannthr
tbe earth, anTfTboU*
ASWt hearing Ua ca
fiamndoliMgad tdmvj
the divine "^"""^ in
asmmdhim thatillU
elaewhsrs were vain, il
fBfliiij; and ■^**^^^*
were at hand, and

mong tbe la,

8CA

lay of umtud atonement the following
ur ceremony wm perfonned :— Two goats
ronght ana presented before the Lrord ;
re oast for the goats, as to which of them
be sacrificed, and which should be the
(oat. The one doomed to be a sin offer-
8 slain : and after the lu^ priest came
the holy of holies, he laid hu hands on
id of the live goat, and confessed over it
m of the people. The sin-laden animal
len sent oy the hand of a fit man into
ildemess,— ''And the goat shall bear
^im all their iniqmties unto a land not
ted" (Lev. zvi 22). The meaning of
ipreasive and picturesque ceremonial has
lurputed; but its ^^eral truth is very
nt. It pictured in vivid emblem the
I and final out-blotting of sin. Bat how
» ceremonial represent this? A common
a 18, that the one goat which was slain
anted Christ dving and dead for sin of
ind that the otner goat^hich lived and
innissed, symbolic Christ risen and
Dg our cause. But it might be objected
li a view, that the sins of the Hebrew

I were laid on the live goat after its
bad been sacrificed— an arrangement
does not harmonize with the actual

nent of the Son of Grod ; for our sins were
lot upon the risen Saviour, but upon Him
he died^ and in his death.' We incline
oldest view of this subject— a view com-

II the Church till the period of Julian the
ite^ by whom it was abused and carica-

t lansniage in the original is precise and
arTlt reads, "And Aaron shall cast lots
« two goats— ONE FOB Jehovah, one
JAZEL." What we are to understand by
1 has been much disputed. The language
Bi to us to imply the personality of
1— "one for Jehovah, one for AzazeL'*
nael we are inclined to understand Satan,
ihnoet all the ancient versions, which leave
xd, as they do the names of other per-
mtranslated. Satan is not here, as some
against tiiis opinion, put on an equality
ami ; for tiie two goats were both brought
«hovah,** and were his ; while the very

foi lots, which was in itself a solemn
to Goo, shows that Jehovah claimed
ower of disposal Neither can it be
m1 that this was in any sense a sacrifice
•D, for the animal was not slain to him ;

only sent to him in dim^race. Bearing
it sins which God had aJready forgiven,
sent to Azusel in the wilderness.

phrase "scape-goat," by which the
B term Azazel is rendered in our version,
from the **hircu8 emiMarius"^ of the
teu The term Azazel may mean the
fcate one'* — a name which Satan merits,
IM^ he seems to have borne among the

It was Satan that brought sin into the

and this seduction of man adds to his

■od consequently to his punishment.

low pardoned in God's mercy. The one

ig sacrificed as a sin offering; its blood

2p

8CE

was carried into the holy place, and the merpy-
seat was rorinkled with it. Guilt was there-
fore cancelled ; by this shedding of blood Uiere
was remissioiL But sin, though pardoned, is 9
yet hateful to God, and it cannot dweU in nis
sight : it is removed awav to a "Iiuid not in-
habited*'— severed from God's P^ple, and sent
away to man's first seducer. Tne sins, of a
believing world are taken off them, and rolled
back on Satan, their prime author and insti-

gfttor. Though the penalty is remitted to be-
eversy it is not remitted to him who brought
them mto apostasy and ruin. The tempted
are restored, out the whole punishment is seen
to fall on the arch-tempter. Hell is "prepared
for the devil and his angels."

SCARLET (2 SamTI 24)— a brilliant djre,
valued, like the purple and crimson, for nch
apparel (Ezod. xxviii. 15) and tapestry (Exod.
xzv. 4). Hence it was an emblem of luxury
and hcentiousness (Rev. xvii 3, 4). It was
also an emblem of honour and prosperity (Prov.
xxid. 21). Sometimes the scarlet and purple are
confounded (Dan. v. 7, 29 : comp. Matt xxviL
28; Mark zv. 17; John zix. 2). The depth and
strength of this colour give force to the figure,
Isa. i. 18. (See Purple.)

SCEPTBE (Esth. viiL 4)— a wooden staff
or wand, 5 or 6 feet long, usually overlaid
with gold, or ornamented with golden rings,
with an ornamented point. It was borne in
the hands of kings and others in authority,
as a token of power (Gen. xlix. 10; Num.
xxiv. 17). It probably had its origin in the
shepherd's staff, as the patriarchal chiefs were
shepherds as well as princes. Homer thus
describes the sceptre of Achilles, —

'* I shall swear a solemn oath.
By this sceptre, which shall never bad.
Nor bonghs bring forth, as once; which, having left
Its stock on tho high monntains, at what time
The woodman's axe lopt off its foliage green.
And Btript its bark, shall never grow again:—
By this 1 swear," Ac.— Ck>wrKa*8 vkhsion.

On the other hand, the spear of Saul appears
to have served him in lieu of a sceptre. The
maces borne before officers of law and of muni-
dpal corporations are a species of sceptre.
Tne royal sceptre is now a mere truncneon.
When the sceptre was held out to be touched
by an individual approaching the throne, it
was a sign of the royal acceptance and favour.
Homer's heroes employed tneir sceptre in the
infliction of punishment. A "right sceptre,"
in Ps. xlv. 6, is the symbol of a just govern-
ment.

SCEVA (Acts xix. 14)— a Jew residing at
Ephesus. He is called ** chief of the priests,**
which probably means that he was of the
sacerdotid order, holding an office of distinc-
tion perhaps in the national oounciL He
had seven sons, who, with other Jewish vaga-
bonds, practised exorcism; and it was tiieir
custom, after they had seen the miracles
wrought by Paul, to adjure the evil spirits by
Jesus whom Paul preached. Sceva*s sons
attempted to do so : and the possessed man fell

577

I

in lliem vith prndi(pi>i» piiwer, (tripped
1 wtniliiloil tliiia, mud iiblig«l them in ttut
(c tn tirr fnim the bouM. The f&ilnra of
: imjuK^uru vnn uvoTruW to the further-
Mi ol UiF truth, f<ir niuiy conveniniii took
ice 1 uiil tlitiw who had jirmctiaed the fcxiliih
- of n ■

them— tbu* sbuwinR their deteatttion of rack
pmcticen, and their detemmiatuiD to renomice
them. (Kee ErHEHi'fl.)

SCHISM (1 Cor. xiL 25} mums a m-ptpzt or
MlNUvtiuii 1 bat it i* sii]i|>>i>>al to denote in thia

The (liD of Hchi
•eparftte, but o

I often,

mthoii.

.. e the Kpara-

_ „ jt ChrutUn love and

the (pirit nnd letter of our Lord's valedictot;

*"SCH00T, (Act« ill. 9), SCHOIJVR (IChr.
xiT. S), SCHOULMASTEK (GaL iiL »).
School* eiiited iimong the Jewa from K reiy
eftrlf periniL Thuv wore eetabliehed under
the ia[*rv»iiin of the |miphrt«, to train jroung
'-> become eiiimndirB of the l»w, «— ' "

fit them f»r the iini-etly and priiihetiail offlcei
(1 Sam. lii. JK.24; a Ki iu 3, fi, 7, 12,15).
The children vere tan^fht to read in ogmmon
■cbmiLi, and in biither iwniinariee were in-
•tmcteil hy iliicbin in the lav anil traditiona.
It ia mippmivil that Clunnliel waa at the head
id mlch an iiixtitutiim. nnd much durtinguiHhed
(Acta iiiL :l|,; ami it i« wiid that the tutor's
dlair wan raiwil mi mudi aliuve the fliur i>n
which Uie ]>ii|>ihi mU tliat hia firt were even
with their livnili^ It in mm-h more iinibnble.
t\n, that tlu! iihmM> in the jiaiwif u cuiolvd

often hekl ILnku il 4(1: .
Vmu>.)

The wiiril renileml "whimlmnstCT" in GaL
JiL |M, m u-anthe ]>e<luK<>i,iiv; and amonti the
ancientu was n iiermiii to whom they coinniitled
the eare i>f their ehildrvn, to leail them, to
iilwrve tlu^m, and t>i (fiuird them aeainat
tibyMcal and niivHl ilanuiT. Thiu the office
nearly anMwi're-l to tliat of a tutor (Gal. iv.
2, 3), who HiiiKtantlv att.'inl* hi» pujiil, teachea
him, and fomia hid matiuem. He wan often a
freed bIuvi'. He woh not SAchoiilmanterinour
•enw of the term, but rather a ini|>#rinl«ndont
of tlienumerj-; took tlie ciiildren totheaemin-
ory ; and hail the char^ tif them Ull they
puwedover, aKt1icyiiTevu]i,tu the tutorage c^
■ mure dij^itiiKl and acooninliiihed instructor.
Aiuiterity waH awociated with the nllici'. lliu
('hurch was under thi> stem iwlagogy of law
till Cbrirt came.

SCUKXKi: (Prov. xiiL l)-onc wIki i< difl-
p«cd to laugh at pereonH and thingK of impor-
tance— who mocka at ain. and the judgments
of Gwl on account of it : and ocoffa at religion, j
■nd the pnifnaon and twchm of it; Mid
MS

SCO

derides and Iin

■driea (Pa. L I : Pn>r, ix. 8L

SCORPIOIf (Lnke xL 13}— a i^
creature, nueBaHing the lobats n tnth
the Utter la calltd tba ^nea:pm If
Aiaba. Its ah^e ud goiei^ tppimmtl
■een in tlui cot. Ito anial kaift la 1 1
inchee; bnt in trcfrfcal f Irnwtw it ia frf
found 6 or S incliee-— ud ««» any er»».
—in length; and it* tOag it Mmiil i
excndating padk (Rer. iz. 3A, laiM
often in nulent oaoTnUom M dartk 1
nuBgnity of ita renom ia aoootdfar to ttt I
and oomjdnion of tba diffomt iftAa, i
inaeet eonoeaU it*elf in oerbai aid m
Btonca, and whoi nuled Dp (ca
irtiite or yellow neciea} iiiiiiiil
hotea tlie nllniion, Lok* kL U

-i*Pr^

formed with knota or (mail ttimm as tW ^
blow should inflict a sharp stinriu fi^'
piubably alluded to in I Ki. i^ll !*•

ScorROB.) .

" Mount Akrabbim " (Josh. ir. I; J» J
i. 36) is, literaUy, "the mount of K^FJ*^ i

forty could be jgtlTjgg

, ; 2 Cor. iL «). »■■*;■»

waa tied b; his aims toalur^W'EB.'
laid bare, and hia body best lonaA^^I'
bhiws were apphed eo eererely W**!^
miinated. Sometima ^^^alt
sharp-cornered piece* ''■**3«lf:
to the end of the tbamf^Bf

often

lantcDed to the end of 1^

the BuRering still more extrem
Itomana the number of bkurt

blessed Bcdeemte ■el''* 'S\

form all that hia mnrderen >l>i^^f^
bear. So degrading was thia piuiia*
its nature and effecta that no ol^
ItomaD empire coold be ■abjswt^l
xxiL 2S, 28). Many were kn "■
the cruel infliction. Somrtii
on the way t<> execution, and
itself the obIv punishment. '-— .
the innocent Rsdeemer was twniad w ^
by thii cruel and ahamefsl "^"C^ftK
- with tboae stripes we an healed .H^H
6), The pimiahnumt with lodiofVH

sen

ten a separate infliction (2 Cor.

—Mfriter (2 Sam. riii 17). This
xst given to the king's secretary or
(2 oam. xz. 25), and to such as
the use of the ]pen (Judg. v. 14;
); but in time it came to mean
ffned man (1 Cor. L 20). The word
Icert (Ezod. v. 6) denotes writers —
alified to keep rolls and public
The use of the term in this place
early existence of the art
e peculiar office of the priests and
only to study the book of the law
ice (Eaora viL 6-10 ^ Matt. ii. 4 ; xii.
2; xvii 10; xxiiL 2), and to read
a it to the congregation^ but to
t, and multiply copies of it among
U lar^e. The scribes by profession
Ly pnests or Levites, and carried
as Oriental scribes do at this day,
snts of their art— an ink-horn throst
rdle; attached to this a knife to
e reed or pen^ a pumice-stone to
< paper or skm, and a sponge to
(takes (Ezek. ix. 2). The scribes
of the law are terms often applied
class of people (comp. Matt. xxiL
dl28; Luke V. 17, 21].
>ea were leagued with' the priests
(Uors against Jesus. They knew
e spirit of that law which they
nscribed, and taught. They scru-
conduct in an unworthy spirit,
d to entangle him by captious
laboured with no little subtuty to
putation or bring him within the
s law, and at last, enraged and dis-
jordially united with the Sanhedrim
: his death. Their knowledge of
id not sanctify them : it only puffed
In them was Terified the declara-
letter killeth."

1 Sam. xviL 40) — ^a sort of knapsack
lizes, made of skin or coarse cloth,
I the neck, and used to carry pro-
I journey (Matt. x« 10).
URE, SCRIPTURES (2 Tim. iiL
ese terms are applied to the inspired
itained in the Old and New Testa-
cy are also called The Bible, or
in distinction from all other books,
rreek word biblos, si^fnifying hook,
Kripture is also apphed to a single
ark XV. 2?>), and sometimes figura-
le Holy Ghost (GaL iii. 8). (See

n was necessary to a fallen world,
lid not think out for himself correct
d, salvation, and eternity. A long
;holy experiment has been made
uity; and the result is, that man
cannot rise to a true idea of his
1 Benefactor, but sinks into error,
d polytheism. There needs also a
elation. Grod's oracles must be
an as Scripturt, In early times,
• the composition of the Pentateuch,

SCB

while oracular fragments might be presenred
in writing, tradition seems to have oeen the
general mode in which divine revelation was
retained and transmitted. The process wast
not difficult nor uncommon. Enoch and Noi^
held intercourse. Abraham and Shem, his
tenUi ancestor, were contemporaries for more
than a century. Indeed, during the period of
the patriarchal dispensation an authorized
collection of inspirea oracles was not required.
Immediate communications were made from
heaven as occasion needed, and a traditionary
acquaintance with such revelations formed the
bans of religious science among the people.
But when the uncertainty attenoing this mode
of instruction is considered — ^how the knowledge
of each generation must have taken its peculiar
tincture from the preceding age, and how
memory mi^ht lose, and fancy alter, embellish,
or create— -it ia not matter of surprise that
various notions sprung up foreign to the
primitive records of the faith, and that forms
of worship were established at variance with
the unity and spirituality of Jehovah. It is
true that many ancient nations preserved with
great fidelity those rhap8K)dies m which their
early l^ends were embodied^ that these were
repeatea from sire to son dunng many genera-
tions, till at length they were inscribed on the
marble pillar or brazen tablets But men liked
not to retain God in their knowledge. Not to
mention the bloody races of Canaan, impure
and debased beyond recovery, the sons of
Japhet passed over to the Grecian isles, and
thence to the European continent, and formed
for themselves a gross and grovelling myth-
ology; while the children of Shem, livmg near
the seat of the primeval paradise, sadly apos-
tatized, began to look upon the heavenly
luminaries, in their various motions and phases,
as emblems of deity, then to regard them as
actual godSf and yield thpm a portion of that
veneration which was due to Jehovah. During
the eighth or ninth generation after the flood^
patriarchism gradually died out, and wM
buried among the fooleries of Oriental aut>er-
stition. Wrought into an endless number of
forms and fancies, through the refinement of
philosophy^ the coinage of poetry, the craft of
a selfish priesthood, and the necessities of civil
policy, its diiM^isea tenets have spread them-
selves with "the world's grey fathers" over
the globe.

The Mosaic economy, originating in the call
of Abraham, was founded in necessity, and
an authenticated revelation for popular use
became indispensable. Traditionary informa-
tion was evidently insufficient for the main-
tenance of the true religion. The world had
sunk into polytheism. Not only the host of
heaven, but the elements of nature, the heroes
and brai^actors of former ages, and the lusts
and stirrings of the human heart, were deified.
The passion for a multiplication of deities
could not be repressed. Therefore the estab-
lishment of the theocracy needed the publication
of a new code of laws, as well as an authentio
narration of its rise and progress. The historio

579

SCR

•ridence of its introduction wm composed by
Moses prior to the giving of the Uw ; for, on
the defeat of the Amsleldtes, the command
was, '* Write these things in a book"— "the
book ** or public journal out of which Exodus
is com] H wed. The Pentateuch was the author-
iied fuuntlation of religious wonhip and civil
IwUty. llie entire nation were trained to
regard it with reverence, and it had defended
its auUiority by sudden and extnordinaiy
judgments. Palestine was a land of milk and
honey, that its pettple might be a nation of
priests, and not of warriors or traders — that
the temple, and not the exchange or the camp|
should be the creat ]>lace of miblio resort and
assemblage. Hniks of annals were added to
the law. iVn])hetii were inspired on pecoliar
occasions and at various intervals; and so, by
many authors, the canon of the Old Testament
was at length completed. But the whok dis-
pensation was tyincal and nreparatoiy, neither
could it of itself complete the purposes of deity
nor satisfy tlie wants of numkiniL Anothir
economy was Uieref ore founded^ in the^ fulness
of the times, arme<l with provirion to instruct
all nations, not in the meaning of symbols, bat
in the knowledge and faith of living realitiet.
^lie morning Htar designed to assure the worid
of the certamtv, as well as instruct it in the
nature and dcHign of the advent of the Sun of
KighteouHne-iri, waned and faded till it was
dinsolved in that hiiiK.*rior lustre which it was
the means of introducing, and by which it has
lieen 8U])er8etled and eclipsco. Jesus, the
author und finihher of our faith, did not write
niiy lN)ok;<: the only instance of his writing
luii»iH>ne«l (luring the trial of the woman caught
in a<lulter>', when he ttt«)oi>e<l down and traced
myntic chanu'terM with bis finger on the
ground. No sooner liad he ascemled than he
l>e<iuoathovl his Holy Siiirit, bv whom his
AiMHtK'8 wiTt> enulileu to publish biogmphies
of their MoHter, and a)iniK»i*o epibtolarv dis-
iiert:ition>«, in whieli the evidence's, and doc-
trineM. nnd ethics of the new reliK'ion are un-
fohlod and maintaineii Tlio canon of the
New ('t)veuant was 8i>ce<lily cUinedj and now
the written iMMikri i>f tne Old and New Testa-
ment are tlie only inspired Ktandard of faith
and niannen*. 'Vo know the will of Grixl,
neither the oracle of the prophet nor the
I'rim and Thuniniim of pnest ore needed —
voices, vi^ionH, dre:uu8, and 8>'mbold are not
remiirwL

lliesu lxN»kM are thus naturally divided into
the Old and New Testaments (2 (Dor. iii. 14),
lHK»U8e they contain the history of God*s
revelatiouH to mankind and his dealings with
them under two dispeusationR. Hence they
are Rometimes called the old and new cove-
nantM. (See Testamext.) The former, or
Old Teiitament, wom written mostly in Hebrew,
and was the Bible of the ancient Jewish
I'hurch. A few sections of it are in Chaldee.
l*he books which have in them |KirtioD8 of
Chaldee have reference to Babylon, where the
language was six>ken, and where the Hebrews
were seventy years in captivity; and the
58U

SCR

Hebraw of tiM OU Ti

the time of tbe eaptiTltj b tiund wift GW-
dee idiama and phr— ei. ThsWTHfcHMi
waa divided into thne pMto-tihs Li».1hi
Pvophoti^ aad tihe PmIdm (Ldtt jm. 4^

Hie lattor. or New Tftammt, w wattm k
CSfeek, Mid its e^ k » pow^faltfidwrtf
its gemdikflDeaiL It ia taa pnoiwip»itf
oomposotiaa ^Hiioli would be vmd tj
in the oondition in iHudi tht i
known to hmve been plaoed. An
may inutate nuttwrfijatima of fts l^pmitf
past periods or otoer Inadi^ yet thmmnfe
a few pecolijuritiee wldcli are iMyQMlliiiHn
A nnai&e book been noon ift tk Mn

and prearare"of the .

dfffinaMe and yet ao maiked, m kaM^
and yet ao cfaaracteriafeic^ that thsapirt;
ezpoeea himaelf to aoapiaon bj ths sbna s
such criteria^ or by an estniTai
tion of tham. The marios of
which we refer are bj no mei
difficolt to be apprAended. Ihif
thooe modes of recognition nftieh ev aa^
instinctively and iiniiiiiaTlj to tfas jportaaa
a friend, men we pranoanoe idob ito em^
nesB. not fawn theltiaiuies of ths eswi—
singly, bnt from the nxpinssasi, not fan ii
stature, bat rather firam the altteie; itf
from the ookmr or fionn of the dieniilh»
selvei^ but from the general cffaoft of M
arrangement — aUtheeefonniiigalPstfaaaH|
which at once strikes and faseualaithiiyia
the beholder. So the stjde of iSbn nod
writers is Greek, but not dasne Greek ;Gi«k
of the later era, bat not qnite tbil dik
writers of the Macedonian period; Ghb
written by Jews, jret not exac&y that sfAj
Alexandrian colomsta. It is Greek M4n
through conversation, and each Gteek woSm
by being made the vehicle of thoq^ «|i^
that languaffe had never before eoavfln.
True, indeed, the Hebrew orades htdva
translated into it ; yet many ideas, cnpadv
peculiar, were revealed to evaag^ti w
auostlea. They were oommiasioned to P^
daim a disDenaation in which the biecf «*
to the world, Christie atonemeBt forhntft
guilt, faith as the means of poidoa, iw^
and peace, holiness as the remit cl qnAv
influence, life and immortality as \mm^^
light, are frequent and ^•"liiiM. topioi of iOf
tntion and enforoemenf^ "What other ■la'
of idiom than that to which we have nvm
could be employed? Such, and as olkil
mi^ht we expeot in thexfew Tntan^
written in the age in which it proiBaatt
have been composed. Gred either aMiep^
ful or more awkward, more daane cr w0

auk

pkarallelized, would have indical

tion of fine writing qoite onworthy <f^
earnestness and dignity which we instisdnr
ascribe to men of UodI, recipienti at is^iV
impulse.

The New Testament folly onfolcb thik^
tory and doctrines of oar divias JhdW*i

SCR

le way of aalvation ihrough him.
Mnents are united in one bode, and
I SeripturtM. because they form a oon-
itten revelation, and are neoeoBaiy
te, explain, and confirm eaoh other,
•noiw of the BibU,— The Old Teeta-
translated from Hebrew into Gkeek
) years before Christ This transla-
Ued the Sqptnagvni^ from a Latin
ifjring sevetUjf, either because a oom-
eyen^ or seventy-two elders were

in the woric, or because it was
b^ the Jewish ooundl or sanhedrim,
isisted of seventy or seventy-two

The latter is the more probable
[lie history of the origin of this ver^
. in Justin Maxtyr and others must
sat extent fabulous. The Septuagint
ated at various times and by different
rsons, whose q|ualifications for their
d very much mdeed. Some of the

well and others are wretchedly
. There were executed about that
0, and afterwards, Chaldee transla-
e Old Testament, commonly called
ims. A S3rriac translation of the
unent was also made about the dose
; century.

:er the apostolic writings were pub-
I Bible was translated into Latin, for
f Christians using that language,
led the Vulgate, because the Latin
vas the vulgar or oommon tongue of

OS.

of Scripture, — The Scriptures, or
itings, were published in separate
1 at different periods, through a
500 years. They were collected in

for convenience. Li determining
ineness, each part or book must be

by itself. What writings, then,
constitute the sacred Scriptures?
canon literally signifies a rule, and

used by the Christian fathers to
3 Scriptures, because they form a
le or standard of faiUi and duty,
ristians regard as authoritative; or
acause they were registered in the
»1 canons as genuine. It is gener-
ated that the canon of the Old
i was settled soon after the return of
from Babylon, or about 500 years
ist.

9 of the Bible, — The dividing of the
ment into chapters, as they still
IT translation, is attributed to Car-
ro, who lived about the middle of
duth century, and who did it for
:e of reference in a Latin con-
le was preparing. To refer more
particular sentence, he placed the

letters of the alphabet along the
MK:h page. Babbi Nathan, a Jew,
ne convenience of reference to his
noordance. adopted, in 1438, Huso's
nd marked every fifth verse with a
i 1661, Athias, a Jew of Amsterdam,
on of the Hebrew Old Testament^

SCR

divided the sections of Hugo into verses, as wb
now have them. Robert Stephens, a French

Printer, had previously (1551] divided the New
'estament into verses, as they now stand in
the various versions.

This division into verses, though very con-
venient, is not to govern the sense : and there
are several instances in which tne sense is
injured, if not destroyed, by an improper
division. Venr often tibe chapter breiucs off
in the midst of a narrative ; and if tiie reader
stops because the chapter ends, he loses the
connection (Matt x. 42; xii 1. ; Luke xix. 41-
48; XX. 1-8; Actsxxi, xxii. xxiiL ; GaL i 23;
ii 1). Sometimes the break is altogether in
the wrong place, and separates two sentences
which must be taken together in order to be
understood (1 Cor. xii 31; xiil 1; 2 Cor. vL
18; vii 1; Eph. iv. 31, 32; v. 1. 2; PhiL iii
21 ; iv. 1). Again, the verses often divide a
sentence into two different paragraphs, when
there ought scarcely to be a comma between
them (Luke iii 21, 22: 2 Cor. vi 6, 7, &c. ; 1
Pet i 3, 4, ftc.) ; and sometimes a fragment
of a subject is separated from its proper place
and put whero it is without any connection
(CoL iii. 25; iv. 1). The punctuation of the
^ible was probably introduced as lately as the
ninth century.

Contents of the BUdc—The number of books
in the Old Testament is thirty-nine, and in the
New twenty-seven— total, sixty-six books.

The Old Testament has 929 chapters.
New „ • ,,260

Total,

.1,189

Old Testament,.. 33,214 verses.
New „ .. 7,969 „

Total, 81,173

»»

Old Testament, . . 593,439 words.
New „ 181,368 „

Total,... 773,699 „

Old Testament, 3,738,100 letters.
New „ 838,880 „

Total, ..8,566,480 „

The word Jehovah, or Lord, occurs in the
Old Testament 6,855 times.

The middle chapter of the Bible, and the
shortest^ is Ps. cxvii : the middle verse is
Pa. cxviiL 8. The miodle book of the Old
Testament is Ptoverbs; the middle chapter,
Job xxix. ; middle verse, 2 Chr. xx. 17 ; least
verse, 1 Chir. i 25. The middle book of the New
Testament is 2 Thess. ; middle verse. Acts
xviL 17 ; least verse, John xi. 35. Ezra vii 21
has all the letters of the alphabet

To read the Bible through in a year, we

chapters

evenr week-day, and six in the Old and four
in the New every Sabbath, we shall read the
Old Testament once and the New twice in the
year. (See Intbbprktation.)
The Apocrypha^ which is sometimes bound

581

pel of ibt taitDxy," tc
Jfxitk TraditionaTy ."-

yew A.a IW», Jchuda. ,

imt the luceivcfl tnwlitiimi of the tatben.
Thin WHS m-arly 1700 Team utter the giving of
•1... !.«.. „.,.i it „i 1.1 lu. ....n..-u..i tii.t ..n

iR which Joehiut,
IB i.roiihfU lived, Tliia
wi>rk ut Jvhiiila is calU'.l thu Mulina; the
iMiiiiiuniUiiTniiiiilit JM Li)11i.'il the Grmara; and
thoi! tivi-tbvrciHiKtitututlie T<ilmad, which ii
mure lii|;hl]r rcvvrvucol Iiytlic -rein thkii ereo
th<- (Iht TestaDiiiit. That tmlitixtu aiti nnt
to Ix- n-reiveU M of lUrine authiiTity ia luffi-
ricntly cli'ar trxan niir Savimir's buigiugs in
Murk ¥ii. 1-11 S<Tii>tiire al.iuc in the rule of
faith. It in klt-fliitHi-kiit. It ia iBninuunt
It ii able ti) make wiiw nnb) i^lvation. Ita
very imallntvi oiiil [lurtitbility are tiruuf of it*
divinity.

" 'ITie first etlition of the entire Bible in print
in any lunKuoKe, IwariiiK any date, name of
iirintiT, or yAiue i>f publicaUun, wan thu liatJn
Vu1|;ate, iiiibliBtiud at Menti in Gnmany.
It IH commonly l-kUcI the Muaru Bible, a
copy liavinij been toxnilabinit tliv miildli: of the
but oentniT in ('ardinal Mnz-tiui'ii library at
I'iriii. It ia remarkable that ita eiiatence was
unknovn liefore ; for it ran hanlly be called a
bucik <if very ifrcat acarcttjr, dcuIt twenty
ocfiieii beinic m different libiariiis haU of thnu
■ ■' • ■ . '^ Knglaod. Ki

c ainwi

I th!i> Itilile.

9 have

n.^vmid itii ptibUcntion to 1V>2, ._

H-W. In acipy belunpng' to the royal library
at Paiia, an onU^ it mode, im^-ntting that it
waa comjilvtcd in binding and lUnTninating at
Mentz, on the feast of the amUDipticin (Augiut

contained forty -two Iidi
impiauoni of this BiU
title page were printei
by Faustua to Paiia for
■o attoniihed at thin ni
of copira, that they mai
influence."— HaUam, IA
SniiiUh Vertiowi and

by sevcr^ ditfereot hai
and 995^ For aevent] a
Scripturca apjwar to J
obUiion.

In the reign of Edwai
the price of a fairly wril
■even pounda. At tbe «
laboTUTT waa three half
it would take the labour
(^narter, eicliwivs eif 8n
■uigle copy. A ooi^ of
in clear good type am
bound, can be had En t

known to be e:
aa early ai 129a Tbrae
in eiiitence now. Tbe n
whole Bible into Eoglia
about 1390. Manni^pt

In the year 1429 a cop]
Toatament in naonacndl
13<.4d.

The ermt printtd En^
lated by WiUiam TyndJOi
the New Testament waa l
in 1536. In 1S29 tiiia ec
and burned, which affon

SCR

," says a writer, " to see with wbat
tO(\ of God was received, not only
e learned sort, and those who were
' lovers of the Reformation, but
all England over, among all the
d common people; and with what
I God*8 Word was read, and what
places where the reading of it was.

J that could bought the book, or
it, or got others to read it to tnem
uld not themselves ; and divers more
wple learned on purpose ; and even
3 flocked among the rest to hear
f the Holy Scriptures read." In 1537
. edition of Tyndale's Bible was

on the Continent: and two years
s it was also published in England.
^ copy of this Bible was required by

placed in every parish church ; but
ITS more the papist i>ower succeeded
ising it. It was soon restored again,
e 1570 was quite common.

Dr. John Keynolds, of Oxford, pro-
&w translation ; and the king (James
red the suggestion, and appointed

learned men to do the service;

forty-seven engaged in it. They
hemselves into six companies, and
i Xwrtion to each. Each individual of
panv was directed to take the same
Ad having translated or amended it
If as he thought good, all were to
tber and report what tney had done,
e what shoiild stand. When a book
led by one company it was to be sent
t, to DO considered and examined. If
us sent was disapproved in any part,
be returned to the company with the
) and proposed alterations noted, and
18 assigned. If the force of the obj ec-
not perceived, the matter was to be
\t the general meeting of all the trans-
n cases of special obscurity applica-

to be made, by authority, to any
aen in the land, for their judgment
passages. Letters were directed by
ps to such of their clergy as had the
Q of being skilful in the languages, to
r observations to the translators. In
bo this provision, the vice-chancellors
liversities of Cambridge and Oxford
;h, at the command of the king.
; tne most eminent divines as general
I and overseers of the translation,
praise has been justly awarded to
: the excellent selection he made for
irge of a trust so momentous. It was
ly allowed that the persons chosen
the most part, recommended equeJly
skill in the Oriental langua^ and
racter for judicious discrimmation.
hese Dr. Reynolds held the first rank ;
}ed, he appears to have been so
'' and variously gifted, that he would
d few equals in any age. His memory
ost miraculous, not only for its
nsiveness, but for the astonishing
38 of its power, which enabled him

SCR

to refer not only to pages and paragraphs, but
even to the lines of the oooks ne had
occasion to ^uote. He was profoundlv skilled
in the learning and languages of the Juuit; and
by his erudition, tact, sagacity, and industry,
he was admirably qualified to furnish correct
and natural versions of expressions otherwise,
to some extent, obscure. To these great en-
dowments he aidded sincere and ardent piety,
and the most exemplary humility.

The regulations tmder which the work was
to be prosecuted were very strictly observed,
the Biole then used in the church being tiie
standard, and not to be altered, even in a letter,
unless the sense of the original could be more
accurately conveyed. For three years the
translators were closely engaged; but of the
incidents of their labour little can be ^thered
from contemporaneous history, and httle was
probably known beyond the circle of the
trandiators. A passing remark of Selden
furnishes nearly all that can now be known of
what may be termed the private history of our
English Bible : — ** When they met together,
one read the translation, the rest holoing in
their hands some Bible, either of Greek, or
Hebrew, or French, Italian, or Spanish. 11
they found any fault, they spoke ; and if not,
he read on." Three copies of the translation
being prepared, they were committed to six
X^ersons, selected from the translators, who
were to review the whole and select one copy
for the press. This swvice occupied them
daily for nine months. The copy thus revised
was again examined entirely by two of the
most eminent of the translators— viz., the
bishop of Winchester and Dr. Smith — ^the
latter of whom wrote the learned and devout
preface which is found in many of our common
Bibles.

In 1611 the Bible was at length published,
after having been long impatiently expectea
by the people, whose interest in the under-
taking can hardly be conceived. And with
all proper allowance for the limited extent of
general and especially of Biblical science in
that day, it will probably never cease to be
regarded as a very honourable monument of
the labour, learninpr, and faithfulness of the
translators. The title page of the Old Testa-
ment was engraved on copper, and that of the
New Testament on wood. The first edition
was printed in black letter, folio size ; but a
quarto edition, in Roman type, was published
as early as 1612. This is the common English
translation of the present day. It is often
called king James's version; and it may be
stated, in addition, that among other testi-
monials from learned divines of different com-
munions, of its general correctness, are those of
Selden, Lowth, Horsley, Walton, Middleton,
Greddes, Doddridge, Beattie, Scott, Clarke,
Stuart, Newman, and a host of others.*

With this English translation in our hands

* See, for fall and aocnrate information on all polnta
connected with the English Bible, The ArmaU ^f Ukt
JSnglith Bible, by Christopher Anderson. London t
Pickering, 1845.

683

sen

we cftnnot but exclaim, "The Bible— the
Knglinh liible ; Owl's roveUtion— God's reve-
lati< m in our lanfnia{?«» - " What a foundation for
national gratitude is expresned in these simple
terms. The Bible ban given us our national
exaltation. Tht^ liible, in our own vernacular,
dispenieil in hundrt'ds of editions and in
millionH of copioii, lias exaltitl us to **the
blessedness of tne peox>Iu who know the ioyful
sound." The b«>on of a divine revelation
to a fallen crt>ature, diwhwing to him how the
God he has off«nde<l \n\\ savo him fn>m wrath
and recover him frrmi impurity, is a gift for
which the retU'einiMl heart M'ill feel and express
everlasting gratitude^ For wise and obvious
reasonrt tliat revelation, in its primary form,
was given to tlu^ world in two languages
which have lon^' nince ceased to be spoken —
the one of thtrui being oidy a national toncrue,
while the other wa>« hh extendi vely used as the
influence of the (ireek arms and literature had
spread themselves over the worUL But the
Scriptures are meant for men of every country;
and a translation of them into the mother
tongue of each of the nations is indis|.)ensable
to their uiii venial use. The early miracle of
the gift of tongues ought in this form to have
rej^nnluced itself in every century. The
aiMMtles, whoiHtsm's^ed this endowment, became
a living tranHlation of the mind and Luiguage
of the Siiirit to every ci»untry whose iHHJuliar
dialect tney ttinjiloved, and the (!hurch shotdd
have countotl it her highest hcmour to be
privilegiMl, by the labours of KAnctifle<l
M-holarNliip, in M»'.ssin}j^ any ]»e<^ple with
the ability <»f rejuliiig in their own tongue
the woiuferfnl Works of (mmI. This func-
tion was, indeed, for stmie ai^en discharged
by the HjMToil r« immunity, liut after the
I*jitin C'hun.:h r«we tt» j ire-eminence, she en-
thrnn<;d her ovn\ version Ity lier side. Trans-
lations into other tongues, espeeiallv Kuro^H^an
ones, were frowne«l u|Min by her, if they were
not aljsolutely ]m>hil)ited.

We can imagine no ent«.'ri»ri«»e more j)ure
and |>atri(itic thiin the attemjit to give a
countr>' (mhI's Word in its own tongue. Tlie
desirtf to accomplish this holv task sjirings up
naturally in the sanctified Uisimu He who
ha<< felt the truth and comfort, the ]K'ace and
hope of the Bible himself, >\ ill. by the instincts
of his new heart, long t<» i»ut every one in

{x>ssession of the same source of spiritual
(lessing. And surely every one so iiidebtitl to
the Knglish JMble, the l)ook of his early
ac^piaintanee and continued familiarity — every
one who knows its mpid an<l extensive circu-
lation in so many distant jiarts of the world
where the Knglish tongue is 8ix>ken— for it is
the tinly version of the Bible on which the sun
never sets ; who ri-tiects that in the sjmce of
twelve months the j)ri;KS sends forth at least
a million of coi)ies of it, a copy ever)' twelve
seconds througiiimt the year oi GwVt* l>ook in
*)ur mother-t4)ngue, —every one at all cognizant
of such results will wish to know the origin
and history of this most imiK)rtant of national
versions.

584

SCR

And in thinlring of the Ea^A Wdm
can nerer forget William TjiAik, Ha ii
worthy of all the honour wludiGin bsvBfend
upon him, ma the first tramlakor into EafiA
from the orii^inal tongnet of Scripfenra ffii
piety and learning were a mntml adanm^
while his modesty and amiafaflitr vcr «^
murpaned by his intrepidity and pamia— ■
To the grreat work <^ im^MAm k hi
devoted himself, and he shrank not ban Ai
labour, the penis and sacnfieei of Ui ril-
consecration. To every rival panot ki «■

how can I come down to Vdil" Hevi
to leave his country, which wbs not voitbf i(
him; bathe forgot not his ooantrykweaR;
and whether he tarried at Gdogne or Wok
at Marburg or Antwerp^ translatinB mil po^
ing were his one absorbing tsak. Wska
and the bishops boogfat upaamaBrasmd
his New Testament as tney oouli pnen;
but they could not parchase the foieigB pi^
ing presses, nor could the vigflsioe a tt>
coast-guard prevent the fresh hnpatotiw i
other copies. Edition after editioB ww haU
upon our shores: while the kii^ fKttBifl|l
the ecclesiastical authocitifls nmhcd Av
teeth. The work advanced. TiuMtaD pm
many volumes of these Sciipturet to the 4»
vounng flame. No sacrifice to Mok)di iidia
times was more truly an oblation to tke ini
But the result of this bonfire wsi s ajA
edition. TVndale*s enemies prosoibed ^t^
and hunted him on the Continent : whilrMk
his young companion in exile and labnqr,iMM
to England, was seized and martrred. Ti(
left alone, he still persevered, ]abourii^i9(ii
version of the Old Testament. But the cnnai
and malice of his enemies were not to be ^
feated. By means of a treachezons v^sii k
was at length apprehended at Antwcqi, a^
lodged in the castle of Vavorde. Bat tk
press was not incarcerated, and that ynrtka
other editions of his New Testament were c^
dilated. His life now approached its tcnii*'
tion : a fearful death awaited him. The |m««
of England disregarded him : and on the tAd
()ctol)er, 1530, Tyndale was led forth to csb»
tion ; and, with this memorable prayer qNi
his lips, " Lonl, of^en the eyes of the Koff ^
England," was he first strangled sod w*
burnt.

^' nts antaeii flew —
No marble tells us whither,'

but his spirit had ** entered that region vks*
they midoubtedly who, by their laboon, o^
sels, and prayers, have Deen eanwst fv ^
common ^ood of religion and their o''*^
shall receive above the inferior orden cf ■'
blessed; and, in suijer-eininenoe of he^
vision, shall clasp inseparable hands witk jf^
and bliss in over measure for ever." ^
perished the great benefactor of the Ead*
nation — he who laid the foundation of <*
present authorized version, which is "oalj*
revision five times derived ** from Tra^^
many of whose clauses ranain in our BiblAii

SCR

nfe printed in his own early editions by the
mnortal translator. Yet little has been said
I T^n^dato bf annalists. More is said of lus
■ooeaior in work, Myles Coverdale, and his
■rions editions, which are certainly inferior
> those of Tyndale. Coverdale was patron-
»d— Tyndale was from the first persecuted.
Tttj'y the time at length came when Henry
rdared all his subjects to use the Scriptures
I SnglAnd ; and there were issued large copies,
Oft oniT with the name of the good Cranmer

tnem. but even that of the infamous
rTumerous editions also were printed

£dward and Elizabeth, though the reign
F ICaiy was a temporaiy check. The Word
i tlie Lord was not bound. At length came
fee famons Hampton Court Conference, out
F irfaich grew our version in present use and
vrwmaev. Prior to its publication there had
■an 278 editions of Bibles and New Testa-
Mnii — that is, on an average, three editions
BBDAlly in the course of eighty-six years.
Nir translation was not a new one. "We

thought," say the translators, ** from the
i^gi^lning that we should need to make a new
canilation, nor yet to make of a bad one a
Dod, but to make a good one better, or out of
MUny good ones one principal good one, not
iflify to be accepted against : that hath been
■r ««ndeayour, that our mark."
Yet though called James's Bible, ho had
ttla to do with it.^ The version never was
■faoiitted to theprivy council, convocation,
r parliament. The king was at no expense
ifn it. It won its way by its own merits into
ahUc favour. There was not even a royal
Boclaiiiation about it. such as had been ie»ued
iA, llatthew's and Cranmer's. Lawyers
WBW9 argued that the king has sole right to
rint the EngUsh Scriptures, because, accord-

?; to Mansfield, it is his ** upon the foundation
inoperty in the copy by the common law—
•brwgfatuie English translation." But James
%rm never one farthing for it ; perhaps rather
• got money for it 1:^ his grants en patents
> pnnt it.

The Bible is regarded by all Protestant
Sttwtians as the only infaUible rule of faith
Dd practice. Having been originally com-
oaea by holy men of God, who spake as they
rme moved by the Holy Ghost (2 Pet i 21),
qd bearing in its own history and character
oofllnsive testimony that it is so given by
iqpiration of Grod, and is not only profitable
sr doctrine^ for reproof, for correction, for
Bstruction m righteousness^ but able also to
Bake men wise unto salvation, through faith
httt is in Christ Jesus (2 Tim. iii 15. IG), the
iktribation of it all over the world, in the
vriona tongues spoken by the inhabitants,
•eomeB an imperative duty. The Christian
mnirch generally regard it, even when trans-
ited, as a true and just translation from the
tagaagtB in which tnese sacred books were at
bit wtitUaif and of course receive them as
laving like authority with the originals.

As to the evidences of the truth of the Bible,
ra might refer to miracles and prophecy, to

SCR

the harmony of its various parts, and the
astonishing effects which it pztxluces on men
and nations. We have also many vouchers for
the genuineness, the authenticity, and the in-
tegritv of the books of Scripture. It is true
that, by a collation of numerous manuscripts,
many various readings have been discovered.
Investigations of this nature are of a funda*
mental character, and take precedence of any
attempt to decide on the evidence of revelation.
We must know what are the vocables in which
a communication from heaven is made before
we can argue on the divinitv of its origin ; for
if such a scrutiny be neglected, we may bo
defending forgeries, interpolations, modified or
garbled paragraphs. To settle the precise
words of^the oracle is necessary ere we begin
to surround it with external defence^ or deduce
from it internal proofs. What an instdt it is
to the genuine and authentic portions to
elevate to an equal authority witn them the
errors, repetitions, and marginal notes of
copyists and transcribers, and throw equally
over both the mantle ot divine protection!
Yet the study of manuscripts has been too
often despised or ridiculed, libelled as heretical,
or attacked by some feeble witticism. Tho
time has been when the study of the lower
criticism was deemed pernicious, if not infidel —
when men of no small note raised the false and
fitful cry of alarm. Truth, however, fears
nothing from scrutiny; and the Book ot truth
has profited by the despised labours of plodding
and i>ersevering possessors of critical erudition.
The text of the Bible is probably now in a
more satisfactory state than at any period
since the decease of its inspired authors. With
the excu])tion of six portions in the New Tes-
tament—three of which are involved in the
Socinian controversy, and the other three,
though of some imx)ortance, contain no reli-
gious doctrine— the whole text of the New
Covenant is fully and fairly ascertained. All
the other minor discrepancies and various
readings are not of serious magnitude. ** The
words of the Lord are tried words, as silver
tried in a furnace of earth, purified seven
times."

It has been well said of the sacred writings,
that the di\ine authority, majesty, wisdom, holi-
nesSj and goodness discovered therein; the depth,
sublimity, purity, and benevolence of their
matter ; tneir scope, to render all to the glory
of God. and crusn the corrupt inclinations of
man ; the transcendent loftiness of their style,
even when suited to the capacity of the weak ;
the obvious candour of the writers in relating
the weaknesses and faults of themselves and
their nation; their amazing harmony, though
of very different stations and ages, and pub-
lishing things contrary to the natural inclina-
tions of men : the attestation of these writings
by vast numbers of important public and in-
contestable miracles; the joyful sufferings of
millions for their steadfast adherence thereto ;
the wonderful preservation of them; their
marvellous adaptation to the wants and
weaknesses of our nature ; their amazing

585

Bca

,- .rthelB

■ oppodtion of wurtdlr powv, to tha

rifiliiiiig of Diktioni, mnd to oanriDoa) ecMtvtrt,
kod oomtort Uie hcttU of mfllk— tiM noflt
oMaiutc; tbe «uict tnlfilment of tha

fim, paruouur, maa nrnnnnnmri inumm
thenof,— MO infallibla prmCi tfaat tliaj mlir
■ra Uw Word at Ood, mbk to naka w V-
onto nlvatioiL <Sec UnFIunov.)

H( Bible baa been faandatad into BBmo
bugWea and pat into IncTMuing dttnla*
byBiUa Sodetiea, ao well known and
joatlr aateemed.

8CR0LU ^BooK).

SCURVY (Lev. xxL 30; ziiL 33). 1
diaeaae known bjr this name in moden tb
ifl lunAlly caused bj loiw confinenHeit in 0

and damp climates, witbout freah proTJaia

Id tbe progma of it tbe iliiii becoowa di7 and
Bcaly, and livid apota appear. Piobablj thla
aripeanuice of the ikio is all that fa denoted by
tbe oae of the wotd acurvy in the pMiagM

SCYTHIANS (CoL iii 11)-b name
IndeGnitely by andent writen, aometim
denote all tbe nomadic tribes tut roamed orar
the ooDDtries ourth of the Black and CMpian

remaikabls fur their mde aiid baibannia oon-

StlA (La. xL 19). Thij teem ia ^qilied by
tbe aacnd writen to lakes, ricsi*, and any
ImiB* collectian of water, as well aa to aeaa
properly eo called (laa. xxL 1 ; Jer. IL 36). In
the iiusaRe in luiob Snt abuvs dted, )t ii
lined for the Nile at that iK>int which ii called
the Drila. The eta and the west denoted tbe
■ame thing tu tlie Uebreni on account of their
.n regard to tbe Mediteiranean. (See

El

Sea, L

*.)

.T (Nnc

jiiy. 6), 0

rillLISTlNKH, or HlHUEB Sl\, lit Vtuowt SZi

(Eiod. uiil --^ ■■

Weateni Sea,

, or HlHUEB StA, iir Utmo
, 311, ia the SIediten»ni_ __
a large luily of water between
■ of Euniiiu, Aaia, and Airica
(whence its name, which signifire mid-latidj.
On its nrirthem ahore ore several gulf* or seat,
aa tbe AdiiAtic, the Ionian, the JEgean, &c.
Ita length frcim east to west is about 2,000
loiles; and ita brewlth variea from 400 to 800
mile*. About miilway, on ita eastern shio^
was the land oF Canaan.

Ska of the Plain, or Salt Sia, called also
the East Ska, and Sea of Sodom. (See Salt
Sea,Wateh.)

Sea or MkhOh. (See MibOh.)

Sea, Bbazen. (See Later.)

SKAL (1 KL ui. 8). This wai usually
employed to authenticate public or private
papers (Jer. ixxiL 10). If a door or box waa
to be sealed, it was fint fastened with some
ligament, upon which cUy or wax waa spread,
nnd then mipressed witb a seal or signet.
l''requently a ring with some inscription on it
WBi used aa a siuiJ. by the delivery or transfer
of which the highot offices of Uis kingdom
were bestowed (Gen. xli. 42; Estb. iii 10).
In sealing the sepulchre (Uatt xxrli 66), it u

cd boBlNr

Bible, to denote an act, or tidte^ «("
confirmation, distmctwo (S 1^ ^ »
security (Bev. *iL 3; Bom. ir. U; 1

SEAM, WITHOUT SEAM (Jstai
(See Clotbib.)

SEABED (1 Una. iw. 31. Tsmim
canteriie or bim i^ andtlnndqaink
power of feeling. Aa used it lis |
dtML it denotes the effect ot hdit^
which the oonsdenee becomes n tan*
stupifisd as to be inaenaible te Aa a^
moiu ^ilt and 1^ meat taaifil IbBi
of puDuhment.

SKASONS (Oen. i. ML Tli* r« '
conveniently ^vided by HdneTeaM

the first aeaaon, or AonvC Is ben fc
of April until near the middle of Jim.
this period tbe aky is dean the air •*
even hot in the v^eya and <m the oa
mncb like summer with na. Ai it p
the heat in the plain ia arvere.

The second aeaaon, or tlk* Acsl, il B
middle of June to the ■■^jAll* cf Aaf
Arabs called tUa tbe Mnw< imaM
heat DOW increaaaa, and the ni^itaini
that the peo^ sleep mflie open aira
roots of tli«ir luaiMa.

SEA

third Beason, or summer (season of fniitB),
& the middle of August to the middle of
nber. The intensity of the heat is greater;
t intolerable. Towards the end of sum-
he niffhts begin to be oooL
cing^ these three periods, up to the begin-
or middle of September, there are no
STBy rain being as scarce in summer as

(1 Sam. xii 17). Hence the proverb.
. xxvL 1. From the end of April until
anber not a doud is to be seen upon the
3l the heavens. During all this tmie the
I is moistened by the dew, which is there-
a frequent emblem of Divine grace and
iiesB. Sometimes a doud appears in the
ling; but it disappears witn the dew as
is the sun exerts its power (Hos. vi 4).
dry grass of the fields sometimes takes fire,
produces desolating conflagration ; and the
oed earth is cleft and broken into chasms.

is more particularly the case when the
irind blows (Gen. xli. 6 ; Hoe. xiiL 15).
reen the middle of September and the
le of October there are two or three days
la, which suffices to refresh all nature, so
US whole land is clad in verdure. This
m the earth for

» fourth season, or Hed-timt, which in-
• from early in October until early in
3Qber. This begins with the former or
i»a. which is so needful for the sower,
early part of this period it is still quite
that all journeys are made by night, as
perature is then agreeable, and the sky
fc». As the year advances, however, there
Vernations of heat and cold, as with us in
^IL The weather becomes unsettled, and
^re fogs and clouds, even when there is
SjD. In the mountains snow sometimes
towards the middle of December. The
Kas are still small, and many of their
L^Js altogether dry. In the latter part of
CBiber the trees lose their foliage, and
made towards the last days of seed-

^ fifth season, or winter, includes from the
^ of December until the middle of Feb-
Snow falls, but seldom lies upon the
"K^ a dav, except in the mountams (Ps.
^ 17). in shady places the ice will occa-
«-7l)ear a man's weight, but thaws as soon

* sun rises upon it. The roads are very
^fatt xxiv. 20). The severe cold lasts
' ibrty davs, from the 12th of December
^ 20th of January. The north wind is
B^^xceedingly penetrating (Gen. xxxi. 40).
^ the level country, when the sun shines,
<)mte wamL Josephus says that in his

• was as warm at Cesarea, on the coast,
^ter, as at other places in sunmier. In
^ason hail an4 thunder storms are com-

the brooks rise, and all the streams fill
flannels. Towards the end of January
'^ds become green^ and there is every
^ance c^ approachmg spring. In the
^Murt of February the trees are in leaf;
^ore the middle of the month some fruit
are in blossom — ^first the almond, then

SEA

the apricot, peach, and plum. Other trees
blossom in March.

The sixth and last season, or the cold, in>
dudes from the middle of February until the
middle of ApriL It is still cold, but less so,
and the spring may be said to have arrived.
The heats of noon are greater and greater,
especially in the flat country. The rains con-
tinue, but in smaller and smaller quantities.
Thunder and hail are more frequent. Towards
the dose of this period the rains cease, and the
last falls in the early part of ApriL This is
called the latter rain, which seems to give
strength to the filling crops, which are as much
advanced in February as with us in May and
Jime. The wheat and barley have at this time
nearly attained their height. The mrain has
fully ripened in the southern part of Palestine
by the middle of April, and in the northern
and moimtainous parts three weeks later ; and
sometimes, when the sowing has been in
Januaiy, the grain does not come to maturity
before July or August.

Upon the sixteenth day after the first new
moon in April there was a solemn presentation
made to the Lord of the first sheaf of ripe bar-
ley. The grain, however, as we may readily
suppose, was mature sometimes earlier and
sometimes later. It was common to reckon
four months from seed-time to harvest. The
cutting and securing the grain was carried on
for about seven weeks — that is, from the pass-
over imtil Pentecost, which last is therefore
called the feaat of weeks. This was a season
of very great enjoyment and festivity when
the harvest had been plentiful The reapers —
that is to say, the children, slaves, and other
domestics — indulged in mirth, joined in songs
suitable to the occasion, and in congratulations
to the master of the harvest (Ps. cxxvi. : Isa.
ix. 3). The grain was then gathered and
bound into sheaves, as with us.

SEATS (Matt. xxi. 12). The nations of
the East seat themselves upon the mats or
carpets with which their floors are covered.
In the houses of the rich there are spread
pillows or cushions stuffed with cotton ; or in
some cases, a broad, but very low sofa or
divan, with arms, stuffed cushions, and costly
ornaments. Upon these divans, as well as
upon the floor or ground, they sit with the legs
bent under, and crossed, in a luUf-lmeeli:!^
posture.

The andent Hebrews used the posture which
has just been described. After the captivity,
however, the rich and noble adopted the Per-
sian method of lying down at table upon
couches (Amos vi. 4), which was likewise
practised by the Greeks and Romans. In tiie
passa^ in Amos it is said of luxurious persons
who hved nearly 800 years before Christ, that
they ** lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch
themselves upon their couches.*' These ** beds
of ivory" were probably divans such as those
above mentioned, but richly decorated with
ivory. They used at table verv low and broad
divans, and the guests stretched themselves
at fuU length. Each divan held three persons.

587

the back part o( hi« hetui tnwanli
of the toimtr ; anil the third, in Iik« nuuuin',
with the iKU'k part uf hia head towardj Uie
ii«a,n4 ThiM they lav iw to speok, " in the
IwmimK" (if their □eiglibnun (Luke iii 23;
John xiii 33). Thin vm the ordinary pcature
At meals, uid the feet of the guoits were dia-
buit from the table. Hence we can nad^
fiinn an idea of the BceiM in Lake viL 38,
where the women came behind Jeaua, and
washed hia feet with their tears.

Ib the e&ting-iwim there wne commonlj
tliree lach divana : the middle place of the
middle divan Waa accounted moat honnurable.
Thia wai the seat which the PhaiiMea ao
mach affected at feiuitii (1 Sam. ix. 23; Matt

xSoNfAot

the word aignifiea p
XT. 7ttwaama Gm
LB tifffatly rendsred
tranuated alio "di
where it haa r«f ere
opinicoii. In GaL
relisimii &otiona>

SSBD,MINGLJ

SEE

SSK (See SEAfiOins.)
3IJNT. L (Gen. ziv. 6) A wHd,
I desolate chain of mountainB,
com the southern shore of the
» the eastern gulf of the Bed Sea.
"wu one of its snmmits: and the
mentioned among its innabitants,
ihiff people was named Seir. (See

.)

XV, 10) Another mount Seir was
i ot Kiijath-jeazim, on the north-
7(tf Judah.

• SELAH. (See Pstba.)
Hab.iii3,9,13). This word, which
as than seventy-one times in the
i of the psalms, is sometimes con-
h note of admiration. It is usually
ae remarkable passage, and is sup-
inyto be designed to excite and
attention and observation. If, as
lable, the tunes were expressly
r the words, such changes of voice
Merved as were most adapted to
;>roper emphasis. The most im-

important passages would natur-
eated. Thus Selah, as a music
»poeed to mark either repetition,
>7 the voice, or a peculiar pause —
ining the venial singers to be silent,
trumental performers played some
intervening melody.
lA (Acts xiiL 4) — a city of Syria,
m of tiie Mediterranean, west of
I near the mouth of the Orontes.
A-port of Antioch.

(Acts V. 21)— an assembly of aged'
aced men, not members of the
i^ but called in on a particular

Tney mav have been the same
Me called elders of Israel'* (Acts
"elders of the Jews" (Acts xxv.
lersons are called "senators" (Ps.

Szek. xxviL 5)— a part of Hermon,
3 with Shenir. (See Hermon.)
!HERIB (2 IG. xviii 13) was
n, and kin^ of Nineveh. (For an
is reign ana his invasion of Pales-
rsvEH.)

; (Gen. X. 30}— a place supposed
south of Arabui ; perhaps the same
odem Dhafar. It is called "a
i the East" in Arabia^ and it
boundary of the sons of Joktan.
;AD — "the captivity of Jerusa-
I in Sepharad'^(Obad. 20). This
en said by the Jews to be Spain ;
>bably it ues in the vicinity of the
» was long ago hinted by Jerome,
many of the Jews into exile in
A place of the name, near Cap-
lentioned on some of uie Persian

VAIM (2 Ki xviL 24)— a pro-
ssopotamia, whence colonies emi-
!anaan after the Israelites were
ad the Euphrates by Shalmaneser.
aim of the Bible is supposed to be

SEE

the same with the Sipptara of profane history,
the dual form sugg^ting that the dty waa
built on both sides of the Euphrates.
SEPULCHRE. (See Bubial.)
SERAPHIM— 6ra{tan< <me« (Isa. vl 2, 6).
This is the name ^ven by the prophet to the

Eirits which waited by- the throne of the
>RD, as the^ appearea in his sublime and
wonderful vision. The scene is laid in tiie
temple. When the shechinahcano^ed the holy
of holies, the cherubim, reflecting ite radiance,
would appear bright and glitteruig, their

S olden colour would present a darling splen-
our. The metallic cherubim, so irradiated,
would appear as burning or molten gold —
would be seraphim. Perhaps this phenomenon
suggested the name which Isaiah employs.
The nxunber of them is not stated ; but the
description, their appearance, their son^ of
praise, the effect produced upon and within
tiie tCTiple by the voice of one of them, tiie
office which another executed towards the
prophet himself, and, indeed, the whole scene
justifies the opinion that they were, or were
symbols of, the most exalted order of the
angelic host (Heb. i 7). Their pinions were
arranged in ptdrs. With one pair they covered
their face, as unworthy to look on Jehovah ;
with another pair they covered their feet, as
unworthy that God should look upon them ;
with the third pair they flew to perform the
high behests of their King and Lord. (See
Cherur)^

SERGEANTS (Acts xvi 36, 38). This
was a class of public officers (lictors) under the
Roman government. They were appointed
to carry the fasces, or bundle of roos with
an axe in the centre, before the supreme
magistrates, and to inffict the punishment of
scoundng and beheading upon criminals.

SERGIUS PAULUS (Acts xiii 7) was
proconsul or deputy governor of the island of
Cyprus, a province of the Roman empire. He
was a man of intelligence and candour (for
this the word "prudent" imports), and sought
to hear the Grospel from the apostles, who were
at the island— probably from curiosity, or
from a laudable desire to obtain information
of the new religion from its advocates and

Srof essors. An imi)ostor of considerable in-
uence, named Eljnnas, finding his own occu-
Sation in danger, attempted to controvert tiie
octrines of the apostles, and to divert or pre>
judice the mind of the governor. For his sin
m this respect he was severolj rebuked and
punished by the immediate mterpoeition of
Providence (see Babjesus) ; and such was the
effect of the whole scene upon the mind of the
governor that he embraced the faith of the

SERPENT (G^n. iii l>-an animal distin-
g^iiahed for its subtlety (Matt; x. 16) as well
as for the instinctive dread it inspires in man
and in most ft^nimftla. Moro than 600 species
are known, the largest of which are indeed
terrific in their power and venom. About
one-sixth of all the species known are ven-
omous.

539

d genenlly uyri, ' I adjan) you by God, if
ye be above, or u ye be below, that ;■ Gome
liirtli : I adjure yau liy the laoat gnat nane,
if ye be obedient, cume fortJi : and if ye ba
duobedient, die! die! die!'— The wrpait i*
f^eDenJIy dialndfred by bin iitick finm a fimue
tn the wall, or dnjpa from the ceiling of tlM

it in the camp ol
id of Juhiivali.

RiRiiNT, BKAZtn (Xum. xxl. 9), wai erected
by Mmws in the camp of Israel, at the exprea
' -' ' ■' •- a pnniiihment (or

oalled fiery, probaUy from th
bite. The notions tliat than

lafe^ful.

8«Tiaw in the m

maiinar [John iii. 1^
tboa^ utt«n and dyii
asipent on tha top of
heated, au evaiTODelo
ii at once pMdMwd,'*
to ipiritBU BoondneM.
■nd any one looking ii
ofthe^'oldaarpent"!
In Egypt and otha

JpttanSerrant

SEB

I CadmnB, Apollo, Ac. These fables
dticmary remnants of the earlv promise,
> seed of the woman shall bruise the
I the serpent." The hydra of Lema,
sons of Colchis and the Hesperides, are
luury symbols of the early connection
a -with man's innocence^ and falL The
don of the serpent with Esculajnus,
d of medicine, is another tradition,
ty borrowed from the scene recorded in
9S. (See Addsb, Asp. Ghabm. )
rVANT (Gen. ix. 26; Matt x. 24). In
«t, daring a meal, servants stand with
•iid Tespectfol demeanour before the
of the house, receiviiu^ his tokens and
g his orders. Bv Eastern custom

tne commands of the
master are communi-
cated chiefly by signs,
and these are regarded
with singular earnest-
ness and attention b^
the domestics. This
illustrates such pas-
sages as Ps. cxxiiL 2.
Hence also the ex-
pressiveness of the
phrase, to stand before
the Lard— that is, to
serve him.
The Hebrews had
ts or slaves of several kinds, or what we
ivec The law of Moses, while it does
Sioate slavery, does certainly speak of
B as property. If a man abused his ser-
te law ^ave him freedom ; and this gift
Ota. plainly implies that his person was
^ously at his own disposal. The ser-
^^rding to the same law, is his master's
*"•** A female servant was, in certain
^^nces, not to be sold unto a strange
^-^implying that she might, in other
^^nces, be sold to another master of
country. The law, moreover, makes
>^ and frequent distinction between
*^rvants " and bondmen. Prior to the
^ Hebrew legislation, Hagar, the bond-
oeems to have been the proj>erty of
^nd when she quarrellea with her
» she could renounce her service only
^ay — ^by becoming a fugitive, a run-
AVhile nothing can be found in the
commonwealth precisely parallel to
pagan or to modem slavery, it is very
^that involuntary servitude did exist
i^ reasons, and under certain restric-

^'W servants were obtained from two

• from among their own brethren;
/, from among the heathen. The
ies were God's servants; and, except in
Bes to be specified, were not to be
^ one to another (Lev. xxv. 42, 56). A
ft might become servant to a Hebrew
one or more of the following ways : —
jf becoming insolvent (Lev. xxv. 39; 2
. 1). In this case special enactment

SEB

provided that the poor Jew should not be re<
garded as a bond-servant, but as a hired
servant (Lev. xxv. 39, 40; Deut. xv. 7-11),
Maimonides says that such a man, being a Jew,
was " not to sell himself for gain, or for any
purpose, save that he might get bread to eat."

2. Bp the crimt of theft. The Hebrew thief
was bound by law to make restitution ; and if
his property was not sufficient for this, he
atoned for tne balance by service (Exod. xxiL
3). Tins was simply legal punishment, God
being the lawgiver and judge.

3. By virtue of his birth. If descended from
servants of tiie household, children remained
in the service of the same master till the year
of jubilee. Abraham had 318 such retainers
bom in his house (Gren. xiv. 14 ; Exod. xxi. 4).
This was an arrangement, in the circumstances,
full of mercy both to parent and child — the
result of a pnmitive state of society in a patri-
archal age, but bearing little resemblance to
modem slavery, save that it was involuntary
and hereditary servitude. Man-stealing, either
of natives or heathens, was forbidden on pain
of deathjExod. xxL 16).

The Hebrews held their foreign war-cap-
tives as slaves (2 Chr. xxviii 10, 11). The
law allowed the Hebrews to buy both grown-
up slaves and children of the heathen ; and
these, when bought, became a "possession;'*
nay, "ye shall take an inheritance to your
children after you, to inherit them for a pos-
session." The Hebrew law does not know
language stronger than "inheritance" and
* * possession. " Its * * possession " was absolute ;
its "inheritance" was hereditary. Indeed, in
one sensCj the servitude of the individual,
whatever its character, could not be perpetual,
for universal freedom was proclaimed at the
jubilee (Lev. xxv. 9, 10). This must have
reference to servants of every kind, for the
language is unqualiiied; and the liberty of
Hebrew-bom servants was otherwise provided
for, irrespective of the j ubilee. Their period of
service was limited to six years. And if we
bear in mind that the law of Moses required
every heathen servant within one year to
become a Jewish proselyte and be circumcised,
thus receiving the seal of the covenant, it
renders it still more certain that the jubilee
brought freedom to all : for after such a rite
these men would be regarded as "of IsraeL"
Still, it is not to be forgotten that the very fact
of a jubilee implies that slavery exiBteo. A
periodical dismissal of hired servants, of per-
sons whose mere services were bought, would
be a curse — not a blessing.

It has been sometimes said that a Hebrew
could obtain heathen servants hy purchase only,
and that the Hebrew word translated bought,
buy, &c, signifies primarily to obtain, and that
buy is a secondary meaning ; consequently, that
no valid argument in support of absolute pro-
perty in a servant can be based on the use of
this term : his services were bought, not hia
person. Now, it is not disputed that many
things said to be bought in Scripture did no^
on that aoooontb become chattels personaL

691

, t be doubteiL It denota ths

on of property over wluah iben iiL(o

^_t of the owner, entin controL Tba

iwllflr gives bU Twht ami title in tbe thing uld
tn the liuytT. The Hebrew who bemne in
lolvvutTirtiiRllyBoldbiniaeU. But, at least ii
cikriiur tinieii, iJavTs were sold by tturd p^rtin
— " He that it bnught with money of any
»ti»nger which i« not of thy »e«i " (Gen. i»iL
I'J). Aiiiin,—" And &11 the men of hiihooK,
Uirn in the house, and bunght with mont^ of
the Btranger, were circumcised with hull"
(Uen. zvii. 27). The diatinction which the law
nuUiee between the treatment of a bond-aervnnt
anil a. hired servant seenu to imply that the
i-'inditian of the former waa abaolntc, and
beyonil his own control— that he was his
uiasttt's |>mperty, might bo maltnated with
ci>mnrative impunity, and could not, like a
hinu servant, at oDCe throw u]> his engagement,
and free himself fn>m niipnssinn; and if, as
the law says, " Hebrew wrrants could not be
wild as bindmcn " (I*t. iiv. 42) tiie inference
is, that the tatter were transferable property.

How was this service regulated?

1. Lam hi rei^uiatt (Ac trrruc of Sd/me witk

They were set free every eeventh year (Eiod.
xxi. 3; Dent. iv. Vij. If the year of jubilee
occurreil durinj; the sii yenra uf servitude, this
secured Frveduni Iwfore the eijiiry of the regular
term. Many KivuitH, r«ther than be set flee
un the seventh year, chose to remain with a
master till the year of Jubilee, because then
their family poMeeciima, which had been
forfeited by poverty or crime, were restored.
In this caw the •cr%'ant had bis ean bored —
n murk of degrailation tor refutins penonal
freedom (Kxod tiL CI.

Uw lerTBiit died nndt
death waa mveagtd i
eiiating Uw (Ler. zs
Bntinlhe oUier caMi,
two, it WM not »ran
offender, bnt bv- a i
pmamptioD beiag' tt
intend to kiU bis aer

11m anrant in thia latl
protected by the hm
hMi f»m tbo martei
both casta ha waa pon
but the penal^ in bi

fertinia, beatdea f
Ac ; so that it ia cxanpe
own nee nearly tw«nty-t
fifty. Helmwaanrant*
own. They coold aoqid
themtelrea, wttlmittna
at the mercy of the mal
religiow aa w«U as m

MTvanti M in ^ «•■•«<
before Uw hirOi erf Imm
to hia maatcr (Gen. x
gneata at f ertiw* (Bu

ike worda of IIm Uw'
On manT of these nointi

8ER

bhe sexennial period of service was en-
ed upon, the denunciation is terrible
xziv. 13-20).

sentiments to be gathered from the
Testament on this subject are quite
xxrdance with those luready stated
Y existed at and after the time of
; and men holding slaves were admitted
Christian Ghurdi, notwithstanding the
I law of God against stealing, selling, or
% a man. The Greek word to\t\o^^
means **a bondman," should be trans-
" slave." But the word andrapodoiif
peculiarly denotes slave, does not occur

Kew Testament; and one of its cor-
es occurs only once (I Tim. i 10), in the
xf all catalogues, and is stamped with the
BSt disapprobation. Aristotle defines
w to be a ** living tool" — a " living pos-
m^ Slaves, properly so called, existed
Boman and Grecian and Asiatic cities
le diurches to which epistles were sent ;
Hm current language of those countries
»ve was a douloi (1 Cor. viL 21), in which
;e the apostle contrasts freedom and
IT. In the New Testament a word is
Bed which strictly signifies "hired ser-
The term douhSf like every word,
bo have more general and secondary sig-
ibns. which are also common in Scripture,
th tne English term s^are— as when we
a lover, he is the slave of his mistress ;
^onkard, he is the slave of intem]>erance ;
A man that advocates opinions in

forms, he is the slave of party or
Yet who would think of denying
e word slave did not often originally,
ffrxyB in certain connections, mean an
^Ary, uncompensated servant— a man
own?

tke Word of God really gives no sanction
^Ty. It has. indeed., been said that

existed in Judea, and yet Christ did
ounce it. It mifirht be answered that
Lid not specially denounce suicide; but
X not prove tliat it is innocent. But

find no direct evidence that slavery
i^ Judea. No coins, medals, or manu-
^^rhich tell of its enstence, have ever
'<x)vered in Palestine, as in other lands,
^"ence, even the most remotej is made

^osephus, the .Jewish historian. We
L«refore. no proof that Christ ever saw
or haa a oirect call to speak on the
» and he did not go out of his way to
c^ing heathen distncts to rebuke evUs
^y which did not come under his
He came to his own. " He contented

with the statement of general prin-
"Idch, if applied^^could not fail speedily
ieate slavery. There can be no doubt

the Roman empire and in Asia Minor

did exist, and as little doubt that
^ust c^ten have met with it in his
'ings. It is assuming too much to say
^ul did not denounce it. If he did
once, and in every case, openly con-
the iniquitous system — when, perhaps,
2q

SHA

he was addressixig ignorant pagans who could
not appreciate his meaning — ^if he did not
needlessly speak against it in places where he
had no civU rights, no voice in the community,
and where his word could have no weight, but
might ratiier place himself and his cause in
jeopardy — ^he certainly laid down the principles
of eternal justice, which in course of time de-
stroyed it (1 Cor. viL 21; CoL iv. 1; 1 Tim. i
10). In these passages, both by implication
and in express terms, ne condemns it, and
shows that it is incompatible with the genius
and precepts of Christianity.

Example and precept alike conspire to
deliver the Word of Grod from the suspicion
of lending its sanction to the holding of
absolute proi)erty by man in his fellow-man,
especially under the light and liberty of the
blessed GospeL Man was made in (rod's
imi^e : and the image of God can never, surely,
be made a marketable commodity.

SERVITOR (2 KL iv. 43)-a servant.

SETH (Gen. v. iii), son of Adam and Eve,
was bom when Adam was one hundred and
thirty years old, and lived nine hundred and
twelve years. Tradition ascribes to Seth the
invention of letters.

SEVEN (Gen. xlL 2). As from the begin-
nixig this was the number of days in the week,
so it has ever in Scripture a sort of emphasis
attached to it, and is very often and generally
used as a round number, or, as some would
say, a perfect number. Clean beasts were
taken into the ark by sevens (Gen. vii 2).
The years of plenty and famine in EKVPt were
marked by sevens (Gen. xlL 2, 3). With the
Jews not only was there a seventh-day Sabbatib.
but every seventh year was a Sabbath, and
every seven times seventh year was a jubUee.
Their great feasts of unleavened bread and of
tabernacles were observed for seven days ^ the
number of animals in many of their sacrifices
was limited to seven. The golden candlestidc
had seven branches. Seven priests with seven
trumpets went around the walls of Jericho
seven days; and seven times on the seventh
day. In the Apocaljrpse we find seven churches
addressed, seven candlesticks, seven spirits,
seven stars, seven seals, seven trumpets, seven
thunders, seven vials, seven plagues, and seven
angels to pour them out.

Seven is often put for any round or whole
number, just as we use ten or a dozen ; so in 1
Sam. ii 5; Job v. 19; Prov. xxvi 16, 25; Isa.
iv. 1; Jer. xv. 9; Matt, xii 45. In like
manner seven times, or seven-fold, means
often, abundantly, completely (Gkn. iv. 15,
24^ Lev. xxvL 24 ; Ps. xu. 6; Ixxix. 12; Matt,
xviii 21). And seventy times seven is a still
higher superlative (Matt. xviiL 21, 22). (See

NUHBEB, JPlEIADES.)

SHAARAIM. 1. (1 Chr. iv. 31) A city of
Simeon, and probably the same with Sharaim,
which at first belonged to Judah, if it was not
a different place (Josh. xv. 36).

2. (I Chr. viii. 8) A descendant of Benjamin,
and the ancestor of a numerous and powerful
people (I Chr. viiL 8-28).

593

nifty bo ufvljr aiijiliiMl, but not otberwue.
Shadow somctiDii.'a lOKuifiei i1»p obKurity, u
In tbepfanuc, "■hwlowiif dcuthi" anditalio
dmutes tliv cool Rpnt wbicb a tree or ricb
crenti'B hy hituKvptina thu tular heti (lift.
ixiii. '2). From an altiuii'in t<> the wing of
tbe I'inl extenil'-il ovur itii brooil, it ii ftl»o the
enibltin <•( invti-ctiiai ll'a. xvu. 8; xcL 1).

(S™TvrE.r
SHAPIJACH. (Sto ABlMixBfiO.)
SMALIX'M-Jimre {3 Ki. xv. 10) - tbe
fiftstnth king of iHrael, Ihe monlBrer of Zft-
cliftrifth, kin); (if Juilfth. and ths luuriier of his
crown. At tha end of the firat month of hii
ivign he wu himiwlf munlervd by Uenahem.
Vnriinu nUieri * "

in ljuriiitura, at

Itninrn. (Seo Jeiku ,

SHALMAN. (a.« SnAi

jnpcllfil iloHhva, kiiiK of IxraeL to pay him
an annual tribute; but at liLit, being weuy
<if thia exaction, llo-shoikCnmbiucdwcretly with
thu kiiiK of (^'I't to reniiit it. Sbalmaneacr
brought an amiya^'uinHtliim, ravaged Samarim,
UMifjireil Jloiilirn in his c-iiiitid, and notwith-
■tamiing bi> ]»ng reoiHtaQco of three reara (2
Ki. iviLi iviii. 'J-l'J), lit took ths city, put
Iloabea into boniln, and carrieil away tha
pe<i|ite Iicyunil the HaiihmteB. He thus ruined
the dty and kinuilom of l^morift, which hod
tiiibiiiKte<l 354 rears (3 Ki. xviii. 1), 10), from b.o.
t>7U to 717. Itargon, on the Aesyrma monu-
nieut, cb^x tu have cini<LiK-rc<l Samaria in
the fitBt year of hi* reign. Some auiijMiae that
Sbnlnuin (Hob. i. 14) a tiie some with Shal-

' SHAVE 'fNunJ" vl
■having the bead bb • 4
ij raj ancient (Job L 3
to have been (^erBlly i
and hutniliatjon for a
repMach (Jer. ilriiL 3!
tiana shaved the beard,
ceiidon to other Oriei
when summoned befog
himself" (Gen. zlL 1*
thu ciutom of tbe Egj
proved by paintinn i
jiaiticuUr," aaya Wiltj
thii point, that to hai
■ubject of repHMOb knd i
they int«nd«] to conn^

fordgnen," layi the no
brougbt to iEgypt ai alai
Birival in the eooutrr, w
thnr were employed if
civiliied people, they we
to the cleanly babiti of
beaidi and beadi wen
odnptod ft doH tsp." '
to in Geneaia. in thecaae ci
the authentirity of the P
SHAVEH. (Sea Ah
SHIilAK. (SeeSREiI
SHEBA (I KL X. 1), <
history — a province in i
Arabia, betuiwn the Bet

8HE

is called SeluL There is thus tome
I of idea as to the country over which
sn of Sheba reigned. (See Seba.)
the princely presents she made to

were gold, iyory, and spices; and
us were celebratcKi, on account of their
it commerce in these very products,
be Greeks also. Another or Oushite
IS on the shores of the Persian Gulf —
d from Baamah, son of Cush (Ps. Ixxii
[sa. Ix. 6: Jer. vi 20: Ezek. xxviL
iiL 8). The kings of Sneba and Seba
iated together in Ps. Ixxii 10. They
gs of territories almost contiguous—
1 Asia, and the other in Africa. Sheba
the name of several persons — such as
f Bichri, who revolted against David.
Meated by Joab. (See Beeb-shsba.)
iNA (Isa. xxii 15)— first ruler of the
id then a secretary of Hezekiah, against
aiah has delivered a terrible invective.
jTobably a foreigner. (Bee Book.)
HEM. 1. A Place (Cien. xxxiii. 18),
HEM (Acts viL 16), or SYCHAB
. 5), was one of the most ancient cities
tn. The change to Sychar (a Syriac
nifying drunkenness and falsehood),
e by the Jews to stigmatize the vices
lace, which were drunkenness^ lying,
ktry. Its more modem name is Nea-
id it is at present known as Nablous.
lated from 35 to 40 miles north from
m, and was made the capital of the

of Israel in the reign of Jeroboam,
sn is associated witn some of the most
ig events of patriarchal times (Gen.
t2: L 13; Josn. xxiv. 1, 32; Judg. ix.
[t belonged to Ephraim. At Shechem
B assembled to make Behoboam king ;
3, too, the tribes rebelled. Shechem
y of refuge. It is also noted as the
ae of the most interesting of our Lord's
!8 (John iv. 4-42), the r^ult of which
inversion of several of the Samaritans
ae faith (John iv. 39, 41).
im is situated between mount Ebal on
h and Gerizim on the south. The
town has two long streets running
<vith the valley. Nothing can be finer,
3 assure us, than the view of the city
heights around it As it is approached
hiUs, it appears luxuriantly embosomed
lost deligntful and fragrant bowers,
sealed by rich gardens, and by stately
lected into groves, all around the bold
itiful valley in which it stands. Not
n 150 Samaritans live in it. These last
synagogue, where they have service
lituraay. They have also a school,
eir language is taught. They defend
rship on Gerizim bv Deut. xxvii. 4,
)r the word Ebal they put Gerizim.
that the Jews fraudulently inserted
iieir Scriptures, out of contempt and
) towuda their nation,
amaritans, notwithstanding their en-
dnst the Jews, joined them in their
^ai^ the Bomana, and in the issue

SHfi

11,000 of them were put to the sword by the
Bomans on mount Gerizim, where they had
posted themselves, trusting, like the Jews, to
the protection of their temple. Under the
emperor Justinian another revolt took place,
in the course of which 100,000 of them were
slain or sold as slaves, converting their once
fertile province into a wilderness. A remnant,
however, rallied on mount Gerizim, and are
still found tiiere.

In their manners, rites, and religious cere-
monies they adhere strictly to the Mosaic law.
Instead of the temple at Jerusalem, they
worship on mount Gerizim, where, in more
prosperous times, they celebrated their festivals
and offered sacrifices. The worship of one
Grod, circumcision, the purifications and feasts
(except the Purim and the feast of the dedi-
cation), they have in common with the Jews.
They believe in the existence of angels, in a
resurrection and future retribution, and expect
the coming of a Messiah^ in whom they look
only for a prophet. Their priests are of the
trioe of Levi, and are treated as superiors.
On account of their poverty ^heir only sacrifice
is a lamb on the feast of Pentecost. In the
synagogue the Samaritan dialect is used, but
the^ generally speak Arabic; and they are
distinguished by a white turbim. They sup-
port tnemselves by mechanical labour and by
money dealings. They avoid any connections
with other sects, and marry only among their
own nation. Each man is allowed two wives
on his first marriage ; but on the death of one
of them he cannot marry again. In case both
of them die he is suffereato have one wife.
(See Ebal, Samaritans.)

The Samaritans represent the number of
their houses to be twenty or thirty. Thev
call their language Hebrew; and that which
we call Hebrew they call Jewish: for they
say their language is the true Hebrew in
which the law was given. The distinction
consists in the use of a different alphabet and
a different pronunciation. They go three
times a year to mount Gerizim to worship;
but do not offer sacrifices there now, as they
did formerly, lest they should be molested by
the Turks. Their synagogue is described as a
small, dark, but neat room, with an altar, but
without seats ; and strangers are obliged, before
entering, to pull off not only their over-shoes,
but also their slippers^hich are not prohibited
even in mosques. The promise concerning
the woman's seed does not, they believe, refer
to the Messiah ; but that concerning a prophet
like unto Moses does refer to him, as does
also that concerning Shiloh (G^n. xlix. 10).
They admit the sense of this passage as given
in our translation, and try to show that there
is still a sceptre somewhere in the hands of
Judah. The Messiah will come when Israel
repents. They say the story of the separation
between Israel and Judah, imder Jeroboam
and Behoboam, is a lie of the Jews. The city
of Luz, or Bethel, they say, was on mount
Gerizim (Gen. xxviii 19). Jebus, they say,
was also on this mount; and that Judlg. zix.

595

JivJgt*, but in HTiKnM noou. iner uj
that ann Joditut there hu been no prophet,

8. A PtBBON. (See Dikah.)

BHEEF (lien. it. 2), HHKPHERD (Qen.
xlvL »?), SHEEPHtASTER (2 Kl iii. 41.
KHEEPCOTK (1 Sara. Jiiv. 3}, BHEEP-
F(H.I). 4c. (.I.*n I. 1). Ab tbeee temn are
intinuLti'ly blended in the aacred writinga,
they are treated of under one head. The
■herp kept are ao nunier(>u« that tbej often
Conntitutc-i the chief wraJtb of a man in
patriarchal times; and hence with the Jen
the care uf pheep wai amnnt[ the eftrliat and
moat respectable emplDj-menta (Gen. iv. 2;
Exod. iii. 1 1 1 Sam. in. 11). Kebekah and
lUcfael, and the daaehten of Jethro, aonipled
nut tii i-ngaga in thii occupation : and the
patriarch Jacob fed the Buck* nf LbImd. Nor
■lid Mow* iliaJun the emidoymenb The
klnp of Kloab waa a iiheep'maater. Clanic
■tluHinni of a Himilar kind are very frequent,
implying that the flocks were tended hy their
proliriatiJ™. The pamase in 1 Sam. ivu. 20 ia
the unly instance in which the hired servant ie
dintinKi I lulled from the maator, or one of hia
family, oa a shepherd. Dock had charge of
the whole past<iral estnbliibment of SUd (1
Dam. iii. 7). The othce of chief henlnnan
was a]»liihed. am) the duties divided (1 Chr.
ixviL 29). This office nf chief shepherd (Heb.
liiL 20 ; 1 Pet. v. 4) ia often mentioned by
heathen writcn. It was on ofBce of great
trust and reitiHinnbility, as well ai of dis-
tinguished honour, for the flocki wen often
very Urge (2 Ki. iii. 4). Chanlin saw a clan
of Turcoman ahepherda whose flocki consisted
of 400,000 beasts of carriage — such as comela,
horsca. Diem, cows, and aases, and 3,000,000 of
■heep and goata^ Dr. Shaw oo&lirau hia

U; John x. lie"

mce pawns by a
leord it wid tbat

tbat Uw
heMk«3

prompt obedienoa wUi

other «n»ni«.l

In the Old TeaUma
uied figuratively fiir
Jer. ixxi 10) and for .
bat in the New Teat*
(John z. 11, Ac; Heh
and also thoae teacha

and those under their ■

the/0/rfor.lloct (See.

It was the traaineaa ol

sheep daily, pcriu]

"Dtaible fur any in

38, 39; -

32; Jer. i

t 13).

defend them when tkl
them, and streiuth and
his crooked staff oat o

not be n _
eonsomed me. and the I
sleep departed from tnin
The nun; on the tail i
forth, and pnoeded tba
leader or pnndpal. H

SHE

ley were too feeble to roam with

uid nothing evinces more tender*

» than ^ntlv leading such as have

to which they give suck. How

me of Messiah, **He shall feed

a shepherd : he shall gather the

his arm, and carry them in his

shall gentlv lead those that are

(Isa. xL 11). Messrs. Smith and

erican missionaries, tell us that

ng in Armenia they paraed several

robably from the neighbouring

fing in their boeoms the lambs of

ey tended. The same scene had

lently interested them by pre-

>urce of the beautiful imagery of

It is exhibited only at one season

rhen lambs are frequently brought

the day at a distance from the

new-comers^ being too weak to

;;k in its rovings uter grass, are

bosom of the shepherd ; and not

they multiply so as to fill his

night. They are then taken to

guarded there until sufficiently

DDle with their dams. One of

ires, when the sheep return

ating in the evening from their

!, and scores of hungry young

acted by shepherds' boys each to

iTf presents an amusing scene.

' shearing was a season of great

icompense for the toil and danger

ling year (1 Sam. xxv. 8, 11 ; 2

llie flock was collected in an

:Io8ure, called a ah^fold or sheefh

xii 16; 2 Sanu viL 8; Jer. xxiii

»; John X. 16). Here their legs

Bther ; and the shearing-house (2

[) literaUy means the tie-house,

ver housed at any season of the

Duse was often erected in the
) flocks, from which the approach
aid be easily descried. This is
«wer of the flock " (Mic iv. 8).
be sheep was probably made into
lii 47 ; Deut xxiL 11) by women
3). It formed part of the tribute
MLoabites to Israel (2 Ki iii 4),
ommon article of merchandise
18). (See Cattle.)
1 34 we read that " every shep-
abomination to the Eg^nptians."
lav be to the Hyksos, or shepherd
raaed Egypt, and tyrannizea over
aturies. (See Egypt, Phabaoh.)
3CST (John V. 2); in the maigin,
(Neh. iii. 1) ; in the Vulgate,
-supposed by man^ to be Beth-
not been distinctly identified.
Judg. xiv. 12, 13) ; or shirts^ as it
in ; or spoils, or apparel, as in v.
n; or **fine linen," as it is ren-
r. xxxi 24 and Isa. iiL 23, — all
n the same Hebrew word. The
trresponds with this in Greek is
inen cloth** in Matt. xxviL 59;

SHI

" fine linen/* Mark xv. 46 : and ** linen,** Luke
xxiii 53. The word douotless means a bed-
covering as well as a garment (see Clothes),
and corresponds with the hyke of the Arabs.
These hykes, or blankets, as we should call
them, are of different sizes, and of different
(qualities and fineness. The usual size of them
is 6 wds long and 5 or 6 feet broad, serving
the Kabvle or Arab as a complete dress in the
day; ana as they sleep in theur raiment, as the
Israelites did of old (Deut. xxiv. 13), it served
likewise for his bed and covering by night.
The plaid of the old HighhuiderB of Soothiud
was much the same.

SHEKEL. (See Measubbs.)

SHEM (Gen. vi 10)-- the eldest son of Noah,
from whom descended the Jews, and through
them the Messiah. Shem is always mentioned
first ; and though we read, " Shem the brother
of Japhet the elder,** the words, "the elder,**
are to be referred, not to Japhet, but to Shem,
—Shem the brother of Japhet. and also the
elder of the two. He had nve sons, who
peopled the finest provinces of the East. The
languages of these nations are still called the
Shemitic lan^^iAges, including the Helwew,
Chaldee, Synac, Arabic, Ethiopic, &c.

SHEMINITH. (See Harp.)

SHENIR. (SeeUERMON.)

SHEPHERI). (See Sheep. )

SHESHACH. (See Babylon.)

SHIBBOLETH (Judg. xii. 6). In the
course of a war between the Ephraimites and
the Gileadites, the former were routed, and
fled towards the Jordan. The Gileadites had
taken care to post a partv at the fords ; and
when an Ephraimite who had escaped came to
the river side and desired to pass over, they
asked him if he were not an Ephraimite. If
he said, No, they bade him pronounce shUtholeth
(signifying a stream) ; and if he pronounced it
sibboldh, according to the dialect of the
Ephraimites, they killed him. Thus fell
42,000 Ephnumites in a single day (comp.
Matt xxvi 73).

SHIELD. (See Armour.)

SHIGGAION (Ps. vii, title). The plural
of this word occurs in Hab. iii. 1. We find
various coniectures as to the import of it, but
they are all very unsatiBfactoiy, nor is the
knowledge of it important. It probably means
a song or ode of praise.

SHIHOR. (See River op Egypt. )

SHILO AH. (See Siloah. )

SHILOH. L (Josh, xviil 1) Where Samuel
began to prophesy (1 Sam. iii 21), and where
Abijah lived (1 Kl xiv. 2), was a city of
Ephraim, between Lebonah and BetheL 10
miles south of Shechem, 25 north of Jeru-
salem, and now called Seildn. Here Joshua
erected the tabernacle, and divided the land of
promise b3r lot amon^ the tribep. The taber«
nacle remained at Shiloh upwards of 300 years,
and was removed thence duringthe administra-
tion of Eli, and taken by the Philistines. Its
ruinous condition was proverbial in aftw-timet
(Jer. viL 13-15; xxvi o, 9).

2. (Gen. xlix. 10) A title of Messiah the

5W

kinjr; but whrtlirT it ngiufia oat wbn ii Mnt, 1
- - i.ue whom) rijttit it i> ti> ruiim, nr the P<»=«- '
klivr, <T lliiu ID whnm till- kinKilom nf Judah

»l.<.i

>1 ]■»<

I'ul, i«

w>L All tl

iti-rinvtatiiilM luvo iKrn Kivi-n to it b}r lUf-
■i-p'iit writiTii, bdJ all uf thnn arc riKnilicaat
ftii'i >n>Ti>l'riati\ TkittbeMuHiuafaiiiiitenilnl
ii ■■viif.iit frnii tile Uteml rulfilmcnt nf tha
14^>l'li(t7. Jii<liili muintaintil lt> trilal exist-

, __ __.. JcniHolaiD

H ilr-tRiynl, tlurir whiilr civil hhI eL-cloin-

tii-al iMWruQiiiit fiilivuiteil, Ulil tlie li«i]>le
tlviiiiH-h'LH iwntli-nil al>miul uver tlio earth— a
]"HT, m.ik, liriiitMnl. anil iqifiraMd ninllaiit
■•f a ifnvit iiBti'<ii. 'lliiU the KCJitro deiiaitnl
ffiiiii ■li:il:ili, wlii'm it bad tcnuuDcd until tbe
lli-'^iiih r:iiuv. aiul hai imver been rvatulvd.

SHIMJ:!- Ai>inrl:!Satii. xxi.f>l-areUitii-a
<if SuuU vh>i nii't I>avi(l tm lie was leaving
Juniriildii in thi: time iif Aluulinn** rcvult. anil
tn-at-il liiiii mill Iii* n.'tiniie witli th<- (rn-nnt
iiiili-.iiily (:• Sani. xvL tf-l:i|. Fiir tlii* .Jlence
Hliiiiici aftenruTil-i H-inKlit 1>aviirii fiiTgive-
ni'ii'i, wlio ti'it i>iily sivrnl LIk life thpn. Init
cin'insntcil with liini never b> liut liiin ta
ikMtli a S:iiiL xii. IS). On bi< death-beJ.
Imn-i'viT, lie rliar„-e>l lii<ili>nii<n tti reuivnilivr
^'lliull'i aa a (piilly '"•<>■ : v''>"t bavin)£ nctived
tiii'lineli'iT.-r, fiirl«ilebim t» leave Jvintaleui
I'll I ain i<t livitlL Tliii |T»1ulall<-n bcvbdated
by u>.i]iT t.> (iiiHi ill Kt-anh iif twii fn^tivc
iiTvuiits iitid KUiri'Pil tlk- tlirmti-uiil jicnalty.
It ii v.rv |.r.<l<:il.l" that l>uviil hail rtx^-ng
i.n.] •:.';. .Ill (.h.it Sliiiiii'i nx>n1<l, Iiv*»iiirliva>nli-
fll.!.' i-v-u-.i..-, .Ii.tiirl. tb.. r-i^n ..t S.l..ui.rtii
nil liiiti, be «ud iniC u|<uu

over each quaiter ti Hit ttn

J",

f.niU- iLiiii. Iwii'.; l-ln.en M.

■:n,.ii-: ■ - ■' - ■

■atfn

tiwriif lIuU'U anil tbi' nit" i.f tbe ^r-'at dty
..f r.aM.<a wiu b1-< lim- (Dan. i. 1. :!) Tbe
t'lrit'ii'V ii iiow w'ittiin tli>' lonludie uf Jln^'djML

(Srrll.U:I)..S.i-)IAI.].E.V.J

KIM Vfi ii iea. iliv. l:l|. Rcnu uf tbeaneient
Min vi-rv \iTyLiri;i'. Au arciiulit iit iiui b
fiiiiii l>v Alb"iia-ius wiiiili uiw iienrlvriW) fert
iii].ii;(liiiiiili^liulrtY-:idtb. r|wanbiof-l,nOO
r>.u.'l,^ aiirl iit li-:i>t ».l)l>l ntlu-r \KTMatf, neiv
eiiiii'V' .] ill till' iiatimtion i-f it. 'Hie lUt of
Iiaw:.iti.4iWii'.hi.»eiiT,biitliltU-midiTKt<>iHl.
'I1»' I'liii iiii:LLii>i u-i.n> mccltiiilly eimcvmed in
li niii-lt. xwii., xitiii.), anil bail lairtiiiiftbi^r
■iHii 'n nliiiint uviiv eiiutitry (Ihl xxiii.), tbo
tiii'.l fiiiiiriiH i>f wfiieh -wen Cuitba^- nnd
'i':ir..lii'i]i in S|i.iiD. Tin: tJiijui fniiii 'l^nJiUb
>iTiili'it<Hik di>taiit iiijaLVH; nnl hiiietr any
\i'..ii1< tlint \tm raimldv nl Kurb viya'.'m, nr
i.:ii|». ..f Ur/,: tranwit, wcr.- iiili-.! "(biin nf
'riir.1i;>li" I1.-.1. xviii. 1). Tli.- Tvrinu kldjM
nr.' ili..<Tli.iil I y Lo-kiel an IniOt with tiuiim
" ' i . - . .|g(j ,|f cudar, aiiil* of

lii..

ly the "riMtt-lM^'
flbiiw had varioui luuli— lower and U^mk;
bat what i> rendered **the munHul''in lA
XiviL 40, vaa the uil attached to the mftt
mart at the bow. The gear nr tadSif «M
varinos; and the jihraitF, "ntrake iiil"(A*
xivii 171, mean* lowered Uie gear. pnlaHj
tbe hcaty ywil and ita sail ; fur ai thcr nn
|>re|>ariiis fur lying to, or driving bdi« d(
tnilu; they needed tome aaiL i^iiijn am ita
in thoM daya nUiKvd to cast anehcr. ud it
anehon were not unlike thnn in mudcn na
Tlio iiliip in which tbe apustle w.v. wu ca tt
oecaaion ancbnrul liy the item. Iler pn*™
thuii turned to a lee shore, so thattbeycc^
neat ilav the mora euilv and surJv rata
as.imind: Tbe fnllowing'i* a lirirt iemOl*
till' n]<ii>tle's voyage nnil pbipwrtik, anilaiM
exiiliinatiiin of the iiautioal teroi ei|Jaiiud:-
I'aul nod certain other jiri^'iuer', uf ifi'
fi'rent cla», were place<l uiiiler tli« can d
Julius, "a centHRi<n of An^sttt-'* l*»i'
■■erfaata a caiitain in the imrvriul lifenirii
retumini; to Italy. The sbif in vtdA Ikr
I endiarkiil at Ueoaroa lielr.nued ti AdnaiV
' tium, ukI wa« a|i|>.tmit]y on i(« bfimtw
vii!,-afii>, "meaning; to aul liy tbe nniSKi
AHia," the usual nnite for ve<4vlii Fn^>;.-olk
tliia trafltc. aereial of the nixMtlv'i fiaidi
were with him— I.uke the narratC'T acil A»
turubuii the ifacedoniati— whom he oftrmra
naniM bis "(elhW'btbonrer" and "Stlk*-
Iiriwintr." On tnucbing at i:li>l'in tlir nttt <!>?,
the centurion— wlio, from tb« reiKirt of F*««.
must have been aware <rf the fnv>il'<uidu?'

rrefnrvil afiolniit him-'-" conrtrmnly initiatis
'nul,''andiiIlowed him t-ii[0(>niihorptvN(li*
friends and " refreiJi bimfeU " — die refvNoccb
tile last wurd beiiij to coriHiwal frttiltr, ittbp)
iDcrea'ied by Be.viiii:kuiiu. Leaving Siit
they Muled " nnder fyprns "■ — thai i^ nn*'
thi> lee of C^i>ruD.ortu the ea>.tff ii.thoilirsi
, eiinr'W bcini; bi the n>:ith of it— for u At
I Diintraiy winds coiniielle<l them, aa>l tttf
Diiiiht take advantngo of a Htri'n? e-intit
" ' - - -'us with mat strength ' *'"*

Ut'd liy '. wmttvard, wuuld enatda them to make nf

£Snd!

SHI

the iiale. They thus "safled over the
of Cilicia and PamphyliiL'* and " came to
_^^ a city of Lyda.'* At Myra Yesseh
ivwe changed, and the prisonen were put into
A"ahip of Alexandria sailing into Italy** —
pcobably a com ship^ and, like others of the
riiw, a regular trader, of large size and with a
well-Appointed crew. On loosing from Myra
tha wind was adverse. Small proflpress was
BHide, and after *' many days " they had with
dUBcnlty oome opposite to Cnidus, a distance
of not more than 130 miles. The prevailing
wind in those regions, and at that season of
thA year — the close of summer— is still the
Bortn-west wind, against which the ship could
■earoely work up. In consequence of this they
Btt under the lee of Crete, or to the east of it,
■o ai to be sheltered by it. Having with diffi-
culty rounded the point of Salmone— "hardly
ig it " — ^they coasted the south side of the
; and, unable to pass Cai>e Matala^
the shore suddenly trends to the north,
pot in to the Fair Havens, not far from
la — a town, the ruins of which were for
tiba fint time identified in 1856 by the late Mr.
Tament, amerchant of Glasgow, and the friends
who were cruising with him in his yacht.

Hie season was, however, far advanced —
""tile fast was now already past.** It was the
md of September or beginnmg of October, and
tharefore perilous to undertake a long voyage.
Navigation was not actually inttirruptcd till
about six weeks later, but sailing ** was now
daagerouBL** Warning comes from an unex-
padfced quarter— from the apostle. The cen-
lorion, however, would not listen to Paul, but
lather "believed the master and owner of the
ddp^** both of whom were anxious to get to
the end of the journey, lliev had lain long
windbound at Fair Havens ; but it was not a

rtd winter station ; and the greater part joined
opinion with the captain and supercargo,
Imping to get to Phoenice, about 40 miles west,
and a more commodious roadstead to winter
in, as from its position it was secured from the
piiBvailing storms. They seem now to have
l^yen up all hope of reaching Rome l>efore
next spring; but on a favourable cliange of
bRMEoe, when the ** south wind blew softly,'*
they made for Phoenice, which lay to the
noith-west, and, hugginp^ the shore, "sailed
oloae by Crete. *^ But tnej were soon over-
taken l^ a hurricane, blowing down from the
Ughlnnds of the coast, and called Euroclydon
— perhaps more correctly* Euroaquilo— or a
north-east wind. The adiective rendered tem-
pestuous is in the original ** ty phonic,'* or like
a typhoon, the tempest which is accompanied
bj whirlwinds driving the clouds in circling
conflict, and raising the sea in columns of
quay. The ship was caught in the squall,
aad ''could not bear up into it** — literally,
look it in the eye — and was therefore forced to
scud before it, " Kunning under'* the islet of
Clanda, they "had much work to come by
the boat**— that is, taking advantage of the
smooth water under the lee of the island, with
difficulty they hoisted on board the boat which

SHI

was usually towed behind the ship, showing
that they were preparing to resist the storm.
Then they used **helx>s,** " undergirding the
ship"— a common precaution in those times —
passing a stout cable several times round the
null, so as to tighten the planks which might
be strained by the heavy seas. Being driven
still to the south-west, and being naturally
afraid of falling **into the quicksands," or the
shoals of the Syrtis on the northern shore of
Africa, they ttrake tail — rather, lowered the
main^ard and its sail — and "so were driven,"
keepmg the ship's head off shore, and her right
side to the wind. The tempest did not abate,
and the next day they ** lightened *' her— threw
out a portion of the cargo. But the danger
still increasing, "we cast out with our own
hands the tackling of the ship "—all portions
of the heavy gear or rigging— others, according
to thLi reading, beside the crew being employed
in the work, or the a]>08tle himself and Luke
putting a hand to the labour. In a short time
such a vessel must have foundered and gone
down — a common fate with ancient sliips.
The sky had closed dork and angry around
them, and "neither sun nor stars in many
days appeared," while the gale increased in
fury, and they abandoned hope ; for the ship
was leaking, and they could not tell where
they were, on what coast they might be
driven, or how long the opemng timbers
would resist the violence of the waves. The
darkness of night was above them, with a
raging sea around them ; and the lalx)ur-
ing bark, f rapped round and cased of its
heavier freight and furniture, was drifting
heli)lcssly before the wind. In this crisis
of dismay and danj^er, the voice which had
warned them at Fair Havens was hes^
a^^ain. And the apostle now spoke from
divine authority. Paul had appealed to
Caesar, and the appeal must be heard. Ho
was the principal ixsrson on 1)oard, and investeil
with peculiar dignity. The ship is his by
God's charter. Her cargo may do cast into
the sea, and the ship herself be lost, but the
ai)ostlo must get to liome. "Grod hath given
tnee all them that sail with thee '*— their life ;
that of nigh 300 persons was bound up in his
life. The effect of such a speech at such a
time may be easily conceived. It was no
flattering prophecy which he uttered.

It was now the fourteenth night since they
had left Fair Havens in Crete, and they were
still tossed about in the Adriatic. "They
mount up to the heaven, they go down again
to the depths ; their soul is melted because of
trouble. They reel to and fro, and stagger
like a dninken man, and are at their wit*8
en^l.'* Unable to ascertain their position,
"about midnight the shipmen deemed that
they drew near to sj)me country "—literally,
that some country drew near to them — common
but graphic nautical language^ in which land
rises or sinks, comes near or disapi)ears. The
" shipmen *' — seamen — came to this conclusion,
as they could from many signs unperceived by
soldiers, prisoners, and passengers— such as the

sni

noiso of brraliors risiiijj nU)vc the Bound of the
ht'iui. Ft-arful «»f the vW*i pnixiniity of tlie
hhtin% *'thcy w»iimlo<l, uinl fouml its de^^th
twriity fathniiiM ; " ami in u nhort time, heuving
th«' li-ad OKuin, *' tl»«*y f'-und it tiftcvn faUiomH.**
'J liiK nipid Hhullowinj; alaniuti tht-ni, and they
fiunil t4) be tUwhwl on the nK-kr* over which
the wavi»H weixr hn-akin^'. To 8tay the prj)-
irn-HH of the ^hi^), an«l keej) her if ixisiiible in
Jut ]irt.'scnt jxwitinn, thi-y cast four auchon
out ««f the ht^'ni - nt)t an uuuMial fasliion in
aneieut navigation. On tliat coa,st the bnd
in t«M) h)w to !h« net-n, thi»n;;h the hreakera
uii^'ht 1k' lM»th auilihh> and visjbU'; and sound-
m'^n of 8iniilar «lrptli are yet fi»uml by mariners
in the same li)eality. 'J'he ahmiinl inmateH«if
tin* niiip, ^roanin^; "in the »*itleM'*»)r enmded
uimn dt-ek, n«i\v anximiply waited for the day.
'1 Mi-y mi^ht p> di>wn at their anehon>, unable
tt> rid«; nut the f^nh* if it increased; and they
cotdil not t«'ll th<* nature of the coant till
nmrnin;? br«»ke. Thi-ir i)uri»ose n(»w was to
Htrand tlie Mhip, ami hh« was anehon-tl ho that
her head waH to t lie land; but they eould not
tell whether theiv nii;:ht lie a beach which
hjiould Jitb»Dl them the opinirt unity. In thin
moment «if a\\ful 8u.-|K*nse, when wreck waa
certain, ami tlie 4)bject wa« U) be prejiared for
it, the sailors Ii>st heart, and wouM have
<U'>erte«l tlie vessi'l. 'I'hey i>retended that it
wa** necessiuy to lower the iNiat^ which Mune
daVKln-'f lire they had taken in witli difficulty,
fur the onteiisiblo iiuri^'^^' of carrying; out
anchors fmm the prow U> Btea<ly tlie ]iitchinK
Vessel. 'i'his iiiaiio uvn; shows hi»w critical
thev reikniii'd their .'.ituatii'U. when, in su«:h a
ni;^'!it of jrliHiiii and ti inpcst, thi-y would t;»ke
to the iNiat. \\liiih e<iuM scari'ely be expected
t«» li\e in sinh a >• a. Tin ir pur]iii>e, im they
liad the wtirkiu:,' I'f the hhip. cnuM not be
easily detecteil by the hind^nii'n. >\honi they
Would have so si-lti>h!y abaii<inned. I

r.ut then; w;i< one on 1m inn I who had tlu' ;,'ift
of (li-.i-ernln^' spirit. ■». Hi* divined thetreat'hery, !
and for th«- thiiil tinie ^|•oke. His stern Wonls
wi M", *• I nliss the«.e abiili" in the ship, ye
cannot Ik' kim-iI." lie had already a.-Mirinl
them of r-afity; bnt that .sifity. so absolutely
pnimiseii, d«-pended upon niejin'*. They were
to run the shi|> ashore as mhiu us it was day;
and the operation e<iuld not he done exeept liy
the Jiraeti-ted ^ennien, who alone eonld haUilIe
the vi-<'»el so a< that .she nii^'ht be i-arrii"*! to
till* niost iiri>nii»inv: part of the lieai-h, and a^
lil.rh on the bi;ieh as iHissible. Neither the
holdiers nor tin- hind>nien «in iHinrd eotdd l>e
di-pi-ndeil on fi/r thi^ ditlienlt ta.sk. The sol-
diers at onee, on heaiiie^' l*aul ^IH>ak in .^tuch a
t'lni-. eut tlu! ro|H-s by which the sailors were
lowi-rin-.; the iMiat. and it f«-11 into tin; sea. and
was lither <*ap.-i/ed or drift«Ml auav. From
thin ptrji'd till ilay be-^jin tujiiijiear. theaj>o<tle
was exhort in;; tlu-ni all to take fodd. That
they nii;,'ht run the ship as hi;^di u]Hin the
Iwach as iMis-^ilile, they lifrhti-ned hi'r a^'ain,
fiiitl ea.-t out the wheat into the sea the r*;-
niainder of her ear„'o. As day bmke, they
Could not t«"ll wh<"re they w ere ; but they did-

SHI

covered a bay, not rocky and boU, batbsnBi
** a shore *' — sand v beach — and aa it th«T »
solved to run the suip. For this fmnnr, miU
lone no time, they cut away the anc&ni&dhft
them in the sea ; at the same time, u

eliiiut were steered by two Urn psddkiff
oam, one on each quarter, which in tUi cw
had been lashed away while the fehip ky t
anchor by the stem, they loosed theie '^nUB-
liamU" when she got under way; snddMt^
n:i|;ht be steered to the likeliest fpuC, thqrib
hoisted the fort>8ail, and '*madetoiriidaoit*
** Falling into a tdace where two cesi ntrt**
a narrow channel (between two parti«nt d tb
sea— between the island of KahDonettsaadthi
lar^tT island of Malta— they neoeeded ii
Ktranding the ship ; and the shaip jmiw tflf
fort*etl into the tenacious day ana mod of At
iH'ac^h, ** stuck fast and remained imma/rMC
but the stem was broken by the bi]Ii>«i^iel
so violently struck it and washed onrit lb
anxiety and consternation at the fint iM
niiut have been greats as each looked ts lb
reailiest means of safety. The ttxiUDm A
Roman diwipline next showed itielf ainte
the mnfusion, and the soldiov |iropoHd**ti
kill the prisoners, lest any should nria t^
and escaiie.** Had not Paul ben aaiic
them, a military execution might haw amd:
b\it the centurion was willing to «ave hin. ■!
the other prisoners were saved al(4U viAua;
for, a*i he had Kaid already, God had ^ira )m
the livi^s of all on board. In fad, I'aal *■
invulnerable, and the militiiy cmuuel m
folly. The fiailor>4, in svltish panic, wnU
leave the 8hi]>, biit they cannot; the mUin
Would slay the ]iris«'>ncr» ere they ikt:uredtUr
own safety, but thfv dare not Vhed a drop cf
IiIkhI. The centurion thrn gave orididrt
all should make fnr the shoiv; that tkii
"which could swim should caj-t themRlHi
first into the sea:** and that the nwt dh^
float themHelvos tlirou;;h the surf *'vnbosidi*
- deck plankfl, or any suitable pirtiim cf tht
wi-eek. Hi^ commands were olieyed, aod thr
]):vinc plml^e wa:< fulfilled — *^aiid twit cum
to ]>ass, that thev eseaiitxi aU t^afe tu laii"
(See Ka<lic'sPai//'//*f /Venr-Afr. j.p. 42*43*)

The Hhi]M mentioned in the New Tesumcflk
ufKUi the lake of Tiberiaa wt-re only fiiU^f-
Is lilts or wherries.

The ^'alley is a Inv, flat-built vi-swl BS^
vratinl with oan» an<l s;iiL*, .iml u.s«4l iiiMticuUriT
in the Me<iiterraneaii. 'Hie exj^r^'ssi'in in I*
xxxiii. 21 denotes that Jeruioalem wuiUd bei
j;lt»rioU8 city, tliou^h destitute of the o*
inercial and maritime advauta^e^s enj«^ved b;
most otlier citieni. Jo]>i)a, 37 mile» (ti^ttft
was it« only seajHirt. (Jjee PiiosicrA, Til-

MIM'*H. TyKK, rNDKKGlRIHyG.)

sniSHAK (IKi. xiv.25)— aking<.fEffli

and HUpi>ose<l t*) Ik? the Sesikstris uf jpiv.i»*
liist<iry. In the rt*ign of Kehol> lam he mrad^
Judca* with an immense army, to<fk poneioa
of .lemsidem, pilla;;re<J the temple, and 1*«<'
the treasures of tho king (1 KL xiv. L't*; ^Clft

xiL y).
The Scripture account is confirmed bj •&**

DoTeries in Egypt. Upon a mined colonnade at
niebcs iB a representation of Shishak dragffing
Id tlie feet of the Egyptian gods more tnan
lUrty TanqniBhed nations, among which is
wittten at full length in phonetic hieroglyphics,
""Tlie kingdom <n the Jews," or ** of Judah.*'
Bnr^^j however, interprets it differently.

Otoer inscriptions give a particular list of
ft» "fenced cities ** mentioned in 2 Chr. xii. 4
M httving been taken in this exi>edition ; and
^sfailat^ also, various efBgies commemorative
off Tioteies over the Jews,— all still preserved
b Egyptian sculpture, after the lapse of 2,700
i— WL (See Rehoboam.)

BHITTAH. (See Shittim.)

SHITTIM (Joel iiL 18). The valley of
BUttiia was in the land oi Moab, nearly op-
BOiile Jericho, and but a short distance from
k Bnt the phrase, *'vallev of Shittim," as
■Hd in tills passage, probably denoted some
vaDay well known as abounding in shittim
wood; or it may be poetically used to denote
or uncultivated place. (See Abel-

SHTJ

)

[ WOOD (Exod. XXV. 6), from the shittah
zB. 19), is a tough and very durable
J much used in the structure and furniture
tiiie tabernacle. The Septuagint renders
|h» Hslnrew term ' ' incorruptiDle wood.'* It is
gaenlly sapposed to be a species of the acacia,
^rtieliiuxrands in all deserts from northern
Ant*^**^ to Ethiopiik and from which is obtained
•■r gom-aiabio. It is a beautiful tree, with
■nMmff brandies and fragrant flowers; and
MBoe Is ngnratively employed by the prophet,
fel the above-cited passage, to represent the
' inflaence of a general diffusion of divine

SHOCHOH a Sam. xvii 1), or SOOOH
flWk. XY. 35), or SHOGO (2 Chr. xi. 7). There
M probably two places to which one or more
theac names was applied. Both of them
fai Judah; and in one of them, near
David gave battle to Goliath. Both
yet called ah-Shuweikeh. The first is in
WMtem mountains, and the second is 10
■outb-west from Hebron.
SHOES (Acts vii 33). In addition to what
ii Mid nnaer the article Clothes, it may
faa xvmarked that to take off the shoes in
of reverence was an early custom (Josh.
15); and as no mention is made of them
tlie wticles of the priests' official dress, it is
that they officiated with the feet
d. To remove the shoe was also a
of humiliation and subjection (2 Sam.
Zf . 30 ; Ita. XX. 2-4 ; Ezek. xxiv. 17). Hence the
tHiiiwInii. Ps. Ix. 8 ; cviiL 9, imports the sub-
ftgaiatm of the oountey over which the shoe is
iMt The plucking off one*s shoe and giving
it to aaoiher 'was a significant token of a
■irandered right of privilege (Deut xxv. 9 ;
taOLVf.T). ^FooT.)

Hm phnae (Dent, xxxiii. 25), '* thy shoes
Adl be iron and bnss," is prophetical of the
alittiidanoe of precious metals with which the
ioil of Aaher's inheritance should be supplied.
AHOE-IiATCHET. (See Clothes.)

SHOSHANNIM— /iZi«(Ps. xlv..lxix., title),
or SHOSHANNIMEDUTH— ii/y of testi-
mony (Ps. Ixxx., title)— probably signifies a
particular musical instrument. Some nave re-
garded it as the title of a bridal song ; and if it
only occurred in Ps. xlv. we might admit this
interpretation; but surely nothing can be
further from a song of delight and festivity
than the other two psalms, which have a cor-
responding title.

SHOULDER (Gen. xHx. 15). To bare the
shoulder is significant of servitude, and to
withdraw it oenotes rebellion (Neh. ix. 29).
To bear upon the shoulder is to sustain (Isa.
ix. 6 ; xxIl 22). It was of old the emblem of
power or sovereignty. The high priest, as
religious governor, had two onjrx stones on his
shoulders^ as military men wear epaulettes in
modem times.

SHOW-BREAD. (See Bread.)

SHRINE. (See Diana.)

SHUHITE. (SeeBiLDAD.)

SHULAMITE (Sonc vi 13). The He-
brew word rendered Shmamite is the feminine
form of that which is always rendered Solomon.
The names of the bride and bridegroom in
Canticles are thus Shelomoh and Shulamith,
and are as nearly related, therefore, as Julius
and Julia, John and Jane, Charles and Char-
lotte. In the passage the scene lies in a garden,
where the bride was unexpectedly seen by her
lover. At once she retires. Her lover ex-
claims in his ardour —

" Betum, rotom, Shnlamith ;
Return, return, that I may look upon theo."

Such being contrary to Oriental manners and
etiouette, she promptly and indignantly
replies —

" What! Trill yfl gnzo upon Shulamith
Ab ye would ui)on a troup of daneiug girls? "

Some, however, suppose the term to be the
same as Shunamite — Shunem being named
Solam — and that Abishag is meant.

SHUNAMITE. (See Shunem.)

SHUNEM (Josh. xix. 18)— a town in the
territory of Issachar. It is associated with
several important incidents of Jewish history
(1 Sam. xxviiL 4; 1 KL i. 3; 2 Kl viii 1-6),
and especially as the place where Elisha
tarried on his ioumeys between Gilgal and
Carmel« and where he performed a miracle
under circumstances of unusual interest (2 Ki
iv. 8-37). The inhabitants were called Snuna-
mites. Some identifv it with Solanif about 3
miles north of Jezrcet

SHUR (Exod. XV. 22)— the name of a vnl-
demess (and perhappi of a town also) 1 ving north-
east of the gulf of Suez, into which the ciiildren
of Israel entered after the passage of the Red
Sea.

SHUSHAN (Neh. i. l)-an anciont. exten-
sive, and magnificent citv, called oy the
Greeks 81190, situated on the river Uliu. It
was in the province of Elam, in Persia, now
known as Knusistan, and formerly as Susiana.
Shushan was the capital (Es^ i. 5 ; Dan. viiL

GOl

SHU
a]. It! VKU^ coDitnicted, tMjt Stnbo, of
Iniclt and Litnincn, like UioM of Bkbylon,
incloMil kn oUlong inaco of 120 tUdu— 15
mile* in circuit. After tlie aubjuntion of
Medift hy Cyrui, it wu in winter, u EcbktBDa
WW in lunuiiec, the resideace of the Peniui
kinga. 'ilio name ngniRefi^ in the Armbic and
Fani, or modem I'enian, tu thin day, u it did
lit iitd in tha Hehrew and Fi^hlvi or andent
I'emui, B lily— a njircieii ut fluwer with which
the BURxiundinu fields abound. In Daniel, ftlso,
we find tlist bhimhiin. the myal reridenca ui
CeUhuzar. was nt'or the liver TJlai, in t'
{irnvincu of Klam ; and, occi'ri ling to the Greel
tie Kulnni" WM the |>riTici[ia] stream in tl —
tinritory, wliich comprehunded Cissia, and its
■ubiliviiuim, SiuiAiuk The Acroiiulii of Suia,
close on tlie Kbajxir, «-»« the furtnw in which
tlio truasiirea uf the I'vnian monarchs were
)ircdcrvvd, na a]i|>can from Uenidotiu and
Airian. The ruinB have lieen recently ei-
l)Iun-.l. (Sec Luftiu'n Suiiaiia and Chaldta.)
Tho moniimsnts reoird that it wm bcgnn by
Itariui anil fiuiihcil l>y Artaxvrxet Mnerno'
It ii ui>w a hcaji of ruioii, about 30 miles wi
uf ShoKtcr, tlie pRwcnt ca]iilal of the viDviDm
of Khiuibtan. ocetiiiyin;; a Hiiaue of it milea '~
extent, and conai^tinc of hillncka of eaith a:._
rubbinh, covered with bivki'n iiiecei of brick
and cuhiured tile. Theae mnunils are fom
of clay and piccca of tUc, with irregular la]' .. .
of bri^ and nuirtar, G or U feet in thickue.w,
tu KTve, BB it aliuubl n>cia, OS a kind of i>rop '
the man. Ijkri;o blocks uf niarlile, coven
with hivni|rlyi>l>ie)^ are not iinfreqiiently he
(liMMVen-d liv tlie Arabi, when dippng
Boanfa of hiildvn trciunirei and at the fixit at
Uie nw»t elevated of the ruina etaiula the tomb
of Daniel, a Hmnll and aiiiarvutly modem
iHiililinK, I'recteilon thu K|Kit where the — '-—
ut that pmiilict ore Kiii*
1-BMIA, Uui.|

Shl-hiiavkih'tii (Pb, li., title)— the same
«!th Khoahiuinim. (Sw Siiiisiianmu.)
SllUlTLB (.Tol. viu li)ra wellkn.iw-n

adde, and it hran i titj rlnwrrifmlfa
that implement in modrra timfa. i>
followinjE cut exhibitB.

SIDWM, VALE OF (Gen. ci. D
poMd now to be covered by the witen '
Dead Sea, and conjectnreil to han be
ute of Sodom and Uomonah. It ii a
of wiMnen almost auorpsiaad— apk
"brimstone, s^t, and biuning.^ (Sc*

S£A, Sodom.)

SIDON (Mott 3d. a), or ZIDOSI
i. 31). Sidnn, usually in the Old Ttda
and proiierly Zidun— was pecbips Ifar
ca]>ital of Fhipnicia. Zidon is the "fint
of Canaan ; Tyre is not mentioatd i
Pentateuch at alt ; bnt Zidon, in I'd
tnice named "grvat Zidon" (Jiiih. c.)
214). In the eoAy books of ScriT«in,Si
is apparently a general name lot Ptn
(Josh. liiu 4, Gji and Isaiah calk T]
"daughter of Zidon" (ch. iiiiL !!).

1 of tho vf<«f a

move* with great nviftnetw from o
the •jtlwr^ so us scarcely to be seen i

does Tyre ( ... __

Kidonians and Plicrmcians are the w
thrta. But T>-re grew in impTtuk
came to occupy the piimarv place:
(See KlaV, ' length tbe otJer "TjTUS and Zidw,
Zccb. ii. 2.

Sidon was situated about SO milt

from T>-rr, on a plain not m'lre than

wide. It had a safe and cupociotiil

fiirtncJ by a promontory wbieh nin)

. - the sea, and the country aruund it

1 aide to and fruitful. It wm subjected si«ne

" 3 i«9. its powerful neigbliour. Tyre, and it

"{III!

j'iil fliuht of time.
ftimtOI.KTll. (SecSniBDOLETH.)
KIU.MAH (fp^o. xvi. K. 1>) iir 8HIBMAH
(Num. xxKii. 3;<)— a city of Itcuben, near bv

Ucahbon, cili-1irat«l for tho luxiihnnt Knm'th .. ,,^,

of tho vine (J<.t. xlviiL Si). It leU inb> the ; ful atrocities : 40,000 of
tiaods of the Monbitcii after tlie captivity of
Ileubvn, Gail. an<l STanatiwh by Tiijlath-pileecr;
"''■"""''"'" 1 Jeremiah

during Nebucbudne _ _

latter citv. It was (,Teat and wraith
the Persian empire; but it rel*lUd
Darius Ocbiis, and expelled the Peru
son. By tlic tTracbery of the kin^.

nad hrjiee tlie pruphcts Itoiab and Jervmial
weep fur Mnnb, Decauae the Hi^uiler had brukei
th« vinsB id Silnnah.

I'nilialily the oxpreaxion in the pamntre from
Jeremiah rcfprs either to tlie univenal reputa-
tion uf the vinn of sjibmah, or it is poetically
lued tu denote thu luxuriance of tb«t growtb.
'"- 1 D/.;u:<Twas iierhaps 15 or 'M miles

ibjcctedtii .
im-. iM,uOO of it* citizenn th
. , with their irivca and chili
set fire to their dn eltings, rather thai
the hands of their aavuge drnqoen
nctor sold the smoking ruins for a I
aum. After the battlo of leans, Si.U^
its gates to Alexander ; ond it was ^
fliiunsbins in lulnequent Roman ti
auffcred aevcral aic)^ during the (
and under its present name of ?aii
IHipuhition of R.OOOi but its ttxde 1

verald

e Kcw Testament,

it Mid to b« niars tolenblc than tbat of
i«iii Kiid Betbawda.

1 poaiti<iD of Sidon on the ahore of tha
temutetu, the fune of ita timber sod
1 -workmoi, uid its excellence in many
icnu and luefnl ■its, nuule its commerci^
itun peeuliuj tuA they are noticed in
IM Butoiy. The g^aM of Sidon waa aa
OB SB the porple of Tyre. Tba ' ' Sidonia

irmm K oummon prOTerb amnogBt the
nta ; uid the epithet "Sidooian" waa
l>jr Ti»y of emphatds to eipress whatever
tlaguit or DiogniScenL InHomer, Siiion-
Dunufactujes are highly prized by the
ike chiefs; the diinkui^-cupa atq famed
lada by the "inyenioos SidonianB;" and
unbroiuered robes are no less celebrated
Jie sune poet- Tbeir prosperoua and
rioua habits led them into a careless am!
[• mode of life, which is alluded to. Judg.
. 7. Tbi< city is the subject nf some very
vkable prophecies (Isa. zxiiL 4-18: Jer.

17-38; Eielc xxviii. 21-24).
Itan Tyre and Sidon it was t^at part of

great tnullJtnde was made up who on

t great things be did " (Mark iii. 8) ; and

nan manifested a faith which received the
ubktion of the Saviour, and which will bo
for a memorial of her wherever the
nl ihall be preached (Mark vii. 24-30).
M apostte Paul visited Sidon
tna voyage to liume (Acts
i. 3). At present the nan
M phux is Saida, It is

SIL

SIGNET. (See Seal. 1

SIGNa (John iv. 48] and WONDERS, as
they are osnally connected, mmetimes denote
those proofs or demonstrations of power and
authority which were furnished by miracles,
and by other tokens of tha divine presence, as in
Acts li. 22 ; and at other times, those unusual
appearances which betaken the approach nf a
tn^t event, as in Luke xii. 11, m. (3ca
Miracle.)

SIHON (Num. mi. 21-31)-a king of the
Amoritea, who lost his dominions in con-
sequence of his rvfusal to permit the Hebrews
to |)asB throu)fb them on their way from ligypt
to Coanan. Sihoo himself was slain in battle,
his army was routed, Ueslibnn, his capital, was
taken, and his country distributed among the
Jaraelitea (Ps. ciiiv. 10-12; cilivi. 18, 19),

SIHOK. (See Riveb of Eoyft.)

SILAS (Acta XV. 40). contracted from 3IL-
VANU8 (2 Cor. L 111), is colled one of the
chief of the brethren (Acta xv. 22), and a
faithful brother(l Pet. v. 12). He is supposed
tn have been a native of Antioch, and a mem-
ber of the Christian church there (Acts it.
37-11). He was the associate of Paul in
several of his misdonary tours, and his fellow-
prisoner at Philippi (Acts iv. 4D; ivi. 25, 29;
iviL 4, 10 IS). He is called a prophet (AcU
XV. 32) ; but what was the precise nature of
this office Id the days of the apostlea is not
clear. (Soj Luke, Prophecy.)

-ban, and the town itself is
f sitnated and very dirty.
eptember, IS40, it was bom-
ed and taken by Commodore
ier, and the troops of Mo-
st Ali were eipelled.
EGB (Dent. xx. 19)-tbs
nniding of a city or casUe

er. The ataea of Samaiia,
iveb, Babylon, Jerusalem,
Tyro are most noted. The
mttnta of Gi>d, reducing men
X«»t hardships, ara Sgur-
JycaJlod"8i^es"(Isa. - '-

fiOoWAR.)
VE {Isa. XXI. 28).
3-, or Reve, which I
mMry an article
IS preparation

B of niibes. or papyrue.

tbat only the Gams had sieves of horae-
What was left in tha bolter was put
the mill a second time. Sieves of varirius
aes of fineness were no doubt usod, for the
s Bnthon tell m of fooi difiarent qualities

SILENCE. "There was lilenco in heaven
about the apace of half an hour" (H". viii. 1).
Some suppose that the allusion here is to the
breatblesi qmct of the multitudes worshippinif
in the courts of tbe temple when some solenm

Srtion of the ceremonial was being performed
ijis high priest within the sacred edilice.
W3

unninlled or pickeil out and made np again
inln gtnarata of entire lilk {Kev. xviii. 12).

SILOAU (Neh. iiL IS). <.r SILOAM (John
in. 7, 11), or 8HIIX)AH (Im. viii. 6)-.
rivuiiit on the ■outh-euit of Jenualrm. at the
finit iif Zion KDil Murinh; nij'iiiiaed t? ■nme
tn be the uniB with Kn-n^'ul and Uihon.
There mwm to have been twi> jiooli, the vpper
tlKi. vil 3] nr Icingi vol (Xah. ii. 14), and
tlie /wifcT pom (lia. iiii. 9). (See CoNdI-it.)
A moJern traveller wyi, "We paned the
.leH'uh biiri'inK-KTi'Uiid •lutb-cast of the dt;
nf JenuaLvin, and rame in the puul of Siloao^
fthof Katm lU (n/U.u.' they have a cniTBiit,
but it ii almoct iminvceptible, I &li)[hted to
■leKend more tbsn twenty itep^, and taate
the ■K-aU.-n of tliii fountwn, at which, in
and.'nt til^l'^ the J«vp-b were wont to celebrate
a festival, sinking the twelfth chapter of laaiah.
I )n the other itide of the proleoting hill JOphel),
after |>iui>ins imiler){n)und 200 or 300 t«et,
tlieHi wstvn mii>i<var: ami here they an
drawn off to iiTit;iLte a Invily niot comuating
(if gardeiM and Muall tielilH. Tbe« gardeu
Hni ID nimmer oftru frequented by the Turki.
Over aaainst tbe txiol, oo the hIi^ of a lofty
luinintiun, ia a village tbry call Siloa." Rubin-
mm Iiap]uii9 thnt tliv fuiiutain called by tlie
monk! the "Fountain <.f the Viivin" ia
iilentitieil with the "km)['a]ioot "of Nrbemiah,
Kiul the " jukd of txiliinmn ■■ referred to by
JoKiihua. fhe pool uf Sitiiam (iiituated in
the mouth of the valley of Tyropai^m, or the
Cheeeemaken, at the foot of mouut tlliun) ii a
<mall ilevp r«>icrvi>ir, intu wliich the water
fluWH from utidcr the roclu out of a smaller
basin, hewn in the auliil rock, a few feet farther
up, to which ia a dcKeent by a few ftrpiL
Thie IB wliotly an artilidal work; and the

iaovident. Itiifonnd
pabriarchi (Gen. ili*.
Job xxviiL 1) ; and t
that, Uke sold, it ii d
purity in the earth, a
covered. It iraa nied
the temple (Exod. XX
fumiture (1 Chr. i

adoiniiiK idola (Iia. xL
the chief medium of t
cmned, but naed by i
The " piacM of nlvei)
given a« the pnce of
'"^ 16; •"-" ^' —

^ver, amoontinc ' In i

ee jKiunda fteninf .

_. 33) ia (Dppoaed to

Hie precioua meiab
ancient times. Tbty
of Solomon. (See Ta]

SIMEON— Aeorvr.
of Jacob and Leah,
diction of Jaoob (Ge
pnniahment for hii o0<
ShecfaBmites (Geo. i

SlHBDK, TXim O^j

within the boanda of ,
of Dan, on the ooaa
Heaeldah'B time thvy i
Seir (1 Chr. iv. 43).

rnaaed aa to the me*
Keuben live, and not

befew"|Dent.xiiiii.<

SIM

i ftnd Ephnim. The trae solntioii

be the foUowing: — ^The name of
I omitted in this catalogue ; andthere
a manjT needlen apecolationa as to
e he is included in. Simeon follows
1 the rep^ular order, and is in aU prob-
nitted m this verse. The Alexan-
S. of the Septuagint has the name of

Thus the Hebrew will read, " Let
ire. and not die; and let Smieon's
w." The tribe of Simeon was extra-
' low in number, by far the fewest of
ribes— ten thousand less than the
of them (Num. xxvi. 12). Other
ave been jvoposed.

:e ii 25) A man of singular piety
t Jerusalem. He had been favoured
dne intimation that he should live to
»mate Redeemer, the Lord*s Christ ;

led by the Spirit into the temple at
alar time when the infant Jesus was
hither by his parents, accor^ng to
rement of the law (Exod. xiiL 12:

he took him up in his arms ana
le meet devout thanksgivinn to God,
ied with a remarkable precuction re-
he various effects of his advent.

exclaims, *'Lord, now lettest thou
it depart in peace, according to thy
ike ii 29). This portion of Simeon*s
ot a prayer. At the time the English
IS made it was common to place the
e after the verb. This idiom imparts
Tse before us the semblance of a
vhereas it is only an afi&rmation that
prepared him for a happy death bjr
>f the Saviour, according to his pro-
ough often called the a^;ed Simeon,
ave drops no distinct hmt as to his
ife.

I xiii 1) Was amoni^ the prophets
ers of the Christian church at Anti-
ne have supposed (though without
hat he is the same with Simon the
[Matt xxviL 32).

> XV. 14) Simeon is a Hebrew name,
} passage is the same with Simon.
•N (Acts viji 9)— a native of Sama-
. famous sorcerer, who professed to
ert to the Christian faith, and was
8 such by Philip ; but was severely
b^ Peter as a hypocrite, because

influence of mercenary motives he

oetolic ^pft& Hence the buying and

ecclesiastical rights, benefits, or

is called simony — a high offence
;e purity and int^n^ty of the Chris-
, and one of which the seller and
equally guilty. The legends about

not to be credited.
N Petzb. (See Peter.)
H THE Canaan ITE (Matt. x. 4), or
ELOTBS (or The zealot)— one of the
ciples. Canaanite, like Zelotes, does
I his diaracteristic zeal, but refers to
k member of that political dub which
1 Sicarii Canaanite does not refer
% but is synonymous with Zealots or

SIN

Zealot. The Zealots were a society of persons
banded together to punish law-braakers ; but
their zeal was too often only a cover f(yr the
most flagnmt enormities. Auy readers of the
Jewith Wan of Josephus will find ample
proof of this statement. Now, Canaanite is
derived from the Hebrew verb, k&na, to be
zealous, and has the same meaning as the
Greek word ZfiXwri}?. Both in Matthew and
Luke the historians give Simon the same
appellation— Simon the Zealot— as he had
belonged to one of those secret associations.

Several other persons of this name are men*
tioned, as the Pharisee (Luke viL 36), the
leper (Matt xxvi 6), the father of Judas
Iscariot (John vL 71), and the tanner at
Jop^ with whom Peter lodged (Acts ix. 43).

SlN (Gen. iv. 7) is the transgression of the
law of God (1 John iii 4). Any departure in
thought,^ word, or deed, from the rule of con-
duct which requires us to love the Lord our
God with all the heartj and soul, and mind, and
strength^ and our neighbour as ourselves, is
sin (1 John v. 17). The word is sometimes
used for a nn offering^ as in Hos. iv. & Li the
first text cited, and in the phrase^ ** They eat
the^ sin of my people,** reference is had to the
eating of that which was brought as a sin
offering, either from greediness or in violation
of the law. The disobedience of our first
parents to the positive command of God intro-
duced sin, with all its dreadful consequences,
into our world.

The " sin not unto d^th," and ** the sin unto
death,** have been variously interpreted. " If
any man see his brother sin a sin which is not
unto death, he shall ask, and he shall give him
life for them that sin not unto death. There
is a sin unto death : I do not say that he shall
pray for it ** (1 John v. 16). As there are
offences under human governments which are
capital, involving the certain penalty of death
without the hope of pardon, so under the divine
government there are sins of such malignancy
and aamravation, evincing an impious and un-
alterable determination to reject the offered
mercy of God, that we have little, if any,
ground for the prayer of faith, or even for the
hope tiiat the offender may be forgiven. It
seems difficult to suppose a case, however, in
the existing state of (jrod*8 government, in which
the character of a sin can be so determined
by any human tribunal as to make him who
commits it no longer a subject of J^yer (John
iii 15 ; Acts xvii. 30 ; 2 Pet iu. 9). Some
have supposed that exclusive reference is had
to a distinction in the Jewish law between
offences capital and not capital : or to the civil
law of some particular place, oy which some
offences were punishable with death, without
the poesibiUbr of pardon. These were sins
imto death, for no entreaty availed to avert
the pumshment But there were other capital
cases in which the law authorized a commu-
tation of puni^iment if the drcumstances
justified it These were sins not unto death ;
for the powerful intercession of friends for the
offender might save him. But this view doea

605

SIN

not api>car to ub tonal tie. There are two fea-
turc.i tif this Hin wliich Htrikc ut». Firti, It ifl a
Hin aiiioii;4 priifiiwin!^ lielicvera, or fiin committed
by a '* hn»thor,**- -" If any man see his brother i
sin.*' Simntiln, It is a sm externally marked
and iH'rci*i>ti))i<' : a hiu by some means or other
easily recogniziMl,— If any man tee hid brother.
It iH ni»t a fin brin;rinp: death or judicial
imnishnu-nt fniHi the h4Ui.l of civil rulers, for
such criminals have need of j»rayen».^ Neither
can it me:ui anyordinar>'Hi>intual delinquency;
for prayer may be the liieans of {wnitenoe and
ref< »rmuti« »n. ' I^ thi-re any Kinner who may not
i)e lira veil fi>r. 1*0 l<>n;; as the breath in in his
IkmIV* " Tl»e iilirast-iJiitjy seems to refer entirely
to the early times of ('hxistianity. It isweU
known that di>easf and death followed »ime
species of sin.s conniiitted in tlie church. ** For
tills cause, many are weak and sickly amonj;
you, ami many slefii." The sin unto death is
a sin wliieh luw brought on disea.se that will
end in KiH-«Mly death. Somt'thimr would appear
alNMit till- ^in and judniiieut which would make
C'hri>tians at i»n«:e aware of it. Now, the
a]N)Ktle »»upi»«»scs tw»» c:ises:--A brother may
commit bin that i't followed by rapid and
alannin;; punishment in the Hha]>c (if disease;
but the Hin is reiM'Uti'd of, and in virtue of this
iH'iiitence, jimyi-r is nia<le, and ImmI grants
** life,'* « ir 1 ei'i i\'ery. < >r, a^'ain, a bn^ther may
ctmimit a sin of :i hiniilar nature, brin^n^^\itn
it some fearful UNlily intlidiou; but that sin
is gloried in, is not n.-pented of. In such a case
tom]M)ral death will certaiidy ensue, and it is
in vain to pray for n.'Cov«Ty «»r "life.** Tlie
crime is dohi". till' juil.i^nient eouies after it; but
tliere is no warrant to pray fi>r the renittval of
tliat iu«l;,Mii»iit, tin- eriuie not bi-iii;^ rejiented
of. jN'o ]ir;iyiT van arn->t the li:nid of iK-ath in
sueh a situation. TiTliaps this view rruiovt's
sevrnd douht*. anil is >upiMirtv;d l«y twt> con-
siderati«»n.-*. -A^ tvcry sin h-ads t^) death, this
sin s]M>c'ilit'd must be one t.';i,»ily known, one
about whirli littli* nii>tal:e can l>e nia<le ; for
tlie injnnili«'n to pniy. 4ir dr.-^ist fr»ni prayer,
is drtinite an<I iM-ruIiar. Au«l, a.rain,tlieau.^wer
to prayiT i> •!•■ iri) i-ii. not in the form of ]iardon,
but in tliat of "lifi-;' "and he nhall tdve life
fur tliem lliat >in n«it unto <U'ath." Tliere are
otln-r fnnns «if int<'r|»i«'tation; and of course, if
"life" imd 'Mt-ath"' br tahm spiritually, the
])rvvious ^tatenicnts fall to the ^riiuud. (2!>ee
01 ri:iiiN»j, ^ACKiFicr.)

Sin- // /"/ (li/ilv. xxx. l.*>. HI) [>> the Pilu-
fsiuni of the (ill t-Ux, :inil is ealleil '*thi* stivnj^'th
of Mu'vpt,'' lii-iau-i' of its position as a bidwurk.

Sin", iii:si:iiT oi; or wildi knf.ss of (Num.
xxxiii. 11 j. was intercd by the lhra«'litis ini-
niiiliately afti r tiny jiasst-il the Kt-d Sea
(KxihI. xvi. 1 1. It wiis hi-twecn Klim and
Sinai, a in I w:.-; tii-- phiee where manna w;is

BUpplJiMl. (Sr.' ZlN. )

SINAI a iiii'i.titaiii in the ]>rninsida of
Aral'ia JN-tiM-.i, frt-ni the sununittif whieh (j<k1
l»uliiiilji;d his I.iw to the Israi-lites, ]n onler
to »iniler.-»tand pr ipt-riy the nninerous references
in Serijiture to this iiiemorablcs]N)t, it is neces-
sary to obsc-rvc the relation between Sinai and

SIN

Horeb in the naage of the acred wiiten^ li
the book of Deutemnomy the plan vbm
Israel received the law is umf^Aulr called
Htireb ; but in the preceding parts of th« Pea-
tateuch it is, with three exoeptiou I'Exod. n.
1 ; xviL 6; zxxiiL 6), denommated 2^iIlll A
carvful examination of all the ftasaa^ in the
inspired volume where the name* (<cur. ksdi
UB to the conclusion that Horeb is «nt4i<T0d
to denote the jsronp of mountains of v&k
Sinai it a particular summit (see Excd. xil
18-23; xxiv. 16; xxxii. 15; Lev. viL 3:^: sit.
1 ; Num. L 1 ; iiL 14 : oomp. with Dent 1 54;
iv. 10-15; ix. 8; xzix. 1^ From thete pii'
sages it appears that before the chiUicn d
Israel reached the district, and after tky
left it, the name Horeb is em|ikfed to
denote the mount of God ; but dnnf tbdr
stay there the name Sinai is and is daliD-
iniuh the particular ■ommifc froB vliDk the

law was proclaimed, and wU^ hw mj d
emineuce, bears the anpeOatiaB, **tai ■dbK
of God,** on account ot what tookjdsMvka
the Ijord descended on it in fir& ftnmlwtt
the whole Scripture, Horeb never npanva
distinct mountain in contrast wHh Hui; tat
Siuu is always designated as a sfaigk noostaa
connected with Horeh, as a part lo the whole.
In the current phraseologr of the acnd
writers Horeb is spoken ot as a moootaii
district, the usual lonn of expresaon brins
'*\n Horeb," while Sinai is refemd to s< a
mountain summit, the terms ooomioolr cm-
ployed being "on *» or "tipoa SinaL" -Tin
Jjord our (vod,*' it is said, **s])ake to m («
Horeb ;** ** they matle a calf in Hrtreb" iI><A
i. 6 ; 1*8. cvL 19). The rock smitten hy Muaa
for water is called *' the rock in Honb" (F.x«L
xvii. r>), wliich, beings at the vaUcy of KepUiiim,
must have lain at a considerable distance frtt
Sinai. But on the other hand it is said. **thi
lionl come down xtjxfn moimt Sinai, om the top
of tiie mount]' (Exofl. xix. 18-20). These facts
furnish a decisive refutation of the theoiyof
home writers, who htdd tliat Horeb and innii
an' separate moimtains of the same "^ri^np. M
well as of the alle^^tii^n of otlier*. \iu<> maia*
tiiin that the names "Horeb," "mount HoreK"
" H»>reb the mount of Gf»«l," are '.wed ia
pn-'cinelv the same senile as "Sinai,** **nwnit
Sinai,""** Sinai the mount of K^yyA:' Ther
enable us also t4> test the stran-;e asserti*io d
l*n)fe.<sor 1 A'lwius. that ** the very circun:«ts&M
of the 7nou7tt of liiKJ, Hurob, bi*inir fnr^ioentlr
mentioned, jirevents us thiukin;; of a grcit
chain of mountains." It is un.iccuuntable thst
any onlinary reader of the Bilili*, ma to wy
rH'holar, should venture such a rash aifl ia*
defensible stutt-'ment. in the face of Fuch eX'
pres.si«ins as tliese, often occurriu-.; thri"«aj;lwT*t
Scrij»ture, "mount Lebanon,*' "m-innt Bs-
slum," " njount Gileail," ** mount Soir." whici,
though ])erhaps ajiplied ti> f>uu ]>articular vat-
mit so called, umpicstionably ilenote *'a greis
chain of mountains." And it \a x^orihfd
remark, that the same phrasetdo^ viiieb
naturally^ suggests a mountain ran-^* ti en-
ployed m speaking of these as in the cw

I expreidoikB,
in." "in fiil«

im Wofindthei ,

Km," "•» Buhan," "in GUead," "in
t Sai," all denoting > moniitain mstnct,
D M the ptuMM "in Horeb."
1 Siiuitic range of mountains— of which
) ii thiuieento betbe name of the group,
inai the name of the particular Bununit
in the centre of the peninsula of Arabia.

jiyrock, aodnin in lone* ranges inclining
I north- we»t, with rocky aanily valley*
CD them. Thej' spread over a Held of
40 miles in diameter, haTi
rity of aspect, yet foi

e a general

D the top of
ghat of them the eye takes in a view of
md mi^ificent grandeur —a wildBmesa
dcy heights, of savage sterihty. The
raUsTB and rugged ravines below are to
ti extent concealed, ho that the cluster
uml« moontains has the appearance of a
■ilii of gray rocks surmounted by lofty
^m. "rtiroaghoQtthBBa mountains vege-
U not wholly unknown. A few stunted
I and trees are occadonally found in the
I, when spiiDRB or rain mmily the
ita mtniture, and there are besicles soma
red spot* wlwre patches of Ljvety veidora

and fmitfulness may be seen in the midst of
prevailing solitude and death. But these ars
wholly unobasrvtid in the general view ; and
the eye wanders over a sea of mountains, dark,
rugged, naked, tnily a " great and terrible
wildemess."

In the centre of this wild and desolate region
stand conspicuous the lofty summits of Jebel
Catharine (mount Catherine) and Jebel MOsa
(mount Moses), the former 8,0G3 Paris feel
ami the Utter 7,035 Paris feet above the level
of the sea. These lofty and boary peaks are
the highest parts of different ridget runnioi;
in the direction of north-west, each of them
above 3 miles long. On the north shoulder of
Jebel Mflfia is situated the summit, which the
monks call Horeb. but which is named by the
Arabs Has ScfsAfeh.

ApjTroachin^' from the north-west, we grad-
ually emerge from a narrow valley between
rugged mountains, and find ourselves at the
head of the jilain Er-Edtiah, which the valu-
able Biblical researches of Dr. Kobinson have
invested with eo great historical interest.
Here a broad level s[iace of more than a mile
square lies before us, enclosed — eicept on the
east, where it runa into the large valley, Etk-
' monnbuDs of dark granite, uid ter*
the distance by the awful front of the

Ki-ea11«d ITnrph, rinns perpendicularlr to ths

height i>f aUmt l.fiOO fwt. Froni the nunmit
□r Rm ch HnfOfrh die wh'ile plun, Er-Rih>h,
liea Hprcad out Ixneath, wbilo the valley 'Kth-
Shi-ikh c.n the tBKt, and the reccm on than-ett,
txith oiicnin^ Uriwilly from Er-](iih>b, present
■u iin^a whit-li nerves nearly to double that of
the idain. Here, encloseil by lofty moOD-
tains, and comidetely shut out from the great
world, tA nxJni eanuyh for an encampi
where a large body of people might
dwell alone, and not lie revltoited hdmii

In determiniDK .. ._ ..

}>inai. the mount of (iud, it ae«la Karcely be
obaervuil that the Bible narr&tive ii onr only
certain dinwtory; and that whatever tbeory
or trailitii'D uccordi nut n-ith it, ~ ' '
unheHilatinHly rejected. Now, there
cially thtvo jwinti in tlie inipired hiatory
whieh nrve to guide inquiry and to l^t the
VBlidity of oU conclunione on thii mibject
Tlivro i>, firitj the enoampment by the Red Sea,
mcutiuned Num. ixiiiL 10, detemiining the
seaera] directifin taken by Irirael in their
Journeying through the wililcrni-u. Then ia,
tnoTut. the numl-er of encauiiinn-'nta (pedfied.
Num. ixiiil 11 13, after that at the Aei Sea,
till they rtmove to BephiJim aod pitch in tjie
wilderaeM of Sinai, "before the mount"
And there is, third, the fact that at the toot of
mmmt Sinai Uiere wu ou ojien anace large
el»UKh for a grncral encampment of the trrbm,
and hi thnr abiding in it nearly a rear (cnmii.
Kx-l lii. 1 .■-•, with Num. s. ri, h).

'llie liy|>il.li<-rix bos Iki'U ni^ntained by «rnne
writerx, that niiiutit Serbol ia the Sinai of
S>'rii>ture. Tlijn motmtain is sitiuted 3U milea
ni>rtli-weiitot Ji'liel MAan. iKtximiioH'd of live
p.'i>kis all of c<|Ual hvi|{lit, U^Bat^ut 0,ri79 feet
i> the k-vel of the Hea, and ia Uie Brnt
. >4ng Rimiinit reached un entering the
Jbtemi'M from Kgyi>t 'niii> view is advanced
by the nvU.knMU-n tnveller Burckhardt. who
re»t« bis ojiiniiin chiefly on the uround that
the voHt minilKT of inscrijitiuiui founil on the
nvkn in this ueiubbourhiKiil iirovea it to have
Kvn a fnHitivnt nirnrt of enrly iiilgrima, This
nrsiimrnt, hiiweviT, miul bi-IiiAilto be invalid
till at leoist we know certainly who

that tliiN WOK JSinaJ, BUpiHisiiig they posHcSHed
it. The opinion, however, hao been token up
and dt-fi-ndrd with great zi'al by ProCetuiir
lA-imiufi iif Iterlin. The leading argnmenta be
un,-«i oil ito behalf are, that SeiWl stands out
alone, in imimsiiig mnjestv, on object of
Krauik-ar. entitling it to the ajmiillotion, " The
niimnt of (imt;" that arounif it the country
alfonls almudnnt paiitnre for flocbs ; that in its
nilitaty rcccurs the Helvew lawgiver hod
la-ttor o|>pi>Ttuuity for Becli»W cunverw nith
Uml tlum in other localities for which this
nonour is claimed; and that the circumstuntial
oUiuiims In tliu Hcriptiire

iB'ii'V''

jMinttotliism.

above all othen, oa tbi

■ameuf thcgivinjitdtiielaw. After CBr«fiUly

woglmu' theae ar^nnaaOtj^tf i
n> wholly uir.li is e. nt b

addaced savot: !ji mure ef m^

than of sontd Jgmi

enter into tlu n if

But in selecto laa

Uw. God did nd

So f ar ai appeo- m,
pose to flx on 1 T a nl
where his peo( 1 c th

Inaa, might httr hun p;. . - _

wilL Aa to the sect ad uid iM na* I
advanced, it is e ngh I. rcmsrt ttit ™
from one who Lt ' ' "" "
plain Er-BfthoK
they must occft
can deny that
dent for the flo
found there wa V U ""^

than that near tt '^

portiim of the \ t "" ^

aettled ; and '*"'

neighbours. Tl ^

mort unfottant c t l J i»»

drivsnbTitmtbfeel !e anil fon*J o"""**
of the aund nimtive tha^aibtfrn^
porlina, are fUal to tin whuk lijW*"'
In orOcr to djtnim.b the dutann « >w
leying be is thus led to rrpri **
ment at H>r" the shhw»^
Sea, tbom,h it u "FW™]^
liinr removed bum Ehm ud '"'^z.
the Bed Sea" (Num. una. W «•
aame reason I ' "" — -"■

adopting the et
Sinai tit mmt c
at Kephidim i
■ 'a n-o r<led
narrated b
. ..werts Witt
that these e en

placea denoted

bus iw. •_
supposition, th oa red iusUtun '™5i
of the children f Israel dep«ni« ™"
*mp Bg H «™^
i then R'nuns "i
\, «XUL13-I5ll*f
rirehend. *o^

, miiWirfG»Ji>«"

b.ye in>»»Si2
n ntSiui.T5£
RuppeluJB^

[III It"!^
if thi. -B that thiiw,"?^

and nil miding smnnn ".^
ange t 1 e Blera UA * ""-
ipecnLi that the" » '^jL I

the btse f this mountaio,'"*' I
tribes of Israel c uld have r«mte1>*f 1
camiimt-nt. It u not MceuHT •• "^

llhiltlrjt^
baUkmW
. ovfll»ti*i»B-

circumatances

strain us to loot

nee other
Jcbel Cathenni
ory hns been def
But all the r leor

SIN

rly other obacore theories on this sab-
1 88 that of Lord Lindsay {Letters on
land)^ in favour of Jebel Monajah,
I as uieir hypotheses indicate httle
a love of novelty and paradox.

5 these, then, we come to consider the
ebelMiisa, whichhasbeen very gener-
rded as Sinai The reasons adduced in
3f this opinion are, that an almost mii-
ctition confirms it, and that the locality
<ith the circmnstances mentioned in
zed narrative. But surely little con-
n is needed to convince any inquiring
at the former of these reasons is
ar destitute of force. Tradition may
ne in determining Scripture localities
Bu be traced to a worthy source ; but
ight can be attached to it in this case,
nh the exception of Elijah, we have
Doe that any of the Israelites visited
lity during the whole period of their
mt history, and of course could know
certain regarding it ? Moreover, what
I be put m a legend which^ with the
thority that it places Sinai at Jebel
•laces oeside it the rocks smitten by
t Benhidim, and the spot where tiro
ened her mouth to swaUow Korah and
pany at Kadesh? If it be said, in
to this, that we may separate the
from the l^^ndary, and reject in the
I what is opposed to Scnpture, we
t is well to GO so ; but on the same
re may repudiate the authority of the
1 altogether, and test the claims of
mit to be the mount of God by Scrip-
le. In this way we come to the con-
submitted by Dr. Robinson, that
B not the slightest reason for suppos-

Moses had anything to do witn the
srbich now bears his name." There is
le no open space on which the Israel-
d have stood. It is 3 miles from the
-lUhah, where alone there is room for
le to have collected to hear the words
iw, and there its toj) is entirely con-
om the view l^ the intervening peak
) or Stifs&feh. Besides, if Jebel Miisa
lai^ and if the people were stationed
ilam Er-IUhah, what need was there
injunction? "Thou shalt set bounds
> people round about, saying. Take
'ourselves, that ye go not up into the
r touch the border of it," since in that

lofty peak of Stifsltfeh, with nearly
ctf <ustance, intervened between the
ad the summit from which Jehovah
I his law.

ing, then, all these hypotheses, we
)ra with the view of this question, so
ended by Dr. Robinson, that Kas-

is the Sinai of Scripture. "This
ys that distin^^ushed traveller and
tcholar, describmg the prospect as he

its remaricable summit, " rises some
above the basin, and the distance to
lit is more than a mile. The extreme

and even danger of the ascent was
2b

SIN

wen rewarded by the prospect that sow opened
before us. The whole plain Er-R&han lay
snread out beneath our feet, while Wady Erii-
Sneikh on the right and the recess on the left,
both connected with and opening broadly from
Er-Rfthah, presented an area which serves
nearly to double that of the 'plain. Our con-
viction was strengthened^ that here, or on some
one of the adjacent cliffs, was the six>t where
the Lord descended in fire and proclaimed the
law. Here lay^ the plain where the whole
congregation might be assembled, here was
the mount that might be approached and
touched if not forbidden, and here the moun-
tain brow where alone the lightnings and the
thick doud would be visible, and the thunders
and voice of the trump be heard when 'the
Lord came down in the sight of all the people
on mount Sinai'" {Biblical lUfearchetf L, p.
158). Mr. Sandie {Horeb and Jerusalem) holds
this view, but thinks also that Jebel Milsa
was the hill up which Moses ascended to speak
with Grod, and which was invisible to tiie
camp.

This place was most appropriate for the
purpose for which it was chosen of God.
Here he designed to set apart Israel to be a
peculiar people to himself; and he leads them
away from the crowd of the great world unto
the solitude of the " ffray-topped mountains,"
where a temple had been reared by his own
hand, sublimely adapted for proclaiming his
law. Here he intended to inspire the &bes
with reverence for himself, and with a convic-
tion of their danger as sinners ; and the voice
of thunder exceeding loud, with the sight of
Sinai wrapped in smoke and flame^ was sig-
nally fitted to strike the whole multitude wiw
trembling and awe. Thus Sinai became a scene
never to be forgotten in the history of IsraeL
To it Elijah, the restorer of the law, afterwards
fled when he sought an asylum from the fury
of Jezebel; and here he was encouraged by
Grod to persevere in his great work of reforma-
tion, (1 Ki. xix.) Simd is the subject of fr^
quent allusion by the prophets of the Lord in
their sublime descriptions of what is grand or
terrific in nature or providence (Judg. v. 5;
Ps. Ixviii. 8-17 ; Hab. iii. 3) ; ana by the in-
spired writers of the New Testament it is
viewed as the emblem of what is awful and
stem in law, in contrast with liie free and
attractive revelation of grace (GaL iv. 24, 25:
Heb. xii. 18-24).

SINCERITY (2 Cor. i. 12) stands opposed
to dissimulation or hypocrisy, and implies the
entire correspondence of the heart with the
expressions of the lips. The original Greek
word refers to the bright and pnenetrating li^ht
of the sun, and denotes such things as, on bemg
examined by the brightest light, are found
pure and unadulterated. The Einglish word
"sincere" is literally, vnthout kxxx— that is,
without any mixture.

^ SINIM (Isa. xlix. 12). Various interpreta-
tions have been given of this name, both in
ancient and modem timea The Tai^um and
Vulgate understand it of some land in the far

609

SIN
wnitb 1 thn Sviitoasiot anppote* it to be P<rd> ;
.lercime, Jaivni, utd Gmtiua, muled b; nmi-
Ikrity oFnouncI, retn' it to tha wildemen of Hin
and mount Sinu. Othen ivfor it to En^
M if th&t country wcrfl bo nvned ^ther nom
HinorSyrae. (Itnen, wiUi Libber ptobktalitf,
nndentuMl iSiiiim to be Cliiii*. Lwwcn,
I^glte, mkI mui^ other philologiiCo, without

~-' *- ',ha iiit*rpretation of Scripture,

. . thui, and no furtify tbs apmioni

.^ It Biblical critic*. Uliina uid Siii are

theumeiiunej uul through aU Wndein AMa,
fiuu time immemorial, the name Sin, Jin, or

Chin has been api'lied'- "■ - "^- " — '-—

Intt' -

■eodim.' coi ,

. ._ . ' east ; and the wobJb, " from

afar," will denote the extreme south ; for in tba
jibnise referring tu theaame region tba qoecn
of Sheba ii laid to have comu from "theutter-
moat partJi [>f the cartb " (Matt xii. 42).

SIN MONEY ('.' Ki. lil ICj-money sent
by a pereuD at a uigtince, with which to buy
the re<[uirEd oflerioga ; and as there waa nmally
ime BUrplui, it waa the |)erqui*ita of the
ieat, and was called sin money, or ain offering

Lt(N"5

v,Vl-

SIN OFFEHING3. (See Saceimcb.)

SIGN. (See Heruo!!, ZiuN.)

SIRAH, viELL OF G Sam. iiL 2G)— the pUea
where Aimer waa killed liy Joah. About a
niile out of Hebron there ia a ipring called

SIKIDN. (See HRltMOM.)

SKIK». (See Clothi^j>. '
SLAVE. (SeeSEHV.vNT.)
8LIMK. (KeerncH.)
BLINO. (SeaAltui.)

SMYKNAdtev.iLH.lO.acelebratedloni
ritv. and one of the linuiit of the Levant, ..
il abii^it 50 miles nnrth of Eiihcaaa, and

n the we

^~«afc.*»:

cwut'if Axia Minor. It vim ntoWeA by the
HticimtH a* the rmwn of Innia, the jewel of
Ahiii, overfliiwinB with wealth, and beautiful
in worka i>f art. It haH bLMfn overtbrown at
toart ail timed by earthquakes, lost 60,000
inhabitant by the ptasue in 1«14, and wm
Mrerely seourmd by the cholera ia I83L It
610

b now called I7 Uw TMilMir, ml It diri
4 tnilee in oiicnmlcaciMi Hi tAak
cspaciDDL and affaTdi ths fiMt >Aovll
■hin ot the laigert das.

The ohnreh in thk place k » of ti »■
addrcMcd in the Apoolyiw ; lud io Ik4^
of the pteaent day to ensf ctin llii v^
SmymA ii one of the meat luii^jnutaiM
of action.

SNAIL (Lev. iL 30)-a >i>«ia 0! en
In thepaMBge above ated lb nri^ Ml
it thoDght to denote sonH tpda if Ma
And in Fl. IviiL & the cnlipIicdialBh
whidi H occPW, Jjeieiee nBTbthdtili

rrferaMenBvkledtil
: ^0%, wkiji il i/ai i

8Nt5W (2 Sam. iiiiL affl-
in the air, and often UUio. '.'^

fiakea reeenibting woo! (Pi. unit '^^"'
alluDom to anew in the ^.ta^ i^C
especially to its whiteneH, s^ [iMOBil (™
iv. 6: Nnm.ni.10; ! Ki. t. LT ; h h. ( ; ■
i. 18). The oomparian in Pw'. »■;"'
amnewlwt diBiimiti the tok tat»g
to the me of BOW hnogfatfruD tb nnj*
tooMl the driBkcCtheTSHnaatuMI

hanert, ai we nn ioe. Sw

~ ' detctgent than

andiuu^i^

SO (S KL xriL 4)-«i EtliioriaB*^
mppowd to be the same <itli *^^.
Sabioon of profane hiatoiy, rae i to «5fl*
the twentj;-efth dynaaty. He ii JW «l
of I^jTt in til* above pnage, ™j"i
inTadnl Egypt, and reined lor 1 wo ol*
over that country, duiunj Tbici M" "1*
ceii-ed the propnaition (rf 5n lEuw^
Hoahea, k ng of laiael whLb iiwiw *£
maneeer, kmg of AMyru^ to ii
country.

SOAP (8ee^^^Rt)

SOCOH (See Shochob.

SUD0M(ren.im.l3).nd
two of the cities of tho plain
raculoQsly deatn yed becauiu
almost um enud oimipti D
The miracle that o rthww

nrth. TV'f*

vitlsion, a d could no 1

suppose, between tb

and that of M <ses.

the dimmed at ea to

others, as Tnstram t

of their subm rRence

for he h Ids that th

toisTi of Sod m) I:

Clement, and Jnxtm

in the sixth century

ashes, but say noUung o ss , ,^

French traveller De Stanley unxa*"^

he had ducoTend the nun cf SoiM *

*80D

; but the discovery was a mere delu-
B Salt SeaJ

viKS OF (Deut xzxiL 32). This
dsthe so-called "apples of Sodom."
) supposed it to be a species of solanmn ;
th Wher probability, judge it to be
called *asher or 'osher oy the Arabs.
s about 4 feet high, and yields a fruit
:orm and yellowisn in colour, some-
an orange in size and shape, which
asters of three and four together. The
Ften 8 inches in diameter. It is fair
>us to the eye, and soft to the toudi ;
sing pressed or struck^ it explodes
ff, like a bladder or pun-ball, leavinsr
od only the shreds of the thin rina
r fibres. It is, indeed, filled chiefly
like a bladder, which gives it the
n ; while in the centre a small slender
hrough it from the stem, and is con-
thin filaments with the rind. The
ins a small quantity of fine silk with
asely like the pod of the silk-weed,
rymuch smaller. This corresponds
account of Josephus. He sajb.
>f the fire which reduced the doomed
ihes, "There are still to be seenadbes
i in the fruits; which indeed re-
its fit to be eat^, in colour, but on
ked with the hands, are dissolved into
lashes.**

ire employed by Moses describes the
nmurity. and worthlessness of the
' tfehovan ; and if he makes allusion
it, he may also refer to their specious
and outward semblances of piet^,
merely deceptive, and issue in dis-
tnt and misery — without, fair; but
11 of nauseous and revolting seeds.
OTES (Deut. xxiii 17)— not dwellers
but practisers of tmnatural lust— the
lom. This sin was consecrated in
tern kingdoms.
ERS. ^eARUiES.)
[ON. The word means * * peaceful. **
ras the tenth son of Davia, and was
Kthsheba, who had been the wife of
0. 1033 (1 Chr. iii. 6; xxii 9, 10). In
! about his birth there were set forth
tmoet clearness the peaceful disposi-
iomon. his tranquil reign, his biulding
iple, nis acceptance with God, and
ened duration of his kingdom. And
he aspect in which he was regarded
ih himself, soon after his biith the
athan was sent to name him Jedidiah
*bebved of the Lord'* (2Sam. xii 26).
Idhood and youth of Bathsheba^s son
is preserved in the sacred writings.
deep affection which David cherished
is intended successor, and from the
arges idiich he laid upon him when
resip^n the kingdom mto his hand
which presuppose a large amount
cular and rehgious training— it may
oferred that in his early years Solo-
een well instructed in all toe leaminff
nt in Israel, and that his mind had

SOL

been extensively informed and deeply imbued
with ttie "wisdom that is from above.**

When David had become " old and full of
days,** an attempt was made by Adonijah, his
eldest surviving son, to raise himself to the
throne. In this project he had the countenance
and assistance oi Joab, the commander of the
forces, and Abiathar, Uie head of the church,
whose influence must have been great in Israel,
from the high position they had occupied for
many years. «foab and Abiathar may have
felt that they were living in a transition period,
and that a new order of things was growing
up, under which they might be superseded in
iimuence and prerogative. Adonijiui suspected
the son of Bathsheba ; and when he invited his
other brothers to his coronation he sent no
invitation to Solomon : probably he knew of
his father's intention, and of the divine will
which originated and sanctioned it. Nathan
the prophet, perceiving the evils which this
movement would produce, at once counselled
Bathsheba to go to her husband, and remind
him of his oath that Solomon snould be the
heir of his throne. The queen went to David,
and in compliance with her entreaties he forth-
with took measures to check the designs and
thwart the usurpation of Adonijah ; and. to

Erevent the recurrence of anywing similar,
e at once commissioned Benaiah, a distin-
guished captain, Zadok the priest, and Nathan
the prophet, to bring Solomon down to the
pool Gihon, anoint him with oil, and proclaim
him to the people as their future monarch.
It was done as he commanded ; and " all the
people said, God save king Solomon.** The
joyous acclamations with which the city re-
sounded soon reached the ears of Adonijah and
his party, who at once dispersed in panic, made
confessions of penitence, and acknowledged
allegiance to the young regent. At a later
period Adonijah confessed that the kingdom
was his "brother*s from the Lord.**

David now felt that the time of his depar-
ture was at hand, and having called Solomon,
chaiged him most pointedly to maintain in-
tegrity and uprightness of character, both in
his person and his administration; gave him
ample instructions concerning the temple he
should erect to Jehovah, ordered him to take
vengeance upon Joab for the murder of Abner
and Amasa. and upon Shimei for the grievous
curses he had heaped upon the king^s own
head. Soon after the aged monarch "slept
with his fathers,** and Solomon became sole
king of all Israel In compliance with his
father's request, and to secure the peace of his
reign, the new sovereign took the earlirat
opportunity of ridding the kingdom of his more
powerful enemies. Adonijah — who covered
some treasonable purpose under a request for
Abishag, the last entrant into David*s harem —
and Joab, and Shimei, were slain, and Abiathar
the priest was degraded from office, and
banisned to Anathoth, a city of refuge in the
tribe of Benjamin. Freed now from every one
within ^e realm who was likely to disturb its
peace, and at the same time secure against all

611

SOL

attaclu of outward foes, "the Icinsdom
CritaViUshctl in the hand of Siilomon.'

Fnim tho very outset Solomon seema to
have been di*ei>I^ versed in that nolitical skill
by whii'h kinpt imatnne the}' can Dest promoU*
the entU of Liivvrnment. In accordance with
an £:bstom fashion of cementing friendnhip. he
married l'haraoh*8 daughter, and brought her
to the cit)* of Da\*id— an event which was a
%iolation of law, but yet was celebrated with
siimi>tuouR magnificence. (1 Ki iii 1 ; Ps. xIf. ;
Cant.) Solomon also deemed it necessanr to
pander to the wicked prai^ices of some of his
own subjects, who up till this time bad not
been ontirvly weaned from idolatnr, but still
** sacritieed m hivrh places ;*' and althou^ he
** loved the I^nl/* and ol>ser\*ed the statutes
of hi.-4 father l>aviil. yet he also offered victims
and burnt incenM.' on these forbidden spots (1
Ki. iii. 2, 3). For some time before the
erectii>n of the temple, the great shrine of
natiimal di*\i>tii>n was at Gibeon, where were
tLe Dri^nnal taltemacle and the brazen altar
which MttAes had preparetl in the vtilder-
u^s. Thither the king went on one of the
Kilemn convocations, and there offered a thou-
ponil burnt offerings ui>on that altar. God
a}■|»ea^.^i to him, and offered to give him
wliat>^H?'vt'r he i«hould a»k. The young mon-
nrvii. with ln-oitming expre<isions of humility
and dt'fi-nili>nci% U^g^'ed **an understanding
heart,'* ti» tit him for the high duties of
nilin:? thi> multitudes of I^raeL '* The speech
iiloas<.'d the Ijt'nl:** wi.-uloni wao given to
liiin; and to it wa.4 suporaddiMl a pn>niise of
rii'lu's and honours c«»nsi.leral>ly i;n-ater than
j.ll tho iH-w<t-«ii,>iL«* of funijor or BUocee<ling
l.:n_':». S'li-m.-n rt'tunird thtnoe to Jeni-
> all in, an.l in the ]»rv>t»noe i»f the ark of the
riivenant titft-n-il /^ai-ri tick's of thank-^ijiving to
till* I..i»n!. TIio fvt-nt was also celebrated by
;\ fea^t to all his ^ervaiitf*. Fully establishoil
• '11 his tlin iiio, and fully iiualifio^l for his imen>ni4
»lntii*s, i|jt' Mioco.s.sor of David now entered
11' 'on his career as the nih-r of the chosen
tril»ejJL

'lin' annals of this n'i::n, h.s jdven in 1 Ei.
iii.-xi ami l! Chr. i.-ix.. with a tVts- jtrominent
txtvptii-n-?, are altivether i»f a fracrmentary
rhariii.'tfr; and the object"* of this article may
Ik* aoooinpli-^hotl, and all that is important
in til:' nan'-ati\e enibraeeil by viewing Solomon
in the following asiKH.'tvs:- 1. His wis<lom; 2.
His riches; l^ HLh rei^ni ; and 4. His char-
.ii'ter.

1. 7'A'" ir»>/' iiH o/N>»'*<)«j«wi.— The great source
of this h:vs bivn alreailv roentiomil; and, as
luiirht K' cxiK'ctttl in the circumstances, his
mind wa<* fumUhetl utith the great elements
fr.'ni which true wis^lom ^!prinJO'— viz., a sound
juilu'ment. shrewd discrimination, a capacious
nienior>-, iniinenso st^'res of knowledge, and
exquisite skill in its application. The decision
given in the case of the two mi>thers who were
disiiutin? in his presence concerning a dead
and a livini; child (1 KL iii. ]i>-28) shows a
clear and just estimate of the feelings of tho
human heart ; and the sound principles on
01:2

SOL '

whidi he administeTCd HBtinvfRSiDIM
to excite respect and fesr iat m^M
judge so wisely. And thu ww cslyft ipi
men of his acts of judgment h tMe tw
the functions of the ju^ {oniMdiMit»
portaat section of royaf dotiei; ad kM^
soon after, we find that Sobmioi tnM%
" porch for the throne," where h m^
sit and decide the numerroi litigitioii sU
arose amonff his peopla The qnoti^ i
knowledge be had amaaed MemitoMi
been prodigious. The ma^of tteSiAal
the ssges of Egsrpt wcae unnuMn^rfr
tanced. " He was wiser thsa sll mcs.^ A
proverbial or enigmatical aayinss m*|il
to 3,000, and his poetic effoaourabra
tOOSi His studies were Tsried. ^Heidb
of trees, from the cedar tree tbt ii ii u^
anon even unto the hysiop thit niippl
out of the wall: be spake sboofboi^
and of fowl, and of creemng tlma m
of fishes" — pursuits probarar ctniMfiit
the garden of Etham, to wldd h» <Aa^
according to Josephus, in grest atat^ m
magnificent horses, liveries, and gaiift »
dark curled hair of the Utter povdoil*
sparkling with gokl dust To ucfeiMH
and writings are to be added the boob rfw

tides, Proverbs, and EccleeiMtei, ai om^
tions which he produced when ate W
influence of the inspuring Spirit Tk fa»«
such wisdom could notbe ooiifi]iedi^Btt|
narrow confines of Jadea. In all nnvMK
nations, and far off on the coasts of AnU^
wondrous tidings were made koovB. Mj
doubted, and came to hear snd testtbeirtiv
(1 KL iv. M). From Sheha "the qw« ■
the 84nith," who had heaid of SobnwBi^J
attended vinth all the ensigns of xwpl ""^
fici-nce, for the express purpose of PJJJJ
him with '*hard questions.*' T^,jf:
q uestions " oonasted in delights, gneMWi™*
witty and ingenious conceita ^'''•™J,?I
too hard for the king of laraeL He toMJf
all that she inquired ; and, notwititftiMj*'
former incredulity, compelled btf to f**
•* One-half of the greatness of thy »iw»«
not t.jld me " (2 Chr. ix. 0). ^^

2. The nickrs of SofomoiL—Thaw^y^^
ever\'thing was favourable for an W^JL*
wealth. •Mu(h»h and Israel dwdt rf*
War was unknown. The tribute of *??
quered neighbours, the fruits ofn>titeP°''|y
both agricultural and nastoral *m ^ jB
of extensive commerce, must haw cwUJ"^
largely to enrich the exchequer ''MjJJI
From the last of these sources thepwg'^
enormous. On account of his **°p*'f,*E
the monaroh would in all priihabifi^^Z
chief merchant; and hence all gain ^ J[
quarter would be especially nnd* •*5
sonal control Meronandise wsi c*''2
with Tyre, with Arabia, with E«yi*» fj,
probably with Babylon, and, it msT *} 5
\(ith India. He had a fleet in vn^j^
Ocean which, as tiie f ru't of one voy■g^'»*2
him 420 talents of sohl; and •notberiM'
Mediterranean, traduig to Tarshiih, »^^

•. SOL

■m IDFt*l& H« tud «tn entreptiU At
ud Ba>I-ba<^^jrilh other store dtiea
ad tnffio. " Tbe7 that dwall in the
■ ihall bow before him ; aod bia
iball lick the duit. The Idngg of
and of the ialee ituU bring jweaents :
of Sheba and Seba sbaU offer gifts"
),I0). From Utoe different plMn
-■ — — 't flt gi^ and silver.

miut hare been eitremely Urge. Hie stjie of
living for nuny Tfan wu laiurioiis id the
highest decree : 700 wives and 300 conmbinee,
wiUi all their appendagei of emincbB and other
fttteDdnnti, in addition to those who nnuUy
wMted upon the rovftl person, would oo — ^■■---
a household for which the '
daily provision referred to,
would be to some extent .

sacrifices of oxen and sheep which the king
offered to Jehovah on vanons public occa-
KOM (1 Kiiii4; viii 63, *o.I were inch
as could onl; have been presented by a
' boundless wealth ; nottomenuon
'ipended in building high

vhich pre-eminently display the
DT the royal exchequer ai

KerpOn Ship of

e sge of Solomon.

and almag. or other predoos wood,
D, horsee uid chariots, besides spicee
r articles of value,
sr most prolific source of wealtji to

was the fame for wisdom which he
ured amoog all nations. Vinitois came
guarters to do honour to the wisest of
n brought bia pi

ashon

a not improbable ttii

marriage alliances which Solomon
xintributed not a htUe to increane hia

riches. There is no reason to suppose
■ TOO princewes (1 Ki. li. sl who be-
I wires left their portions behind them
□see oE their fathers ; and these dowries,
d together, must have constituted a

fortune. Could we place implicit
upon the numbers used to tell the mm
le wealth of Solomon, as we now find

would be easy to give an approximate

of those vast treaBorea in accordance
■lem money tables. But this is not
Y to convince any mind who glancee

Bourcai of income above mentioned
>ther Jewish king, and, it may be, no
uxy landt ever posBessed such stores of
riches. Indeed, the sacred penman

prefer the indefimte mode of eipress-
Igantic sum, — "The king made silver

at Jerusalem as plenteous as stones."
LO eipenditurv of Bolomon is also fitted

the vaiions buildings which Solomon erected
during bis reign. By far the moat splendid
of tbMe was the temple of Jehovah, which
he reared on mount Moriab. (See Templk. )
Beaides this magnificent stmctore, he built
also a palace for himself, capacious and
elegant, the house of the forest of Lebanon,
a porch of pillars, the porch of judgment,
and a palace for Pharaoh's daughter, beyond
the bounds of the rity of David. Several
other erections of an inferior kind vere
completed during this reign (I Ki. ix. 11-19;
2 Chr. viii. 1-6). The materials of which the
temple and palaces were composed were of the
most precious description; the distance from
which many of them was broi^bt was im-
mense ; the number of men employed is at first
sight almost incredible ; and the riches which
could meet and dtfray all the expenses of the
□ndertakinga must have been superabundant.

3. The Reign of Solomon.— Hia tathnrity ex-
tended over all Israel and all Jodah : from
Dan on the north to Beersheba on the south,
and from "the river of Egypt" oa the west to
the banki of the Euphrates. This extensive
territory he divided iuto twelve departments —
not corresponding to the twelve tribes— and
placed overeoch of these a governor, who, in his
turn, was bound to supply the royal family
with provisions for one month, (1 Ki, iv,) The

"-ich reiEned throughout all hia borders,

Dparalieled prosjierity which prevailed
mniugnout the entire nation, had rendered
Solomon and his kingdom the most famous of
all the monarchs and empires of the world. In
addition to great wisdom, God had promised
him abundance of riches and honour ; and aa-
Buredty "not one thing had failed ik all the
good things which the Lord bis God spake
concerning him." During the earher parts of
his reign Solomon ruled well, in the fear ot
the Lord, and did justly towards all hia sub-
jects. He Temembered that a greater than
he was the rightful King of Israel, and cdd-
ducted himself with becoming luhordination to
theocratic principles. But before the close of
his reign Solomon had erred ^regiously. For-
getting the King of heaven, he asanmed iUtba
613

jiJtheui

SOL

nira. and Rtoopcd to commit the anworthy
(Ii.-imIk, of a il(?spot. He had forsaken, or at
loaMt diif^rncf«l, t)ie relij^on of his fathen ; he
hskA extalilisliiil tho .'il)oiiiinatiomi of the heaUien
in (iiMrH own city; hv hail u^ven himself np to
tht; injiMtice t)f tyranny, laainjir hin jieoide v^dth
a lu'avy yitko, and cliastirtin^ tlu^ir complxunts
with a' heavy la?«ii. Tlie |HM)iile were gn»nnd
down with heavy exoctinn ana fitrccd levic8 of
laltour. AtTeetion fur Buch a prince was impos-
Hihle. Tlic minds »»f tlie i)e<ii«le were alit;nated
from the hnUKe of David, and the *e*id» of that
reliellion were sown which afterwanls le<l to
the diMmeni1>emient of tlie kin^Iom. At the
head of thifl dislityalty wa« Jeroboam, futn of
Neliat; and without the kintcdom, Ha<iad the
Kdoniiti'.nnd Kezi tu of 1 >amaKcu8, came forward
HM the a4lvtTsurieri t»f Solomon. All thcrto enls
were from tlie I^oni. He was niodt offended
liv tht? nn;.'Tatef\d iniiiiety of one whom he had
l)lo!u<ed with Hit(*h anundance, and therefore
he was an^nry with him and ]>uniHihed him, (1
Ki. xi.) Such wen'Hinie of the };hx>my spots
which HuUied tlieM'ttin^^doriesof this peaceful
and jirosiHToiis n>i^n. For ])a\i(r8 sake
Solomon was peniiitted t) keep the whole
kin;;di>iii till his death ; hut every hope which
he iiii-^dit ini1nl«;e for the future was blasted by
.Tehov all's stem denunciation:—*'! will surely
rend the kin^'dom fnmi thee, and give it tt> thy
8er\ant."' Siil»iiiii»n's rt%Mi is never referred to
in the snl^erpient books of the Old Testament.
4. Thv t'htiraiitr of Salomon. — In carlv life
Solomon wasdistin^ruislied for much excellence.
'* He lovi-1 the i.i.nl. :ind walked in all the
statut«'s of 1 >;i\ id his f;ilher." Uut bin sera.,'lio

JHTViTti'tl liiM soul, and 1«-«1 to dee«lswiuch o»»ver
lis nn'iiii»ry wiih evt-rla^itiny: ilis-/nwe. Milcom,
Asbti'retb, and ( 'heumsli, the iilol.s nf his wives,
tnuiul fau'M J in 'I -an -1 1 by S>l<»uion, who hatl
erettt'd dihiivairM t'iii|»le. Tlie extent <»f his
empire led ti» much laxness. S») many straniri.'rs
nu business eouM not all l>econie pmsflytes,
but tht'y were tolrrated. The Mosaic law,
liiiwevcr. did nut e<intcni]ilate ^ul ^^-eat a kinu^-
di»m; but it t'»U'rati"«l no false worship, with
hucli an aLvbaueratiou of ditferi'Ut races. It
was meant f«»r a unii|U«» iK'«»ple- n«>t adapte<l to
u lu'terii;j:eiie< lUs empire. Still, the '* root of the
matter" was in him, :in<l ere he ha<l ^nelde*! t*.>
the title of unholy iiitluences which ht^ broui^ht
to bear uiMin himsrlf, it cannot be denied that,
with a few slij^'ht ex<M'|itii'iis which a jinident
fHiliey iiiiu'lit to snuie exti-nt renuire. Solo-
iiM»u's reli^rious eharacter and attainments were
of a very hi;,'h onler. A more lofty ex]»n.'ssi«in
• >f the noble»«t sentinii-nts of reli^'ion is not to
be fi»und than that ffiven at the ilodication of
the t<>mplc (I Ki. viii.); an<I if we t.'ikt; the
Inidk of Kcclesijist4!s as exjiressin^' the feelinffs
of his soul, after the Jjonl had shown him the
iniijuity of his sin, then then; can l»o no doubt
tiiat bin ]>enitence w:ls dce]> and ^'enuin(\ and
that, after all, Solnmon woidd find acceptance,
thmuiih tin; ap]H)inted medium, by Him "who
knows i»ur frame, tmd rememWrs that we are
du-t."

Solomon, pohls of (EccL ii. C). These pools
614

SOL

are on the road to Hebron, abont 3 milB vfd^
west of Bethlehem, in a narmw «l<ipiBg vaJkr.
They are three in number, plact:^! >Ae abovt
another in the valley. They are imm^iL^
lar^ cistemR, built *k etone and mi-rUr. lod
plasteivd iA*ithin. The len^ of the upKzanik
18 100 yatxls. the second u e;ftimatni at M
vanis in length, and the third is still longa:
The width of the three ui nearly the udk. lod
is perhaps somewhat less than 100 yaids. Hicy
may be ^M feet in depUi. At the dL>tu»e 4
30 or 40 rods from the upper pool are the ri1»-
terranean tiprings, sometimes called the Said
Fountains, from which the pooU are suppacd
Descending thronjfh a small hole, like thi
mouth of a welL to the depth of 10 (c 13 feet,
you find yourself in an excavated, vaulted rodB,
or rather two rooms connected by a du«,rt
one side of which the water flows out of tb
rock in a copious and pure stream, and denendi
by an undei^^und conduit to the poola. Tetk
the Dools it is omveyed by an aqueduct amai,
on the sides of the hills, to Jemsalem. Tb
tradition is, that these pools were Imilt faf
Solomon, which is perhaps not in^xobdbk
They certainly are ancient. It is toBevfal
remarkable that no history extant infoiiDi «
of their orimn, or makes any eviiknt Buatki
of them. If we consider them the iroik of tk
Jewish monarch, and that this valley wuodk
adorned with gardens, gn>vea, and psUonit ^
must have been a delightful retreat A dwct
distance below the piwls, in the vaDey. thov
are still some beautiful gardens wateru hvca
the a<iueiluct.
Solomon, proverbs of. (See Pboveebsl)
Solomons torch. (See TzMrLt)
Solomon's servants, childrilv or (Em 5.
50 ; Neh. \-ii. 57). ITiey seem to have been
descendants of the Canaanites, rc>1uoed to
servitude by Solomon, and to have funned a
caste by themselves. They appear in th-? li!**
of returned exiles along in'ith the Nethinim^

(SeeXKTHINIMf*.)

Solomon, Sono op. Tliis is the twenty-
secimd in tlie onler of thu bouks of ths ^^
Testament. The ancient Jeu-^ i^ithout cicej»
tion, re>^rded it as a sacretl i»ook ; Joseptbu
imk*rts it in his catalo^ie of sacred Ixiolu ; a^d
it is cit4*d as of liivine authoritv from tb#
earliest period of the Christian diuich. lu
canonical authority is thus ^ilaced beyi>nil dif
pute. Ar it formed a ix>rtiun of the Old T»ti-
incnt in (.Mirlst's time, it enjoys the same Mil
ami sanction as did the entire Hebrew uncks
'Hiat it is in the highest degree figuiative m:i^
be allowed ; but whether it is to be reg»rirtl»»
a ]xH'm, or a series of jioems, or as a nQptial
dialogue, or as a drama, is not detennin*^
( >no opinion is, that the IxH^k c<>nsiiit8 of tnrlre
di.stinct i)oems or idyls, such as aiv commci
amtmg Arabian ]>oets, and that it sfaoul-i be
divided thus, as it has been by Dr. Mi^^
Good, —

Myll Chap.L 1-i

a i. }>-ii.:.

3 ii .<t-ir.

4 lii. 1-i

SOL

Idyls Cluip.UL 6-1T.7.

6 It. 8— ▼. L

7 ▼. »— vLlO.

8 ▼1.11—18.

9 TlL 1—8.

10 TlL 10— vHJL 4.

11 TiiL fr-7.

13 Till. 8—14.

OOmt writers divide the book into days.
Boanet, for example, divides it thus, —

Dftyl Chap. L — iL6b

a U. 7—17.

S ilL — V. 1.

4 V. 2-VL9.

$ tLIO-vU. 11.

6 viLW— viiLa

7 Tiii. 4-14.

A lacge por^on of the book is an impassioned
diMSOone between the bridegroom and bride.
Hie scene of intOTconrse is frequently changed.
Hie bride is first introduced in a soliloquy ; tnen
dw and her spouse have a loving colloquy.
Ovefoome by her emotions, she falls asleep, and
«d0ys in a dream or trance a vision of her
buored. The daughters of Jerusalem are now
intvodnoed. They behold a procession ap-
praMslunff the city— Solomon borne on a palan-
onm wita sixty cnieftains surrounding it ; and
tte faride and bridegroom converse again. The
^noae falls then into dejection ; the bridegroom
is ftbeent from her; and she describes to the
dsQi^texBof Jerusalem her adventures in search
fli hnn. The next scene opens in a garden.
Tbe bridegroom meets with the object of his
affections somewhat unexjiectedly, and ex-
prcasoB his ardent joy and admiration. The
DKotherB of the bride are introduced, in con-
sultation about their sister. Thev taunt her
with heryouth, but she replies with indignant
tone. The lovers seem at length resolved on
cuttsuuuuating their union, and he exclaims, as
if danger of interruption were apprehended —

**F1t, O my beloved, like the gazelle,
JJmb tbe Bwlft fawn on the monntainB of spices."

Some of the descriptions of pastoral scenery are
cl unrivalled beauty, and the language breathes
thioDghout the ardour and vehemence of a deep
attachment. The book is fragrant with Orien-
tal perfume, breathed by spicy gales, and
gathered from odorous gardens.

The occasion of the Song has been often
■opposed to be Solomon^s marriage with an
"BgyplaBD. princess ; and it has been conjectured
that the paintings on the monuments afford a
■pedes oi verification. Shishak is said to have
had two daughters, one married subsequently
to Jeroboam, the head of the ten revolted tribes.
the other to Solomon. Solomon, as allowed
by the Jewish law, had another wife, an Am-
monite princess, who was the mother of
Beboboam, and who, of course, had the pre-
eminence over the Egyptian wife, as the royal
sooroeof the favoured race destined to terminate
in the Messiah. It may be safely inferred that
unfavourable dispositions towards Solomon
were created at the £g3rptian court by this
circumstance. The Egyptian princess in Solo-
mon*8 Song^ who throughout employs Egyptian

SOL

illustrations, and compares the princely address
of her lover to the harmonious actions of the
horses in her father Pharaoh's chariot (and
they were indeed unmatched in beauty, as the
monuments show), sjieaks of herself as being
dark, as all the Egyptian women were, but
hanosome. She says that "the Sun (Phra or
Pharaoh) has looked upon her," and refers
mysteriously to some anger of her " mother's
sons" either at her love or her marriage. But,
if the princess was compelled, as it is clear she
would be^ to play a subordinate part to the
Ammonitish oueen in Solomon's harem^ with
na chance of the E^^rptian line succeedmg to
the throne, the polindans of Shishak's coiurt
would have had good reason to be dissatisfied,
considering the ^ magnificent dowry he haa
bestowed upon his daughter in marriage — the
ke^fr fortress of Migdol, and the sea^rt of
Ezion-geber on the Red SetL communicating
with the wealth of India. Hence a verv clear
insight is given us into the motives why Shishak
and his sons, the "angry brothers'' of Solo-
mon's wife, should encourage the rebellion of
Jeroboam a^inst Solomon*s son, Kehoboam ;
and why Shishak should give him the second
daughter as his wife, as he had already given
his sister to Hadad, another rebel against Solo-
mon. This circumstance explains tne motives
which prompted Shishak to ' come up " against
Jerusalem, and render Rehoboam his tributary.
Others, however, such as Dr. Good, maintain
that the bride must have been an Israelite. He
argues that Solomon's marrii^e i^dth Pharaoh's
daughter was a matter of pobcy, more than of
affection^ and that many passages in the poem
can admit of no reference to a foreign briae.

The puri>ose of the book has also been differ-
ently understood. The Chaldee version makes
it a portion of Jewish history, Luther under-
stooa it to be a florid description of Solomon's
government. Many of the modem Grermans
deny that Solomon was its author, and r^ord
it merely as an Oriental amatory poem, on a
level with Orid or Tibullus. Aben Ezra long
ago said, "Profanation! profanation! to set
down the Canticles among amatory comx)osi-
tions! but everything is said in the way of
allegory." Others suppose it to celebrate
virtuous love, and to exalt the dignity and
firmness of tne female sex. Ginsburg gives
the f ollowingsummary of the various opinions : —
" This book is made to describe the most con-
tradictory things. It contains the wander-
ings of the Jews, how tbey will ultimately
'fill their stomachs with the flesh of the
Leviathan and the best of ^'ines preserved
in grapes,' and is the sanctum sanctorum of all
Christian mysteries. It is denounced as a
love song, and extolled as declaring the
incarnation of Christ; it speaks of the meri-
dian church in Africa^ and of the betrayal of
the Saviour ; it contains^ a treatise upon the
doctrine of free grace a^nst Pelagianism, and
an Aristotelian disquisition upon tne functions
of the active and passive mind; it is an
apocal^tic vision, a duplicate of the Revela-
tions ox St John, and records the scholastic

615

SOL

mynticisms of the miildle ages; it denounces
Arianiiim, and deacriljes the glories of the
Vix>nii Mary : it * treats of man's reconciliatiiHi
unto God and i)eace by Jesuit ChrisL with joy
in the Holy Ghost,' and teaches lewdness, and
corrupts the morale ; it records the conversation
of Solomon and Wisdom, and describes the
tomb of Christ in Eu:>'|)tian hieroglj'phics ; it
celfbrates the nu])tial8 of Solomon, and gives
US a oompeudiimi of ecclesiastical histoiy to
the second advent of Christ; it reconls the
restoration of a Jewish constitution by Zerub-
babel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and the mysteries
(tf marriage; it advocat<M monc^ramy and
encourages i>(>lygamy ; it assists dovotitm and
excites carnal iiaHsions.*' (See Ginsburg*!
Introduction to his Commentar>'on the Book.)
If it be canonical, we are forced to regard it
as aUegoricaL In no other way can its spirit-
uality be api^reciated. The same species of
allegory, makiug the nuptial relation a symbol
of tne union l>etween Christ and his Church,
occurs ofti'U iu Scriiiture, as in Hos. L, ii.,
iii.; Kzek. xvi.; Jer. iii. The reader may
also be n-fi-rrt^ to Ts. xlv.; Isa» liv.; Ixii. 4,
f»; 2l'or. xi. 2; Kom. viL 4; Eph. v. 2:*^;
Kev. xix. 7; xxi. 2-1).^ Some have supposed —
but tlie su])]M>sition is far-fetched — that the
following p 1 rases (»f the New Testament are
deKi;ai('d

nl

usions to the Canticles: — Ch. i. 3,

L 8: r. 4,

the vir^niw love thee," 1 Pet.
"«lraw me,"' Ilo8. xi. 4; John xii. 32: r. 7,
"foedent/' I si. xl. 11; John x. 3: ch. ii. 3,
"fruit," Matt. xxvi. 29: r. 8. '* voice of my
b».'lnvod," Jjilin X. .'t, 4 : ch. v. 1, 7, *' fair— no
KjHit iu tlier," Kpli. v. 27: ch. v. 2, **uiy]»e-
\o\vi\ kuiickitli," JIiv. iii. 2<>: t-li. vi. 10, "fair
as the niiM^ii, rlcar us the biiu,*' Ucv. xii. 1 :
ch. viii. 14, "Make hasti*, my bclovtHl," llev.
xxii. 17, 21. AVlifU the .K'ws aiM>statized from
•lehovah. thry are ^ai«l to have broken the
niarriaj^e (.••'veiiant to have guiu; a " ^\ lioring."
<-iiinii. Kx'mI. xxxiv. ir>, hi; litiv. xx. Ti, tJ;
Num. XV. :>'.>; hfiit. xxxi. IG; 2 Chr. xxi. 13;
l*s. Ixxiii. 27; Kzek. vi. 1».

It i.saKita ntroni,' prer^umittion in favour of
this thei»rv of ail alletfory, that the veiling of
spiritual fervour and enjoyment umler the
Hvmlh)! <if love is common to all llie ( )rientid
natiiiiH. I'he famou.s odes of iializ aiv of this
mystic nature; nn is the (»Lta;^orin(la, a juiem
t»f the llindiHis. Tiie same practice is (*ommon
ill I'Vypt, as Mr. Lane telw us; and he hiu*
^:iveu us .«*preimi'n« ()f these allej^orical com-
I'ljsitii'iis. Wt* transcribe the following:; and
the reader will at once feel some resemblance
to the Son^ of Solon )on :—

"With ]<)\o my honrf i» trou]»!c<l.

Ami mino pyoll'l hinderi-tli bic<*ii:
Mv vitjils nru lll^sf»vrlv«l,

\Viiilo with htnumiiii^ tears 1 wcop.
ily uiiiiMj beenis far «!ihfaiit:

will iiiv love o'er nieot mino eye?
Al;i>! (iiu n.)t e>triHipMnont

iJraw my U'juij, I wouM not nigh.

'•Ty iln»:iry nijriits I'm \v:iste<l:

Absenoe ni:ikos my hupo oxpiro:
3Iy Uun, like jx'urlf. ure (ini])])ing,
And IIIV heart \b wrapt iu Uro.
GIG

SOL

WhoM is like my conditiao?

Scarcely know I remedy.
Alaa! did not estraDgement

Draw my tears, I would not rigb-

'' O tortle-dore ! acqiuint me

Wbtf refers thus dost then limat?
Art thoa bo stani: by alMtenoe}

Of thT wings deprived, and wnt?
He saitli, *Onr griiefs are egoal:

'Worn away with lore, I Be.*
AIns! did not estraoji^ement

Draw my tears, I would not ri|)L

" 0 first and everlasting,

Show thy favonr vet to me:
ThT slave, Ahh'mad EI-Bek*!*^

Hath no Lord excepting thee.
By Ta -Ha', the great Prophet!

Do thoQ not his wish deaj.
Alas! did not estrangement

Draw my tears, I woold not ligli."

Mr. Lane gives another specmien veiyfiks
the High Song in some of its parts:—

ii

The phantom of thy form visited me inniTshimbet:
I said, * O phsntom of slumber: who Mot meeV
He said, 'He sent me whom thoa knoveit;
He whose love occnpiee theei'
The beloved of my heart visited me fai the dtrknwof

nif;ht:
I stood, to show him honour, until he nt dowa
I said, *0 thoQ my petition and all my dedra!
Hast thoa come at midnight and not ffisnd i^

watchmen?'
Ho Mid tu mc, * I feared: but, however, love
Had taken from mo my suul and my bresth."*

Among the OrieniaLi the foUoving it tLe
authorizeid key to such allegories >-

Wine — Devotion.
Bevel— Itelifrioiu Ardour,
fcileop— Mcihtatiou.
EL)K — IlouB Kaptore.
Up<i — ^Mysteries of 1jO>L
TreHW* — Cili)ry of Ho<L
Perfume— Roliffions Hv>pe.
Beauty— llie DiTine Perfectinu.

The difference of manners in the Ei»5t»»l
West irt alrio to be borne iu mind in treating of
tliis Houg. The language of men voa iIkil
free, for female society never minqleti »itk
them. Much of the 8ui)i>obtxl indelicMT i? to
be ascribed, not only to our incorrect £ii^b:^
version, but to our modem and ct>nventiunil
notions and feelings. Miiic«'*ncei4aoii btf
added to this : for many portions ci the poen
I supiwsedto deseribe the ]>ersun deacriheca'j
the dresH in it8 Oriental finery and gaudiiK^
I The Budden and fre<)ueut clmuj^es f rum ^iii^niUr
I to j)lund seem, on the part of the bride, to
i intimate that the speaker is the rejjre.sentaiivtf
of a company— the liolv (/athouo ChunJi.
Tiie Canticles are esiieciafl j an (Oriental bi.".J£.
suited to the warmth and rajnnre ol tlf
Oriental temperament. The Jews did not
|)ermit it to bo read by j'omig ])ersons tiU thej"
nad reached a certain a^e. And if so macb-
if all the rest of Scrijiture, indeed— b? ^
universal adaptation, we need notgrod^thit
a very few pa^es have a bpecial suitabilitv !•)
the Oriental imagination and heart, especisD;
if we bear in mind that nine-tenths of vit
family of man have belonged to the £art--
that probably at least a half of those nov^fl

SON

£ftce of the earth are Oriental tribe& Yet
ay aamts in eyezy age have been delighted
h the Song of Solomon. The more purely
otioiuJ and raised abore the flesh they were.
more they admired and used this inspired
iposition. Jonathan Edwards, who was
lost pure intellect, was of this class. His
IB of the beauty of holiness formed them-
res into pure poetry, though only written in
■ei and ne says: —

Tne whole book of Canticles used to be
iBBiit to me, and I used to be much in
lin^ it about that time, and found from
e to time an inward sweetness that would
ry me away in my contemplations. This
3IOW not how to express otherwise than
a calm delightful abstraction of the soul
n all the concerns of the world; and some-
(em » kind of vision of fixed ideas and
^(illations of being alone in the mountains
some solitary wildoness, far from all man-
d, sweetly conversing with Christ, and
t and swallowed up m God. The sense
ad of divine things would often of a sudden
die up an ardour in my soul that I know
how to express.

'While thus engaged, it alwa3rs seemed
nral for me to sing or chant forth my
iitations; or to speak mv thoughts in
loquiea with a singing voice.^*
»iinilar sentiments are expressed by St.
nard, Thomas Aquinas, and the late Dr.
ilmers. Many good people, who are
uaffers to all learned theories and doubts,
[ t£at when they read the " Song of Songs**
Y are ** feeding among the liubs."
lie allusions with which this book abounds

nuuie to scenes and customs of which our
iwledge is very imperiect ; and hence much
plexity must attend any attempt to anal3rze

truths it teaches; and much care and
gment are necessary so to use this part of
ine truth as not to abuse it. (See Shu-
riTB.)

ON OF MAN (Matt viiL 20). This title
^ven to our Saviour eighty times in the
•r Testament, and in thirty instances he
ilies it to himself. It is also applied to him
Daniel (ch. vii. 13). The Jews understood
o demote the Messiah. It probably denotes
peculiar and intimate relation to mankind
bis incarnate state^ as the phrase. Son of
<y denotes his peculiar relation to the divine

The term. Son of Man, is also applied to
skiel not less than eighty-nine times.
K)N OF GOD (Dan. iii. 25). This is one of
titles of our divine Redeemer, and is
>lied to none else, except in a connection
ich shows the sense. It is applied to angels
•b xxxviiL 7), and to Adsan (Luke iii.
, as created immediately by his hand, and
tAJning a filial relation to him and to
ievers (Bom. viii 14, 15 ; 2 Cor. vi 18), as
mted into God's spiritual family; but when
>iied to Christ, it is in a peculiar and exalted
me, which cannot be mistaken. Its meaning
dourly shown in John's gospel (ch. v. 17,

SOU

18; X. 36-38). Christ, as Son of God, clahns
equality of prerogative with his Father: the
Jews imderstood mm to claim this, and thought
him guilty of bhisphemy. Jesus did not n^
that they had mismterpreted his words. Ho
admits tne correctness of their interpretation,
and defends and explains his language. The
Son of Crod has an identity of nature with the
Father, and is one with him in affection.

Sons of GtOD (Gen. vi. 2). Ood in this
passage is sometimes rendered princes, or
distinguished persons ; and the reading may be,
"sons of the eminent men" mentioned in the
preceding chapter, — ^men noted for piety — ^men
who showed tneir adoption by possessing their
Father's image. Some take it to mean angels
or imem bodied spirits. - (See Adoption.)

SOOTHSAYER (Dan. ii 27) was one who
pretended to foretell future events. The
original word is supposed to denote that they
dissected the entrails of animals for the
purpose of discerning what would come to
pass. The Philistines appear to have been
notorious for their practice of this magio
imx)osition (Isa. u. 6). This was a common
mode of divining among the Romans. (See
Divination.)

SOP (John xiiL 26). Our ordinary table
utensils were unknown among the Hebrews.
Hence, in eating broth or milk, it was either
taken with the hollow of the hand or the
bread was dipped into it. This is at present
the usage in all the Oriental countries, even
at the table of the Persian king. Thus the
reapers of Boaz dipped their ** morsel in the
vin^ar" (Ruth iL 14); and thus our Saviour
'* dipped the sop," or morsel, and gave it to
the traitor Judas. Jowett says —

" There are set on the table in the evening
two or three messes of stewed meat, vege-
tables, and sour milk. To me the privilege
of a Imif e, spoon, and plate was granted ; but
the rest helped themselves immediately from
the dish, in which five Arab fingers might be
seen at once. Their bread, which is extremely
thin, tearing and folding up like a sheet of
paper, is used for rolling together a large
mouthful, or sopping up uie fluid and vege-
tables. When the master of the house found
in the dish any dainty morsel, he took it out ,
with bis fingers, and put it to my mouth." —
Besearches,-p. 285.

SORCERY (Acts viiL 9: xiiL 6)— one of
the arts of the magicians (Exod. vii. 11); —
hence called sorcerers— by the use of which
they pretended to predict future events, cure
diseases, work miracles, &c The practice of
sorcery, or any confidence in it, is threatened
with the severest judgments (Mai. iii. 5; Rev.
xxi 8: xxii. 15). (See Divination.)

SOREK (Judg. xvi 4)— a brook and vale
in the south of the territory of Dan, where
Delilah dwelt. It probably derived its name
from its choi^ grapes. The brook flows into
tiie Mediterranean near Askelon.

SORROWS OF DEATH and SORROWS
OF HELL (Ps. xviii 4, 5). signify pangs,
at pains, as in Acts ii. 24. In both passages

617

SOS

d (wrrf» m

fioiHed _.. . , , .-„...- ,-

Tbere ii tt Hindu dcitv, Yama, or the "atch^r
uf the »")ul« ot nmn, whoM imsige is repre-
frntiHl aa holilint; a cord ur imKre, which hs
tbmwn over hiK victim, uut thiu Kcnres him.

SOSlt'ATKR{R..m. xvL
21), or SOPATKlt (Act» ii.
4)— k D&tive of Bvrva, uid a
Itiiwuian of Pnul.

8oSTHKNKS(Act.iriii.
17)— a ruler of tJia JewKh
RynsRiiifue >t Ciirinth. He
K'ax wiied nnd IwnUn by a
l«rty ot Uneks in that city,
wbo wm eidt«i] tbiu to artii
of viiJencB hy what thry
thoiulit the unj astilialilc ana
- •■ ■ - ii.rfr> '

80TT
wbera £ta tfa« atcni arintcr, Oiirii, vitk tkt
mull tablet rai hit IrcMt, ind brfon ^
around him are hii *—'--—. ta Kcntur, ^
hii for^-two iMCMiia. It ii lanaiiabk IM

divitM juitica, and in the other tbe bean itf At

t lie after-

It in thought

wards biiiiinii- a convert to
the Christian faitli <1 Cor. i.
1.2). W«ffJ.>Lua)

SOUL ((ion. iL 7). Thp
ScriptuKS evidently dbtit
Kuiitli between the sjiirit an
iioul(lThi-«s.v.2;(; Hvb.ii
12). ITie word which we ca

jDuf. ilcnce it niay be infem'd, that
bave our bodivK and animal lifu
with bnlte!^ it miixt be the

till- likeni'KH it iiiio^^' <if (iuil
and whii-h miMii man alwie
tbc bnitui Ui;it |H.n8h and
iiuikn bim a rati<inal and oc
cciiiutalili- ln'iiix. lb<.K|>int,
in ciditmiit ivitli thp auul is
tlie hit:lK'r |<ortuin of our na-
tuR.'— the Hvat of the rcisiin,
oinncienci^, and the loftier
atfeotiiinii- thu h'lvof hohea
in that temple vbich bod boa
con»tnwtci nor liiuin.U within
ua. Wu uanmit coni|irclH.nd
the exaut nmni.'ctinn and n U
tirin of them varimii lurln of
iiur beinK: but that tbc^

There werv among «ome an
cient nationn liiin Iwhefa of
tbi- iHiura immortahty lliat
litlii-f waa Dot verj clearlvri
veal,-,! in the Old Tv>tam<.nt
lnit".IcMu(%riiitl>niiiLhtlifa
and immortality to light''

deceased. Thia icale the dead .^ —

himaelf, bnt Asubia gnaida the other. Yaiki
the torty-tWD judKCS reccRdahiiinnidecinB-
a aeponte verdict. Horn* examine* Ik (b*
met, and Thoth ' " ""

, ...niiaisof immortal-
ity nm-mu the KgyiitJana w
siKnilicant, oi in revraliHl in
Iiicturea. In tlie Todlf«-l,
■trilciiiK rrpret^DtationM.

, and I allowed to plead in bis own bcbali "^^"

tlieir IxiokH and defrauded no man, I have not alaagfatin^tai

cattle of the gods, I have not preraricitH i|

._ the Beat of jUBtiCB, I have not made «hi«f I"

n the last Uall of judgment, | the Egyptians, I have nut defiled my okkki'*

sow

for the take ol my miperior, I hare not used
^lolBnce, I have not famiBhed my household, I
hKW9 not made to weep, I have not smitten
nivily, I have not changed the measures of
iBgvpt. I have not grieved Uie spirits of the
gooB. I have not committed adulterv, I have
not toiged signet rings, I have not falsified the
weights of the balance, I have not withheld
nilk from the mouths of mv children, I
have not pierced the banks of the Nile in its
amraal increase, I have not separated to myself
an aim of the Nile in its advance." This
BUgnlar disavowal concludes thus, — " I have
not disturbed the gazelles of the gods in their
pMtnrage, I have not netted the water-fowl of
mo gods, I have not caught the sacred fishes."
It mavbe inferred from uiis and other sections
thaA there were parks or preserves around the
Egyptian temples, where the sacred animals
were krat. and that it was sacrilege to take
them. ' 1 have not despised the gods in their
offerings ;" in other words, '* I have not offered
to the gods that which is imperfect, I have not
boand the cattle of the gods, I have not pierced
the god in his manifestation.*' It is plam that
there are shadowed out in many of these hiero-

gyphs the hop«i and fears of a guilty bosom :
r should the spirit when judged oe discovered
unworthy of aamission to x>anbdi8e, it is igno-
nuniously driven off to a darker world, and
made to assume a bestial form, tjrpical of its
■enanal character and grovelling pursuits.
Thus, as in the preceding illustration, a glutton
is condemned to assume the form of a hog, and
IB Bent off under the guidance of a foul spirit
to wallow in a stve, and feed ui)on "husks."
Bat if the spirit nas been aoiuitted, it rises
higher in glory and in susceptibilil^ of enjoy-
mentb It joins the happy throng who bathe m
the pure nver of water of life that encircles
their dwelling. Above them stands the memor-
able inscription, '*They have foimd favour
in the eyes of Uie great Grod. thev dwell in
mansions of glory, and enjoy the celestial life :
the bodies which they have forsaken shall
sleep for ever in their sepulchres, while they
shall rejoice in the presence of God most High.
IdDany momentous truths belon^ng to the &ith
of an early world, to which, with all its aber-
mtiony the human spirit clings so tenaciously,
are in those symbols rudely and impressively
sketched.^ Ideas of immortality and retribu-
ticm are singularly masqued imaer such quaint
memorials. (See Spirit, Spiettual Body.)

SOW. (See Seed.)

SOW. (See Swine.)

SPAIN (Eom. XV. 24). Formerly this term
included the whole Spanish peninsula, em-
bracing Portugal It was peopled by the
descendants of Tarshish, one of the sons of
Javan. In Paulas time it was subject to Home,
and the resort of many Jews. It is uncertain
whether that apostle's intention to visit Spain
was ever executed. (See Coney.)

SPAN. (See Measures.)

SPARBOW (Ps. Ixxxiv. 3) is well known
to be one of the smallest and least valuable of
all bird& Hence the force of the allusion,

SPI

" Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing ?**
(Matt X. 29; Luke xii 6). The Psahnist
likens himself, in Ps. cii 7, to "a sparrow alone
on the house-to]^.'* Now, this bird is not one
that sits and pines in solitude ; but a distin-
guished naturalist, in a recent publication,
suggests that the bird referred to by the psalm-
ist is a species of thrush, "remarkable through
all the East for sitting solitary on the habitations
of men," — " alone on the house-top it warbles
in sweet and plaintive strains.*' It is of a blue
colour, with black wings and taiL To this
bird, so often seen alone and pouring forth
notes of melancholy tone, the royal penitent
compares his own condition and exerdses.
The probable allusion in Ps. Ixxxiv. 3 may be
better understood by placing the former part
of the third verse in a parenthesis, and thus
connecting the latter part with tne second
verse, thus, — **My soul longeth, yea, even
fainteth for the courts of the JJord : my heart
and my flesh crieth out for the living God (yea,
the ejpBTTow hath foimd an house, and the
swallow a nest for herself, where she may lay
her young), even thine Altara. O Lord of hosts,
my King, and my Grod.** llien the desire oi
the psalmlBt to go up to the courts of the
Lord s house ia beautitully compared with the
instinctive desire of the bird for its nest— its
home. Or we may supply the verb a^ain
before the words, "even thme altars." "As
the sparrow finds its house, and the swallow its
nest, so ?iav€ I found thine sdtars " — a place to
me of fre<^uent resort, supreme felicity, and
intense satisfaction. Tree sparrows abound at
the present day on moimt Olivet and about
the Mosque of Omar.

SPEAIL (See Armour.)

SPEARMEN (Acts xxui. 23) were proK-
ably light-armed troops, able to march with
horsemen.

SPICES (Gen. xliii II). This term, as used
by the sacred writers, is much more compre-
hensive than the modem use of it. With them
it includes not only fragrant gums, as mjnrh,
and also roots and harks, as cassia, cinnamon,
cane, &c., but the odours of flowers and various
perfumes (Song iv. 14. 15). Spices were im-
ported into Judea chiefly from southern Arabia.
Sweet spices (Mark xvi. 1) are merely aromatic
substances used in embalming. The word
spices fully expressed the meaning of the
original word without the adjective. Many of
the Hebrew words descriptive of various kmds
of spices can be still identified with their
modem names. (See Anoint, Balm, Oil.)

SPIDER (Job viiL 14)— a well-known
insect of very singular structure and habits.
Its method of weaving its web — the thinness
and frailty of which are strikingly emblematical
of a false hope, and of the scnemes of wicked
men (Isa. lix. 5)— and the remarkable con-
struction of its foot, so as to resemble a part of
the human hand, have been often referred to
by naturalists.

The expression in .Prov. xxx. 28, "The
spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in
king's palaces," is supoosed by some to refer to

Cli)

SPI

unmo other and lar^r animal of the lizard
8|>ecie8; but the strikins ovrennondence be-
tween the constnictiun of the Hpider's foot, and
the terms ui«e<l tm express its method of work-
ing, ^o far to eHtabbjth the correctnetw of the
prt'^ent n-iidcrinj;.

SPIKKNAUl) (John xii. 3-r»)-a plant of
the Kraiw kind, uf strong an>matic taste and
smell, and found chiefly in indi& The oint-
ment made of the ^nuine Indian spikenard
was very precious (Mark xiv. 3), a sin^flepound
ocMting in our Kaviour^s day what, in the
niiMlem vidue t>f money, u-ould be upwards of
£S, (M. 8d. l*nifane fiistory tells us that the
crude vegetable was worth 1<M) denarii (or nearly
11), 7h. <mL) a pound, at Rome, in the time ol
Ohritft. Hence the allusion of Horace —

**r>o brinfT tho uplorn ami a oftsk ii« thine;
TliT tiny Imix uf jwrfume Hhall produco
Airuniple i'a>ik.'

TJke other unguentn and nerfumes, it was
luuried in a Imix cI(»Holy Hi*aleu, su aH to be air-
tight. Openini; this ijieal is called breaking the
box.

SPIX. (Si«e DiMTAPP.)

SPIRIT (Uen. vi. 3). This term is often
<*mi>loyed fl^iratively by the sacred writers,
and \U import may be generally determined by
its connection.

llie thinl ]wnKm of the Trinity w named the
Holy Si>irit— Spi kit, as he is the author of life ;
and Holt, as bin great work is the promotion
of holiness in t}ie l>elieving heart He is called
1>oth Spirit of (jod und Spirit of rhrint, from
the iitMMili.ircoiinoinir relation he nustains both
to Father ami to Son. The di-^igns of the
Father and the mnunandrt <>f the Son are
^rou^]lt int<» actual and emlKKlicd existence by
the o|H.>rationrt of the Holy (ihoat, and that
iHith m creation anil redemption. The Holy
Spirit \A ]iartictdarly reprctientod to us as tliat
divine airent, the "(Nnufortor, jilainly distin-
gnirtht^d ifn»ni tlie Father and the S<»n (John
xiv. *J0 ; xvi. 7, H), l>y whoso influence the tnith
is re<rive<l, undorsto<Kl, Ix'lieved, and obeyctL
He t|uicken.-4 thos«! wlio are dead in trespoiwes
find sinH. jniritiert and Miiictitie.H tlieni, and thus
jm-pare.s tlii'u^ to glorify (iotl an«l enjoy him
lor I'vcr (.J«»hn xv. l-(i; koui. v. 5; viii. 10).

TliiiH it i.s i)lain that hi.s ivork is that of
npplieation. Me takes of the thingit that are
('hri>t*H, and sliows them unto uh. ife brings
home ( 'hriMt's truth to tliu mind, and sprinkles
<'hrist'i4 MihhI n|K)n the hrart. Tlie graces
that adoni tlie cliamettT are the *' fniitH of the
Spirit," an«l thi'ir iM^sneiwion is the " earnest"
or "Hr«t-fruits'* of coining glory. (See (.'oM-
FoiiTKK.) The iKTHonality and divinity of the
Holy (xnoHt are clearly taught in Scrinture.
The names, attributes, works, and worj*nip of
tlje sn]>renie iUA are aucriU'd to him. L
Nann's, ai>Jihorah^ Act» xxviii. 2."i, with Isa.
vi. U; and Heb. iiL 7, 0, with Kxo«l. x\*ii 7;
Jer. xxxL 31, 'M\ WvK x. W lU: <!<*d. Acts
V. 3, 1: l^tnl, 2 ( or. iii. 17, 11>— '* ITie Lonl,
tlio Spirit*' 2. Attributes, as omniscience, 1
Cor. ii. 10, ]] : Iho. xL 13, 14: omnipresence.

STA

Pb. cxjmx. 7; Eph. iL 17, 18; Bon. tSL %,
27 : omnipotciioe, Luke L 35 : etermty, HcK
ix. 14. SL Divine woiriu. Gen. IL 2 : Job ixn.
13; Pa.zzzii6; oiv.3a 4. Wonhin,bi.TL
3; Matt xzviiL 19; ActaxxviiL 25;ltaa.ii.
1 ; 2 Cor. ziii 14; Bev. L 4. (See Diacm-
urc OF SpiRirsL.)

SPIRITUAL BODY a Cor. xr. 44). We
are probably to imdentaiid by ths tint tbt
body which will be railed will be diTerted of
all tennxal and aninuJ appetitea; and wUkife
will retain a bodily ahape or f onn, it will bt
perfectly fitted for pure ipiritiial niriiki ad
enjoymenta, in nerfectunuoD with the iwkwi
ed and MDCtifiea spirits NowitaerwtbeMri;
then it will serve the spirit (See Soul.)

SPOIL (Exod. ill. 22). The orif^viid
in this palace means ''to recover propai^
tal'cn away by violeiioe'* (1 Sam. xxx. 4
The word also signifies booty takoi in w.
As early as the days <tf Afar^am a paitinaf
the prey was set apart for retigioos parpoMi
(Gen. xiv. 20). l^der the Monk bir thi
same division took i^laoe (Nun. xxzL 9S; 1
Chr. xxvL 27). David maoeamilitsfyg^Bih-
tion, that they who guarded the baggage smU
share equally with those who were aetaa]l|]rc9-
gaged in batUe (1 Sam. xxx. M).

SPONGE (Matt xxviL 48)-^ sBbBuriv
■nbstsnoe, composed of fibres interwons iai
suipriaing manner, and snnoniided hj ^
membranes, which anange liiemielTct in s
cellular form. It imbibes a great quasti^ of
flnid, and parts with it npon a strong lau— re.
Drimc could be easily conveyed in tms fona
where cutw could not oe used. It is inhabited
by animals, like the ooraL who use the opn-
ings of the sponge to suck in and throvoot
water

SPKINKLIXG, BLOOD OF (Heb. xiL 541.
The Jewish high priest, on the great dsy f«
atonement, carried blood into the inner asub-
tuary, and sprinkled it upon the menrv-«sL
It was by this sprinkling of Mood tfist an
aiontmmi was maide **for the holy plsoe, tv-
cauftd of the uncleanness of the chfldnoi of
Israel (I^v. xvi. IG). The blood of sprinkling
was typical of the atomng blood of Cluiit
When this has been applied to the sonl of Uk
believer, ho may a])]}roach the presence of aholr
(>ixi, in the name of the great Advocate and
Kedeemer, confident of a gracious ivceptioB.
The blood of Aliel, alluded to in the abow
Iiasstage from Hebrews, called only for ven-
geance (Gen. iv. 10. II) ; but the blood of Christ
speaks of pardon, peace, and eternal life.
Some suppose, however, that the vene maf
refer to Abel himself, who being dad vet
H]>eaketh, or the bUxKl of Abel's sacrifiw. It
siM>ke only of a f^reat atonement yet to be fR-
sented. (See Abel.)

STACTE (Exod. xxx. 34)— one of the pif
scribed ingreoients of the sacred incense, it i'
the (rreeK name for the purest myrrh: vt
that which flows freely from the tree uithnot
indidon ; whereas the common mjrrTh i« V^
cured by making incisions in the bark. Some
suppose it to be the gum of the storax tree.

STA
8TANDABD. (See ABomNATioxr, Ban-

STABS rDent iy. 19). Under the name of
the Hebrews comprehended all oonstel-
latkniB, planets, and heavenly bodies ; all lum-
exoept the sun and moon. The

fMJmist, to exalt the power and omniscience
cl God (Ps. cxlvii 4), describes him taking a
amrey of the stars, as a king taking a review
«f bk army, and Imowing the name of every
€Be Off his soldiers. To express a very extra-
Qirdinaiy increase, the sacred writers use the
rimilitade of the stars of heaven or of the
madm oi the sea (Gen. xv. 5). (See Arctubus,
Chidk, Mazzaboth, Pleiades, Remphan.)

No part of the visible creation exhibits the
f^ary of the Creator more illustrionsly than the
iterry heavens (Ps. xix. 1). When we seri-
•oahr contemplate the moon and stars, the
TOK of the fingers of God, we cannot but be
Mtonished that he should condescend to pay
•BT attention to men (Ps. viiL 3).

The star of Bethlehem, which api>eared to the
Ifagiy to direct them to the birthplace of the
MciSHuh, was not a natural phenomenon, but
evidently miraculous; and when it had an-
iwcred its purpose it vanished. (See Jesus.)

Jcfos Christ is called the "Morning Star"
(Rev, xxii 16), as he introduced the li^ht of
kh« Gi)epel day, and made a fuller manifesta-
tion of the truths of Grod than the prophets
whose predictions are now accomplished.

STEjSL rPs. xviii 34). The degree of
■trength and agility which one possessed was
often shown amongthe ancient nations in the
use of the bow. The word rendered tteel in
khis passage might be more properly rendered
npper. Sb of Job xx. 24. (Comp. Jer. xv.
12; Ezek. xxvii. 19.) (See Arms.)

STEPHANAS (1 Cor. I 16) was one of
^be earliest converts to Christianity in Corinth
[1 Got. xvi 16), and received baptism at the
lumds of Paul

STEPHEN— m>w» (Acts vi 6j— usually
known as the first martyr— was one of the seven
men *' of honest report " who were elected,
at the suggestion of the twelve apostles, to
relieve them of a particular class of tneir
labours. His character is given by the sacred
historian as a man full of faith and of the
HoIt Ghost; and he was endowed in a re-
manable degree with divine power and grace
(Acts vi 8, 10). His defence against the false
and malicious charges of his opponents (Acts
wiL 2-53), amon^ whom was Saul of Tarsus, is
a masterly exhibition of truth. So holy was
the excitement of the pleader, that a bright
serenity spread over nis countenance,— for
** an that sat in the council, looking steadfastly
on him, saw his face as it had been the face of
an angel** (Acts vL 15). So powerful was his
scriptural argument, and so direct was its ap-
peal to the consciences of the populace^ that
thev were excited to madness (Acts vu. 54),
ana fell upon Stephen like wild beasts, clout-
ing, and stopping their ears; and after they
had forced him oevond the walls of the city
(Lev. xxiv. 14), they stoned him to death,

STO

Saul being present and conspicuous in this
barbarous transaction. Tet 1^oufi:h beaten
and bruised by these missiles of deaui, the last
breath of the martsnr was spent, like that of
his divine Master, in prater for the forgive-
ness of his murderers. It is worthy of remark
that this prayer of Stephen*8 is directed to the
Lord Jesus ; or rather, it seems to be a continu-
ation of the pra]^er respecting himself which
was addressed immediately to Christ, the
word Ood in verse 59 of our translation not
being in any ancient manuscript or version,
and therefore, of course, wholly unwarranted.
Stephen saw Jesus standing at the ria^ht hand
of God, and this is the only instance m which
the exalted Saviour Ib not said to be sitting.
But now He was standing, his look bent down
to earth, and his arms open to welcome up to
his bosom the soul of his mart3nr. The old
saying was. If Stephen had not prayed, Saul
had not been converted.

STEWARD (Gen. xv. 2)— the chief over-
seer of the household. (Comp. Gen. xxiv. 2
with passage first cited : see Eliezeb, Joanna.)

STOCKS (Job xiii 27)— the name of a
machine or instrument by which the feet and
arms of prisoners are secured. It is said that
the jailer at Philippi, to whose custody Paul
and Silas were committed, with a strict charge
to keep them safely, not only put them in an
inner prison or dungeon, but made their feet
fast in the stocka The upper half of the
instrument being removed, each leg is placed,
lust above the ankle, in the groove of the lower
half, and then the ui)per part is fastened down
so as to confine them inextricably. The instru-
ment for confining the hands is formed on the
same principle. Another kind of stocks was a
species of pillory (Jer. xx. ^.

STOICS. This sect of ancient philosophy
originated with Zeno, a native of Citium, in
the island of Cyprus. Zeno was bom about
the year 360 B. c. Much of his early life was
spent in mercantile pursuits; but being shi^
wrecked on the coast of Attica^ in one of his
tradiiur expeditions, he came to Athens, and
turned his mind to the study of philosophy.
For several years he waited upon the ins^c-
tions of Crates, a distinguished teacher of the
cynic sect, whose general principles were
imbibed by Zeno, and whose morose^ stem
indifference of manners laid a foundation for
that rigid moral apathy which t^e C3rprian
afterwards inculcated. After leaving the school
of Crates, Zeno attended the discourses of all
the other eminent teachers in Athens; and
having thus become ac(^uainted with all that
was known and taught in Greece, he resolved
to become a teacher, and found a system of his
own. He opened his academy in the Poedle
Stoa, or variegated porch— so called from the
famous painting with which it was adorned.
By way of emmence this portico was called
Stoa by the Athenians; and hence the namo
Stoics was given to the teacher and disciples
who assembled there. A numerous band of
followers soon crowded around the new pre-
ceptor ; and by his great powers of reasoning,

621

STO

hiK^i Rystem of moraln, Btrict intcjnity of cbar-
acter, and nuKlost yet j?<*nerou8 affability, he
tMMin ^ninetl Yxith tne affection and esteem of
his i>u]iiL«, and the n*s|>ect of all the Athenians,
lie cniitinueil to Labour in the work of teaching
till tlie iM'ri'Nl <if his death, which oc*ctirred in
tli»" year *3>4 n. c.

The couFHt! of Btiidy in the P<»rch embraced
]<ij;,'ic, or the art of rea*M>ning, ]ihiloso|)liy in
prenrral, physics, nietaiihysic^, and morals.
Ac(N>nling to Zeno and iiim foUowem, the first
of the:»e embraces the art of declaiming as ^'ell
as the art of arprumentatitm. Kach of these
de]tartmentH i» most necetwary and valuable in
its own place ; but these early logicians pushed
matters to an extreme, and wasted much time
and ingenuity in discussing idle quibbles;
im][NiHiug Hopliisms, and other foolish questions
which *'g<-"<l'*r strifes." Their view of the
general principles of i)hilos«)phy is chiefly in-
terotting as it comprehends tneir opinion con-
ct'niiiig the extensive nature of true virtue.
I'lider this term wa^ included the ri^ht
employment of the undcrntanding in seeking
after trutli, as well an the due regulation of the
apIK-tites and luissions of the souL To the
adoption of this definition they were naturally
led by the connection which they traced be-
tween wisdi>m and morality. In ])roportion
as men are wise, so are they active in every
good W(»rk. True wisdom consists of an exten-
sive kiiowledcce of all things, human and
divine; wmnd philosophy invariably loads to
mich \vi8d<mi ; and the emplo>'ment of the mind
in this way, and for thi<« object, is an exercise
csscntiiilly virtuo\is. Jfrufe their conclusion
that virtue oi'U)pr«]iended the i)n)per use of
the mind in tli«' study of nature, and in the full
perfoniiancr of all ritrhteousm*^'*. To these
Hentinituits the Christian niin<l mny give
c« inliul a>«scut. Every act of the soid, whether
in thoiiglit, wonl, or deed, in either virtuous or
vicious, and as Buch is imder the moral juris-
diction of ** tlu* judge of all the earth."

What rt'ijiains of the nystem of Zeno
divertrts widely from the truth, 'llie funda-
iu<-iital idea in ins jihysical thcor>' is the
eternity of njatter an well as min<l ; but, unlike
all pii leiliui; philoi^opherH, he did not regard
tlie.-ii- two substances tin ojipo.site and indepen-
dent in their nature jMissessiil of pr«»pertie8
altii.ij;ether inconipatililc with tnie identity —
but in his view tliey were the same in esHcnce,
an<l continued imit«Ml in all hulise^pient f()rm8
i»f existence. The first form of 1»eing was a
dark and confused chaos, whieh being sul)-
Hefjuently arrange*!, K'C.'une the world as it
no\y a])pears. Jn the wi»rld, or mi i verse,
wliieli embraces all thiii-::s. there exist two
furnlarneiita] ]>rinciples,- the one jiassive in its
nature, and deiioininatcHl matter; and the
other active, and designated reas«>n or Gcxl.
Jience the doctrine of the St-jics, tliat the
univi'rse is "a sentitriit ami animated being,"
of whiih tlie U)at<'rial jwirts constitute the
immense ImkI^v, and (^(kI himself is the soul or
lK-rva<ling spirit Such a system naturally led
to njobt erroneous views on the doctrine of
022

STO

providence. The Stoics had no Dotion c{ u
mfinitely holy, wise, just, and good Being,
RU]ierior to and independent d all otber
bemgs, whose care extends over all, and vbo
is constantly upholding, dii^cting, and gnvm-
ing every movement and act of nis nnncrout
creatures. In their view all things yield to
the influence of stem necessity ; ud the mu-
verse, in all its parts, presents nothing more
than a succession of causes and effects vhich
is pnxluced by the action of some indefinsUe
power that constitutes a necessair dement of
the machine which it regulatea. '^^Proridenof,
in the Stoic creed,** 8a3rB Enfield, "is only
another name for absolute necesmty, or file,
to which God and matter, or the univene
which consists of both, is immutahlv subject*

The moral theory of Zeno was built i^xv,
and accorded with, the fundamental nrinciFlei
of his physical syritem, which have oeen nov
stated. Man is a little world in himself, com-
posed of matter and mind ; and in accorduce
with this thought the Stoics adopted, as the
fundamental maxim of their morality, tlat
men should live agxveably to nature— tnit ii;
should make all their desiresand pursuiti acood-
ant with, and subservient to, the g«ienl ir
rangements produced by that neoessitT to nhaA
the world is subject So to live ana act con-
stitutes true virtue, and leads invariably to tbe
possession of happiness. Moral duties ven
viewed in three aspects, and so classified— vis.,
those idiich relate to God, those which relit»
to ourselveH, and those which relate to otbeia
Under duty to God were embraced the obli^
tions of entertaining right views of his n&ton
and character, and of worshijiping and MirnD^
him with ^ becoming fidelity ; duty to oar-
selves reipired a constant effort to Vablaf all
the passions, and maintain continuallT an
apathetic efpianimity; and duty to othen
was summed up in acts of expansive benevo
Icncc. Thus to feel and act went far to
constitute a specimen of wis<iom and yiitwt.

In man^ respects thin sj-stem p06ses8es mndi
that is faur and good ; but its foundatiiin and
leading principles are fall.-u:if>us, and tiienion
it must tail both to satii^fy the inquiring mind
and lead men to the attainment of perfect
jmrity and felicitv. The ChrLstiairs God is
the only eternal l3eing. flatter, in nil it*
present forms, was created by his htind : ** Hi*
kingdom ruleth over alL" And the dnty (i
every man is to love him supremely ; luve his
neignbour as himself ; and avek his own pvid
by an implicit compliance with the divine
will. ^

nie Stoic sect existed for ages after ti#
death of its founder. In all the princii«] cities
of the Greek and Eoman states men of emi-
nence were found who professed adherence to
the tenets of Zeno, and were ready to ojiyxf
tliemselves to every one who seemed to be a
setter forth of strange doctrines. Hence it
was that when I'aul came to Athene he «ai
assailetl as a babbler by these haugh^ philoa)-
phers, because he pr^u^hed **Jc8as and tbe
resurrection " (Acts xviL 18).

STO

STONE (Gen. xzxv. 14). Houses of stone
nn as oommon among the Hebrews as among
lonelves; The more elc«ant stnictores were
Rdlt of hewn and sqnaredstones. Amos sa^
o tiio Inzorious Israelites, "Ye have bmlt
noses of hewn stone, hutve shall not dwell in
kem** (Amos v. 11). when Solomon was
hoot to raise the temple, he '* commanded,
■d they brought great stones, costly stones,
■d hewed stones, to lay the foundation of the
10080'' (1 Ki y. 17). (See Dwellings.)

Stones were often used as we use knives
Pbod. It. 25 ; Josh. v. 2) ; and we are told that
rime knives were usea by the Egyptians in
BNpering dead bodies for the process of em-
Mlmlni]: The disciples of Christ are called
'^ or lively (living) stones (1 Pet. u. 5), in
Ji to their connection witn Christ, upon
wwH. they are built up compactly together, as
Uon tibB one only foundation which Grod has
fii. the living stone (1 Pet ii 4), or the source
<f fife. A heart of ttont is a figurative ex-
■rwiiim imi>ortin^ great hardness and impeni-
■OCT. A stone is sometimes put for an idol
(Baa. ii 19). Heaps of stones were raised to
Osik some signal providence of God in the
•i^ either of deliverance or punishment (Josh.
r. 5-7% The weights of tne Hebrews were
leo oftued <tone«.

Siora, WHITE, (Bev. ii 17), here, is supposed
gr many to be an allusion to the practice of
ame ancient nation&of passing judgment on
Ift ftocnsed person. Those in favour of acquit-
iag him <»st a white ball into an urn. and
booe who adjudged him guilty cast in a olack
oH ; end if tne number of the former exceeded
baA of the latter, the prisoner was discharsred.
Hiiere think reference is made to the wnite
bones which were given to conquerors in the
Uympiaii games, with their names written
pcm them, and the value of the prize they
roo. So the new name mentioned in Isa. Ixii.

may denote the adoption of the individual
xbo tilie family of Godj oy which be is admitted
> privileges Mid blessmgs known only to him
rho possesses them. Others suppose a refer-
noe w the pure plate of gold on the front of
he high priest's turban, with the name Logos
rriftten upon it.

STONES, PRECIOUS. (See under the
arioos names.)

STONING was the most ([eneral punish-
noit inflicted on notorious criminals, and is
HKUilly meant where no other description
f pomshment is expressly mentioned, as in
jBWm "XT. 10. Idolaters, blasphemers. Sabbath-
ceekers, incestuous persons, and stubborn or
ebeUicms diildren, were liable to it. The
tilpiit was led out of the city, and, as some
lave supposed, was bound. The witnesses
gainst him were required to commence the
vark of death; and probably thev divested
hemselves of clothing, that it mignt be done
iMse effectually (Acts viL 58). At the murder
if Stephen they committed the custody of
lieir Clothes to Saul, who was not improbably,
rom his talento and ardour, a ringleader of tne
iftoby and one of the most violent of the perse-

STR

cutors; and the multitude followed the ex-
ample of the leaders, until the victim was
beaten to death. It is said that the ft^uent
taking up of stones by the Jews to throw at
our Saviour, and the stoning of Stephen (Acts
vii 59), and of Paul (Acts xiv. 19), were
vestiges of a punishment called the rdM heat-
ing, inflicted by the mob with fists, staves, or
stones, on the excitement of the moment.

STORK (Jer. viiL 7)-a bird of passage
formed much like the crane, but laiger. It
feeds on insects and frogs^ and was reckoned
among the unclean birds (Lev. xL 19). It has
long legs, with which it seeks food in marshes
and watery nlaces, and its bill is formed so as to
retain its slippery pre}^. It builds its nest
sometimes in trees (Fs. civ. 17), and sometimes
in high ruined towers. Iti9 name in the
Hebrew means mercy or piety ; and its Englidi
name, taken (indirectly at least) from the
Greek storge, signifies natural affection. This
accords with our knowledge of its character,
which is remarkable for tenderness, especially
in the young towards the old birds. In the
autumn they fly to a warm climate, as is indi-
cated in the passage dted from Jeremiah, and
returning in the spring, betake themselves and
families to their several nests. The people
of the country often assemble to see them come,
as there are certain superstitious observances
connected with their return ; and it is not un-
common to see several of the old bird& which
are tired and feeble with tiie long flight, sup-
ported at times on the backs of the young ; and
the peasants speak of it as well known that
such are carefully laid in their old nests, and
cherished by the young ones whom they reared
there the spring before. Their instinct is un-
erring—

** Who bids the stork, Columbos-like, explore
Heavens not its own, and worlds unknown before?
Who oallB the conndl, states the certain day,
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way ? "

Pope.

The stork has long been a peculiar emblem
of filial dutv. Both the white and bhidc stork
abound in Palestine.

STRANGER (Gen. xv. 13). This word has
a variety of significations in the sacred writ-
ings ; as, 1. One who is in a foreign land, at a
distance from the place of his nativity (Gen.
xxiii. 4). 2. One who is not a Jew (Exod. xx.
10 : Isa. xiv. 1), but he might be naturalized—
"the stranger within thy gates." 3. One not
of Aaron's family (Num. lii. 10; xvi 40). 4.
One that is not of the royal stock and family
(Matt xviL 25, 26). 5. Unknown, disregarded
(Ps. Ixix. 8).

The Jewish laws had many provisions for
the protection and comfort of the stranger or
foreigner. Those who are called strangers in
1 Chr. xxii 2 were probably persons taken
in war, and so by tne custom of nations
liable to any service imposed upon them.
Hospitality to strangers is a duty enjoined

gudg. xix. 15-20; Job xxxi 32; 1 Tim. v. 10:
eb. xiii 2). The "strange women" refeirea
to in Proverbs were probably foreigners

623

I>ouTei cUiiaea lodged in the rtnwti. Sbeet*
weru alau msrketo or buaui nt Kput for
diffvmit oecupatiimi, u the ti«ken' itrest
(Jet. xxxviL 21). Mmlern tnvsllen often
mvntiiin it as a common cuHtuin in the Eutem
uiiintriL-a tu sit in the Btrrcti (1 Saul ir. 13i
Jol. xsix. 7. (See Bake, ClTI.)

STitll>>:.S. (See ticuuBaE,)

SUBURBS. (SeeCiTT.I

BUCCOTH (Joab. liii. 27; Judg. riit 15).
]. The {ilace tnvntioneil in Num. xxxiiL 5 wnt

Rrubalily a ri.i>IJni;-pLu« for onrani to and
ijiD >-),'}l't Z In other pueagM Suecoth
ilcnuteii a city ur valley on the cut of JonUu,
brtweUD it and Jabbok, where Abraham pitch-
ed hia tent on hia return from M
tlivn. xxxiii. 17). It wu uUottsd

of <luJ 1 and itfl inhiibitiuita, fnr i

Eiu^ to Gideon, were sevvnly puniihed by
Tiini (.luili;. viii. IS). It ii called "tha valley
of Suniitli" {Pk. Ix. G), or bo-lhn, becauae '
Jacoli'n buililini; bonthg tlierv for hii cattle.

SU(;ri)TH.BENOTH {3 Ki xviL M)—
nid tn be maile by "the men of Batnrlon.*'
The wonl hiw been gnpimtoil to mean "teoti
.if dauKhti'ni"— bo..lbi) for n-liKioin prottitu-
turn. Ilut lu ItaM'liiuoD auKKeati, it may be the
name of s llabylonian godJe«, Zirbuit, wife
of Munxbu-li. (See Mbbudach.)

SlIKKIIMS la Chr. lii. :t)-the name ol
K ]M>rtii>n <if theBllicK of Shiahali. kinfi of Egjpt,
in the invasion of Judetk They are (apixaed
tn have been a tribe of vaudering peoiile from
the Khon-!! of the Red Sea.

SirMMKR (Kiv SsAsom.)

HUMMElt-HOUlSK. (See BwELLUlGS.)

8UN(l'«.xii. 41-the centre of the planet-
nry lytitrm, and the (treat anurce of light and
heat It* diameter i» tM3,000 mile*, and iti

earned innnrolEe, eou <
2Ki.iv. 19). The aauB
tboae beantifnl metapho

ntedaa ">ihw)in

ireat rock in a wsai

'ER8CRIPTION

SUPEKSTITIOU8_ \

'Sv^m

rdigioiu obawvancea ti
•ten elaeirtMTe ; and he i
what he thoagnt wa* «r

SUPPER. (SaeLoM
SUPPLICATION ft
npiwaed that the diatinc
i^e between prayenaad
the latter isther napei
tbraatened or the remo

SURETY. "Byaoii
mrety of a better taati
3me have auppoeed thai

by vbom we draw nigh'
effect of hia mediation.

Kdge, or nmty, >■ ol
B betta hope had bi

SWA

nowledffe of its time of migration is used by
be pro^et (Jer. Tiii. 7) to reprove the in-
dehty of the Jewi. Prov. xxvi. 2 jirobably
ignifiefl that the canes uttered againat the
■moeent pass away like the birds in their
mtA^ The short broken twittering of the
wallow is aUuded to, Isa. xzxviii. 14 ; but
M^ cor jfta, the word used, is said to be the
^ffmm^nnW'm name of the swift

SWAN (Deut xiy. 16)— a beautiful water
M, qncleaa by the law (Lev. xL 18), though
i ii doubtful whether some other bird is not
Bfeaoded in this passage. In the first passage
hs T.yiT- render it the ibiB, and in the latter
It pmrpte bird, meaning i>erhap8 the flamingo,
rnther the pmple water-hen.

SWEAR. (See OathJ

SWEARING, VOICE OF. "If a soul sin,
■d liear the voice of swearing, and is a witness,
Hwtliflr he hath seen or known of it; if he do
lot otter it, then he shall bear his iniquitjr"
LsiT. T. 1). The import of this eipression in
he Hebrew is, "hear the voice of adjuration,
■Bcgation, oath, or curse** — i. e., hears this
tloe when one is adjured or put upon his
■th M a witness in court The precept un-
DMtionably relates, not to the duty of inf orm-
K f>g*™«fc a common swearer, but to the case
fone who is summoned to give evidence be-
«• the civil magistrate. Judges among the
vwa had power to adjure not only the wit-
mKM, bat the persons suspected, as apj^ars
om the high priest^s adjuring our Saviour,
ho thereupon answered, tnough he had before
Mn dlent ^Mi^t xxvL 63). If a person
heard the voice of swearing" — i. e., if he were
Ijnred b;^ an oath of the Lord to testify what
• knew m relation to any matter of fact in
mtioii, and y^ through fear or favour, re-
■ed to give evidence, or gave it but in part,
I waa to "bear his iniquity.** It seems to be
■plMd that such a one should be considered
I we sight of Gkxl as guilty of the transgres-
DO which he has thus endeavoured to conceaL

(■A ^)ATff \

SWEAT. (See Bloodt bwbat.)
SWINE Pent xiv. 8), or HOG, was un-
mn by tiie ritual law, and an object of
fcfeer almorrence to the Jews. Hence the em-
bjment of the prodigal son implies the
mat contemptible degradation (Luke xv. 15).
atxng the fledi of swine is mentioned among
le sinful practices of the Jews (Isa. Ixv. 4 ;
m. 17). The filthy habits of this animal
hntrate one feature in the character of

lely, their fondness to return to
le foul puctices which they professed to
ive fonaken (2 Pet il 22).
The herd of swine miraculously destroyed
Iffstt viiL 32) perhaps belonged to Jews,
id was of course kept in violation of their
m law, not for being eaten by themselves.
It for being sold to the heathen in the
flfnity, or to the troops in the Roman
BTisons (Lev. xL 7).

To "cast pearls before swine** (Matt vii 6)
not more vain and wasteful than to offer the
orda of truth and wisdom to those who are

28

SYN

known to despise them, and who would only
return the offer with insult and abuse.

SWORD. ^eeARMS.)

SYCAMINE (Luke X vii. 6)->a tree common
in Egypt, and closely resembling tiie mulberry
tree in its general appearance. Some of the
ancient translations render it the mulberry.

SYCAMORE (Luke xix. 4)— a common tree
in Judea and the East generally. The name
is applied (though improperly) to the plane
tree, and also to a species ot ma^e. The
sycamore of the Scriptures is the Egyptian
fig tree. Its fruit, which closely resembles
figs, is much esteemed^ and the gathering of it
was intrusted to si)ecial officers (1 Chr. xxviL
28 J Amos viL 14). The wood was used for
building, and though much less valuable than
the cedar (1 Ki x. 27 ; Isa. ix. 10), was very
durable. Egyptian coffins made of sycamore
wood have been found in a sound state after
the lapse of 3,000 years. It often grows to a
great size — ^at least in breadth. It nas many
branches, with large leaves of a green and
glossy colour. The meaning of the compound
term, sycamore, shows its nature and species:
it means &fig-mulbenru,

SYCHAR. (See Shechem.)

SYCHEM. (See Shbchem.)

SYENE (Ezek. xxix. 10)— a very ancient
city, on the southern frontier of Egyptj near
the ruins of which is the modem citv of
Aswan, or Ewan, The site of Syene shows
some granite columns and a confused mixture
of monuments. Here the Pharaohs and the
Ptolemies raised the temples and the palaces
which are found half -buried under the drifting
sand. Here are the quarries from which the
obelisks and ooloraal statues of the EgyptisA
temples were dug; and on the polished
surface of some of the native rocks are found
hieroglyphic sculptured repr&sentations of
Egyptian deities. The stone dug from these
quarries is a species of granite, and is now
^penerally called, from this renon, syenite. It
IS distinguished from the orainary granite by
having in its composition homblenae instead
of mica.

SYLVANTJS. (See Luke, Silas.)

SYNAGOGUE (Matt xii 9). Though
from the earliest period places of seclusion or
of sacred association were resorted to for the
worship of Grod, yet there is no conclusive
evidence that stated meetings of the people
for social relisnous^ services, or meetings for
receiving public instruction, were known
among tne Jews before the captivity. After
that event such meetings became common,
and were called synagogues. They were
probably held at first in private houses or in
the open air. After a time, however, buildings
were erected expressly for their use, and these
were called sjmagogues, signifying properly
the collection of worshippers^ but likewise
the place of meeting. Tradition says there
were no less than 480 of these buildings in the
city of Jerusalem before it was subdued by the
Romans. Probably this is an exaggeration.
To build a synagogue was considered a deed

625

SYN

of piety ami pnMic wlvantij^o. ThuR the

♦fiiU'H of th«.* Jews i'uln>;b»ed tlie cvntimon,

'• F\ir hiili^vi'tli our nation, and hi' hath )milt

iiH a Kjniat:i»;,'ih.'" (Lnko vii. fi). ITioy mij^ht

i)0 Imilt in any jilace whure there wero

wi>r»liii>i»ors t-nouxn to a«*iciato for the

]inr]Mi.so. If nut enmi^'h, it had ai>rodenha

or prayin;:: iilace (Acts xvi. 13). There was

Home rest-nililancu lM.>tweon tlic con^ttniction of

thesu Bynai^i>ipies and that of the taWmaclo.

The centre Imildin;?, which was called the

teinfile, wa.^ furnished with an ark, or chest,

c<>ntaiuin;; the copy of the law which wa« read.

A h>w desk or puliiit was erected about the

iniddio of the K>na;^'o^ie. Some of the seats

weru hi^'her than othent, and were as-sipned

to the elder!*. They were called chie^ op

*'«i>i)enn«».-^t siats" (Matt, xxiii. (5). Kach

syna.L'o^fue had its i)r<»iH*r ofKcers. The

council, to whom the supremo direction

lx'lt»nvo<l, ri in»«if)ted ttf elder.-*, op aged and

inilueiitiul men. The president of this council

was ealled tlie ruler, or "chief ruler of the

8ynaf,'*';,'ue" (Mark v. 22; Acts xiiL 15; xWii.

i>). Aliiinuorrt were also attached to the

Kynai,'ou:ue fi-r the «listribution of its funcK

i >ne of its ciHieers is said to have been calU\l

the an^el »»f the chnru-h. The rulers of the

Kyn;r4o;^nie had iniwer t^) <>xcommunicatc and

to beourjje otren<UTs (Matt. x. 17; John xvi.

2). The putting,' one out uf the syna;;jo;;nie was

ft punishment ^Teatly dreaded by the Jews —

Uiueh more than 8Ci)ur^''in^'. It would seem

also that judicial pnH.'eedin;4s were sometimes

In-ld in the sjni.'ip'i.'-ues. wln-re certain offences

w»r»' 1rif<l, tlie pmii>lnnrnt of whieh was

si-'»Mix'in.c'. Till' ^lli]lls wen' iiiHieteil uuiler

thi' dinv-tion iif the tribunal, in the Hynaj;«>^'ue

(Acts ,\.\ii. rj ; xxvi. llj, by an appitinti^tl

l»er>i>u.

AVhen the apostlrs wer"' evcbuled frum the
Jewi-h syna.-;«'ynrs tiny held their relit;iwujj
n»»'etiiii,'rt in ]ni\ate houses. Hence we re-
]»e:itedly hear itf ehuivh«'s in hr»uses (Aet« ii.
i»i; V. 42; Ilom. xvi. ,"»; I ('<ir. xvL VJ; Col.
iv. 1.*)).

'i'iie service i»f the sjiia.cfi »:::nie was as follows : —
Tlie juojili- U'iiiu' sfate«i. tin' minister, or an;,'el
ff the s3'nau:".Liie. a>cenfled the pulpit, and
offered u|> tli<- publie prayei-s, the ])eoi)le risin.ur
fn'iii their Hats, and standin;; in a i>.i>turt! «)f
d'-epd''\otii>n (Matt. vi. ."»; ^lark xi. 2"»; Luke
w iii. 1 1, i;t). Sol in- 1 if the piayiT^ are a.scrilK'd
ti» K/m. and the f(»lIowiii.r is a .•«p«'einien : —

** J.'.li's-.'.l be thou, O J^.rd our Cod, the God
of our fatli'Ts, the (i«kl of Abr.iham, the irtni
of Isiae. the (iod of Jaeoli, the (Ireat (««k1,
<»werful au'l tremendous, the Hi;rh (Jod,
Kiuntifully disj»enMn^^ Ixmefit.*. the Creator
and l*o>.-«v*Hor<»f the universe, who n'menilKTC-it
tlie pK>d <leedrt of our fathers, and in thy love
Hf-ndf>t a Iledeemer to tht»se who are descended
from them, for thy name sake, () Kinj,% our
Ifeljjer, our Saviour, and our Shield. ]>le8seil
art thou, O l^ird, who art the Shield of
Abraham.'*

nje prayers were nineteen in numlKT, and
Were cIo«ed by readiuL' the execration. The i
020

1

SYR

next thinp: was the repetition of their phylac^
teries : after which came the rea^n^ 61 the bw
and the prophets. The former was divided
into fifty-four sections, with whidi were imiieii
corresjiondixiff portions from the prophetB (see
Acts xiiL 15, 27; xv. 21); ana these wen
read through once in the coune of the ycir.
Acct^nlins to some, on the day of Pentecost tbe
portion ol the prophets that fell in tuiii tn b«
read w-as the very paasagre fmm Joel which
predicted the outpouring of the Spirit en that
memorable occasion. After the return fm
the captivity, an interpreter was empby«d m
reading tho law and the prophets (Xe& \m.
2-8), who interi.>reted them into the Syro*
Chaldaic dialect, whi«^ was then spotei hy
the people. ^ llie last part of the serrice wh
the expounding of the Scriptures, and pfesdus;
from tncm to the people. This was done eitha
by one of the otficers or by some distingniditd

EersoD who happened to be present Thif
apl)ened with our Saviour (Luke ir. 17-30,i.
and there are several other inistanccs Rcuxied
of himself and his disciples t^j^rhiw^ in the
synagogues. The presicbng officer might call
on any person present to deliver an adiirHs
(Matt xiii. 54; Mark vi. 2; John xriiL 'JO;
Acts xiii. 5, 15, 42 ; xiv. 1 ; xviL 1-4. 10. 17:
xviii. 4, 2G; xix. 8). The whole smioe
concluded ^-ith a short prayer or benedictifio.
SYRACUSE (AcU xxviiL 12)-a weihliT
and imyxirtant citv on the eastern coast of the
island of Sicily. It was founded B. c. 730, uil
is distinguished as the birthplace of ^rdu-
metlei^ Syracu:»e was on the dirvct wniK
f nnn I^Ialta la Rome ; and the ai»o#tIe ft''{tpul
there two or throe days.

SYRIA (2 Sam. viiL 12). The wonl Sr^,
called in the Hebrew --irwij*, fp:im a »-^
of Shem ((Jen. x. 22), in iU largest acv'ipla-
tiou extendeil fn^m tlie Mcdit'.'mueaii 4i»l
the river CVdnus to the Euphratc*, api
from mount ^faunia t»n the north to Anldi.
and the l>onler of Eg\i»t Kfn. the soutL Is
was divide<l into Stiria /'ti/ij*''/»rt, incluoi;
Canaan and Phoenicia, (MU'-Syridi, Iwtwi^tt
two rid^'es of mount I^eKinon, and l)-}-''
Si/ria, 'I'he last was known as Sjiia m i
restricted sense. The kin^pa of tliese provinoi
were enga st^hI in frequent wars with the cIlI*
dron of I.^rael, ^umetimcs subject to thar.
sometimes indejK'ndent, eometimea <'pp'^i«
and sometimes m alliance with them. S^TJ
was snccejyively 8iibj«x:t to the A5i'>TruOi
H<ab3'lonian, Per&ian, Macinlonian. Selenciian.
Roman, ana Mohanmietlan dominion, tit whkii
last it now belonjrf*. Syria and Assyria in
n.ames of wholly ditfcn-'Ut derivation - the v*;
allieil to Tyre, or Sur, a» it is pronouuiitd, *t«i
the other Ix-ing fn^m Asshur.

Tlie leading features in the phj-sical a^*<S
of Syria ci^nsist of the ^rreat mountaift-^^
chains of Lebanon, or Lilianus, and A£ti-
lil)anus, extending fn^m north to tk»uth, sfj
the great de!»ert lying on the 8nuth-t)asi at'
east. The vallej-s are of great fertility. od^J
yield abundance of grain, \-ines, mullvrrics
tobacco, olives, excellent fruits, as oraCg"^

SYR

fiM^os, &C. Tlie cUmate in the in-
parts is exceedingly fine. Syria is

by yariouB descriptionB of people,
a and Grreeks form the basis of the
n in the cities. The ozdy tribes that
naidered as pecnliar to Syria are the
f the heights of Lebanon. The most
)le of these are the Druses and Maron-
e ffeneral language is Arabic: the
and officers of government speak

Of the old Syriao few traces exist,
ntry was more celebrated in antiquity
ia. In the south-west was the land
se, the country of the Israelites, and
le of Christianity. Phcenicia, par-
its cities of Tyre and Sidon, were
or commerce. J obah was its capital
Uien Damascus^ long the capital of a
kingdom. Antioch was once a royal
', and accounted the third citv in the
wealth and population. Balbec and
still exhibit splendid ruins of their
Ifreatness. Here have the Assyrians,
reeks, Parthians, Bomans, Saracens,
laders. and the Turks, struggled at
X>erioas for possession. Ninus. Semir-
lostris, Alexander, Pompey, Antony.
Htus. Aurelian, ftc., at a later period
of Bouillon, Kichara Coeur-de-Lion,
&c, and still more recently Napoleon
lemet All, have in turn acted a part
lains of Syria. Ignorance, supersti-
l barbarism now cover the land, and
of its civilization remain,
estorians of the present dav call them-
rian Christians^ because they use the
forms of worship; and they possess
V Testament in this language. At
be Arabic language prevails in Syria,
Bible is therefore within their power.
8 one of the most interesting fields of
ry effort known in our times. Within
I are to be found nine-tenths of the
the sacred history. It was the only

TAB

home for the Church for thousands of years;
it was the candlestick for the only light which
shone in a dark world for nearly twenlnr cen-
turies; all parts of it have been trodden by the
feet of the Son of Grod, or by his prophets and
apostles ; scarcely a hill or a valley but has
resounded with the songs of Moses, of David,
and of Isaiah^ while, above all, here was shea
that blood which "taketh away the sin of the
world."

"When o'er Jndea'a vales and hills,
Or by her oliTe-shaded rills,
Thy weary footsteps went of old.
Or walked the lulling waters bold,
How beaateooB were the marks divine
That in thy meekness nsed to shine —
That lit thy lonely pathway trod
In wondrous love, 0 Lamb of Ood ! "

The whole country is one vast living commen-
tary on the Word of God. spread out for the
perusal of every age, and lor the confusion of
every sceptic

And if these countries are unrivalled in the
thrilling interest of their past history, they are
equally so in the sin^^ulAx* features of their

E resent condition, and m the solemnity of their
iture expectations. Palestine, roboed and
spoiled, sits in desolate widowhood amidst the
dust and ruins of her former greatness; and
the renmant of the Jewish nation, once the
entire Church of God. live like aliens and
bond-servants in the land of their fathers.
But if we have not read the Word of God in
vain, there is much of unfulfilled prophecy
and pronuse scattered along the whole tract of
revelation, which, touching and glancing on
every age, throw a strong and cheering light
over the hiippy future ; and faith rests assured

that

** These mins shall be built again,
And all this dust shall rise."

SYRIA-MAACHAH. The same with
Aram-Maachah. (See Arait.)
SYRO-PHCENICIAN. (See Pn(ENiciA.)

T

TACH (Josh. xii. 21), or TANACH
xi. 25), was a city of Manasseh. It
far from Megiddo, in connection with
is usually mentioned, and ia about 14
m Lei j (In.

fATH-SHILOH (Josh. xvi. 6)-a
the border of Ephraim.
IRAH — burning (Num. xL 3)— an
lent of the Israelites in the wilderness
This name was given to it to com-
e the jud^ent by fire that came on
le for their murmurings at this place
L3-34).

IRING (Nah. iL 7). It means here to
the breast, as one beats a drum or
!ne.

:RNACLE (Exod. XXV. 9) properly

tent, or moveable dwelling-place.^ In

9 it is used^ Num. xxiv. 6; Job xi. 14 ;

Matt. xvu. 4; but in the Scriptures

generally it is applied to the structure which
was prepared by Moses, under the divine
direction, for the Jews to worship in. The
'* tabernacle of the congregation" (Exod.
xxxiiL 7) was erected by Moses for his own
use. In it he rave audience to the people,
heard and decided controversies, and sought
divine direction. Probably the public offices
of religion were also x>erformed here, and hence
the name. Another tabernacle was erected b^
David for the reception of the ark (2 Sam. vi.
17; IChr. x\T.l).

But the tabernade, pre-eminently so called,
was built, as above intimated, by Moses for
Grod. partly to be the palace of his presence as
the King of Israel, and partly as the place of
the most solemn acts of puolio worship. It
was a tent after the fashion of ordinary tents,
constructed with extraordinary magnificenee
in every part, according to the express in-

627

TAB

Rtnxction of Jehovah, and evidently with typical
diwi^ni an<l um (lleli. ix. 1-K). The means of
building; it were furnished in Kuiiorabundance
l»y the viiliintary Ci>ntribiitionH of the people
<Ex.kI. XXXV. 4M ; xxxvi. :i-7), whohwl enriched
themselvtTj \iith the ««i)oilH of the K^'^'ptianK,
^hich th«.*v were directed t4» take aH a reiuuner-
atinn fi>r their lalx)ur (EximL iii. 21, 2'J). (See
BoKRow, Sin •!!..) ITie overi«i;,'ht t)f the work
Vt'SLs intnisted t<i IWzaleel and Aholiab, who
were eiithieil with hi;;h artistic ^-niiiB for tliat
]niriH>He (Kx«m1. xxxl 1-C). 'Hie plan, nize,
niaterials funiiture, &c., to the mort minute
particular, wtrrv revealed to MoseH in mount
Sinai (KxihI. xxv. y.40j. The whtde space
en(.*li>iM.*d for the t;il)emacle was l.V) feet by 75.
This Hiiaoe wan siirruimde<l by fine linen
ciiitains. nearly H feet in height, and hun^ fn>m
brazen or 1 m »iize ]>illurM. They were secured by
pkIs or conlrt atUiched to the t«ip, and stretched
M> as to fatten to pinn in the (^nmml, as rejire-
M.*nt<.Hl in the annexed cut. The i>illan were
Hhtnl with hra^x, their capitals were plated
with silver, ami they hati silver h<K»ks, i»vcr
wiiieh silver rmla were laid to connect the
pillars. Twenty of these pillan ur columns
w*ere on each niile, and ten on each end. llie
entrance or vrate «if the court was closed with a
curtain of ditfen-'ut cidour and texture from the
re«t, stretched on four of the pillars, and so
hiini; ax to be drawn up or let duwn at pleasure
(Kxud. xxviL '.J-IN.

r^.

At the uppiT i»urt of this eiirlosuro, and
f acini; the «*utrance, wa.-4 the tabi-ni:u'le i»ro-
imtIv h<» called reprrheut*:<l in its i»n^iM'ri)lace
in tfie alwive cut. This was 4."» by 1.") feet, and
J't feet hi::h. The Hide** and rear were encl(>se<l
with Ixtanlj*. and the fnait w:ih ojn-n. Over
tlie top W.1S tlirovin a rich, ^jtir^'^-^ius fabric, of
various materials, the connertion and diA-
]>iisition of which, aH well as of tlie otlier parts
of the <'<i\ erinu', are prescribed with the utni«tst
iiiinutenens (Kxod. xxvi. 1-.'W). Tliere were,
in fact, fiiur coverinp*,— tlie Hr>tnnd innermost
of tine linen or cotton ; the seconil. al.»ove it, of
^'•)ats' hair, or cashmere; the thinl of rams'
nkiiiH dyed n'd. or mori»cc^i ; and the f<iurth and
last, or weather covering', <»f ba<l jeers' skins, or
ratlier of Meals' skiuN- a siH-cies of shaKreen, to
I»rot4*ct the fabric fr*»m san»ls and «tonns. The
entrance or <h»or of the talK'ma<;lc was covered
witii a beautifully embroidered curtain, sus-
pended on five coIumnsL The interior was

TAB

subdivided into two ftpartmenta, and Kpankcd
each from the other by a lichly-wioaght cmtui
han^in^ entirely acrou, and reaching from the
top to the bottom. This was called'* the vol"
or " second veil" (Heb. ix. 3), becaoM the fiz*
entrance was also curtained. The outer aput*
mcnt was called the holy place, or taDCtniT,
or the first tabemiicle, ana the inner wu tbf
second tabernacle, or the most huly place, er
the holiest of all (Heb. ix. 2-d).

In the court there were — I. The altar of
burnt oflfering, which aiood near the cestie d
the enclosure. (See Altab.) 2L The bnxi
lavcr (Exod. xzx. 18, correspondiur to the
molten sea. 1 KL \-u. 23), whicn stor^l betwen
the altar and the tabernacle, in ita shape n*
sembling an urn. It contained water itt
washing the hamls nnd feet of the priertavfaa
they wore about to enter the sanctuaiy.

As to the furniture of the tabeniacle itaeU,

there was— L The golden candlestick, etandii^

, on the left of a penon entering the fluwtoary

(itee Candlestick) ; 2. The table of dwv-

I bread, opposite to the candlestick (aee BI£ad):

' '6. The altar uf incense, between the Bhow4)rail

' and the candlcsUck, and in front of the aik

, (see Altab) ; and, 4. Behind the veil, theaik

I of the covenant (see Ark).

I The tabernacle and its court were fimdied

with perfect exactness, according to the patten

or model supematurally revealed to Mom

(Heb. viii. «*>). The silver and gold used in iti

construction (to say nothin|[ of the bne or

cop|>cr, the wood, the curtams and cawpiM.

the fiuniture, &c.), must have amounted to a

very large siuu.

when it was finished it was coa»cnteiL
with verv solemn and impocdnic rites, to the
service oi Jehovah (£xod. xxx. 2:^; xL 9-11;
Heb. ix. 21).

While ]>assing through the wildenieM. the
taljemacle was alwa>'s pitched in the miilf^ d
the camn. The tents of the prie!«ts and Leslies
Hurroumied it in appointed onb^r ; and at wm
distance from them, the resiiiue of the tribo.
in four great divisions, consisting of thn;e tribei
each, and each division with its api)n)i<mt«
name and stanihird or lianner (Num. iL 2-'Ji>i-
The tabernacle and its fumitiux* were ao ob-
structed as to be conveniently taken down,
tranH]>orted, and set up again { and itartiadar
individuals or classes had their reiipectit<
duties assigned to them. £very cncampm«iit
and removal, and even the order of the march,
were directed expressly by Jehuvah. (hi the
day tlic tabernacle wa^ cr>mplete<l G<jd Kveal«>I
him8i>lf in a cloud, which overshadowed and
filleil it. By this cloud assuming the shape of
a pillar or coliinm, their suljsequent conreeva)
govomeiL When it rest«.*d over the tent, the
lK>oi>le always rested ; and when it moved. th«
tal)emacle was taken down, and the whole h'^^'t
followeil wherever it led. In the nij^ht this
cloud became bright like a pillar of fire, and
iireceded them in like manner (Exod. xl 34-aii;
Num. ix. 15-23). When the joumeyini?s oS the
jH'ople were ended, and they entered Canaan,
the tabernacle was erected at Gilgal (Joeh. ir.

TAB

n, where it oontinaed until the ooontry was
abdned^ and then it was removed to Shiloh
L Sun. 1. 3), where it stood between 300 and
00 years. It was thence remoyed to Nob (1
(am. zzi 1-9), and thence, in the rei^ of
)ATidy to Gibeon (1 Chr. xid. 29), where it was
t the commencement of Solomon*8 reijg^ (2
/hr. i. 1-13); and when the temple was finishea,
be sacred fabric, with its vessels and furniture,
nm removed into it. For a time there was a
boble service: Zadok officiated at Gibeon;
nd there was another sendee in Jerusalem,
rhere the arte was.

The tabemade was a typical erection. Its
oky of holies, in which were God's throne and
bi attendant cherubim, in which, too, was the
fmbol of the divine presence, represented
eftven. The veil that concealed it from
ublio gaxe. and which was of a blue colour,
nm the emolem of that sky through which the
Ittvioiir passed when he enteied into the
Mnenceoif Godforus. The outer court, where
be sacrifice was offered, whose blood was
anied into the most holy place, was the type
f this world, where the great sacrifice for man
RMslain. As the high priest, having slain the
aerifice, took its blood and passed beyond the
eil into the inmost shrine, so Jesus, with his
wn Uood, has entered into heaven itself, to
lead our cause and secure our salvation (Heb.
K. 24). (See Texflb.) Other typical points
n sometimes found m the form, materials,
nd coloura employed— acacia wood beins
be symbol of what is indestructible, gold
be image of heavenly light, and the colours
vmbolinng the vanous divine perfections;
Ine representing[ heaven, the throne of Grod.
'diovan was long, and in another aspect
be tabernacle was a magnificent palace —
da ro3ral habitation amon^ his people. Its
rection implied the possession of considerable
realthf and no small mechanical skilL

The worahippers of the heathen gods had
ibemades (Amos v. 26), the idea of which
liey probably took from the Jews. These
ftberniacles were probably portable, carried
pom the shoulders, and they contained the

Tabebvaolb or Tistimont (Exod. xzxviiL
U, Tabibnaclb of WiTNsas (Num. xviL 7, 8).
^ese terms may refer to the law, which was
epocited in the tabemade, and which testified
» God's authority and holiness (Exod. xxv.
1)^ or they may refer to the revelations
nas^ God made of himself in the tabernacle.
ad by which he testified his presence ana
lajeaty in the most sublime and mysterious

Tabebitaclis, fbast of. (See Feasts.)
TABITHA--aaa«e-or DORCAS— a dis-
iple of Jesus Cmrist, dwelling at Joppa^ emi-
ott for good works and Christian behevolence.
ler SBckneHS and death were a cause of deep
OROW to the saints dwelling at Joppa, and
fforded Peter an opportunity of oringing
lanT to believe on the name of Christ, through
be 4Usplay of the miraculous power vouchsared
> him by his ascended Lord. Sad was the

TAB

scene that awaited him on his arrival, the
widows weeping and showing the garments
which Dorcas had made. Peter kneeled down
and prayed; and in the assurance of that
I>rayer being answered, commanded Tabitha
to arise. At once she opened her eyes, and
Peter gave her his hand, and lifted her up, and
presented her alive to the saints and wmows.
The surprise and joy to those around must
have been veiy great, when the life of one so
useful and so beloved among them was restored.
No wonder that many believed on ^e name of
the Lord. Tabitha's history has afforded a
bright example to, and has been followed by,
many in the past ages of the Church, and it
still stands on record, and will to the end
of time, as an ensample of what a Christian's
practice ought to be.

TABLE (1 Sam. xx. 29). The table of
andent times was nothing but a circular sldn,
or piece of leather spreadupon the matted or
carpeted floor; and this, at home as wdl as by
the way, answers for table and doth. Near
the edges of this leathern trav there are holes
or loops, through which, when tiie meal is
completed, a cord is drawn, by means of which
the whole affair is compressed into a small
compass, and hunjg upon a naiL Some have
thought that this is the pavilion mentioned in
Jer. xliii. 10. (See Bbead.)

The nearest approach to what we call a table
is a mere stool, which is placed in the centre
of the leather we have mentioned. This might
be intended in Judg. i 7, where Adoni-bea^
speaks of threescore and ten kings who gathered
their meat under his table. It» only use is to
hold the prindpal dish, or dishes. There have
been seen among the Arabian nobles, and in
dties, long tables. These, however, were only
a span high, and not a yard widel and were
entirely uncovered^ and usuallv held nothing
but the dishes. More freauently all such con-
veniences are wanting, ana the dishes stand on
the leather.

Instead of a tablecloth, there is spread
round the leathern tray a long doth, or two
such cloths, of a dark colour, which prevent
the soiling of the caxpet. Among poorer
people there is nothing of the kind, ana every
one uses his handkerchief, by way of napldn.
Instead of plates there are set thin round
cakes, of a coarse kind.

After the captivitv raised tables like ours
became common, ana the Persian practice of
reclining on couches at meals was intro-
duced. (For the manner of sitting, see Eat,
Seats.)

TABLES, TO SERVE, (Acts vi 2). This
expression may denote attention to the pecuni-
ary or secular affairs of the Church (Matt xxi.
12^ xxv. 27}, or. more strictly, and more in ac-
cordance with tne context^ it may relate to the
oversight of the distribution of the charity of
the Churdi for the relief of the poor in the
infant church at Jerusalem.

Table, writiko. (See Book.)

TABLET. (See Book.)

TABOR, MOUNT (Judg. iv. 6)-a lune-

629

TAB

Btone mountain whicli rUcs on the northern
bitnlcr of the ])lain of £jMlraclon. about 50 miles
north of JvruAalem and C miles from Nazareth.
Its nhaiK} resemblea a cone with the point
Btrui'k oif, the Hummit presenting a level area
a < quarter of a luilu in lem^th, and the eighth
cif a mile in brvadtli. This area was once
enuli>si'(l, and ])robably fortilied, as there are
the ruins ni a thick wall of solid masonry and
luuitions all around the circimiferenco of it, and
the foundations of jtrivute dwellings within,
llio h(ri>;ht of the mount is variously e:«timated
fnmi 1,000 fet't to 'A miles. By Atmw the esti-
mate is madv from the time taken to ascend,
ami by othorH fn>m the actual measurement of
the circuitous ])iith, which may ))e jmrsibnl on
horiH'back rvi-n t<» the summit. l*he decliA^ties
on fvi.rj* sidi; are i-ovt-rvMl to the very t<")p with
vrnlure and rhiuips of tret-s— oaks, olives, and
syoamort's -intc•n*|K'r^e^l with a rich variety of
phmts and floworti. TIil- view from the sum-
luit of Taltor is ilf}(cril>ed by uU travellers in
tcnns of the hi^rhr-t uihniratiou. It t)vertoxw
all the ni'iuhlMinrinv: bills (.Icr. xlvi. 18). On
tlie wc>»t Im the n»il»le exitiiuse of the ^fedi-
ti-rrancan ; bcnrath an; r<proad the iKrautiful
I>lains of Ksdracli'n an«l (ialUee; while in the
«listance ap]«»ar Canml, and the hei^dits of
SaiiiAria ami (iilUa. Kast ward, «'^ miles off,
is the Poa of Tibrriits; and north are the snow-
ed tvoi'od ] K-aks I if I <(.'! )UU( ni. The modem name
of Talnir i«s dcbrl i-t TClr.

On tlii^ mountain Itanik encamped with
lO.iMM) of the niL'U (if /fbidun and Na])htali, on
till.' I'M' of the I'atth." >\ith Sist-ra (du«l>:. iv. 0,
I'J. 111. ami licrc. according,' to tniditii'U, was
tin* woii'li-rful scviii" of tlie transtiuTUiMtion of
Chri.-t l.M:ttt. xvii. 1). Yet m»t only is there
no authoritv for lu'licvin^ Talnir to be the
^pot. but it has been pro\t.-d that both Wfore,
tlurin/, and after i nri.-st's time, the top of
the hill was occupird by a town and a Itoman
pim^'U, anil tlicrffore had neither the n;-
<|ui'<ite .spa«-«' nor se<-lusion \\hi\'h tle-^us rn-
jovid on '*au lii^h unMintaiu apart*' (Matt,
.wii. 1).

TAJU)U a Levitical city in Zebulun (1
(.'hr. vi. 77), otlurwisf called C'hislotli-Talxtr.

'J'aiiou, I'lain of (I Sam. x. y), should be
nndi-n-d oak of Tal>or.

TAliKl-rr ((.;en. xxxi. 27)— an instrument of
music, and UM'd in the Ea>t at the present ilay,
and ealled '//'Y, wan foniitd and jilayed like
the moilfiu tiimbourinr'. (.See Ml'sic).

TACUKS (Kx.hI. xwi. J>, ll)-iumcHlem
Kn.-^'lish, ta«:ks, cfi and X bein^' interi'lian^fvablo,
as in mih^ inifrh -wen.' liooks or chtsps of
\."\d ami coppiT, uxed in connecting the cur-
t.iin.-^ of till' tabernacli'.

^ TACHMOMTK (2 Sam. xxiii. 8). "The
'J'aclinionite tliat sat in the neat, chief among
th<' «'a|.t;;ins." is called in 1 C'hr. xi. 11 **.Jasho-
I'-'aiu.an JI;u:hnioiiiti.', thecliiefof thecaptains,"
or *'.>.iii of liaehiuoiii," in th^* margin. Some
o'luKct tIi..'\\ord with the Hebrew Hhakam,
anil lendi-r. " »<;it in tlie tjcat of wi.sdom ;" ttthers
a.::' in sny that the wonls «it in the seat are
in i lei .rew a wn.ng Heparatii»n of the name Jash-

TAl

obeam. Jaehobeam, the Hachmonite,
probably the true name of the hero.

TACKLING (laa. xzxiiL 23; Acts xxviL
19). Strictly, in the former passage, it i« cscd
for the ropes attached to the ma«t; in the
latter, it is used loosely, and im])ort5 the ^iK
conlage, ba^e^age, ana indeed all the in>tni-
ments of sailinff, except the anchors, or vlut
was indispensable to the prvajervation of the
ship. (See ShipsJ

TADMOR (1 KL ix. 18)-«gnif>Tng ;«/«
tree — an ancient citv, said to have l>ecii fcumd-
ed by Solomon, and one of the finest an<i m-^et
mi^niificent cities of the world. It was dtu-
ated about 100 miles east of Damawms, 'ii w«$t
of the Euphrates, and 120 from AWjipo. on »
kind of island, separated from the lulital-lif
earth by an ocean uf barren sands. Aleuo-
der the Great, who conquered it, gave it ut
name of Palmyra^ or the dtp of pal m*^ becatia«
of its position amid palm grovea There is tx-
tant a folio volume wiUi mtj pUktes, illnstnt*
in^i^ the ruins of this ancieut cr^. Its de»)li!e
ntuation in the midst of a vast and arid pUin.
its hi^h antiquity, and its almoat countU-x)
remaiuii of architectuxal splendour, clshn fir
it the first attention among the famous mmiu-
ments of past ages. At present it msT la
Baid to consist of a forest of Corinthian jiilLtis
erect and fallen. So numerous ai« they that
the spectator is at a loss to reduce them t^ an;
order, or to conceive for what purpUM: tb«r
were designed. Of all the rains thctfo of Thi
temjde of the sun are the most magnificent

Situated on the great commercial thor^ii.'b-
fare bet^'een SvTia and Mesop-^tanun. it i-
probable that Tadinor was a Place of iui;- r-
tance long before the time of Siiloni>>n. aixl
was used by him for purposes of coiiimfrojl
enti-r] *rise. Queen Zenobia made it her earful ;
but Aurelian dwtruyed it. a. d. 273. It i** very
obvious that the present ruins belong t.^ differ-
ent and far-di<$tant ages. The ^ilace ii iii>v
occuijied by stmie twenty or thirty hnts <v
hovew, which atford shelter to a few wiU
Andis.

TAHAPANES (Jer. ii. IG), TEH.VPH
NKHES (Ezek. xxx. 18), TAHrAXHES
(Jer. xliii 7), or UANES (Isa. xxx. 4). Th^t
several names were given to an Egyptian city,
kno^\'n to the Greeks as Dajthnrr^ not far fnffl
Peluaium. It seems to have been an imi^iirtaDt
pl.'K'e, containing a i.talace of the king (Jer.
xliii. '.)). Thither the Jews under Juhananllet)
from the Chaldeans, after the destructi<^n (i
Jerusidem; but were pursued by Xebuchai-
nezzar, king of Babylon, who e^bhihed bis
throne there, in accordance wi^ Jeremiab'j
]>ro])hecy. Jeremiah is su)>pos«d to have died

TAHPENES (1 Ki. xL 18-20)-the rmeen ^<
that I^haraoh who gave Hadad of HJvdi b:<
sister-in-law as wife. She has not bteii in
any wav identified.

TAlL — tlie proper translation of thcsam-
ficial term rendered **rumi>^ in our verso-Hi,
as in Exod. xxix. 22. The tail of s«>me l!iii>i^
of S>Tian sheep is a mass uf fat, sometiiucs

Iwentr pmnida id weight. A Email vchiole
with wfaeeU ii put under it to nave it and
(■■e tb« aninuL Hence the oocuirenco of t^e
tann in ueriGcial Btatnte.

TALENT. (Sea MusDRES.)

TALITHA-CUMI (Marie ». 41)-n phnae
in the Syiian-ChaUoic laDgnose, the liteml
traiuktiini of vhich i> given by the evu^eliEt,—
** Damsel (or naidat), arise."

TAHAB— jKiIm trtt—mta of Judah's two
■ana in moceMfam, Er and Ooan. She aeduced
bw tkthar-in-tkw eva wily trick. Ab his other
•Dm Hl»»l»>i was nckoned too young to be her
hMJwad, lbs tnm, on diacoveiy, sentenced to
Iw bnniad alive ; but the seatenco was remitted,
and ahe bore twin sons. Fharez and 2;arah.
Alao > daughter of Sand, and full

the death of the fabled Adonis, and proetitntion
was to them a religious duty. The festival
whb connected with tho worship of the sun.
Adonis is simply the Hebrew Adonu, or Lord,
having the eaine meaning oe BaaL It is tbuH
truly ocd vividly described by Milton : —

"Than

violated by her half-brother Ammon.
wnmKht sod havoc in David's
Another Tamor was daughter of

Mlotn a SanL ziv. 7).

:AMAR (Eiek, xlviL 101— » place on the
a border of Judon, sither Che pla

fnllr named Haienin-tamar' or EngetC, o
•nothar plaoa to the south of Hebron.
TAMMUZ, or THE TAMMUZ (Eiet vi'

WbOBS Hinuil HOnnrl to Lebanon allured
The Syrian duawlg to IsmrDt his [ale

Wh»s winlon nsKlona In'lbo neml po'rch

EnklDl Biv. wEeo. bv tho tIhIoii led.
Bis eye survey'd the iulL IdoliUtes
Of allenmlBd Jndih."

(See JSALOCBT. Imaob ot; Mostb.)
TAPESTRY (Prov. iiii 22)-cloth woven

or wrought with fii-ures.
TAP? UAH (J^Hh. IV. ai). There wero

evidently two cities ot this name— one in the

ShepeUh oc low country of Judah, towards

' the AlediteiTOni

Jicon; the other belun^ng to
the border of Mantud^ and

whow wunhip were in the highest d^ree most probably the £n-(ojipuaA of Jueh,

■aiA, Htiil loiuwii in vaatern

bloDce t" wheat in vrry
ex&ct, but anme o{ it*
linii»rtu-« nrc biyhly

DJi-v eye only could de-
eet tbe differencv, tores

Inth to gmn until

b»rveBt Tha aci-

this i»rab1(

IiiitliDg Dp this itiaw. nnit wnaratine it from
theKunniuo ^aiii, bii.1 thiir a«icri|itioiu per-
fvt:tly acciTil with thu laoguage of dot Saviour
In tlw iwlal Jv.

TAmiKT. (See Arani-R.)

TAllWIllSK {IM. uiii. 1), or THAR.
Slimil 11 Ki. X. Zn. It haa been imagined
that nam )>lnre iif tbit name eiialed □□ tbe
eoMirm Ci>iuiti>f Africa. oramoDg tbesnutb^m
IKirtu lit Am-T, with which the ships of Hi
and Siikoiiou tnulrd in "(iiild and dJ
ivuiyand ajim, and jieaoiiiks" (2 Chr. it __..
It is Mill thut <ina> in svrry three yean tbeto
■hipa cinniih'tMl a Viiyaffe, and brought home
tbeiT nu-rcbiuidiM. Ilmce it i* iufrrred the

Jilnee iritb whli'h tliey tmled must have been
liiitiuit ftiim Juilm; »r, thnt nftrr vi<iitinit
Tuvhish, ami imiciinim what it fumiidiiHi,
tlxnr trailed n itli iither an) more diktout Jibrta,
ami ■cniniidii'liultbu wbidoin tbrv<? yearn.

]lut Tanihii.h wm a faniutu aty HUd iwrt
In thu wnith nf S|>aiii, ami va- " ~ — ~

also i4 m rivvr and a ttiritiiiT. ,

uuiRint niirl'm it by Carthi^. thu Vuli^iilo
ofti-n hy "wa." and the 1'ar„'uni «t-
■iiinnlly tiy Afrim. .Tonah fled tu TanhiH
Id thi> njigHMtf directiun nf Kincwh. T
nary iit t<iiliim(>n ntiled to il iil»ni; with tbe
flrPt iif Ilirani of 'i^-n-. Tnnliiith huiog a
]>biimit.'ian nilimy, (Iw. xxxiil) The v.jy*4,f
thnniifh tbo MeiliterTati^:Ln to Tanihiiib was
madf by the Int^^uit ahipn nt thriee dnvK,
wi that Tiwwls of a large tonnage were calli-d
"iihi[iii <if Turnlii.-ih," jiittt as we sneak of an
Iniliomin nr a neventy-tuur llaa. it lli; iiiiL
1. 14 ; hvi. !>: ]^, k. xxvij. 2.^). Shi]» rctuni-
iu-j from Tnr-liinh heavily lailen, and livating
U]i the Mi^ilit-Tranean, were linhlc to br re-
tunled nml " bnJcm " by an ciut wiuil ( I 'n,
Tlviii. 7; Kirk. xxviL Si). TiirHbi»h. ealled
"■ -' -IB l>y thi. Unvkfc ■ ■ -^

metois-a* KB-kiel aars, "all rielies,
wiKT, in>n, tin. and lead." ITiinr ojiulence ia
<>fti'n ref-mil t.. liy claxdical mitprs; and in
lat'T Ititiian timift iO,(M> mintm wt-ni at v>-..rk,
and £>,on(l ilrochnuu of tiilviT wan tbe yif Id to
the IIiHtun n-MdJir. The i>rini-ipiil <hfKcutty
aUmt tlip |.«n]ity nS Tamhixh lies in tbe com-
janson of 1 Ki. xxii 48 witi 2 Chr. a. M.

TAX

Id the book of Kin^ the ahips which Jebod^
aphat built on the Red Sea tut uilini ta
Ophir, ore called ships of Tanhipb, linOik*
tliuaii that were employed in the Tiaiii^
trade; but in the bnolt of ChronidH therur
■aid to have bees built "to go toTuvb^*
Similarly 1 KL ii. 3, compared with S Ox.
ix. 21. Varions methods of ruoneilialicnlui*
been proposed— even a conjecture that Ibi
sbipi built on the Red Sea wwe cBnied sens
the isthmus of Snea, and launched in tk
Ueditenanean. Tbe probaldli^ ii tbrt xw
copyist of Chroniolea mistook to* meaaiu i^
the phraie, "ahipa of Tanhiih," and, tld>£it
that they must bm ahipa intended to nil H
Tanhisb, so worded the cIbiii& (See Sim.)
TARSUS (AcU zzL 39)— the cbief Ion d
tbe ancient C^cia. and the birthplace U th
apostle Paul-was situated on tbe nver Cpls^
about 6 miles from ita month, and, like Alu-
andria, was celebrated both for it* couunote
and literature. When Cilicia bscame a Rom
province. Tarsus recnred from tbe empait
Augustus the jirivileffes »f a Bamsu cckoy.
Hence Paul speaks of bimadf as frtt-ion, lU

(Acts xziL 28). The pririlegta of tldi dtr
made it tbe resort of many wealthy nc
learned men, and was the occasion of ito lii^
to great commercial emiaenoe, and to '
distinguished as a seat of leaning,
to the latter, pmfnno histuriaiu say th^ m
philosophy and polite literature tbe scbooli of
Tamu even excelled those of Athsu sad
Aleundria. Paul was indebted to hit utin
city nut only for hi» privilege* of Ertun
citizomliip. but t'lr his Literary sc>iuiieiiieiii-

TAHTAK (2 KL xvii.

Avitea, ■ettleit in Samar
ihiliped imder the form of

TAKTAN (3 KL xviiL
be. like the other names
slialieh, an official UUe, i
mandiT-in-cliief.

TAVEItNS. (See

TiVXIKG (Luke ii
rA r*yreuiUH with thi^ taxing, Be

Objection* have been made to me raitormi
of the evangeli«t on a variety of grwnid'-
It is said that during the reign of Aogsfta
history informs us of nothing beymd tit
cenmiscs of singlo rmvincos ; that aJmiltiiis »
general cfnsafl of the empire to have acenind.
It could not have been taken in .ludes at tlx
time Jesus was bom, because Judea dmis;
tlie reign of Herod was ni.it a Roman proviBa;
that if such a census were taken in Jndea 1^
the It.nnana, they would not have ""
Jo»p|ih to travel to the city of bin a
bccauie their rule was tu take tbe ceunu u w
plaee of actual residence ; that Uie juumejiBI
of Alary to be enrolled, considering hw
situation, is doubtful ; and that, even if •
ceiimin wsB taken at aNiot the time t'hlift "si
Nini, Ltdio, in affirming that it occurred dariv
the prociiratorahip of Quirinus, under wb-nn •
^Hiiii was actuallr taken ten yean later, iut
t least confounded the two.

tobelii^

a gnl of Uh

T Three TavEEXs.)

adeal?

TAX

Fini, as for a general censnB, aside from the
iMlliniiHj of Luke, we have the witness of two
ottMur wnten, Cassiodoms and Suidasr Both
Uaadwere Christians, and lived in a later age.
Biffl, from the fact that Cassiodonis mentions
%m aurvey of the empire in addition to the
mmtnm, tad that Soidas relates the appointment
rf twvoty moi to take it, and comments upon
fha wisdom of Augustus in respect to it. it is
•fideoi that they must have obtainea this
hfonnation from other sources than Luke's

PmmL
In n

respect to the objection that a Roman
in Judea could not have been taken till
rvdeA was reduced to a Boman province,
slufili did not occur till the year 759, it may
ae answered, that the impossibility affirmed
■ • mere assumption. We admit uiat in the
dBgdoms of allies a milder and in some
nstannt? a very mild form of taking it was
ihBSiiud. Espedallv would this be the case
B the OSBSUB of Pafestine under Herod, and
»ith * people so much inclined to revolt as
iha JswiL jPkobaUy the execution of it was
Btrasted as much as possible to Herod and
bis ciffioen. The character of Herod as a rex
9oeimM presents no difficulty. The Clitae,
dtboiign governed by their own princes, were
■till inuuded in the Koman census. Besides,
ttis lelation of Herod to Bome leaves scarcely
room for a doubt in respect to the poesibili^
of • Roman census in his kingdom. Pompey
had ah«ady levied a tribute upon the Jews.
Two edicts of Julius Cssar in re8i)ect to taxa-
tion are also preserved by Josephus, Antiq,
zIt. IQl 6, 6. The latter of these is generally
mismiderstood. It clearly speaks of a double
tax ; the fint, a yearly one. the amount of
which is not given, and whicn not improbably
■uij have be^ a poll tax; the other a land
taZy as appears from the requirement of a
ivurth part of what was sown.

Bat why is it not mentioned by Josephus,
sspeciaUy since he has given an account of the
csnans under Quirinus ; and the history of the
fatter shows that the Jews would not be likely,
jB the time of Herod, to endure quietly a
F^^« census? The answer is, that there
great dissimilarity between these two
Both, indeed, in the last instance,
set on foot by Augustus Caesar. But the
»«r. aside from its probably milder form,
tacen under the direction oi Herod, while
the IsAter was taken under the direct super-
▼ision of the Roman officer, Quirinus. llie
losmer mppewed to guarantee the relative
mdopendence of Judea : while the latter was
eonnected with the subjugation of Judea to
tlie Inmiediate government of Rome. The
importance of these two censuses, in respect
to the political state of Judeiw was therefore
widely different; and hence Josephus might
Ttry pr(^)erly mention the more important
ono imder Quirinus, and take no notice of
the ono under Herod.

The objection that if a Roman census had
been taken in Judea^ Joseph and Mary would
have been enrolled m Nazareth, the place of

TEK

their residence, instead of Bethlehem, needs
but a brief consideration. This was a^ pro-
vincial census, not a census of Roman citizens.
Augustus respects as far as possible the Jewish
nationality. One of its most prominent
fea4iures, tiie ancient division according to
Imeage, is made the basis on which it is
executed. Then, too, the nature of the case is
to be regarded. If this was a cenmt, taken
with reference to the better raising of the
poll-tax^ what easier or more effective mode of
taking it than through the connection of the
public genealogical registers? That Joseph
should journey to Bethlehem on such an
occasion is tiierefore just what we should
expect Though ordered by Roman authority,
it was executed according to Jewish custom.
Some little proj^rtv mav have belonged to
Joseph or Mary m Bethlehem.

Lastly, the objection based on the account
of Luke, that Mary accompanied her husband
to Bethlehem, is the most insignificant of
alL Even admitting that no legal necessity
comi>elled her to niake the journey, who in
our day is sufficiently well acquainted with
her feeungs and relations to be sure it would
not be made? It is at least as probable that
Mary, in the excitement ana disturbance
attenoing a census, would rather prefer to be
with her natural protector, Joseph, than to
remain at home.

TEARS (Ps. Ivi. 8). Allusion is supposed
to be made m this passage to an ancient cus-
tom, which was preserved among the Romans,
of collecting the falUng tears of mourners at
funerals, and putting them into a bottle or
urn, called a Jachrumatory or tear-hotiU, These
vessels were afterwards fixed upon the sepul-
chres of the dead — Uius seeming to preserve a
memorial of the affection and grief of the sur-
vivors,

TEBETH. (See Month.)

TEETH. (See Tooth.)

TEHAPHNEHES. (See Tahapanes.)

TEIL TREE (Isa. vl 13). Though the
original word in this passage is renderea wik,
it is generally supposed, from the connection,
^lat the lime or linden is here meant. Per-
haps two different species of the oak may be
intended.

TEKEL. (See Mens.)

TEKOA (2 Chr. xi 6), or TEKOAH (2
Sam. xiv. 2)— a city of Judah, south-east of
Jerusalem, and a few miles from Bethlehem,
and now called Teku'a. It was probably-
founded by Ashur (1 Chr. iL 2; iv. 5), and was
fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 6). This
seems to have been a spot resorted to by herds-
men, among whom was Amos the prophet
(Amos i 1). It was here too that Joab obtain-
ed a woman of peculiar skill and address to
present a fictitious case to David, in onler to
force from him a favourable jud^ent in the
parallel case of Absalom. David, howevo*,
detected the hand of Joab in the whole
device.

Tbkoa, WILDEHNES8 OF, was in the same
region, uid constituted part of the wilderness

633

r

TEL

of Juilah. Here Jclittshaphat defeated the
Ammonitos nnd MnaMt4-fl (2 Chr. xx. '20).

TKLABIH (Kzi'k. iii. 15)- a tiwn on the
river ('hel»ar, whtTt* Kzi-kiid and many of the
tIrwLth fxilfM dwt-lt. Itn Bite in HuniMMiii hy
HTiiue t4'» ]>e i.>C('iii>ieil by thu mcHlvm Ihvlulian.
The Soiituu;nnt t^iku it as a common noun,
and n-mier it l>y **in mid air."

TKIiAlM— .»/'>rii»// himbg (1 Sam. xv. 4)—
the jrathi-rin-TphuM' of SauVi* forci*H previous to
hiH attack on Anialek. It ha;ii not uecn iden-
titieil.

TKLASSAli. orTHELASSAR (2 Ki xix.
12), M a i»1jiiv ln'li»iij,'inj,' *'t«) the children of
Kdon." Tlio Tur^niiiiist* identifieil it ^i-ith
Ive.sen. It nirniiM th«- )iill of Asshur, and jMiintH
to hiiiiii* site in wi-r^ti-m Medoi>otamia, where
he wji"* wurHlnpiH'il.

TKLKM {.I..>h XV. *2\)- a t«Avn in the Bouth
land of dnd:i]) I'identitiird l>y some with Telaiiii),
LM miles Hiiutli of llehrou, and occuiiieil by the
Dhiillam A nibs.

TEMAN. SnrTH (Amon. i. 12) -a eity of
Edoin, n«»t f;ir fri»in .hiktheel. ((UpiM>.4i>d tt> liave
lK.'eii settli'd by TiMiiaii. i:randMi»n of Es*au(Cien.
x\xvi. 111. hi Hab. iii. l\ allusion is m:ule,
ill thi* biL:ln'>t Myb' t»f ]Mu'tic iniau'ery, to the
ri"ni«>val «»f th«- ^viobils «if the iliviiie pn*seuce
fniui tilt* land nf Tcnian and I'anui ti) Sinai,
(Ex(>«l. xix.) (S»-»' Ki"»M.)

TEMl'LE (1 Sam. i. U)-the eacred edifice

erected at tfiTusal" 'in iin a |H'nnanent place of

w«)rf*hip ft»r th«' .Irwi>h i Mnireh. In its (reneral

fiinn it n'>*enibled the talH-niaole, for \viiich it

>va<t Hub-titnted, and it was the centre of the

name ::n-:it sy-tfiii of ceremonial worshijj.

(Si'»' Tai:ki:\a« i.i:.) Tin* temple w;i» built on

iiniuiit Miiriali T- <'hr. iii. 1». Tlii.s was one

Hnuiiiiit of a ran;:t> uf bilN. the treut.Tal name

tif \\hi'-h wa-f iiKiuiit /inu (I'm. cxxxii. li>, 1}).

(Sr»' flKlir>.\i.i M.) TIji' itli'a nf Itiiiliiiii-^' it wa*»

hU;:L'r.-tiil til tlie mind i»f J>aviil (I (.'hr. xviL

1). and bi-tMiiH* a Mibji't-t nf bis lively and un-

re;i.-%iuur iuti.-n-'f. lb' mllfeteii an enormous

• I'laiitity of the pni-imm iiirt:ds, K'sides im-

]iii-iir>i* (|Uantitic.s of bra>s, inin, stone, timber.

A«'. ; and he necunMl hkilfid mechanics ana

artitiei'M fur evrr^' bran<-h of the work (1 Chr.

xxii. 11; xxix. 1, 7). \\r also funiished the

dt>>i;:u. plan, and liK*ati«>n of the building, in

all Mliii-lj In- \%a'i divinrly iii>tniet*Ml (1 (,'lir.

xxi., x\ii., xxviii. 1 1-ll»). Hi* was not i>enuit-

t«*d. huwi'V«T, V* s«'r a sin^'ll• Hti'}) taken in its

«'ivi.-linn (1 Ki. v. ."{,1. Tin- su|>erintendence of

th«* building' was eummitted to Solomon, the

H«»n anil >uei'issur nf I)aviil. win) in the fnurth

year r»f his rei.Lai C'immen<'ed tlie work. There

wtTe lK;i,«)O0 .li'Wrt and htninj,^.^!* emi»loycd on

it ; of Ji'WH :^\inH). by n.tatii-n ID.WX) a m«)nth ;

of < 'anaaniti-jj, l.Vi,«jlHl, of whom 70,<X)0 were

beariTS of burdens, WI,'MK) were hewers of

WihmI and htone, and .S,ri4K) overseurn. The

parts Were all j in 'pared at a fli»tiince from

the site of the buildinj:. and when they were

bn>n;^ht tiiLTi^ther the whole immense Htruc-

tuiv was erfeted without the smmd of ham-

iiirr, axi*. or any tiK»l of ir»n (I Ki. \i. 7) ; ami i

ut the end of '.iven and a half years it »»tood I

TEM

coiDplete in all its Hplendour, the glory of Jem*
Halem, and on<« of the most TnagwHM»rt
edifice^ in the world.

The temple, like the tabernacle, bad ill
front towarus the ea«t« Surrounding natioM
worshipped the sun as he arose in the cast; bat
Jehovah wunhippen, as they proceeded to dffs
him homage, turned their oack in contenpt
on this obj wt of idolatrous homage. The poRi,
or portico, extended acroas the 'whole fnat
pn>jecting 15 feet from the main buildhig, iM
rising to the height of 180 feet. Upua tbe
rides and rear of the main building wh sa
a4lditional building of three stories, each Dcuriy
S feet high. This structure was about half nt
height of the temple, and though baih waimt
the walls, was not f astene«l into them (1 KL vi
7). It was divided into apartments like daa*
bers, which opened into the gallery that to-
rounded it. There was a flight of stain on thi
south side which led iut4i the second rtitNT, lad
another leading from the second to the thiid(l
K i. vL 8). The whole buildin^jind its ennim
were entered by two courts. The inner oont
calUnl the *' court lief ore the temple," or thi
"ct.»urt of the jiriests," oi^rresponded geoetallf
with the court of the tabernacle, as did ak
the Kacred ajiartments, furniture, and utenak
The temple of Solomon was built by Syria
architects, and in the Syrian st^-le. thevib
within and without bein^" lined with cedar, aid
the inside all overlaid with gcdd.

The temple of Solomon stood altogether 4S1
yean ; but in the short space of thixir ytsM
after its citmitletion it was phmdered brSU*
shak, king of Egypt (1 Ki xiv. 2."i. 2»;). 'Afer
this it w&s f re< (uently profaned and pillaired. lod
was at last broken down and dodtrciyeJ brthe
kiiiL; of liabylon, B. c. 5s8, and the natk'nitMtf
carried int* » captivity. Id fifty-two year? after
these e Vf nts a number of the Jews returned, aad
the rebuilding of the temple was comnienoiid
under the Hui>erintendenoe of Zeniblialiel the
Jewish ^vemor, and Jeshu.!, or Joshua, tbf
high pnest. They were T>ermitted and a»-
courajr«tl to undertake it by Ojtus, the To-
man em]>eror, to whom Judea hod now Imooim
tributiry (Isa. xliv. 2H; xlv. Hi), Muohint*
ruption and delay attended the enterpriie, of
which we have a full ai.*cotmt in the Mok d
Ezra. It was completeil, however, and dedi-
cati."*!, B. c. rd5, or alK>ut seventy-three v«n
after the destruction of it : antl thou^'b voii'
rior in many resjx^cts tt> the first temjile. hanae
no ark, no mercy -seat, no visible reveU&JD'i
the divine glory, no sacred fire, no urim jibI
thummim, and no spint of nrnphecy (Ezra ui
12, K{), still it was in breaflth and hcitrbt t«iv
the size of Sidomon^s. It furnished a fixed plaK
of worship for the nation, and ultimatelr be-
c.ime the theatre of far more glorious illiuoa-
tions of the divine glor^ than the first tcmpk
ever witneKsed (Hagg. iL 6-t): MaL iiL 1; GA
ii. i»; 1 Tim. iii. IG).

The tem]>le of Zerublmbel haul stood nearly
rtt)0 years, and was much decayed, when H^^
the Great, with a Anew to secure the favyiir«<
the Jews, and obtain to himself a great vamt,

TEM

ok to rebuild it; lo that it was not •
ifioe, strictly spealdiig, bat rather a
e repair of the Beoimd temple. He
he work only seventeen years before
li of Christ, and completed the main
r in less than ten years, so that it was
le service. The whole work occupied
t yean (John ii 20). The Jews spoke
hen they said, "!rorty and six vears
temple been in building. " Weshallnow

I it as it stood in the days of our Saviour,
oter wan, whidi encksed the buildings.
3iit one^eighth of a mile square, ^d
W> feet above the summit of tne mount.

II was built up from the valleybeneath,
I aome hundred feet high. The exca-

eoinff on at present have shown that
£ widl of the Haram, which rises to a
of 80 feet above the present surface,
By through a mass of dibris, 53 feet
t, and so originally stood upwards of
i in height above its foundation on the
[t has uso been, made apparent that on
9 the wall must have presented an un-
front of 1,000 feet m length. The
^ of Josephus no longer sounds extra-
when he says "that u any one looked
xjun the top of the battlements into the
he woidd be giddy, while his sight
ot reach to such an immense deptL"
XV. 2. 6). It is supposed to have oeen
is height (or pimuuue) that our Saviour
;ed to cast himself (Matt iv. 5-7). In
lUs were seven massive and oosUy gates,
» feet wide and 30 feet high. These
addition to tiie "beautiful ^tte" (Acts
which was on the east side, and was
beautiful because it was of the finest

Epper), 75 feet in height, highly
and richly adorned. Between the
ng the inside of the walL were

supported partly by the wall itself
ily oy a double row of columns, except
south side, where were three rows of
i. The porch on the east side was
lolomon's (John x. 23), because he built
; least the stupendous widl on which it

All within the area which these walls
1 was cidled the temple,
larger part of the area was vacant

completely paved with marble, and
tinguished as the court of the Gentiles,
< aU classes of persons might enter it.
yond the wall which separated this
le next court, and which the apostle
he "middle wall of partition,** no un-
dsed person was permitted to pass. A
don to that effect was inscribed upon the
St. Around this outer court the stock
supply of the temple service was kept,
3 money-changers had their places of
9. The second court was enclosed bv a
[t was called the "new court" (2 Gnr.
the "outer court** (Ezek. xlvi. 21), or
of the women,** because women were
>wed to go beyond it toward the sanc-
tmless when they brought a sacrifice,
court men and women performed their

TEM

ordinary worship unaccompanied with sacri-
fices (Luke xviii 10-14; ActsiiL 1; xxL 26-30).
Here also was the treasury (Mark xii 41),
where the ^ts for the service of the temple
were deposited in small chests or coffers, fixed
in the surrounding wall; and 1^ was the
place where some of our Saviour's most impres-
sive discourses were delivered (John viiL 20).

The next court towards the sanctuary was
the court of Israel. The outer hiJf of this
court was entered by common Israelites to
attend on particular services of religion ; but
the inner naif, next to the sanctuary, was
called the court of the priests, and ^ey were
separated from each other by a low railing.
Our Saviour, being of the tribe of Judah, had
no privileges in tne temple above any other
Israelite. Hence whatever he is said to have
done in the temple must be intended of the
courts of the temple.

Within the court of the priests stood the
altar of burnt offering and tne brazen laver ;
and not even an Israelite could on any con-
dition pass the railing that enclosed them,
unless when he came to offer his sacrifice
before the altar.

Next came tiie sanctuary, the materials of
which were beautiful and costly beyond de-
scription (Mark xiii. 1). The porch extended
150 feet across the front of the main building.
It was 30 feet wide, and rose at the highest
elevation to nearly 180 feet The entrance to
this porch was 135 feet by 37. It had no
door. The sanctuary itself was 90 feet high.
90 feet long, and 30 feet wide. Around
it, except in front was a structure of three
stories high, like tnat attached to the first
temple, as before described. The sanctuanr
had two apartments, separated from each
other by a curtain or veil (Matt xxviL
51) — ^viz., the holy place, which occupied 60
feet of the whole length, and in which were
the altar of incense, the golden candlestick,
and the table of show-bread; and the most
holy place, which measured 30 feet every way.
It IS worthy of remark, that in our translation
of the Bible, when these apartments are men-
tioned by these terms, the word place, is gen-
erally, if not always, supplied by the trans-
lators. The services of tne temple must have
been very solemn and imposing.

This temple was razed to its foundation by
the Komans, a. d. 70, 71, and the site of it was
made like a ploughed field (Jer. xxvi. 18;
Matt xxiv. 2). It is now occupied by a Turk-
ish mosque, which neither Jew nor Christian
was until lately permitted to enter. Jerusalem
is now full of oppression and mourning, "trod-
den under foot of the Gentile,*' and the site of
her temple shares in the desecration.

" Where is thy temple and thy God?

Where are thv triumphB flown?
All vaniBhed luce a fiery cloud

That flashes and is gone!
Alas! thou sitt'Bt a wanted thing;

All wretched and forlorn ;
To thee no joy the sunbeams bring,
But deeper shadows o'er thee fling.

And make thy woes their scorn.

G35

TEH
Tlia mbjoiiiad CDKnviiig rajmnntB
Jeitith bUUifiaiu mna uitiqaarm.

c

■r

1

8D

n

• •••••

i&t-l:

,W^

I

0

B n» (Ktu Id ttia ontar wtlL

MsTttU.

n'l porobJJalm x. tt).

oloBBn, or oDiar Turga o( a* oonr^ vjtlilii
ih Dona but J«n mlfbt ooto«, galled tha

gai nf ■tm 10 Uu Mmpla.
■ttbola, or ponh ol Uu lampla

OBt^^plMa.

t m «Hb alda of Ilia teIllpI^ wUsli aapanicd
|iM>pl« (Tom lbs eoort 0) ibe pilMit.

■ab, Bts on MCh dde (1 Ki TlL as,

ilSfStifSSiS^aSS

T-fKi jing^ U whli^ ma aMnuh were

nun nurbla colnmiu, on wbSCh Ae bUId

•wlih «»rt held IB Mdou.

r part or Uu> au» ccmn whan ttu priMli'

Ha wan dlaMbolad bf loL

(St v ehunlMr ot Um wEeala, where tha

ranpbriiieaniolftwhaeL ""

IB ot bnnit oOarisg, Ihrongb which the wood

^^'^MiBgi. a™«h whldi tha flmlhiigi

■ bnoghttobaoOendi-p.

eheif Id whkh thai nonlon'ot tha ucrTfloai
eh wan d«l«iied (or the prieMa wu p»-

ait ot Iha lunba, when cdghi UmDe wan

t lor >ha dally »ciill<».

on ot Are, when Bra waa onututly pre-

J«pm^ittee«^|^t™thea^;^

1 gaia. Ie>d!ii« Is lbs plEce where the Eninji

or raaalTliis gUti.

TBM

1 Tba gfea4 EDlden ouidleMicki.

>k Plaaaa batwaan u- — ' • —

10. -tUsooanoliha:

tha bnnit oflninsa.
U. The eoort where the lepen Bbowcd thoDHlTM to

the [ffleata bahM* omrba ihelr lUTUlDea.
UL The rxnrt wham oil tai wua wan dapoiltsd (or

■ and lor the lunpa (Exod.

3f aftcrifloee, thnngh which the a&crffloaa
r to ihB dagliigLaTllai.

uoIIiDdBa

l», uid the new g«le (Jar. uarL ID

tf the UAfa priaa^ from which a part of It
wu tvM at Iha Kan ot proplllaaoii.

■he d^ ■

frith which the temple tna
regmided by the Jews appean from the man-
ner in which the; traated any snppowd dia-
rapectfol allunoii to it. In this apirit tluy
brought an accusation agMnit Jenu beonue
he lud aud, ' ' Destroy thia temple, and ia
three days I will raiie it up" (Matt. xivi.
61; Johnii 19,20; Acta uL 28,29; ixiv. 6:
iiv. 8). (See Jebubalzh.)

Bat now there ii no oenbnl spot of worship
—the world is snnunoDed to believe. The old
and restricted diapenBatJon has ceased to eiisb
If all men of all nations, nnder the new
eooDomy, are invited to worahip t^e Father of
Bpirita, then there cannot be only one altar on
which they afaall lay their epiritual oblatjona,
and only one ahnne to which the four auarteiB
of the oatth ah^ resort, by a lon^ and dreary
pUgrimage, through flood aiid desert Through
Christ, God may oe worshipped on any spot,
and at any time. The bebeier's heart ia his
holy temple— there the blood of ths atonement
has been sprinkled, and there He, by his Spirit
dwells. Christians are a "royal prieathiwd."

savour of gratitude. Angels are around ub to
defend the spirit which baa been washed in the
laver of regeneration. John says concerning
heaven, Bev. xiL 22, "I saw no temple there.
In that blessed worid there is no spot selected,
for aU is boly — no time set apait^ for the
Sabbath ia titmiU — &nd there is no need of
symbolic wonhip, for the Lamb himjelf in his

enraptured homage to myriads of mynada of
deligbted spectators.

raMPT (Matt irii 18), TEMPTATION
(Luke iv. 13). These words are used in various
senses t? the saured writers. The ordinary
impart of them ia oUnrement or enticement to
ain. Hence our great adversary the devil ia
called tlie trmpter (Matt iv. 3). Sometimes
they denote Uie frioi of a person's faith or
obedience (Gen. xiii. 1 ; Jaa. L 2, 3), or the
trial of God's patience and forbearanca (Eiod.
ivii. 2; 1 Cor. x. 9); but genmsUy they signify
Chat which persuades to sin. The prayer,
"Lead us not into tempUtion" (Matt vL 13],
does not imply that God leads us into temptation
(Jas. L 13, 1^, but it is a prayer that we may
not be suffered to fall into tamptatioiL When
it ia said that tiie lawrer and others tempted
ont Skviour (Matt zvC 1; ziz. 3; M«ritx2i

l.uko X. 2'), it is incaiit that they tried to
i-n*'n:irc him, or le.iil him into the commusioD
of Hull It' (ifTi'iice.

.Ii'Mis C'hri-t, at the c<imiiiencement of his
ministry, w.im temiitiMl nf the «U;vil. Thi« vms
u i-oiiriict with the ]inm*i' of darkneAS. 8atAn
finst a]*|N.':iIi'«I to his eori'<>real npiietite, for
.Ii'sus h:Ml f;ist«.'il furty days then t») the
i>riiiciiil«' of ]ii<'ty, ftidiliii;? him tnist in Dinne
I'mviih-nrt? to piard him frum pTatiiitoiui
hiizanl and miwarranted exjioHure— then to the
I»nnoi|ih' of amiiition. otfi-nn;; him universal
empin-, on the roiiditii>n of homaj^eand fealty
t<» thi' foul ami iiialiuiiant tem]>U^r. llie fiivt
tem]>tatinn \v:u* an attack niMin him as a man,
the svonud was ilinrted avrainnt him an a pioUR
man, antl the thinl was eon.xtnictetl to Iwar
ui»»n him as a .Ii-w-for hin c^Mmtiymen
lu'M earthly iiotinns of ^leHi^ioh's ]K>rr(on,
kintrdom. and j;lory. But Je»U8 triumphe<I,
ami Satan flrd aku<herl. Suoh thoufeditH could
n-it s]»rin;: up of them.^'lves in the jnire and
hilly mind of .K'sui*. They were 8u;jj:o.-ited by
a |iI»«iT friim without- they wore brvni^'ht into
I'ontai't with hi.s •^nul, hut found not a moment^ii
rfei-i>tii»n. Tlu' sfciaid Adam was the victor
ovtT tlic nii;;ht and craft of hell. l*aradise
waN ri^:.iini d. (Srr CmnsT. Devil, Jhsis.)

TKN CuMMANhMKNTS-decalopie, (»r
"ti-n W'liJb," as tlu-y are called in Kxod.
xwiv. aS; Drut. iv. i:*, wvre HiNjken by
•b-liovah fnmi mount Sinai. Ihit a^ U^ the
di\isi«in of tin* "tt'U wonls/' then* have Ixvn
\ariou'«o])iiiiiins SMinc makin;^' tin* pref.ve the
l.i't r.iinm.iuil. I. '* Acnmlin'^ to the Talmud,
'i\'ir;:uni. <Ti>n:it)i:ni, Muininniiics and i>thers,
i: 'J (if K\<hI. w. ('iintain.s tilt' lir^t command-
imnt ; rr. 'Alt. tlif •iii'i-ml ; r. 7, the thinl ; rr.
S-11. thr fiiinlh : r. 12. tin- Jiftii ; r. 1:1, the
sixtli. H'\fntli. li/litii, and nintii : and r. 14,
tlh- tiiitli. liiit |Hil\tlii i«*ni ami iuKij^e-wor-
^l ip an- two i!i-tinit sJihjiTt-*. !in«l cannot l»e
(-•■iiiliinrd in t-ni* jin-ccpt. 2. Otliors d<i not
admit that '*. 2 U a tMniinandmi-nt, as it
>inip]y a->rrt"» tliat (Jinl. v.iiti now reveals
lliinx'lf. has n-h-a-ril the Israelites fr»>m
!■!.;> pt; they <*on>iil«T. then'fon-. thin vers*'
nii-i' ly :i>> tm introihictidn, and i>elievo r. 3
til \'r till- Wv'ii (*i>]iiniandment ; '*/'. 4-fi, the
:iiiind; :iiiil thi'ii. f;iith«T. as specified alv»ve.
'I'1ju> nii::tn. .lirnin-, and tiie Kffonneil
chun-hi's. I'Xci pt tiie Lutlienui. ]iut r. 2

♦ ■\i«lrntlv iM-liinirs tn tin* dec.iloirue ; and the
.-inipli- i"YMi of an asMertion, in which it is
u'Tiliil, iMnn«'t I'M'hide it, for it is an ajinro-
]ii;.jti- and authtiritative iireface. li. I^uther.
rf«-iIf«T, an<l oiliers, take rr. 2-<» t')^'ether
a^ >.!// cuiiiinaniinient; liut. in onK-r to piin
th" nunilii r ti-n, tln-y diviilf r. It into two
(-••nni.andni«-nts: rr. Tlinu shalt not co\et the
hoiisr of thy iii'i>,'lilHiur ; ft. the remainim;
\v«-rds of the ver-e. I'his is also the jSlasoretic
<li\i-ion in Kxtihis. J»ut it is umiui^stionahle
that r. 14 foniis one eominandment, :is the
li«'M*:i- of tlie neJL'hlMiur l>e]»in},'8 cpiitv as much
to tin* inili\iihial enunienition of tlie forbidden

• •bjects OS hiK wife, hid bervant, or his cattle.
J'iiercfore tlie obiuioo of thodo deden'cs

TER

Rcarcely to be mentioneil who, vith Tv^ard
to Deut V. 18, take the wordii: *ThM dbh
nftt covet the wife of thv noighU^iur' m tU
ninth commandment, ana the other irank d
the veme as the tenth precept. So AogoftiBe
Bede, and Peter Lombard If we cwefulls
examine the contents of these venu «>
arrive at the conclusion, that the divi«in a
i >ri{;en is the most suitable and most kigictl
but, with the necessary mixiification, tb
the ttrtnifi and third ver»«e!« furm the fin
commandment. This divisiun is slictd
ailoftted by Josephus (Antiq. in. 5, 5), lA
writes : * The first conunandznent teachcf q
that there is but one God, and that we ongk
to worship Him onl^; the second cnmouiid
ns n<it to make the imsLge of any livisf tfaiii
t«) worship it.* The objection, wU£ Efa
Kzra and others after )iim have nucd s^siu
the rieianition of the thinl and ftHuth vote
iiamel>', that pdvtheism and wunhjp o

(See KoliHch Oh Exodv*, ) They have alfo bn
cm-ided into two tables — some be<^in theHovd
table with the fifth oonmiandment^otiKii
i>lai*e five commandments cm each, their eww
iH'in;; hivc t<i Ciod and love to cwt nei^ihoa;
and the transitional precept beinj? vcfMslka
for itarents, who stand in Cnvfs stead ti}tfae
child. (See Law, Sabbath, Testivom.)
TKNT. (See Dwellings*.)
TENTH DKAL. (See AfEA^rBES.)
TEXT-ALVKEK (Acts xviii. 3). Thi.i«*»!
to have been Paul's trade ; an«l it is 9T:]ipii«Al to
have been the manufacture of teut-clotlL S^iae
conjecture that he made curtaiiL* for iLili:uT
tenU«, the material of which wojc the ^j^it
hair of i'ilicia. (See Paul.)

TEKAII (<?en. xi. 31, ;J2)-tbe fatb-r of
Abraham, whi> acc<.^mpanie4l him t<t H^no.
in Meso}iotamia, where he flied at the aj? d
two hundred and five, Abraluim Uisj; tbec
wventy-tive years of age. He was an iOiiLfc:.
(See Anii.uiAM. Haran.)

TEIJAPHIM (.Tud- xvii. .M. Fn^m am-
]mriu}^' (wen. xxxi. 11>, ;iU, it w»mld !<*vin thrf
this wonl sometunes denoteii houfehoM li^-
p^ls or imap^-s. Fn>m ^lichalV attempt* *>
imitate the form of DavidV reeimdvnt jitirwn
by a teraphim (1 Sam. xix. l.'V'. it i^s ]^lam^
they l»ore w»me re^^ndilance to the hui&»2
tii^ure. Perhai"»8 they were ab**^ ajiplied to tfe^
forms or instrumentM (if a^tntli ^7. and fo xsii^
lie found in jK^ssessinn of tho.-<e wh'i v^
not idolaters. As the wor»l is u*ed bv lb*
jirojihet in relation t«.> tlie jsLite of thv Jew
(Ibis. iii. 4), it prolKibly means that tltft
imhapjiy nation should Iw without any i^il.
true or false : not only without sacritice a&l
ei)hod, which l»elongeti t«i their i*li?iC
Hj'stem, but also without imai^es and ten}>£iDi
which were jiarts of their idolatry.

TEUTULLUS (Acts xxiv. 1). PniWlj*
Koman hiwj'er, who acted as ivofecutTiafh*
case of l*aul Ivfore Felix. The .TewN briti
ignorant of the Brnnan forms of law, t^*

TES

raold natnnUy employ a person acquainted
rifth them to manage their causes.
TESTAMENT (Heb. ix. 15). The word
hMtaiiiiiiit, when a^^lied to our Scriptures fas
te Old and New Testament), is used in tne
■me aemae with covenant. Tne old covenant
k ■pokfTi of in Ezod. zziv. 8, and the new in
Hatt. zxvi. 2& The former was ratified by
te Vlood of sacrifices, and the latter (of whicn
te otlier was a type) was ratified by the blood
rfOhzuL

Aooording to some critics, the word testa-
Mnt la alao used by the sacred writers, as it is
jk modtm times, to signify the instrument by
'lUdi Wk man directs wnat disposition shall be
feMie of hiA property after his death (Heb. iz.
)Bl It is well Known that such an instrument
Wna effect only at the death of the testator
Ibt lie 1^0 makes the testament). Hence the
' — "* , in allusion to this fact, says in sub-
7, that the death of Christ has the same
on the covenant of redemption, which is
9m new testament, as ihe death of the testator
kas <m his last will and testament— viz., gives
fe fofce and validity. Others, however, have
d that the apostle refers to the ancient
of oonfibrming covenants by sacrifices
r. 8, 9), in reference to whioi it is true
• covenant was of no force so long as the
by whose death it was to be confirmed
MM living. (See Covenant.)

TESTIMONY, TESTIMONIES (Ps. cxix.
I& 99). These terms sometimes denote the
mole revelation of Grod*s wilL They fre-
Mently occur in this sense in the above psalm,
ney also refer to the tables of stone, which
re part of tiie covenant between God and
I people of lorael (Exod. xxv. 16) ; and hence
I «ik in which they were deposited is caUed
liw *'ark of the testimony" (Exod. xxv. 22).
QBee Abx.} The Grospel is also called the
Burfiwinny m 1 Cor. i 6 ; Hev. i 2, and eLie-
iribore. (See Sobifturb, Witness.)

TETBABCH (Matt xiv. 1). This title was
mwtan to a sovereign prince, and strictly
osnotes one who governs the tourth ptart of a
nrovince or Idnguom. In our Smpture&
Kowever, it is applied to any one who governed
m pirovince of the Koman empire, whatever
apftfffn al the territory might be within his
Inrisdiction. The tetrarch Herod Antipas
mad the title of king (Matt. xiv. 9).

THADDAEUS. (SeeJuDE.)

THAMMUZ. (See Tammuz.)

THANK OFFERING. (See Ofperino.)

THAESHISH. (See Tabshish.)

THEATRE (Acts xix. 29, 31)— a place of
Dpoifalic amusement, where popular assemblies,
^omtSy elections, ftc, were often held.

TH£B£Z (Judg. ix. 50)— a city north-east

<i Shechem, within the territory of Epbraim,

cdelii atif x1 as the place where Abimelech was

ahin. It is 13 Roman miles from Nablous,

4aid is now called TubAs. (See Abimelech.)

THEFT (Exod. xx). Predatory excursions

fharacteriw* the East to the present dav, and

"the Old Testament often records such forays.

^!h»7 are also described in the first chapter of

THE

Job, (see Num. xxxi ; Judg. ii. 14 ; 1 Sam.*
xxiL) (See Spoil.) The Mosaic law specially
forbad theft, and the principle of punishment
was restitution, varying in amount, but rising as
the means of detection became more difficult.
Thus, if a stolen animal were found alive in a
man's possession, he was to restore two-fold ; but
if it had been killed by him, four-fold or five>
fold restitution was exacted of him. A house-
breaker found in a dwelling during night
might be killed by the owner without his in-
curring the guilt of murder. (See Slavebt. )

THEOPHILUS-torcr of God (Luke L 3)—
a distinguished individual, probably of Greece
or Rome, to whom, as his particular friend or
patron, Luke addressed both his gospel and
nis history of the Acts of the Apostles. The
title^ "most exceUent," probably denotes
official dignity (Acts xxiii. 2G; xxiv. 3; xxvi.
25). (SeeLuKB.)

THESSALONIANS, epistles to thb.
These constitute the thirtcontli and fourteenth
in order of the books in the New Testament.
They were written by the apostle Paul to the
church of the Thcssalonians. (See Thessa-
LONICA. ) The first epistle was prooably written
near the dose of a, d. 52 or beginning of 53.
It is said to be the first in time and order of
Paul's epistles. Its dcsi^ is to establish the
followers of Christ there m all those graces for
which they were so conspicuous, and to encour-
age them, by the most affectionate and pointed
exhortations, in seeking for higher attainments
and richer consolations in the divine life. The
fourth chapter is remarkable for the distinct-
ness with which it reveals the order of the
general resurrection. It assures believers that
their deceased brethren are not lost, but gone
before, and it enjoins them to refrain from such
bursts of unrelieved sorrow as characterized the
heathen under their bereavements. As surely
as Jesus rose, so will all believers rise. But
some will not die — they will be alive at
Christ's second coming; but they shall not
prevent, that is, go before them, who are asleep.
The dead in (Jhrist shall rise first— shall rise
before the living are changed. The Lord himself
is to descend at the awnil period of the resur-
rection—the annies of heaven shout at his
march — a mighty voice is heard — followed by
the peal of that trumpet which shall startle all
who sleep in their graves, and awaken them
to consciousness and life. They who have long
lain in their graves shall suffer no disail vantage
on that account — ^thcy shall enjoy priority of
resurrection — "shall rise first."

The second epistle was written soon after
the first, and seems to liave been designed to
correct some mi8a])prehen8ion8 which had
occurred respecting the firat. An epi^tlo also
had been foxged in Paul's name. The Thessa-
lonian churcn seems to have supposed from his
language that the da^ of the Lord was at hand,
that the period of his advent was very nigh.
The ajxMstle corrects the mistaken notion, oy
declaring that ere that day shall come tnere
must be a great apostasy— the rise and de-
velopment of the Mystery of Iniquity, presided

(i39

Turkey, u, injui

t'ltbotcitv. Pai.. - .

rity >ft«' U-itii; dririm tixim I'hilippi, but the

malice of the Jcva taoa compellfl him tii Btr.

Thiir I'nniity wa* wp.-oally Berce sj™'"' t'"'

ainntlp 1<[ th« tifUtittft. Itj pi>|i1lUti0D U

• -timatc'il at rn.lMKl. Uwu a >tati<.D on the
ViaK:,iiatia: an.l liebR&i>lace of wtomeree,
iiiii.-t have a-.trat'tcJ many Jews.

I'nul an<1 hu awuciatr*, Timotbrns and
:%ilaK ll ThriU. i. 1; ii. 1. 2], planted a cliureh
Lere nbrnit the year a. n. fU; anil Arirtarchuii
mill Sei'iinilu* wt-r« amims the converta t.i the
f..ilh [AutdiL-l: xirii.a T<rn.>f hi> letter*
an aililreiitil to the Judples of Chnict in Uiit

TKEl-PAS (Aet»T.3fi)-
fcn\-.i t.i l.y i;aiiialiel. whi. betulrd 400 rebebi
on J I x-rinhfll n jth tliem. Jiwepbtia mnitiuiu a
Thi->i(Lii' ail an ininiivent. tin. aUiut ten yean
later. Hit^lliilMt hav« lieen ilitferent wrsoiu.
<ir I'htiiiLm iiiuy Iw another fomi iif the name
of .Iii.Uw,nlin revolted at the cl.xe of Hetud'a

TlilCII (Urn. xxiv. "li. The practice of

imtlin;: the Laml ander the tbiifh might ilcnote
tlie iibiilii-nit' >ir imlijectioB of the itntividual.
or it uiiiiht l« connecteil nith the rite of
rirrunieiHion an a token ut (^krs faitbfiilnen.
The ini>i,Ti|>ti<>n u]>in tlir thigh {Kev. xix. 16).
nllndr* t>i the cn>tom of inHcril'ing the oamex
and d(-e>I< of iimiiuerun iin their (rannenta and
weapi'Di'. The niime ■nii.'lit b« inscribed on
the m-iifti. wliii-h WM k-inie.1 on the thii;h, <-r
c>n that part of the ilretti vhieh covered the
thi^h. Jai-ob'a tbicb was naitlen by the
noKel (Oi'n. xixu. jf5]. to iihuv that he hitd
■.uiHTiutiiRil |i-)iri'r, auil that he yielilcd in

will M ld,K».UUU.UUU,UI.

eight hiiDOred and twen
bunt ; and a nngle crop
only the third year'i gi
t-i 3^1.776, 000,000,0(»,l»
thirty -one thuiuiAnd aevei
ui billions: and the [on
unonnt tu 7,9ti2. 631 OOO, 0
thoiuand nine hnndred i
Kz, hundred and twenty-
A progeny more than i
imly the surface of the ■
the planeta in the aolai
other plant or Tegetable
allowing hut the fpacc «

The "crowning witb I
39) was probably the wa
Roman loldiery, andmai
lisheil punishment. Wi
to the kind of thomi nn
white tbom^ which groi
Jerusalem; some the ai
acaolhus, which bloiom
ject of the soldien wu '
rhriiit being a king. I
that they choae to cmwi
imposrihte for theoi to I
Momi in the ordinary k
wai a chaplet rewmblit^
which they employed to
afl they put in nil hand
and thi«w over hia thonli

The paHage, "I will F
thonu^MHui. iL G) ia .
the remark of a modem
"Ai we rude thmngh ]
it to be a aettlement of

THO

THOMAS (John zx. 24), one of the twelye
Mttlei^ was also called Didymus, ** the twin.**
reknowlHUe of his bistoiy : he seems to have
sen of a KJngnlar temperament, occasionally
fwoome hv a dark and morbid melancholy.
b was also wayward and slow of belief
foluixL 16; zir. 5; xz. 20-29), especially in
ba Identity of the risen Savionr. It is sup-
oaad he was actively engaged in propagatinff
ke Goapel in the £ast Indies, uid s^ered
UHtyidooD. There are numbers of Christians
I we East who bdieve that they are the
kovdies which this apostle originally planted,
ad thej call themselves on that aoconnt
hristians <rf St Thomas.
THOBN IN THE FLESH (2 Cor. ziL
9). In order to nnderstand the meaning of
dis darkpbrase, it is neoessaiy to glance at
M ouutezi.

The uoeUe Paol, like every public character
Iwae labonrs have been crowned with success,
raited the envy of many of his contemporaries ;
id they, jealous of his fame and influence,
Gorted tnemselves to detract from his grreat-
wa by various mean and malignant insinua-
DBB and odumnie«k Such opponents were
■ily refuted, as is evident from the former
w^j^/BTf in wnicfa the apostle, with his usual
dumence and fervour, enumerates the vari-
m hardshiiM and dangers which he had
Moantered in his speedy career. Inferior in
> respect to any of his opiwnents, in those
udities bom which they might derive their
ncied superiority, Paul enjoyed also many
ivileges to which they had no pretension.
It is not ezpedient for me, doubtless, to glory.
wHi come to visions and revelations of the
ocd." And yet with what modesty^ with
hat reluctance, is this strange narration in-
odoced — almost as if the apostle were not
mself the person intended : I knew a man
, Chxistb . . such an one caught up to the third
»ven.** Hie time when tms revelation was
m^safed is another proof of the apostle^s
ilieacy. Fourteen years had elapsed since
da transcendent favour had been conferred,
id 3ret, durine tiiat period, so noble a cause
boasting had not been declared.
In Daradise Paul heard unspeakable words,
Benuy, "unutterable utterances," "which it
not lawful for a man to utter." He things
hich he heard were so far beyond the reach
: <yar present conceptions that no langiiage
ndd be the vehicle of their communication,
▼en while labouring under common emotions,
m mind often can grasp no word of sufficient
arwer to depict its thoughts ; how much more
hen the awful realities of the eternal world,
id the conversation and ezercises of spirits
idoffged with an animal frame, are to be re-
iided and portrayed? Yet though words and
■ages might have been found, sml the utter-
loe of sndi things would not have been law-
iL The vail that covers futurity must not
» drawn aside for the gaze of intrusive
tortels; the glories which men are to seek
(ust not be ezposed to their vision; faith,
the evidence of things not seen,** must be
2t

THO

ezerdsed. Su£Scient information, with the
requisite evidence of its origin, has been given
on such topics ; and now, If they hear not
Moses and the prophets, neither will they be
persuaded thougn one rose from the dead.^

Tufltead, however, of boasting of such hon-
our, the apostle would "rather glory in his
infirmities ;" and he proceeds to relate what
happened to him after these visions ^— " And
lest I should be ezalted above measure
through the abundance of the revelations,
there was given to me a thorn in the flesh, the
messenger of Satan to buffet me, lest I should
be ezalted above measure.** (2 Cor. zii 7).

In treating of this " thorn,** commentators,
from Chrysostom to Kichaid Bazter, have
attributed to the aposUes those diseases or in-
firmities under which they laboured themselves.

1. Whatever the nature of this infliction, it
was not any sinful propensity, as tiie medi-
SBval divines supposed, "tn thefie8?i/* and no
besetting sin couM receive such an api)ellation,
when its origin and promptings must have
been in the soul ; nor can we conceive that
such a punishment would be sent by the Grod
of holiness, to humble the apostie tdier his
ezalted privileges. How could the apostie
"glory in such an infirmity,** or how could it,
if restrained, be known to others, and make
him appear contemptible ? No vicious pro-
pensity, such as recluses and celibates dieam
of, can therefore be meant.

2. Nor could the infliction refer to any ad-
versary, as some have thought, because tiie
Canaanites are said to have been " tiioms in
the eyes of Israel** Whatever enemy the
apostle had, such opposition must have pained
his mind, not his JUsh; nor could he exult in
such animosity; nay, from the nature of his
work, he could not ue freed from it.

3. Being " in the flesh,'* it could not be any
natural defect; for it was not in the flesh from
his birth, but was given to him only lUPter
these revelations, and "given** to him by God.
Nor could the apostle have prayed so ferventiy
for the removal of any native deformity.

4. This " thorn in the flesh,** therefore, was
a corporeal inffiction, and was sent after these
visions, and for the purpose of preventing tiie
M)ostie from being nllea with spiritual pride.
Twi(» in the same verse does he repeat the de-
sign, " lest I should be ezalted above measure.**
Some, on very trivial grounds, have supposed
it to nave been a species of ophthalmia, be-
cause he says to the CralatianSy " Where, men,
is the blessedness ye spake of? for I bear you
record, that, if it had been possible, ye would
have plucked out your own eyes, and have
given them to me.** The i>roper translation is
not " your own eyes "but simply " your eyes.**
The apostie was indeed Uinaed by the glory
of the vision, which surpassed in brightness the
noon-day sun ; but his vision was restored by
miracle, and evexy miracle was a perfect re-
storation. There is not a proof anywhere that
his vision was impaired; and such phraseology
appears rather to be an Oriental hyperbole
ezpressive of depth and intensity of anection.

641

THO

But that there woh a i>ecu1iar Bpedes of cor-
poreal w*-akni'8.<4 al>out the apostle is eviilent
ln»m vftriotia ]M)rtit»nM of hin writinj^a:— "My
ti'inptation, which was in my flesh, ye de-
ppiAU-il not nor ri.'iec-tetl'*— tlie fast word means
•'nauseated" ((Jal. iv. 14). May thtro not in
tluH iihnf^eith'^y 1>e an alhision to that inflic-
tion which followed liirt visions and re vc'lutionif?
Tilie reft-renc**, l)oth in liis eiiistle to the CV»rin-
thian» urn I in tliat to the Galatians, ia to IxMlily
ailment; and the thorn wan emphatically a
trial, tlic more Kevero as it 8ucci'ede<l an in-
btance of iinwoiitiHl favour. Now, as this
weakue^H of ImnIv follnwed the vision so
cloDely, may not tlie virion bo introduced as
liavin^,' liecn its pn>ximate cause? Mental
excitement i^rtHluceri an instant and over*
])oweriiii; effect on the botly. Daniel relates
that he faintinl and was* sick certain days
after a coummnication from CiabrieL And
nuKht it not Ih* from a temixirary stupe-
faction, iuducp<l by tlio ** abundance of the
revelations," that the aiM>sile was unable to
tell *' whether he was in the Ixxly or not?"
If onlinar>' vi.sions caused results such as those
felt by 1 >aiiiel, luij^ht not the -vision of Paul,
so extraonlinary in its nature, produce such
an impn>HHion on the brain and ner\'ous sj'stem
as t4) Icaxe a i»artiul or epile^ttic jMiralysis,
defect of H|M.'ecu, and distortion of coun-
tenance?

From the manner in which Paul si)eak8 in
various places it is evident that his enemies
BCoffeil at his inflrmity. mid that it was some-
times a hindrance t(» his suiress. liut could
the ai>4»stU' jrl«>rv in any quality beloni,'inj»^ to
hinivolf by wliirli thi* < Jus|k.'1 suffiTt-d? Why
then did he k'l'TV in this infinnity? not cer-
t.'unly fnmi its ftTi-cts, but fmm its ori^rin.
IliKi it been a conitiioii infinnity, disqualifj'in^
him fn»iii siTvinj; (.'hrist with all that hucccss
which his eiieivy and zeal mi^ht otherwise
have ^eeu^ed. so far from Ijcin^' a subject of
jrloryinu'. wouM it not have l>een a theme of
w>rrow and re;,'ret? Juntas it was so closely
coniiorteil with visit lus and revelations of the
Ijori], thou'-:h it wa** a tenible infliction, yet,
as it always reminded him uf those special
tokens of his Savinur's love when he was
ran-.:lit up in the tliird luavens, was it not
natural f^r him to i^l^ry, as dues the Wiirrior
in the sears nf a viet«irious litrld ? Had Paul
been faviiiiri'd less, tliis etTect mi.^dit iit>t have
been priMliieed. While, then- fore, he sulTcred
what «itliers wire not calleil t<» emlure, he
;,''l«»ried in such sufTi-rin^, as having' resulted
from privilep's whii'h others were not invited
to enjoy. Thus, in relatiiij; this mj'sterions
portion of his history, mi;,'ht he say, "Yet
of myself will I not ^1"^^, but in mine in-
firmities." A train, in tliis epistle, he alludes
to Some whi» sail I of hiin, *' His Inxlily pres-
ence Is weak, and his siK-ech Cf»ntemptible;"
and yet, to the same man as the jfo<l of elo-
quence, the inhabifints of Lv^tra would ^dady
have "done sacrifiee." What j^^reater inflic-
tion, then, could i'aul have exiK^rienccd thiin
the loss of rhetorical fluuncy and impressive

THR

delivery, both of wbidi teem to have deputed
from faim? And, as this chastisemeiit miut
have been felt by the ap<«tle in every pablie
address, and must have produced a CGntinned
uneasiness, as contrasted with his ori^iiial
i)ower8 of orator^', how aptly ii it fbrM a
'* thorn" or "stake" "in the floS'-a
deep puncture ; and the thorn, still ranklinf
in the wound, causing intense and oouauit
agrmy? And this viAitation was "a im»>
senp^er of Satan to buffet him "—a mode ol
description which very probably meau tlut
Satan took advantage of Paul's infinnity
to counteract his labours and expose him to
contempt.

How edifyixiff tBe conduct of Paul under
this dispensation! He resorted to pnyer,
and directed his supplications to JesiUb the
"Lord" being a common appellation of tbe
Saviour. Would Panl. in such circumsitaBce^
have praved to a creatoro? Are nut Cbh»-
tians still directed by a natnial impulse "to
seek the Txtrd in their aflHiction eorly^"

THORNS. (See Thistles.)

THOUGHT (Matt tL 'M). -Take on
thought for the morrow.** At the time wb«
the English version was made, the wurd
" thought " meant anxious thought. Thiu it
is said m an old publication, " Oueen OatboiK
Parr died of thought ; '* and HoUand. an dA
writer, Bi^eaks of a man who died *^ for toj
thought and grief of heart."

THUEK. (See Number.)

THREE TAVERNS (Acts xxriiL 15)-*
place BO called, perhaps, from the dix-isi'
stance that three houses of public entertaia*
meut Were established there. It wa» a stt-
tion on the Appian ro:vd, about '^ milcf
from Rome ; and Paul, when on his way to
Rome as a prisoner, was met at that puce
by some brethren from that city, who had
heard of his approach.

THRKSH ftsa. xli. 1.5), THRESHING-
FLOOR (Gt^n. L 10). The ancient thresbiog-
; floors were ])laced on elevations oi^en on evof
side to the wind. Thou.Lrh callecl floon>, tiKT
were anciently nothing but iilats of (rrvHind,
levelled and rolled, so as to be as hard as
a flc»or. The sheaves were thnjwn tivrtb^f
in a ItKisc heap, and the grain beaten out by
a ma^'hine, or by the feet of «)xen (Dlhl xx*';
4). I'he threshing-machine wrus formed rf
a heavy s(]uare frame, with n.>llera, each cf
which was encircled by three or four iron rina
or wheels semited like the teeth of a saw (I.ia
xli. 15). The machine was drawn by a pair
of oxen, the driver sitting on a cn>>*-pi«8
fasteneil U^ the frame; and as the heavy nilloi
passed over it, the grain was crushe<l oat iA
every side. S«)metimes tlus frame ti'a* s-^ cctt-
structiHl as to resemble a cart (I^a. xx\iii. 27,
28). and furnishes a striking figure of violence
ana destruction (Amos i. 3; Hab. iiL 13^
After tlie grain was thresdied and ikinn-jwei
(see Fan), the chaff and fine straw were col-
lected on a neighliouring hill and burned [h^
V. 24: MattiiL 12).

In Isa. xlL 15 " a new sharp thrushin^ is*

TBB
DMnf^ hftriag tvath." ii mentioiied, trhioh
(Man thoa daacribad : — It u a boud iboat
it widc^ 6 or S feet long, and 3 inches thick.
bn knrer nde mtay holta ■» mmde, from
neh and a half to 2 inches, in which are
ned pieoes of rtons, flint, or iroii. Theee
act, it may bc^ from a half to three-qoarten
I inch from the face of the board, and serve
«tb to tear the beardfl uf the grain in pieces,
n are fastened to the forward end of the
da, and driren ronnd the floor, dr&wing it
r thorn. The driver of the oxen luaally

[UQiJly without mimlefl, uid are often, as
■ paaa around, taking u^rom time to tmie
w ibwTS and feediiw onhem. After the
D ia thna thieahea out, it is stored, or
AlMred into tbe gamer. Hie following
tvprcMnta EgyptiaM itaring ap tbe pro-
) oi the field :—

BMamNO-FLOOB OF OgRui. The ap-
mt diacni«nc7 between 2 Sam. iiiv. 24
1 Ghr. hL 2& IB reconciled by the prob-
I ani>poaitian, that in the former case
!iin^ u included but the floor, oxen, and
■hmf machine ; and in the latter, tbe
ie hiU whereon the temple was afUowarda
«ed. (See ASAHNAB.)
HBONK (See Footstool. 1
HUHHIM. (SeeUnufJ
BUNDER (Ps. civ. 7). The mblime sound
kimder is described as the voice of Ciod.
Pib zxix. ia m ntagnifioent description of

Oiaioieeof Jehcnmfalsiiponlhe Aooda;

The Ood at gtorr ttairaderettii

lehonli Is opOD mur wilen.

Hm n^ee c^Ieliotali Ispovertol:

rhe Trtoe of Jehonh is In msjmrt.

The voice of Jehonh ibinreUi l£e cedinj

mder was a frequent accompaniment
station of the divine presence (Pe. xvii
d.7; ISam-iiilT). In Jer. i. 13 oi
acription of an Eastern tornado,
loff^illniibatea this inspired picture in tbe
owing patagiaph: — "The peals of thunijer

inch M to make the very earth tremble.

' f three descriptions : one

nng tcom cloud to cloud ; this is

oompanied with any rain. Another

1 it the forked, which may be seen pamti^

-d the ncirt daogBTous. The moat
ia what we are in the halot of otlling

J^ac

TIB

_. p^. . .^. This »ppean to'

rise from the earth in fisures of vaiioos ihaDea.
(xooked, og-iag, and oblique, aud »
like a waterspout at sea. It nnit^f".

The perpetual roar of awful thunder on tbe^

of these flashes may be ooonted in a
minute. The lightninR may also be seen pass-
ing upwards through the dense mass of vapour,
and branching out like the limbs of a naked
tree in the blue sky above. In such itoims
the rain frequently falls in torrents, and runs
oft very rapidly; not moistening the earth,
except in aandy pluns, more than 6 inchsa
deep. The antelopes flee in oonstematioD ;
and I have had opportunities of observing the
poor Beohoanai start off early on the morning
loUowiOg IDCh a storm in quest of- the young
who have bean cast throu^ terror ; thus illus-
trating tbe wonls of Hie Psalmist, ' The voioa
of the Lord causeth the hinds to calreL*" —
Moffafa Jfunanarv Laboun >■ Smilhtm
jVrtdiLpp. 339.337.

THYATIRA (Acts ivi, 14)— a city of the
province of Lydia, in Asia Minor, now known
as AiAitaT, It is situated in an extensive

glun, ns^ a small river, a branch of the
aicus, south-east of Smyrna, between Sardis
and Pergamos, and was the site of one of
the seven churches of Asia to which John
wrote (Rev. L 11). Lydta, whom Paul met
and baptized at Phihppi, belonged to iL
Its present population may be 1,000 families,
between 300 and 400 of which are compoeed
of nominal Christians of the Greek and Ar-
memsn futh. Except the governor's palace.

there is scarcely a decent house in
place. Everything indicates poverty, ignoi
ance, and d^iadation. There was a fan.
outside the town dedicated to the sibyl Sam-
batbo, perhaps suggesting the allusion, Bev.

THYINE WOOD (Rev. xviiL 12) may mean
■weet-icented wood genenlly, or the wcxid of a
particular spedca of evergreen resembling the
cypna^ mich was prized for its aromatia
[soperties, and for being susceptible of a fins
pijuh. It was called citrus in Lstin.

TIBEBIAS(Jahnvl23). This dty was in
U3

r

^

r

TIB

lower Oalilee, on the western shore of the
c»f Galilee, calltMl from thia city the m* of
Tiberias, and now nanie«l Tubarieh. It
waM fimniletl by HerfKl Antipas, and named
Til>orifl», in h< »nimr of his patrrm, the emperur
Tilx'riiw. The fullo^-ing is the account of
Jos4*j»hus: —

** HenKl [Antii«w]thc tetrarch, who was in
pt^at favour witli Tiberius built a cit^, called
fmm him TilK'rian. wtuatiHl in the best part of
(talik'e, at the lake of Cennosoreth. Inhere
arc wami l>at)is at no i^reat distance from it, in
a villa;^ naiiie<1 Animaus. A mixed people
dwelt in this city, a fa^»at number of them
beinj; (lalilrans; and s<»me brought by force
out of the country imder his jurisdiction to in-
habit it, inebiflin^ s«ime perw'ns of distinction.
He also admitteil ]MMir i>c<ii>le, collected from
all parts, to dwrll m it, respi-ctini; whom it is
not evident that they were even freemen; and
to many of these he ^ave ^reat iirivilcf^.*s and
immunities ; and that they might not forsake
the eity he erectofl jjixkI houses (at his own
exiK-nw), and i?ave them land likewise, for he
knew that their habitation here was opposed
to the Jewish laws and customs, because many
sepulchres were to l»e hero taken away, in
«»nler to make nK>ni for Tiberias, whereas our
law deolan-s that the inhabitants of such a
l'lat»o are uneb-an for seven days."—- Josephua,
A at ill, Jtifl., lib. xviii., sects. 2, 3.

A Dival i»al;ii'e was also built for the ajlom-
ment of the ni*w eity, which lK*came the \'irtual
rniiitid of <;alilc«-. After the overthniw cif
•ItTu-sjdem it was a famed seat of Jewish
b-arniii:^'. The ( 'nisuders HulKbuMlTilTcrias, and
I n-tt' d a ehurilj llun', makiii;; it also the seat
of :i Latin l'i:^b«'i». It w:ih wn'>titl fn»m the
< 'hri-<ti.iU-'« by Saludin; ainl after one more
rcMr.-ioii fur a tiiiie into their hand'*, was
u^aiii sulnhinl by tin' S'lltan «»f Kin-pt, and
rt>niaiii«-il thtui'i-fitilh under the Mohauiinedan
diiUiiiiii'ii. hi tlie sixteenth Ci'iitury the in-
habitant.-* of 'I'i!ii-riaj* were Arabs of the worst
ehar.uter; aTJ«l tlie aiieieut church was then
n.-Hfd as a ^tall fi-r cattle, the t>wn iK-nisr dc-
ht-riN-il as in rniiiM. and S4'arcely inliabiteil.
Alniut the niitlilln «»f the eivrhteenth century
TilKTias made part of the domain of the noted
S^luikh IMiJihiT, who*'reet«"<l afi»rt on a hill out-
side, and built up walls around the eity. The
French ha«l pi »>."ii'ssiou of Tiln'rias for a Nhort
time durin;: the invasion of Syria by Najjoleon.
It was visited with a terrii>le earthtpiako in
ls;i7.
This city was al^i fanic<I for its Imtlis, —
"'Hie latin are on a jiart of the shore a
little elevateil alN>ve the s«'a, at the southern
fud of the strip of land alM)ve di'scriKnl, and
jilhtut tliirty-Hve minutes fn»m the citv. . . .
Till' water, as it issui's fnmi the Kroumi, is t<M>
hot t<i bi>ar the hand in it . . . the triste is
•■xi'.-Msjvi'ly s;dt and bitter, like heat4.1l sea-
watrr : thVre is als«» a stn»nj; smell of sulphur.
. . . Ir1>vaiid Mangles si>eak of a wall beyond
the H]iriiiL;s, runnini; from the lake to the
inountain's niije. They regard it as the forti-
tication of Vespasian s cami>. which is not
044

no

impTobaUe.** — ^BobiiiBOQ'i Raaardut, iil. ppi

TIBERIAS, SEA OF-nme Mieaof G«li

lee, Bea of Chixmeroth. and lake of Gemoar^

(John xxL 1). The Uke is often anoleii to i

the cospela. Its expanse of waters is ftnm

by the Jordan. It is aboat 12 mfles Vng id

6 miles broad. The water is pure, and A n

abundant. The soenerv around b rommti

and beautiful, and haUuwed b^ many tin

hononred associations. We snbioin the iate

esting and accurate acconnt of Dr. Robimci

— ** On the southern part of the lake, m

along its whole eaatem const, the nunmta

wall may be estixi|^ted as elevated 800 or I,tt

feet above the water, steep, but not pncipitoii

On the east the mountains spread en into . .

(the} hitfh, uneven table-land of . . . Gtt

onitis, and on the west into the luge iJii

north of Tabor, risine indeed very alight^i

at all, above these hi^h plains. Alon^tk

north-west part of the lake beyvmd Mocdili

the hills are lower, and the conntxy back t

them more broken ; they rise with a giadu

ascent from the ahive, and cannot at fint wd

\ye more than from 300 to 500 feet in hngb

The ]x>sition of this lake, embosomed deep i

the midst of higher tracts of country, expQH

it, as a matter of course, to gusts of wind, »

in winter to tempests. One such ituna i

recorded during the course of our Loid

ministry. In the other instance, when Jem

followed his discipl«w, walking on the mln, i

is only said the wind was contruy, and, 1

John adds, great All this would api^ to ti

lake as we saw it, and to the detention of tk

Ix^t on the other side, which hind'-Tsd w froi

hirin;: it. . . . The extent of the bJn hi

sometimes been greatly overrated. . . . Tfc

distanc<\ in a straight line, from the entruK

of the Jonlan on the north to its exit <n tl

south, cannot be more than 11 rT 1^ ce

graphical miles, (and) the gnatest htoM

opiKwite t<.> Magdala, is alxiut half the leo^

— Kobinson's KeJtcarrhrs.

The scene of so many of our I>ird's seraKS
and miracles remains' unchangetl. (For tl
deT)ression of the Sea of Tilk'rias, and i
relation t» the Dead Sea, see OmssZMOT
Salt Sex.)

TIBKUIUS C.F-SAR (Luke iii. 1) w« tl
stepson and snccessor of Augustus (Luke iL ]
ana though with some apiwrent virtmas, v
one of the nv)t(t infamous tyrants that ev
scourged the empire of llome-. He ^-as ha
in & c. 4.'), and negan his reign when he «
fifty-five years of age, reigned dorintr tl
eventful XH.>riod of the succeeding twenty-thv
years, and was finally murdered by suffbcstk
with pillow's. (See Cesar.)

TIGLATH-PILESER In 2 Chr. xx^i
20 TILGATH-PILXESER, by a d.niWe w(
ru])tion. The name is writt<m on the nhV
ments Tukult-paLdra, or Tiklat-pal-itri. I
is the second Ajssyrian king of this name ^
is referred to in Scripture, and he vm/v
ceeded by Shalmanezer IV. (See Ahaz, ^TXi

VEIL)

TIL

TILING. (See Dwkllikos.)

TIMBKEL (Exod xv. 20)— a musical in-
tranieni, supposed to have resembled very
«m1j tlw instrument of modem dm called
bi tambourine. A skin is stretched over

rim like the end of a drum, around the
\wl mn hunff little bells, imd the pUver strikes
hm wkxa -wm the knuckles of one nand, and
hakea it with the other hand. It was used
a ancient tunes chiefly by women. (See
fpaiCAL Inbtbumknts.)

TUCB. (SeeDAT,HonB,NnMBEB,WATOH.)

TIHNATH (Gen. xxxviiL 12), or TIM-
CAH (2 Chr. xxriii 18); situated on the
arthcm border of Judan, was one of the
Idflrt towns of Canaan. In Samson's time it
MloB^ed to the Philistines, and he obtained
lb wife there (Judg. xiv. 1-5). The inhabi-
mto were called Timnitei (Judg. xv. 6).
HiBre were other towns of the same name.

TIMNATH-SERA.H (Josh. xix. 60), or
mCNATH-HEBES (Judg. u. 9), was a d^
■ Burant Ephraim. given to Joshua at his
rnn iwjnest, and tne place of his residence
mdhaiuL

TIMOTHY a Tim. I 2), or TIMO-
rORUB—howmred ofGod (Acts xvi 1), was
k native either of i)erbe or Lystra. His
■oliMr's name was Eunice, and a woman of
Brtinfliimlied pi^t m was also his grand-
DoClier Lois (2 Tuxl i. 5) ; and by them he
mi educated reliffioudy (2 Tim. iiL 16). His
irthwr was a Gredc Toat he was one of the
IpQstle's own converts is highly probable, as
M luM BO fondly named him *' son," "my own
an," **my beloved son,*' "my dearly beloved
•b" (l^m. i 18; L 2; ICor. iv. 17; 2Tim.L
0. Tbe young disciple was "well reported of
ifibe brethren;" had enjoyed an early and
nand religious education, tiie result of mater-
■d and grand-maternal anxietv; and he pos-
Msed a "^ift;** so that Paul, after circum-
■ring him, in order to allay Jewish prejudice,
tsleeted him to be his colleague, fellow-
CKveller, and work-fellow. At a later period
hb apostle bore him this high testimony, "he
poiketh the work of tlie Lord, as I also do "
1 Cor. zvi 10) ; aflBrms at another time that
wih of thcan preached the same Gospel of the
Ion of God (2 Cor. L 19) ; nay, so much of a
DBdred spirit reigned within them, that he
■ya to tne churcn in Philippi, "I have no
nan fike-minded, who will naturally care for
Mur state" (PhE ii. 19^ 20). Indications of
nmofehy's busy and ubiquitous career occur
inin and asain ; and he received himself, from
n spiritual father, two solemn epistolary
Bommmdcations. He was left in cSiarge of
fte church at Ephesus, and that, probably,
feiisn he was very young (1 Tim. vi. 12).

TiMOTHT, SPIBTLBS OF PAUL TO. These are
he fifteenth and sixteenth in order of the
itckM ci the New Testament The first is
Uppoaed to have been written about the year
0^ and contains special instructions respecting
M q;nalifications and the duties of sundry
ideaiastical officers and other persons, and
^ most affectionate and pungent exhortations

TIE

of faithfulness. The second epistle was written
a year or two later, and while Paul was in
constant expectation of martyrdom (2 Tim. iv.
6-8). and may be regarded as the dying counsel
of tne venerable apostolic father to ms son in
the Lord. It contains a variety of injunctions
as to the duties of Christians under triids and
temptations,^ and concludes with expressions of
a full and triumphant faith in the Lord Jesus
Christ, and in all the glorious promises made
to his true followers.

These two epistles are full of interesting
matter, not omj to pastors of churches, but
to all members of the Christian communitv.
What peace, harmony, and spirituality would
characterize the chuixh if the affectionate
counsels of these epistles were fully acted on !

The apostle cautions Timothv against
* ' oppositions of science falsely so called. " The
term rv»<rt« is a reference to the prevailing
philoeoph]^, which seems also to be alluded to
m the epistle to the Colossians. Timothy's
father was a Greek, and he mi^ht be trained
in the Gnostic philosophy, which, in various
modifications, prevailea over the East. From
various hints m both epistles, Timothy seems
to have been inclined to such speculations.

In the third chapter of the first epistle there
is an appropriateness not always perceived in
the last two verses. The church is styled by
the apostle the PUlar of the Truth, and as
inscriptions were written on pillars, so the last
verse of the chapter is composed of sticAoi, to
suit such an inscription : —

GRSAT IS THK XTBTBBT OP QODLIKSSS:

GOD

WAB MANIFSST IN THS FLKSH,

JUSTIFIED IN THE SPIRIT,

SBSN BT THK ANGELS,

PSOCLAIUKD AMONG THK OENTIUES,

BEUKVXD ON IN THE WORLI>,

KECEIVKD UP INTO OLOKT.

Ephesus was famous for its pillars and
inscriptions. The reading, "God," in the
above quotation, has been controverted and
often examined. The MSS., versions, and
quotations, are in favour of the reiAding

wha " If this reading^ ' * who was miuiif est,"
be adopted, the meaning is the same, for
the antecedent is "Grod," in the preceding
verse.

TIN (Num. xxxi 22)— a well-known metal
in use at a very earlv period, and an article of
IVrian commerce (!Ezek. xxvii. 12). In Isa. L
25 the word rendered tin probably means a
kind of alloy.

TINKLmG. (See Bell, Clothes.)

TIPHSAH (1 Ki iv. 24), meaning a ford,
is the same as Thapsacus, and was situated on
the western bank of the Euphrates at Suriyeh.
It was the extreme limit of Solomon's dominions
in that direction.

TIRES (Isa. iiL 18). This generally denotes
an ornamental head-dress, but it may mean
other parts of the attire ; and in the text cited,
the onffinal probably signifies a necklace, the
parts <n whion might have resembled the moon
m shape.

645

TIR
TIBHAKAH— ft kintf of EtUopim (2 KL
Mt B). Tirh«k»h oune out to oppou
Biniutchcrib. There u lome doubt ibout the
cliK>Dolog7, but be iii»y »l»o bave been kiM
of Kgyirt— prrli«p« » member of the XXV.
or EUiioiumn dynuty, the Uiit kins of wbom
«u called Tebuk^ or TankoL

TIRSn\.TnA-«]«»j-n THE TIRSHA-
TIIA (Xrh. Ml. Im) nn otilm of atate. The
J'emMi tinn mffiaSyiDg feere nr auiratt. Tht
NkDiv iifliiiT III tAll<,ir m Seh. xiL 2G thi

friltZAl[(TK?*Yi ITJ-an (lid city of the
CiiuuunteH— nan the reHKleniw iif tlie kinRs of
Iinwl fnim the time iit Jvrabuuu to that of
SUmn, or nearlv bfty >>>». Ita nte ia (ound
m Telliiuth. in tlio hilla mirth of NablouB,
vithin the tmitury ut Ji^iibrium. Some h*ve
■uiinHtnl it til In- tlw mune with Sbcchem.

T[SH [tITK (1 KL xnL 1). Ktijali u called
tie TiMnlt! but vlletber it denotes the place
of bia nutivity or rcMilsnve, or v-hvtlicr it
umiily ilmcrilmi hia ulfire u ■ ropniver ood
refiimuT, it unrcrtiun. (See Eujail)

TlSHKl, (S.« Month.)

TlTHKrt {Gi-n. liv. 20), or TENTHR-k
•nrt of fdft or tax knnwii long before tlie time
of Miw^ uul |iracti«ed mlno under the civil
nnd Tel[fa<nu< Kovvnuniiit of htttthcn nntioiis.
it WM mtiuluii-'l into tlie T<e\-itiul code, nnd
rrmidiitud ia T*nil«riiii[ ■ fixed |iivi>ortiun of tlie
imiilwe iif thi' vmrtU, lienLi, &c., to the ncrvicc
tit (.io.1 thwr KiuK, wliiim thev were tftuifht to
aonuduruthi- I'roijrietoT uf ali. One-tenth of

In* prodnos i
vho had no ji

TIT

to the OB cf Ae Icitta
in the nQ, and U mm

land, the tillie wai a ipedca at not paid k
tbam. Ona-tentb of their tenth they paid b

thairtumto . . ,_

Hie nine parta woe titbcd i«iili, ud <f
tbii Moond tithe * feaat iraa made i* tti
court of the aanctOMy. or in lona qaitatf
with it If, howevet. tb* Im
with oonveiiKnee cany Ui tiib
UiiUuir, be wna pamutted to wD it, ad It
taka Hw monev, adding me-fifdi of 't»
anunmt; that ia to a»y~if be aoU Uu Oh
for • Mivercisn, he wka to biing in Mwr
twen^-Bve •niUinga, and to nuchua Ikn-
with wliBt waa raqnired at the feart, ite

UwTO

T (Lef. nm fl;

„-, nctuan (]

Dent lii. 17, 16; liv. W-W).

At tbia fa>at oi tbanluBiving they Hito
tuned their fasiilies and Erieodi, lad ih>
the Leritea. It haa been annaiaed \n bh
fmm Deut. xir. 28, 29, that in erety tW
year a ttdid b'tbe iraa required: but it a
more prpbaUe that in the third jm fli

at home inatead at at tbe a

the poor Deigbboiin and frienda, and «vtdm

anoh aa were ag«d and infirm, mi^ [•rtAi

The cattle were titbed by letting thn ym
out of an encloBura mder a rod held by nm
peraon, who touched every tenth beait.'«)iii
tbenupon brcune the property of the I«nl(^
•o that if eiGbaiu;ed both were forfeited {L«.
iivii. 32, 33). (See LiTtTSa^ UtaSSt. "Sfioi

It doea not appear tliat the tithe rf htita
wai demanded. The Pbuiaeea, bnei^
tithed thtir mint, aniae, cummin, and nt;
nor wa» it for this almply that oar Sann
condemned them, but for ne^lectiiu wdfflnitf
thintfa, u mercy, judfjrnent, and&th, dnli
they were so BCTupuIoualy exact in mtflBt
of inferior moment (Matt xxiiL 23).

Under the Gosiiel disinnaation the uunlitai
of n-IJKion seomeil to have relied for their a^
port chieSr on the bospitalit; of their bntba
and frieniil (Mntt. i. 10; LuLe i. 7), and it ■
certainly reasiinaUe that those who zive thiB-
•elvM wholly to the miniatty of the W ord AniU
be exempted from all umety respecting thnr
own aubsistcnce. The system of tithramn
in modem times has very little, if any. w
bUnce to that under tbe Jewish dispesBliiA
either in the collection or diabunemcat d

TITLE. (See CBoas.)
TITTLE (Matt ». 18)— the leart poiit
TITUS (Gal. iL 1)— a Gentile bydeM^
and probably converted to Christianity oWv

Titus was the oompaoion of Paul in nnar'
his trials and misaionary tutin (2 Cor. nn.i
IC, 23), and waa intruated witii t^tmA kaf

TIT

tent oommiflsionB (2 Cor. xiL 18; 2 Tim. iv.
]0: Titnfl L 5).

TrrnB, epistle of Paul to. is the seven-
tMBih in oixler of the books of tne New Testa-
VMoth It was desicned to instract Titus in the
sight discharge of his ministerial offices in
Ontey or rather to famish the Cretans, through
*"' a, witii a variety of important roles of Ghns-
oondnct. The epistle is brief, indeed, and
abmpt, but comprehensive, having
fa It both broad ^rincii>les and minute details,
— "^'d to the various circumstances and rela-
of bdievers. The Cretans, among whom
laboured, were licentious and immoral.
Titos needed both to give them sound
rine and exhibit a pattern of holy conduct.
date of this epistle has been much dis-
imtad; some take the ^ear 57, others 64, as
fiiApeTiod of its composition.

TOB (Judg. xL 3, 6| — a district in the
MNith-east of Syria, whither Jephthah fled,
and whence he was called to lead the army of
InMl against Ammon.

TOBIAK— the Lord is good (Neh. il 10)—
m Ammonite, called a slave, a man of consider-
able influence, and a leader in the opposition
vlnoh was made to the rebuilding of the temple
WNehemiah. Being connected by marriage
-vith aome imj^ortant families, he became the
hand of a formidable party, and maintained a
oupwapondence with the nobles of Judah
mdrtmo to the interests of Nehemiah and his
partj, and even descended to threats, for the
pose of deterring that devoted man from
pvoaecution of his purpose. During the
mce of Nehemiah from Jerusalem, Tobiah
ftbtaiiaftd apartments in the temple for his
pcivate residence ; but Nehemiah, as soon as he
laiumed to Jerusalem, expelled him and his
temtare from the holy place, and ordered the
chamber which had been thus desecrated to be
thofo^hly cleansed. (See Nehemiah.)

TOGABMAH (Ezek. xxviL 14)— a country
deriving its name probably from a descendant
d J«|iheth (Gen. x. 3), and trading with Tyre
hi hones and mules. The connection in which
Togmrmah is usually mentioned would place it
hi Armenia (Ezek. xxxviiL 6, 6).

TOMB. (See Burial.)

TONGUE. (See Language.) •

TONGUES, CONFUSION OF. (See
Babel.)

Tongues, gift of (1 Cor. xiL 10). This
cztraordinanr gift of the Spirit, which had
been foretola by the prophet Isaiaih (xxviii. 11,
ISf^ was the power to speak in a language
wmcb had never been learned by the usual
methods of application. They who possessed
it spake "witn new tongues.** The concourse
amembled in Jerusalem at Pentecost, and
nthered "from every nation under heaven,*'
Aeard the apostles speak in the respective
dialects of the countries in which they dwelt.
The astonished audience are recorded as saying,
^And how hear we everv man in our own
tongue, wherein we were oom?** (Acts iL 8).
This exclamation is a natural and correct
•ooQfimt of the miracle. It is all in vain, by a

t6o

forced interpretation, to explain the gift merely
as denoting the use of elevated, antique, and
obsolete language. But this gift, though often
said to be necessary to the early preaching of
the Gospel in other countries, is found exer-
cised oniv in connection with worship. Nay,
Paul ana Barnabas did not understand we
language of the Lycaonians.

Hie gift of tongues coimteracted the curse
of Babel, and was also a miracle fitted to
impress unbelievers. "They are.** says the
apostle, "for a sig^n not to them tnat lielieve,
but to them that believe not.** To hear a man
speak with correctness, ease, and fluency in a
re he had never studied— to hear him

use such a language without effect or premedi-
tation, and under an impulse which ne could
neither explain nor control — must have been a
striking and impressive enpectacle to the assem-
bled multitudes. In order to show that there
was no fraud nor collusion, it would seem that
this gift was occasionally conferred on such as
abused it. This was the only gift which could
be so dispensed. The abuse of other mirac-
ulous endowments must have wrought instan-
taneous damage. The power of raising the
dead or inflicting disease would, if abused,
have at once deranged the course of provi-
dence. ^ But a man might pour forth in rapid
succession all the tongues which have sprung
from Babel, he might exhibit his command c?
universal language on every occasion for mere
vanity or ostentotion, or other and inferior
motives, and yet no injury would result,— tiie
display is harmless, and only proves that all
gifts are not ^n^aces. The gift of tongues was
sadly abused m the church at Corinth, and the
apostle issues minute and special regulations.
He does not imdervalue the gift, but ne places
prophecy higher (1 Cor. xiv. 4). The gift of
mterpretation did not always accompany the
gift of tongues (1 Cor. xiv. 11). The scene
presented by an ostentatious display of this
miraculous endowment would indeed be ridicu-
lous in the extreme (1 Cor. xiv. 23). There-
fore the apostle cautions the Churchy and
administers this salutary enactment, "If any
man speak in an unknown tongue, let it be by
two, or at the most by three, and that by
course; and let one interpret. *But if Uiere
be no interpreter, let him keep silence in the
church ; and let nim speak to himself, and to
God** (1 Cor. xiv. 27, 28). "Whether there
be tonnes, they shall cease** (1 Cor. xiiL 8|.
The gift was appropriate to the infant condi-
tion of the Church,- and has, therefore, in the
wisdom of God been withdrawn.

TOOTH (Exod. xxL 24). The kw of re-
taliation allowed the Jewish macpstrate to give
to one who had been deprived of a tooth or an
eye the tooth or eye oi the aggressor in re-
venge. The Jews construed this law to justify
private revenge ; but this construction and the
whole principle of the law were condemned by
our Saviour, and the law of forbearance and
forgiveness commended (Matt. v. 39). ^ Clean-
ness of teeth is a figurative expression for
severe famine (Amos iv. 6). Gnashing the

647

TOP

teitb i!ulir:«lt's tom«r, raL'i', and ile*>nair (Matt,
viii. IJ). 'nu- ]»hraf*i* in K/a-Ic. x\-ii. 2 di-notrt
that the chiltlrvn huIKt for the Hina of their
fath'TH.

TOI»AZ (Kxrxl. xxviii. 17)- a pn'oioiw st«»ne
of vari'nw oilmrH, wliirh is rtui»]Hi«H.Hl by niany
to hftVf Ikh'Ii tht* ant'ii'nt chr>'M«lito. A sinfjle
t^nmz has* iK'on »M f«ir upwanln of l^iOS.^ttiS.
The fiiU'Ht »iH'ciim'ns &rv fmiul in the Kiu*t
ImiiuM. The Hwittlsli caimgomi is a BiXHnea

of it

The t'fjtftz "/ Ethi'tjiin Mnl) XX viii. 19) or
nfiuthcni Aral'iia (hiv KthI'iha) wus ]mil>al)ly
<li?<tinuniishi*4l for its beauty ami vabie; and
tliat tlic iiiiiht pn'ciniiH Ht<>ncs were once found
thrn', ]tnif:ine liistorv anKert-*.

TnrHKL (l>i'iit"i. l)-a place now calbnl
Tuflli'h, in a valh-y of the winio name, runnin;;
north fmni Huzra to the Hnuth- eastern angle
of the 1 U'tit} Sea.

TOPHKT. (St'p Hei.l, Hinnom.)

TORMEXTOKS (Matt xviii. 'M). Thia
prtilmblv moans the keejiers of the i»risi>n, who
wen^ often employed to torture criininalH in
variiMH wavs.

TOKTnlSK (T^'v. xi. 20). It is generally
enpiMised that this wonl, in the original,
denoteK a Hi>ecirs of lizard, and not the
amphibious nniiiwd known to ui« oh the tortoise.

TOWKIt (Matt xxi. 33). Towew were
built on the walln of eitieK. (Sw lV\BYLoN.)
Towers were common in vineysinls (Ijjo. v. *J),
and are oft^-n Bt-m there at the present tlay.
They art' Konu-times 'M) feet wjnare and <jO feet
lii^,'h. ami an* a kiml of iileaaur»'-h»»usi"H, servin^j
:ui a !4]iiltt>r f>>r tin* watclnnan. and as a summer
r-tn-at of tiie nM'mT, alfordiu^ an extenaive
jinispi't-t liiid fresh air.

Tow 111 IN SlI.oAM (Ijtlki' xiii. 4)— RUp])OMtl

ti) havi" bii-n a hi/h .•«tni< ture ereetetl near the
fiiuntaiii or ]miiiI of Sili»;»m. Tn thosi» whom
i»iirSa\ii'nrjnIilr«-^-«'d. thelnssof lifener.Lsioned
by the falliii-r «»f tl:i-< t"Wrr was familiar.
'Town; nj- 1*. M;i I . (See 1V\HFI.. LA.NT.rAor,.)

TiiWKii nK Jj)AK (deu. xxxv. 21), or ** t<»wer
of the il<»ek," as it is ealled, Mic. iv. 8. This
is snppoM'd to have li^'en a ]>artictdar t^wer
alNiiit a iiiile fp>m IWthlehem, and to h:ive
l»een enetiil lik»- nther towers, for the use of
RhciiheriU Mini liepUmen to Miiienntend their
fiiK.'Ks. anil •It'-cry tin* niiprnaeii of danf,'er (2
Chr. xxvi. KM. Somebaxe snpiNised that the
I'hrase, *'t«iwer of tin* fliiek, had j)r(»phetic
rebrenei- to riethl<-]ii-in as the birtnplace of
our Sa\iiinr.

TowFK i>K SunnKM. Tliis sd-ms to have
IsM-n a v»Ty strouur and siiacious citatlel, in the
vieiiiity of tlie town of Slieohem, ti» which the
iidiabitants iU-d for n'fu;,'e when the toUTi was
l>e>ie;:ed by Abiukelech. Fi-ariu;; this woulil
liot jiritteet tliem, tlify e*»caiKil to the temple
<»f ojn- of their idi'Ipnls, which was also
fi'Hilirjl, and tl»e stipiKised nanetity of which
tliey IioihmI woulddeti.T Abimeleeh from attaek-
inj( it: but he Hummndeil it by fire mad«.* of
j,T«'en Ixiuirlis, and burned or suifocutetl the
whole n\ultitnde. (Set? Vinks.)

The towers menti«>ui*d in SScripture ore: —
04»

TOW

Babol (Oen. xL 9i, Ed.ir (G«l xxxt. 2l\
IVnuel (Judc. \iiL 17), Shechiem (.Tuilg. ix.'W.i,
Thebcz (Judt;. ix. fiO, 51), I)a>id (Si.<n;; iv. 4i,
Ijebanon (Si^ng vii. 4), of the funuA?c# (Xeh.
iii. 11), Meah (NeK xiL 3C«), Jezrvel (2 KL ix.
17), Hananeel (Jer. xxxi 38; Zech. xir. 10),
S\-ene (Kzek. xxix. 10; K^ek. xxx. 6), SiVum
(Luke xiii. 4).

TOWN CLERK (Arts xix. 35). The \an
clerk, or city rec<.>rdvr, waa a maj^istrate at the
head of the municipal i»>vemment and nexi in
ortler to the pnetor. He ^vt his Grwk Dime.
meaning scribe, from the fact that he i«!nn«9«l
the public laws and acta, and read them is
pul>hc«

TOW'^^S. The Hebrews had Tarioos vsum
for towns under special a^pecta, tfaoct^h tbe
names are not carefully dintinguiadied m oor
version. For \-illage, handet,

1. U IIATZER — a word meaning villace, at n
open place rudely fortified— is oftenToo&d in
tne Old Testament, belonj^nng enpecially to the
territories of Judah and Simeun. ItR ucb«r
forms are Hazar and Hazor. The term i« nftn
ioined to other words, as names of ^betk
HA7JiB- ADD AR— "village of beauty'' (Sua.
xxxiv. 4)— « place on the southern boondaiT
of the countiy, called Adar in Jush. xr. 1
Hazab-enan— *'\-illage of f^nintains'' (Nun.
xxxiv. 9)— on the noith-ea«tem boundary, Mki
Kupposo4l by Porter to be a place b^ecn
Damascus and Palmyra. Hazar-gaddah—
*• village of kills or of fortune '* ( Jocih. xv. 27)—
in the southern district of Judah. Hjjai-
Hatticon— *'mi«ldle villa^" (Ezek. xlviL
10)— on the lionlers i>f the Hauran. Hazax-
M.vvETH — '* vilhu^e of death" (Gen. x. aS.-:
the wonl is 3*et found in Uie Arabian name (■{
Ha<lramaut HLvz.\r-shval — ** \-illaijeof f^ies"'
(Josh. XV. 2S)— a phuni usually mentioned sIciIl;
with Beersheba. HAZAR-sr$AH, or ploraL
srsiir—" village of howes*' (Joeh. vli. ojl
Chr. iv. 31)— mentioned alon^ with Beth-
marcalx)th— "house of charit^ta. HAttRiK-
* * vi llai^os. " In I >eut ii. 2^^ the [ibrase reoiiTvi
"the A vims which dwelt in H:izerim.'' j-b-.-nM
be, "the A vims which dwelt in \~illace«.''
Hazeriith— " villages" (Xum. xL 35)—™ »
htation in the desert

2. CapHer— **a villas or hamlet "-fwai
in the wonl Capernaum. C'ephiraii |ji«b. ii.
17). CePHAR-H AAMM« »NAI— " the vilL^'e of tie
jVmmonitos" (•Fc^h xviii. 24).

:j. l*KRAZOTH— the places iwiwallt-d, inhab-
ited by the Perizziti'S (Dent, iii, o).

4. Hhavah, in the idural. Hhavoth—*' til-
lages formed of tents," and varir*u>ly rend«m?l
in our version. Tlius. "small towns'' » Nun
xxxil 41), "Havoth" (T\-ut iiL 14), "t.-»«iu"
(.losh. xiiL 30), "Hav..th" {narmn, \-illaf«'.
(Judg. X. 4), "towns" (1 Ki. iv. 13), "tuins'
(1 <;hr. iL 2:*).

Then, for cities projK-r : —

L Kir, Kiriah, or Kirjahi— a citr a»
something buildeil, and the wt>rd is nfi^s
incoriH>rat;<,'<l into i>roi»or n.'uues : 1. Kirjath-
a t^j^^-n of Benjamm (Josh. x%*iiL 28). i K.^;
JATUAIX— "the double city:** (a.) A iovtid

TRA

Moab, on the east of Jordan (Gen. xiv. 5;
Num. zxxii 37; Jer. xlviii. 1, &c.); (6.) A
town in NaphtaJi, allotted to the Gerahonites
(1 Chr. vi 76). 3. Kibjath-arba— " the city
of Arba," Hebron, (G«n. xxiii. 2 ; Josh. xiv.
IS, Ac) 4. KnwATH-HUZOTH— "the city of
■treets**(Nmn.xxii39). 5. Kibjath-jearim—
*' ci^ of forests,'* on the borders of Judah and
Benjkmin (Josh. ix. 17 ; xv. 60). 6. Kibjath-
ABix (Esffa ii 25). 7. Kibjath-baal (Josh.
xrixt 14). & KiBJATH-BEPHEB— " the city of
the book "—a Gauaanite town in the mountains
off Judah (Josh. xv. 15 ; Jndg. i. 11). 9. Kib-
JATH-8A2nf AH— '* the city of the palm '* (Josh.
»▼- 49).

II. IB— probably a city with walls and gates,
AS it is distinguished from "villages** (Lev.
zxv. 29-31). It is also incorporated with
proper names, but in our version it is usually
rendered "citv.** Thus we have, — 1. Ib-hat-
nMABur^" tne city of the palm trees ** (Deut.
xzxIt. 3 : Jndg. L 16 ; iiL 13 ; 2 Chr. xxviii.
15^ 2. Ib-ham-mxlach— "the citv of salt"
(Josh. XV. 62). 3. Ib-shemesh— Beth-shemesh,
^'the dty of the sun** (Josh. xix. 41). 4. Ib-
VAHABH (1 Chr. iv. 12)— "the city of the
wearpeni," 5. Ib-ha-hxbes — "the city of de-
■traction," or "of the sun*' (Isa. xix. 18). 6.
IbBOHOBOTH-iB— "the dty Rehoboth " (Gren. x.
11). It is translated "town " in Deut. iii. 8,
and "court** in 2 Ki xx. 4. (See City.)

The various kinds of towns or cities men>
tioned in Scripture are : — Royal (Num. xxi
90; Josh. X. 2; 2 Sam. xiL 26), fenced (Josh.
X.30; Isab xxxvi l}^ treasure (E!xod. i. 11),
oommerdal (Isa. xxui 11; Ezek. xxviL 3),
chariot (2 Chr. i. 14: 2 Chr ix. 25), store
^Ghr. viii 4. 6), Levitical (Lev. xxv. 32, 33;
jSTnni. zxxv. 7, S), refuge (Num. xxxv. 6).

TRACHONITIS (Luke iii l)-a rocky
broken district east of the Jordan— the Argob.
(See Aboob.) It was infested with roboers,
and Herod the Great obtained the province on
condition that he would extirpate them. At
his death his son Philip succeeded to the
government of it.

TRADITION (Matt. xv. ^a precept or
custom not contuned in the written law, but
handed down from generation to generation.
The Jews maintain that God gave Moses.
besides the law which we have in the Ola
Testament, a varie^ of precepts, which he
made known to Joshua, l^ whom they were
communicated to the elders, and by them to
the judges, prophets, &c; that they were
ifauJly collected from various sources, and
reoorded in what is called the Talmud. Many
of these traditions were in direct opposition to
the law of God, a striking example of which is
given by our Saviour in connection with the
panage above cited. There were, however, a
variety of traditions, or doctrines and precepts,
which persons divinely inspired taught by
word of mouth (2 Thess. iL 15; iiL 6). The
only way in whi<ui we can know satisfactorily
tluht any tradition is of divine authority, is by
its having a place in those writings wmch are
generally acknowledged to be the genuine

TRE

productions of inspired men. All traditions
which have not such authority are without
value, and tend greatly to distract and mislead
the minds of men. It is a high dishonour done
to Scripture to elevate any tradition to equal
authority with it.

TRANCE (Acts x. 10). This word occurs
but twice in the Old Testament (Num. xxiv.
4, 16), and in both instances is supplied bjr the
translators, and not foimd in the original.
It denotes a state of mind in which external
objects are entirely unnoticed and forgotten,
so that the soul seems, for the time, to have
passed out of the body, and to be occupied in
purely spiritual contemplations. This state
may sometimes be the efifect of natural causes ;
but in the case of Peter, it came from super-
natural oower. (See Dbeam, Virion.)

TRANSFIGIJRE (Matt xviL 2). This
term denotes a change of aspect or appearance,
not of substance or body. The change was
seen in the face of the Redeemer and in his
appareL It was exceedinglv majestic and
glorious^ and is particularly described by the
evangelists^ and alluded to oy Peter (2 Pet. L
16-18). His countenance shone with radiant
splendour, and his robes glistened with a snowy
whiteness. The design of ^ this miraculouB
event was manifold, but chiefly to attest, in
the most solemn and mysterious manner, the
divinity of the Messiah's person and mission;
to stipport the faith of the oisdples by evidence
of the existence of a separate state, which was
furnished by the appearance and conversation
of Moses and Elias ; and to show by the audible
declaration of the Father that there was a
broad distinction between thisjprophet and all
others : — " This is my beloved Son, hear him.**
On the mount, "the law and the prophets,** in
the person of Moses and Elias, bore witness to
the Saviour. Peter, when he sai^ "Let us
make three tabernacles,'* placed Moses and
Elias on a level with Jesus. The " voice from
the excellent glorv** rebuked the rash apostle,
and said, " Hear him ; ** Moses and Elias have
been heard : their instructions were only pre«
paratory. The one great Teacher, Qoda own
Son, is now to be listened to. (See Tabob.)

TRANSGRESSION (Hob. ii 2). The two
words used in this passage are ny common
usage nearly svnonymous. Perhaps the former
may be considered as passing over the bounds
prescribed by the law, or doing the things
we ought not to do; and disobedience as a
refusal to do what it enjoins, or not doing the
things we ought to do.

TREASURE - CITIES (Exod. i. 11),
TREASURE-HOUSES (Ezra v. 17). It is
asserted by M. Chabas that he has read
aUusions in £g3rptian papyri to the building
of those treasure-cities by a slave-people callea
Aperin, another form m the name Hebrews.
Tne kings of Judah had keepers of the
treasures both in city and country (1 Chr.
xxviL 25); and the towns where these treasures
were deposited were called treagure-cities^ and
the magazines or houses for their safe keeping
were called treaturt-funua. (See PiraoM.)

649

;

TRE

TREASURES IN THE FIELD. "We
havti tn.'nstiivA in tlie field, of wheat and of
l>arle>% and uf oil, and of honey ** (Jer. xli. 8).
*• Tlifse * tn'ifcsuiv« in the field ' were donbtloss
laid np in Huliterranean i>itti, like the matta-
iiiiin^s in JSarbary, in which c^rain in i\v.\n*sdte<i
when winnuwed. Two or three hnndreil jnta
an* Honietinu'ft to;;ether, the Rnialletft of which
will h.dd AiX) busheR"— />r. Shuw.

*'Nrar the ti»wn of lHysan (the ancient
Bcthshan) are the minrf of many Huhterramtan
gT^narii'ft.''- Iffnf atui Mantih'A^ p. IMW.

TItKAST-RY (John viii. »)), TRKA-
SUIMKS (1 Chr. ix. L»tJ) - the place in the tem-
ple when? ;.'ift*< wi-n^ n'ceive<l. (See Tkmple.)

TIII:K of KN0\VLKI)<;K. (See Adam.)

TicKK or LiKK (llrn. xi. H). ItKr»*win the
f^anlen of Kd<-iL With itit N|K'ciiil nature and
]inriio»<e Adam and Kve nui.st have been
uciuainteil. It h:id the power either in itself
or eiacrainontally of preKer\-in}; undecaying life,
and in the AjMH-alypse (xxii. 2) it Htnnds a^in
in mradisf- the Hvudnd or means of a happy
and emllfxa cxi««ti."Uoe.

TRKES. The iirineipnl trees of Palestine
have U-en desiTiU**! umler their resnective
lieadiit. They are thus j:r«miHMl tojjetner by
tlje author of Kccl"sia'*ticus: — **I was exalteil
like a ceiLir in ]jil>anufl, and as a cyjtruri tree
uT)«in the mountains of Ilermon. I wa;* exalt«d
like a i>alm trei^ in Kn^addi, and an a n>»e plant
in •lericho, an a fair olive tn'c in a pleasant
field, and i^Tew lip as a piano tree by the water.
Ah the tui-|ientine tree I Btretehed out my
bran«.'hfs, aiiil my bnincht's an* the branches
of honour iiii<l ifr.u-e. As the vine bn)U.:;ht
I fftrth pl«-:<sant savour, and my tlowers are
the fruit of honour and riches," The trros
mentioneil in Sirripturc, accordinjr to our
verbit'U, are, -Alimmd ((Jen. xliii. Jl: Kccl.
xii. Ti; .Itr. i, 11), alniuir or al.;um (I Ki. x.
11, rj; L' I'hr. ix. 10, 11). apple (Son^' ii. 3;
viii. T); Joel i. VI), ash (Isa. xliv. H), Imy
(f's. xxxvii. .T»). bi>x (Is.i. xli. 11»). cedar (1
Ki. X. -7), ehestnut (K/.ek. xxxi. 8), cvj)ru!j
(Isa. xliv. 14), fi- (DiMit viii H\ fir (i Ki.
v. 10; li Ki. xix. 2:J; Ps, civ. 17), juniper (1
Ki. xix. •!, o), Iij,Mi-alm'8 (Num. xxiv. C»),
inulb.'rry (2 Sam. v. 2.{, 21), myrtle (Isa. xlL
r.»; Iv. \:\\ Zrrh. i. 8), mustard (Matt. xiii.
;V2), oak (Isa. i. :«»), oil tree (Isa. xlL ll*), oHve
(l)eut. vi. 11), palm (Exod. xv. 27), pine (Isa.
xli. 11»), |H»megranate (Pent. viii. tS; Joel i.
12), sliittuh t»r shittim (Kxod. xxxvi. 20; Isa.
xli. l'.>). sy<'aniore (1 Ki. x. 27; Ts. Ixxviii.
47; Amoji vii. 14; Luke xix. 4), t<Ml (Isxi. vi.
l.'t), vine (Num. vi. 4; Ezek. xv. 2), willow
(Isa. xliv. 4; Kz<.'k. xvii. 5).

TRKSPASS (I.. -v. vi. 2) usually denotes
an offenco committed a'-'ainst, «»r an injury
done t<>, another. It implies a <leparture fn»m
duty in resjK'ct ti> (hkI or man (Matt. vi. 15).

'1 KKSF'ASS OFFEItlNiJ. (SfO OFFERING.)

'i'RlJJE (Num. i. 4). The jwsteritv of each
of the tuelyo Kon« (»f Jacob is chilled a tiibe.
JjuN^, on his di'iith-bed, a<lopted Kphrium and
ManaH.seh, the wms of Joseph, aa his own
cLildreu (Gen. x I viii. 5), and thus made two

TRU

tribes of one. Tn the distribntion of tlw
pnuniaed land, however, only twelve ghuvi
were ina4.ie ; for the tribe ol Le\-i were to
minister in the temple, and to be supported I7
the contribntions ot the rest. (See Levitb;,
Tithes, &c. ) The twelve tribes c^mtinned to
l>e one people until after the death of Solr>mo&,
when ten of thcxn revolted and became 1
separate monarch}' under Jeroboam, and wot
called the kingdom of Israel, leaving the tribes
of Benjamin and Judali under the <^vemiiKnt
of Kehoboam, i\ith the name of the kingdoa
of Judab. Each of the tribes aeen» to hiTc
had its independent jurisdiction. andthevihJe
of them, in their earlier hi»toTy. formed »
republic, as the cantons of Svintzerland. or tbe
Unitcil States of America (See Hebrews.)

TKIBUTK (G«n. xUx. 15). ThatwLidiii
paid to rulers in token of subiection, and for
the Bmi|x)rt of government. By the Jewiih
law (Ex 1x1. XXX. 13), a tribnte or cafatatka
tax was half a shekel, or one shiUinj? and s
halfi>enny sterling* which was expended in tiM
ti'mple service. There had been {larty conflieti
on tne point whether this payment ahoold be
voluntary or whether it should be a wmpulNfT
tax. The conversation of our Saviour wito
Peter, on the subject of i>ayin]^ thiti tribote
money, was desi^pied to show him that, being
himself the Son of God, the Kini^ for whcse
service tlie tribute was paid, be might jtutly
be exempted from payiiii^ it; but to premt
i\Xij needless irritation on the luut ci the
ofhcers or nation, he by miraculous povtf
provided the me.'ins of ]>a>'ing the r^qiiirsd
tribute, which amounted to two shillion's and
a penny sti'rlinj; for Iwth (Matt. xWi. 24 1.

1'JU)AS (Acts xvL 8) or ALEXANDRIA
TROAS— a maritime city of Mysia, nn the
INIediterranean, near the site of ancient Tn>y,

Coin of ninm, in the Trood.

so celebratcil in Grecian history. Paul ivited
it rcpeat<Mlly (Acts xx. 6-12: 2 Cor. 11 12; 2
Tim. iv. W).

TROGYLLIITM (Acts xx. 15)-a town it
the base of mount Mycale, in Ionia, i.»pp"wit<
to Samos, where Paul tarried one ni^ht on bii
way from Troas to Miletus.

I'KOPIIIMUS (Acts XX. 4)-a native d
Ephcitus (Acts xxi. 2*.)), and a convert to the
faith of the Gr)8j>el, probably under PmT*
ministry. He K'came one of the ap^i^?'
companions and hel{)ers in missionary tr»reh
and labours (2 Tim. iv. 20).

TRUMPET (Exod. xix. IG). The trumpet
differed little from the horn, and in rarticnlm
which are no longxsr discoverable. The ail^"*
trumpets were used by the priests alone in

paUiblng tli« •pproaeb of feativkli anil
cirinsmsiials of war. (B«e Feabtb.)

TDTBAI- (Gen. i. ffl— fifti bod of Jspheth,
lAoae d«MenduilJtirob>bly peopled u coxintiT
tfios Kiath of tha Caacuus, betweeD the BUck
Bm and the Caspian, whose inhabitanta were
Am TibirsDi of the Greek). The CircMaians,
wlto inhaHt this region, are glave-dealera,
■nd they of Tubal traded in the "persons

Ubt.z

■^(Ewk. 1

L 2: comp.

rnBAL-CAIN (Gen. i». 22)
ing to a ooTTect tnuUlaCion, to b
<tf ftU inatmrnents in braaa and i

TURBAN. (See Clotuss.)

TURTLE-DOVE (Lev. i. 14)— « gpecies of
pigwm. By the Jewish law, the poor t' -
•oold not afford a more costly aacnfice n
pwuittod to bring two tnrtle^JoTa

Xoong P^eoi

culty by

it should read, " O

B letter 1^ been aubetituted
iBOther very mach like it— the lesb for a
dalath. The Septuagint and the Syriac have
niawrvsd such a reacunii in this place.

TYCHIUUS (Acts u, 4)-a compani _ __
Paul, and evidently a devoted and faithful
fwanle (Eph. ri. 21, 22; CoL iv. 7, 8).

TiVE. The Engli^ form of the Greek
i^rvt, and the same ae Aadoa (Heb. i,
and jlpure (Rom. v. 14). The doctHnr
^pes 11 confeasedly one of the most diffi
n the whole compaa of biblical interprel
~-atleast,ifwearetoindgeof itsdifficul .
ttia nmaennis and conuictiug views which ii
been held >a to ita nature and proper modea
ef treatment and application. Typoloe; has,
howeTer, greatly more reason to complain ol
it> fiienda than of ita enemin. The bisarrtria
of typical eipoaition have long been the
amnaement of the sceptic— the scoui^e of
evangelical truth. The efforts on the part
of rabbinical authors to find anful and
Biyiterioiia meauinga "packed in the bend
a » Samech or a Koph" have been too
iften imitated, if not outdone, by Christian
viitera on the types— men who have written
m the Bubject without a gliinmeriag conception
if what a type really is, and so have confounded
t with all things like it, and idcntiSed it with
tuaiy thin^ to which it bore no resemblance.

The typical character of the old dispensation
■ its distinctire feature. But what la a type !
It ia not merely a sjimbol of soroe future person
m ayent; it ia also a prediction of it: it is a
iroi»ietic aymboL The sacrifices under the
aw not merely symbolized or exemplified the
^ji al atonement, in so far as they showed that
■nilt deserving death could only be pardoned
■ ■ " ■ la death; but

was a type, iiow^wwo uaa power » on

juch types! OnljHa who can found relig

observances for his fallen creatures. And how
shall those creaturea know when He creates
types, and what lessons those types conveyT
Their knowledge must depend oo God's
declarations. If Jehovah form a type, be will
reveal it to us. We cannot understand it till
he disclose it Nothing, then, can be a type to
□s, unlees the Bible aays it is. (See Shadow.)

T YRANNU8 (Acts ux. 9)-a teacher, prob-
ably of Greek philosophy, in whose school at
Ephesua the apostle taught for two years ; or
it may have been a private synago^e, which
occupied the school at certain tim eg in tjie day.
OneM3. says that the apostle taught "from
toor till ten o'clock."

TYRE (Josh. lix. 29; Ezek. izvL 21— ren-
dered TYRUS in several of the pnnihetical
books— was situated in latitude Si' if N., on
the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. It
was an ancient city, but the legends aboat ita
origin cannot be credited. A portion of the
rity was on the mainland, and the more famous
portion on an ialand. Uld Tyre, on the main-
land, stcetdied along the shore for 7 miles;
and the island town was 22 stadia in drcum-
ferenco. Tvre means "rock," and the name
Bpedally beloncs to the city on the island ; jet
Tyre OD the shore is perhaps the older oty.

—5" ' ~ ^ ,.

jned in Joehnaasthe "atrong laty"

Tyre, and eviilently as a placeon the mainland,
"ime, however, maintain that the ialand city
u the older : and the language of some early
writers would seem to imply such a priority.
Space being of necessity limited on the rock,"

~ obtained by building the houses of

^ _. -iea ; and by several Bubetruotures on

the easteru and southern side* of the island
the area was greatly enlarged. There were
two harbours— the one on the north aide, called
the Sidonian, formed out of a natoral indenta-
tion, waa 900 feet long and 700 broad ; and the
other on the south, called the E^'"-

by means of a great tneakwater.

A canal, running through the city, connected
Uie two harbooiB, each (n which was ahnt by a

TYR

Tt w in the riiLm of l>avi«l that Tyre comes
int«» Ki««ci;il iu«tii«' in Smntnro. Hiram,
it* killer, wjis in alliance with l>avi«l anil Soh»-
nit in, an«l ctintrihutetl tiuibiT and artiaamt to
the eriftion and a»li»nmient of th« tem])le and
jialaoe in tlio .lew ish caiiitid. ITiis Hiram was
HiU"C»*nii'd l)y liis Hon lialeazar. who reigned
M'ven yi"ar», and he by his Hon Adrastiifl, who
after a rei^oi <»^ nine years waH ai».sas«iuated.
HiH a>«''afi.«ins were the (Mms of his nurse, and
the eldest «if them held the throne for twelve
yearn. After an insurreftiim, ]irc>bal>ly a ser-
vih* one, the djTiasty of Hiram wai* restore*! in
the itemon of Abda<itratus, who was kin{; for
nine years. H in Hucccssor, Aserymiis, \**a8 put
to death by his bmther IMialeH, who, after a
usun*ation of ei-Oit months, fell by the hand
of Ithobaal, privst of Astarte, ami father of
Jezel>el, (luoen of Ahab. Itholjaal reigned
thirty -two j'ears; and during his reign the
native histonans make mention of a famine,
which seems to correspond with that recunleu
in 1 Ki. xviii. 1. Ithobaal's successor was
Uailizor. wlio ri'iLfued six years; his son Mat-
gen, reigned thirty-two; and his successor,
Pygmalion, forty -.leven. In the seventh year
of his reign he munlere«l Acerl)as, Pfiest of
Iferoules, and hnsliand of his sister rjlissa or
]>ido, who, along with many of his nobles, fled
fn>m his kingiloni, and founded C'arthape, on
the African oiuxst. A blank follows, till the
reign of Kliileus and the invasion by Shalman-
erii'r. JosriihuM, out of Menander, tells the
!<tory. "'IIk- nam** of this king, Sliolmaneser,
is also »A down in the archives of Tyre, for he
made an i'\|M'ditiiin a;.';iin-t Tyre in the reign of
Kluh'U-; ami .M •.■ n am Kt attests t«) it, who, when
he wp-te his Chri >nolot;y. and tran>lated the
sirehivfs i»f 'Pyn* into the (Ireek language,
gives us thr following hi.-ti»ry:- 'One whose
name was Kluhus niuaie*! thirty-six years : this
king. uiMin the n-volt of the Citteans, sailed to
them, and n'llucfd them again to a submission.
Against thoe did the king of Assyria send an
anny, and in a hostile manner overrun all
IMionicia, Imt siniu made iH'aiX' with them all,
and n.tunuil back ; but Sidon, and Ace, and
3*al:i-tynis re\o]tfd; an«l many other cities
there wen.' which deli\eri'd themselves up to
the king (»f A— yri:k Accordingly, wlien the
Tyrians would n«»t submit to him, the king re-
turned, and fell tqwin them again, while the
Vhonicians hail furnished him with thn'cscore
H)ii]i<>, anil MMi iiirii to row them ; and when the
Tyrians had i«»iin' upon them in twelve shii»s,
and till* rni'iuii"*' shijts were ilisjiersed, they
took ri(Nl iin'ii jirix-ners, and the re]'Ut:ition of
all till- I it i/i -us of 'J'yn' was tlierrby increased :
but tln» kin'>r of As^ATia returned, and placeii
guards at thrir river and a<iue<lncts, who
should hiiidir the Tyrians from ilrawing water.
Tliis ciiiitinui-d for live yrars, and still the
Tyrians iH.n- tin' f-it-ge, and drank of the water
tlii'V liad out of the wrlls they dug.* "

IjTf w:w in iU u'lory during the jK'riod of

till" Hi-ljrew prophets. Uut Nebuchailnezzar,

ftfti-r having vanouishod Dkaratjh-necho, laid

siege to it, Sidon having already fallen. The

052

TYR

riege lasted thirteen years, and the resnlt ii

still matter of discussion ; many, like Gvsenioi,

I Winer, Heert^n, and Kenrick, affirming tint

i the blockade was unsuccessfuL Certainly there

' is no distinct record of the fadl of Tyre in taj

' ancient writer. The siege, however, is thai

I l)ictnred by Ezekiol : " S<m of man, Xehndod-

rezzar king of liabylon caused his armvto serve

a great ser\'icc agiunat Tyrus : every liead wii

made bald, and eveiy shoulder was P^elBd;

yet had he no wages, nor his anny, forTynn,

for the service that he had serviM a«»diul it :

therefore thus saith the Lord (vod ; Bebuld, I

will give the land of Egypt nnto Xebnduid-

rezzar king of Babvlon ; and he ahall take her

multitude, and take her spoil, and take her

i)rey ; and it sliall be the wages for his annr.
^ have given him the land td Egypt for lui
la1)our wherewith he served affoinst it. becaiw
they vkTought forme, Muth the Lord God**(£a^
xxix. 18-20). This prophecy wi>uld aecm to
indicate failure, and that the Bahvlonian oan-
(|ueror, disappointed of booty in ^tyrv, wooU
hnd ample compensation in the pillage of
£gyi)t—^' wages** for his army. Butthnm
have on the other the distinct statement,—
" For thus floith the Lord God ; Beholl, I will
bring upon Tyrus Nebuchadrezzar king cf
Babylon, a Idnff of kings, from the nvtth, irith
horses, and with chariots, and with hunemen,
and Companies, and much people. He ihs&
slay with the sword thy daughters in the £^ :
and he shall make a fort against thee, and cist
a mount against thee, and lift up the bnckkr
against thee. And he shall set engines of war
]^;:ainst thy walls, and with his ."ixes he &hill
break down thy towvrs. By rea<^nn li the
abundance of his horses their du2>t shall cover
thee : thy walls shall shake at the nolte d the
horsemen, and of the wheels, and uf the chsr*
iots, when he shall enter into thy gates, a* men
enter into a city wherein is matie a brescL
With tlie hoofs of his hors<ed shall h« tr«sd
down :dl thy streets : he shall slay thy ptx^U
by the sword, and thy strong garrisi>ii» ^l^U
go down to the grr)und. Ajid they shall mil'
a s]ioil of thy riches, and make a prvy of th?
merchandise : and they shall break down thr
walls, and destroy thy pleasant housed : aDO
they shall lay thy stones and thy timU>r asd
thy dust in the midst of the water. AaU I
will cause the ni.tise of thy son^ X^t cetise; ani
the sound of thy har]^s i«liaU be no mi>re httri
And I will make thee like the top of a ivck:
thou shalt be a i^lace to spreaa mt^ uivb:
thou shalt be built no more: for I the usA
have six^ken it. saith the Lord God" (EaeL
xx\i. 7-14). The purport of this oracle brt
(luotetl cannot be mibt^iken : the city (^ tb^
snore was to be l)eaten down b3* battennc-rsBi'
and engines of war; and tlie other on tbc
n»ck. ** strong in the sea.'* wa^ to be ^kenU
rubbish, and shot into the water — was t>^ bf ^'
desolate that fishers should spread their neti
uiK>n it. The author or collector of the oradd
of l^kiel ci^uld not surely so contradict bis-
self as to say, and then to imsay— to affim
the overthrow of Tyre^ and then coet dud:4i

TYR

iipcm it. FrobAblv the meaning of the first '
oncle is, that NeDnchadnezzar was not suffi-
ciently rewarded for the long and weary siege,
dnrinff whidi every soldier's head was made
'* htAa^ by the constant wearing of the hehnet ;
and "every shotdder was peeled" by the per- 1
petnal siege-work. Perhaps the inhabitants;
oad time to remove, throngn their ships, large
portions of their property. Besides, Tyrian
nostages are found after this date at the oonrt
of Babylon, and those being of royal blood
were oocasiouaUv asked to assume the Tyrian
■OiTereignty. These circumstances imply capi-
tulation, it not overthrow. After the death
of l^uJ, who was king at the end of this siege,
the monarchic form of government was super-
■eded, and Tyre was ruled by suifetes (judges),
another form of the Hebrew shophetim.
^^re became an easy prey to Persia, and again
mufered a terrible siege under Alexander the
Ore>t> He constructed, with immense toil,
ingennity, and perseverance, a mole from the
mainlann to the rock-dty ; and after a warfare
of aeven months, Tjrre fdl in conflagration and
maincre, 332 B. c. ; 10,000 of the population
being put to death, and 40,000 sold into captiv-
ity. The mole constructed by Alexander out
n the ruins of old Tyre remained, and the
island thus became a peninsula. After being
under the Seleucidse, the city fell under Ko-
num dominion. The Crusaders laid successful
riege to it; and Venice held it for a time. It
ii now a poor place, with 3,000 inhabitants —
deaolate, solitary, '*tbe deserted," as Ezekiel
dtacriboi it, "in the midst of the sea."

The allusions to Tjrre in the Hebrew pro-
phets are numerous and graphic. In Ezek.
sonrii is a vivid panorama, in which pass in
■nooeasion her ships and her merchandise, her
lain and exchanges, her imports and exports,
her motley population gathered from so many
landa, and ner wealth and luxury, her stately
ahipa and warriors bright in armour, ftc.
Bnkiel*8 catalogue has oeen paraphrased by
Dr. Vincent in the following way : —

Xyn produced from Hermon and the moim-

TJND

tains near it fir for planking ; and from Liba-
nus, cedars for masts. From Bashan, oaks for
oars. From Greece, or the Grecian isles, ivoiy
to adorn the benches or the waists of tne gal-
leys. From Egypt, linen, ornamented with
different colours, for sails or ensigns. "From.
Peloponnesus, blue and purple doths for awn-
ings. From Sidon an<l Aradus, mariners;
but Tyre itself fumitihed pilots and com-
manders. From Gebal, or Biolos, on Uie coast
between Tripolis and Berytus, caulkers. From
Persia and Africa, mercenaiy troora. From
Aradus, the troops that garrisoned Tyre with
the Gammadim. Tin came from Britain or
Spain. From Greece and the countries bor-
dering on Fontus, slaves and brass-ware. From
Armenia, horses, horsemen, and mules. From
the Gulf of Persia, and the isles within that
gulf, tusks of ivory, and ebony. From Sjria^
em^alds, purple, oroidered work, fine Unen,
coral, and agate. From Judah and Israel,
wheat, honey, oil, and balsam. From Damas-
cus, wine oi Hebbor. and wooL From the
tribe of Dan, situated nearest to the Philis-
tines, the produce of Arabia, bright or wrought
iron, cassia or cinnamon, and the calamus
aromaticus. In conducting the transport of
these articles, Dan went to and fro—uiat is,
formed or conducted the caravans. From the
Gulf of Persia^ rich doth for the decoration of
chariots or horsemen. From Arabia Petnea.
lambs and rams and ^ats. From Sabea ana
Oman, the best of spices. From India, gold
and precious stones. From Mesopotamia,
from Carrluc, and Babylonia, the Assyrians
brought aU sorts of exquisite manufactures.

Other orades dwell on the doom of that dty,
which was *' a merchant of the people, and sat
on the seat of God in the midst of the seas."
Her pride was great; "I am," said she, **of
I>erfect beauty."* Joel denounces Tyre for
selling Jews into slavery ; and Amos, oecause
she broke the ** brotherly covenant." On the
other hand, the daughtor of Tyre is to be
prefH.>nt at the royal nuptials, as foretold in
Ps. Ixv.

TJ

ULAL The Ulai was a river near Shu-
dmn, probably the same as the Eulseus. The
river iQierkah bifurcated at one point The
eaatem branch, passing east of Shiishan, is the
£oI»iiB, and flowing south, and meeting with
the Shapur, it fell into the Kuran. The western
fannch, or the Choasper proper, ran from
Paipiil, the place of bifurcation, uo^'n to the
Tigris. Ezekiel heard a man's voice between
the bulks of Ulai— literaUy, "l)etween Ulai,"
—that is, the river and some of its prindpal
diannels. (See Shushan.)
UNOIRCUMCISION. (See Circumcision.)
T7NCLEAN. (See Clean and Unclean,

UNCOVER (Lev. x. 6). Uncovering the
bead was a token of mourning and captivity
(Iml zlvii 2). Uncovering the thigh was re-

moving the garments from it, preparatory to
passing through the water. Uncovering the
arm (Ezek. iv. 7) was a preparation for the
siege, by removing every encumbrance.

UNCTION (1 John ii. 20) denotes the
grace of God*s Spirit bestowed on beUevers,
and used figuratively (in reference to Uie cere-
mony of anointing) to signify either health or
purity, or as a token of re j dicing. (See Anoint. )

UNDERGIllDING (Acts xxviL 17)-en-
circling the vessel with four or five tutdnes of
stout cable. Lord Anson mentions a Spanish
man-of-war that was saved by throwing over-
board one tier of guns, and taking six turns of
a cable around the snip, by which she was
prevented from opening. A Hussion diip
was in 1815 taken in this way from England
to the Baltic. The "Albion/' 74, coming

653

UND
frnm Indu in 1840, wm nndergiided ; mi
Kir Gei.rtT Buck, wtuminp fnjm hit MCtic
voya^'e in IKtT, «u oliliKM to uh a nnHlkr
imcikiitioii wiCn hu ihatU'ivd veMrL The
operatiim WM thui effected by him : — " A
li.iii;tli nf the ■tre&m ch>in-uble wu puied
UDilcr the bottnm iif the Hhip 4 feet before the
inizni) niut. hove tight by the cujwtaD, ftnd
finally iuitnovkMy Ried tn eii ringbolti on
the <iiiirt>'r-di.i.-k. The effect tru at once
maoili-Htcil by a tP^eat illDiiiiution in the work-
iti^ of the partA already mentioned ; and in
alCTa a;;i«eatile way, by inip«ling her rate
•if uiling— a triflini; iwnBidenitii>D, however,
when ompand wilji tbe bcoefit received.
Suheeqnent to thia he met with agule : — "The
water nuhed in violently below, mure e»p«-
dally about the stern-post and bevl-huok, and
ooiiDR thmuL'h different parts higher up.
feU like ■ cwrade int.) the bread-ruom and
nm. . . . While apprehensive that further in-

C' iry had been austaiDcd about the keel, another
nKth of ehainwu puied under the bottom
and net well tiuht to a part of itaelf, acros* the
•fter-i«rt of the qtiarter-decit,"— See Smith'-
FoHUe and S/iipirrrct of SI. Paul, pp. 66, 67.

UKDKRSETTERS (1 KL vii S))-projec
tioni by wbicb the bnien laver waa oma
nwDted and ■upportecl.

USIHiRSTAN'DING. (flee Minn).

UNICORN (Dent wiii. 17), or w homed
Tlie animal deeiRnated by thii name was evi
■lentiy distill c}iial]ed forita ferocity (lu. iiiiv
7), strength (Xum. iiiii. 22; iiiv. 8). apJit;
(Fa. xxix, 61. wildnew (Job xxiiz. tl), and th
pn>niini'ni,'y 111 its horn IDout, iiiiii. 17; Pb
xciL U'}. Itnt llie unicorn, thonifh found in
legenilii. ami though it be a hvmlitiu lupportur
on the ri>yal aruui, is only a fabulous creature.
< hn-honml animals an fontul, bowevei, in
Africa. That it was not the Tliin>icenM soemi
geneiully agreed by mwlem critics.

an animal well
> of Kcripturt, as may
._...™iflllu«ron8 to it It
■netl ■[uailruped— as may be
1 fnwa Dent xixiiL 17, where the
Tew ruailn. " his horns are tlio bonis of an
«m ;" but our verrion, nnt to stultify the
a it liad chosen, makes the ginjnlmT into

plunL wHhmit wamnt, and mdi "vb-
oona." Tb« uus unicom cttne fron tks

■pedes, with ^e ti

bera of which it il 1

wild buffalo aeenw tberefcn to be iatsaU
This animal ii feroeioiiaand ontaiiMaMa. fBMj
saysofit,— "Heisof adnlittleinferiorlDlM
elephant ; in wpsaraaee, efitaar, and tgm it
resembles the bull ; hia atra^th and Tdod^
are gnat; and he aparea neither msa av
beast that oomea in hia way."

UNITY OF THE SPIRIT fEph. i». ■
signifies a nnion of jnctgnent, affectim, am
feeling amons thoaa wbo coBstitDte As am
bodj of Chrut It ia the eift of God (Ik
imL 39). It waa runarkably mjoyrd in tks
early ages of the Chorch (John zviL SI; Ad)
It. 33), and ia to be desind and sought afis
as among tbe chief of Chriatian graces (1 C«c
liii. 11). (See Cbabitt; Chcbce, Cjoit «

"uNBIGHTEODB

UFFEBUOST SEATS. (SnEooM,STI>i.

UTFEB boom: (See Dwelluoo.)
UK (Gen. li. 38), called UB OF TBI

Its oonnectioD with the hiaton at Abaitm
and Jacob, and 1^ podUon of tlie ^oly Hsn*
DOW known, have induced manj moden (<*■
ETaphen to place Ur in the nrarth-westpiitof
Mesopotamia, which was the " land ct tbs
Chaldeans" JEiek. i. 3), where Orfak-if
merly Edessa— now stands; but is too not
Raran to have been the re»I site. Orfih ii
known in modem hiatoi^ as the seat of ni
between the emperor Juban and the Pcndua
Some also contend for Warka,the locint
Ereoh. The probability is that the sile of Tr
is at MuRheir, in Chaldea proper, atar Hit
head of Uie PerUut Gulf, and near tbe JOK-
tion uf the Euphratea with tbe Shat^lHia
On its own inscriptions, and by the nstit4
t it> called Hur or Ur, and ia the oldest atj

aignifring li^ «
-Huven with the tsrij
all of which appear It

the meaning of I
hfalf have been i
history of Abraham,

■ught to have Iwi
rendered Urban, for it is tbe name of a msB.

VRlAH-HrtofJtlioKiA 12 Sam. li. 3l-<»
UKIAS (Matt, i 6)— the husband of Bslk
sheba, and an officer in David's aimy. Si
death was puirnsely bmugbt about l^ s>
understanding between -loab and David, il
order that David's guilt in the case of Bitk-
sbeba might be concealed, and that he nu^
obtain her for hia wife. The brave soldier *■
crueUy betrayed, and allowed to faU in bstdt
unconscious of his wife's diahonnur. Anod'
Uriah waa an unprincipled priest in the tin
of Ahai (2 Ki, ztL lUJ. He was a witaeatt

TTEI

arade of Isaiah. Another of the same!
10 was a priest also (Ezra viii. 33).
RU AH ( Jer. xxtL 20) — another form of the
e name. A prophet of this name was ar-
ed in Egypt, anaput to death by Jehoiakin.
"MM AND THUMMIM (Exod xxviii

These words literally sif^ufy lights^ and
ecHons, Whether they denote some divine
of estation made in or upon, the breastplate
IL or whether it was a visible appendage to

Dreastftlate. ii\dicating its peculiar and
ed nse in tnis respect, has oeen keenly
nted. The utmost that can be satisfao-
\j known respecting the subject is, that it

the manner or thing through which a
wledfle of the divine will was sought and
r^eo, or rather the breastplate which the
I priest wore when Grod spoke by him
ni. zxxiiL 8 ; 1 SauL zxviiL 6).
6 recount the various theories of Spencer

others would serve little purpose. Per-
8 the Urim and Thumnmn are only a
filial description of the sacred gems in the
1 priest's breastplate (comp. Exod. xxviiL
witii Exod. xxxix. 8 ana Lev. viiL 8).
I high pri^ wore the ephod when he con-
ed Jehovah; and this name, given to a
inetive portion of his dress, may denote the
mess and precision of those responses
oh in God*s name he issued to the people.
» the cherubim, the Urim and Thummim
not described; Uie people seem to have
I already familiar with them. Something
lar majT have existed among the Egyp-
L Ancient authors say that the Egyptian
iff wore around his neck an image of
ihire, which was called Truth.
8XJRY (Matt xxv. 27). The word usury,
lodem phrase, means exorbitant or un-
til interest ; but in the Scriptures it means
interest. The law of Moses prohibited
JTewB from taking any interest of each

VAI

other for the loan of money, or anything
else,^ though they were allowed to take it (^
foreigners. The exchangers of money were
in the habit of receiving it at low interest,
and loaning it at hip^h interest, taking the
difference for their gain (Ezek. xxii 12). ^ The

gractice of usury is severely denoimcea in the
criptures (Neh. v. 7, 10 j Ps. xv. 6; Prov.
xxvm. 8). Kich and avaricious persons took
the advantage of the poor and prodigal, and
fleeced them. The Hebrew wora for nsury is
very significant — ^it signifies "biting." (See
Debt^ Plkdob )

UZ (Lam. iv. 21) — a district of Arabia
which was probably settled by the posterity of
Uz, or Huz, a descendant of Shem (Gen. x.
23; xxii. 21), and distinguished as the dwell-
ing-place of Job, whose estate was like that of
a modem Bedouin Sheikh. It was probably
an extensive district (Jer. xxv. 20), and lay
between Syria on the north and Edom on the
south. Old tradition places it in the Hauran.

JJZZAK— strength ]2 Sam. vi 3)— a son of
Abinadab, who was instantly killed, by the
immediate interposition of God, for la3ring his
hands upon the ark^ in violation of the express
provisions of the Divine law. The ark ought
to have been carried on the shoulders of
priests, as the law enacted (2 Sam. iv. 3, 18).

IJZZIAH— strength of Jehovah, Uzriah,
king of Judah, was a famous warrior. He con-
quered both Philistines and Arabians, fortified
Jerusalem, and was successful in the common
pursuits of agriculture and rearing of cattle.
The kingdom of Judah had not been so pros-
perous smce the days of Solomon. His reign
lasted fifty-two years. With the one excep-
tion of his venturing to offer incense, he con-
formed to the Mosaic code. In his reign
happened a remarkable earthquake, alluded to
bv Amos, ch. L 1, and by Zechariah, ch. xiv. 5.
(See AzABiAH.)

AJIi or VEIL (Gen. xxiv. 65). The veil
i indispensable portion of Oriental female
s. It entirely conceals the face. To lift
reil is the grossest insult that can be done
^roman. Courtezans are known in many
em by their want of the veiL In very re-
9 times the veil does not seem to have been so
monly employed as in more recent periods.
e's descriiition of an Eg^tian laay's veil

apply to the same portion of dress gen-
ly over the East : —

A long piece of white muslin, embroidered
ich end with coloured silks and gold, or of
ared crape ornamented with gold thread

spangles, rests upon the head and hangs
n behin<L nearly or quite to the ground.
I is callea 'tarhah :' it is the *head veil,'
can be drawn forward to cover the face at
moxe. This veil is alwa3n9 worn in the house,
r riding or walking atnre of an Egyptian
r Is called ^texyvaeh.* Whenever she
'es the house, the wears a large loose gown.

the sleeves of which are nearly equal in width
to the whole len^h of the gown : it is of silk,
generally of a pink, or rose, or violet colour.
Next is put on the *burko,' or *face-veiL*
which is a long strip of white muslin, conceal-
ing the whole of the face except the eyes, and
reaching nearly to the feet; it is suspended at
the top oy a narrow band, which passes up the
forehead, and which is sewedL as are also the
two upper comers of the veil to a band that
is tied round the head. The lady then covers
herself with a * habarah,' which for a married
lady is composed of two breadths of glossy
black silk, each eU-wide, and 3 yards long
(according to the height of the person), the
seam running horizontally. Witn respect to
the manner m which it is worn, a piece of
narrow black ribband is sewed inside the upper
part about 6 inches from the edge, to tie round
the head.** (See Clothes.)

VAIL OF TEMPLE or TABERNACLE.
(See Tabebnaolb, Tkmpls.)

655

VAL

VAl-LKY. (See Plain.) Benidcs the He-
brew t«'niiH thtTf rofi'rreHl to, may be men-
tioiuMi ( liti. which deuoteH a raxine {2 Ki xxiiL
10); Mi-tziiUali, a di'll (Zech. L 8); Shaveh,
a If vol SI Kit. (See AuEi.. Akauai^ Plain.)
The vjilK-yi* inviiti«»nLHl in Scrijiture, and mo
ntuiKil in «»ur v»T«inii, are Achor (Jiwh. vii. 24;
Iwi. Ixv. H»; lliis. ii. I'l), AjaLm (J<i!*h. x. 12),
liacH (Ph. Ixxxiv. 0), IWnwlm (2 Chr. xx. 2G),
Ii<Kliiin (Jmife'. ii. 6), * 'hanu«hini (1 (Mir. iv. 14),
Klah (1 Sam. xviL 2; xxL 1»), KAi&A (Sum.
xxxii. »; hcut. i. 24), (iwi (2 Sam. xxiv. 5,
niar^'in), (Jerar (Oen. xxvi. 17), Gil)e«>n (laa.
xxviii. 21), Ifvhnni ((icn. xxxvii. 14), Hinnum
or Tuphet (.lush, xviii. 1(»; 2 Ki. xxiii. 10; 2
Chr. xxviii. :t; Jcr. vii. 32), Jehoshaphat or
decision (.I(h.'1 iii. 2. 14), Jericho (Dent, xxxiv.
Ii), .lezrei'l (Iloii. i. 5), Jii>hthah-el (Josh. xix.
14, 27). Keziz (.I(.«h. xviiL 21), l^el^anon (Joeh.
xi. 17). Mfgi»ld.» (2 (^lir. xxxv. 22; Zech. xiL
11), ]SI«uib, where MoneB wari buried (Dent,
xxxiv. ('•), ]\x(i<*en;;erH or Hamon-K'>g (Ezek.
xxxiv. 11), iiephaim or (.aanlM (Jtirihl xv. H;
•fi»sh. xviii. Hi; 2 Sam. v. IS; Iwi. x\*ii 5),
S.ilt (2 Sam. viii. 13 ; 2 Ki. xiv. 17). Shaveh or
kin/H tiale ((i«'n. xiv. 17; 2 Sam. xviiL 18),
Shittim (.loel iii. 18). Siddim ((ien. xiv. 3,S),
S.n-k (.lud;:. xvi. 4), Snccoth (Ps. Ix. «),
Zan«d (Num. x\i. 12), ZelMiim (1 Sam. xiii. 18),
Zei»Iiathah (2 (Mir. xiv. 10).

VAI.LKY OF SALT. (Sih? Salt.)

VANITY, VAMTIES (Ph. xxiv. 4). Be-
fiidoM ill*' oniinary meaiiin^; of them.* ttTmn,
they Heeni to n-frr (Kuutionally to idol-gcnlH and
iilol-wor^lii]!. Thus, Jer. xviii. lf», "My
I><Mii>K' h;i\i' f« ii'LTi .t ton me; they have bnmeii
iiH-rn-i" ti» ^ilIIity.*' Si» al>o in Jer. ii. ."»,
•• \Vl:;it iiiiiiuity have vniir fathers found in
me. lliat til" y are v:< lu- far from nje, and have
valked afti-r vaiiitv. and an* lK'Ci»me vain?"
S.I tiH» III .Ii.nali li. S, an«l in other jilaees.
l«lMl;itry is a drhi.sive m-aetiee, and disA]>lN)iiiUl
thosi* vho arc a<Mi(-teil to it.

VASHTI (Ksth. i. 10 nuvvn of Persia, and
ri'nuiliati-il wifi* of Aha>uiTiis. She has not
lii-in identiiied with any name in IVntian
lii-itiirv.

Vi:H,. (S.-,. Vail.)

V1:N<;KAN('I: «IIom. \\\. VM. TIjIh wonl
iifteii di-niiti-s niiT«l> iiinii^linn'nt. witliout any
refereiu'i' t<» th«' >t:it«* of tin* mind in whieh it
is iiiHii-tifl. In tlie ]'a>»«ai,'e eited, ami eW-
wliere (|)«-ut. .\x\ii. ."i.*!), tlie exehisive ri;,dit of
(io<l to }iniii>li wri III LT-d I lers, and to vindi-
<ati' thf ri.rlit. is plainly .•i»erte«l. Ilenee
ev«Ty a<-t of i-i'v»-iiL:r i.s an inlerffrt-nce with
till- divine jin-niL'ativf. The wonl is apjilied
to (ohl ill tin* K-ime maniKT in whieh an^'er,
hatri'd, i^i*., are a]iplifd ; not as denoting' a
btati* i>r tt-niprr of mind, but as imjilyin^' an

net or <*oursi' of iinicee^iin^' Mieh tu* usually iii-
(lieatt's a parii<-ular i^tate of mind when done
<ir jiMrsiii'd bv man.

VKIJ.MIL'ION {r.z.k. xxiii. 14) a chemi-
r:d suli>t.in«'e us<'d for eolonrim: red, and
iiiU'li \aliii-il for omaiiH-ntinLr dwfllin-.'s (.I«t.
xv.il. 11) anil fiiuntin^' ima'j«'s (K/.ck. x.\iii. 14).
I'liny desierilii's it us a reddish tuiud found iu

VIS

Bilver mines, and much lued ai a paint
Modem travellen mention that the coit^ cl
iMunting and sometimes gilding the oeiliDgs cl
Eaistem houses is still prevalent.
VIAIj. (See Censer, Crp, Goblet.)
VILLAGES. (See Ha/ab, Towss.)
VIXEGAR (Prov. x. 2«). The Httaem
seem to have had two lands of vinegar-^OM
of which they utied as a drink (Nmn. tl ^\
which was ijrubably a weak red wine; md die
other as an acid diluted with water. Breid
and cider formerlv made a oimmon artide d
food amon^ the labouring men in some paiti d
Eneland (Hnth ii 14). The fint kind wu
probably pro\ided for the Koman soUienoi
the occasion of the crudfixiLvn (John xix. ^
The unpleasant sensation produced upin tb(
teeth by vinegar illustrates the offensiviaeac^
a slugwd to those who employ him (Pror. x
20). And the effervescence occaaimKd iHm
vinegar is poored upon nitre or eixla. repR
sents the opposition or incouCTuity of nmt]
and sorrow, and the effect m attemptiiig ft
mingle them (Prov. xxv. 20).
VI yE, WILD (2 Ki iv. 39). (See Gorsa
VIXE3 (Num. xx. 6) and VINEYARD!
(Ezek. xxviii 26) have been highly prised a
every country. We first read of a ^ineyvd a
the history of Noah (Gen. ix. 20). Thu isd
dent seems to prove that the culture of th
vine was not unknown befoit> the ddoge
The vine pUmt 3*ct grows wild in Armenis. b
the district of Ararat. The cnltiTatian of th
vine had arrived at some pcrfectioD ia vn]
early times. In the accounts of Meldiiznki
who »et bread and wine before AhnJiam: d
Ijot, who was drunken; of ai^ed I.saac vbea
re^^oi^led by his somi; in flie ppiplwcy fi
dying Jacob; and in the Ixw.ik i-f Job. n
have the earliest allusions to wine ip >
iimmiun drink ((ien. xiv. LS; xix. St; x^t-
2.*i; xlix. 12; Job i lit; Prov. xxiiL 3(K 51;
Isa. v. 11).

It is said that the vine was not culti^'atedv-
any extent in Kg>n»t The a«uierti<>Q l« «• ftf
cmtneous; and the statement i.if Hennit.^
appean to have Ijcon mi.sund^n>t»HL It a
true that the xine cannut Hve if laiduni^
wattT, as so lor^ a portion <)f Eirji-t i*f'
months every year. Tlie rich mud uf the X3e
<lid not tlierefore ]iro«luce vinej*; and tb»
Heemtt to be all that Heroilotus tuMerU vlxi
he hpeaks of it not l>eiii^ plauteil amon^ tbi)*
who inhal lit ** the s«wc^ I.an«i" Bat the P^
valley of the Nile Ffvnia to have l^een lx»rif»i
wi th Vinejiuidi*. 'llie dream of the chief bstlff
also implies ibi cultivation ((.ren. xL 11). ^
numumcnts pmve it. Acc<>niing tu Ci»
Million, there are found in the pTottiv* '^
iieni Haiisan " rei>r*^sentation3 of the cuta*
of the vine, the vint:ij;e, the bearing »«?»
and the stripjung off of the grapes ; tvo kiitf
of i^resves. the one nioviHl merely by 6«
Htrength of tlie aniH. the other by mecbii-
cal iM)wer; the putting up of tlie '^ ^
biitties or jars, the trant(|iortati<'*n int* v
cellar, the i>rei)aratifm i^f bf>iliHl wine, Ac'
** Numerous/' says Itoselliui, **arvtl:cff'

\

pttntDtionii in the tombu which relate to the
cultivation of the Yine; and these are found,
not merely in the tomoe of the time of the
•i^iteenth and some later dynasties, but also
in those which belongto the time of the most
ancient dynasties. The described pictures, it
it said, show more decidedly than any ancient
Wfiiien testimony that in .Egypt, even in the
moat aneient times, the vine was^ cultivated
md wine made." In the inscriptions of the
time d the Pharaohs at least seven different
Unda of wine are represented. But the Egyp-
tiao vine does not appear to have been nearly
■o productive as that of Palestine. The spies.
ttiarefore, were afraid that their report would
mit be credited, and so, "they came unto the
Inook of Eshool, and cut down from thence a
Inmch with one cluster of grapes, and the^
^'"^ it between two upon a staff" (Num. xiiL

"Uwnep^i.co.n.<»,..entlo»edinthe

Bible in contradistinction from the field, and

ii occasionally used in speaking of ordinary

wmirAmnm^ Vincs Were usually planted upon

C^ti and precipitous crags (Jer. xxxL 5).

when it was sometimes necessary to build

waDa in order to retain the soiL The whole

arocesi of preparing a vineyard is described by

. Imiali (ch. t. 1). The vine dresser selects a

Hopitioiu spot with a southern exposure.

^ Rdkia a wall round it, loosens the soil, and

laUieia out the stones, erects a tower and digs

a praai. Then he may truly say, **What

eoud bave been done more to my vineyard, that

I hftve not done in it ? " (Isa. v. 4. ) What must

be hia disappointment, "Wherefore, when I

lookad that it should bring forth gn4>es,

laonsbt it forth wild grapes?" (Isa. v. 4.)

XDb oiaappointment is in proportion to the care

mad nmnber of his preparations. The prophet

then dcacribes the reverse process. The failure

Iwlii^ ao decided, the husDandman destroys it

flisa^ ▼. 5, 6). The menace has been sadly

mlfiUed on Inael, both on its soil and on its

meople.

Tne methods of planting the vine were
They were usualfy propagated by
The raanches were sometimes suffered
^ upon the earth; or the vine stood
without supxKnt ; or a post was erected

cross-piece ; or a trelUs or arbour was

np^ with lour or more upright pillank over

"^■rldcb the boughs spread. We are told that
▼inei in Africa, Syria, and all Asia were
to trail upon the ground ; and this method
jobaerved in the region of Lebanon, and about
^cppa (Eaek. xvii 6). Very often, however,
^~" Syrian vines are trained upon trellis or
iworiE, in straight rows; sometimes upon
and particularly the fig tree, whence the
expression, to repose under one's
. vine and fi^ tree, as an emblem of peace
aecority {Mic. iv. 4; Zech. iii 10). Vines
foond at Hebron trained in this manner,
bearing dusters of ten pounds' weight.
^imes they run up upon the sides of the
(Ps. cxxviii 3). (See Walls.) Vines
aometimes very large, the stem of some
2u

VIN"

being a foot and a half in diameter. Many
vine plants are very prolific.

Vineyards were enclosed with a hedge or a
wall, to defend them from the ravages of
beasts, to which they are often exposed. A
toioer was also built as the station of a watch-
man (Num. xxiL 24; Ps. Ixxx. 8-13: Prov.
xxiv. 31; Song ii. 15; Matt. xxL 33). (See
Tower.)

The Hebrews devoted as much care to their
vineyards as to their agriculture. Whenlsiuah

Sredicts the invasion of the Assyrians, he
eclares that the vineyard where there were
1,000 vines valued at 1,U00 Hilverlin^ shall be
even for briers and thorns (Isa^ vii. 23). When
he would represent sorrow, he says. The new
wine moumeth, the vine langmsheth, and all
the merry-hearted do sigh " (Isa. xxiv. 7). So
Zechariah (viii 12) foretells future prosperity
thus. — " The seed shaU be prosperous, the vine
shall give her fruit" (see also Hab. iiL 17;
MaL iii 11).

^ The pruning of the vine is a familiar opera-
tion, which we all know to be necessary in
order to its fruitfulness. The law which
forbade the Israelites to gather the grapes of
the first three years (Lev. xix. 23) gave
occasion to the more careful and unsparing use
of the pruning knife; hence the young stock
came^ to much greater strength. A traveller
mentions a custom with the vine-dressers, of
pruning their vines thrice in the year, — ^the
first time in Mareh ; and when clusters be^
to form, they again lop off those twigs which
have no frmt; the stock puts out new twigs
in April, some of which form clusters, and
those which have none are agun cut off in
May; the vine shoots a third time, and the
new branches have a third set of clusters.
(See John xv. 2, in which passage the word
nurgeth may be rendered prunt^ — "Every
branch that beareth fruit he pruneth it, that
it may bring forth more fruit."

What remains of the culture of the vine is
very simple. Once or twice in the season
the plougn was run through the vinesrard, to
loosen the earth, and free it from weeds ; the
stones were gathered out, and a proper direction
was given to the growing brandies (Isa. v. 2|.
The vine-dratera, or keepers of the vineyard,
formed a distinct branch of labourers (2 KL
XXV. 12).

The regular vintage begins in Syria about
the middle of September, and lasts about two
months (Lev. xxvi 6; Amos ix. 13). Bipe
clusters, however, are found in Palestine as
early as June and July, although the regular
vintage begins in September. This difference
may arise from the threefold growth of the
vine already mentioned. The first gathered
in Canaan is probably meant in Num. xiii.
2a

The vintage was celebrated by the Hebrewa
with still more festivity than the harvest (Isa*
xvi 9), and was sometunes a season of wicked
mirth (Judg. ix. 27).

The vine thus became a f^^tniliAP and fre-
quent symbol among the Helnew writers. " I

657

wn," wdd our I-ord. "

rVEL, GBArEB.) IVI"

»ll«jp.ry foumled on the

the true vine." (Sm
i.conULiDt>be»utifiil

Thou liK't ruoifi out ih* h'lttieu modibolxl 't
TInu iirpnindM i^i'ii Uturx It,
Ami •n.l>4 auM ir In uka derp Rn<

^. UlSlll^^lM with ll> •,b>d«r

VUL

How true uid t< luching a ileacriptdoB of Rod't
peculiar cue of hu choMn people, and uf tlirir
imuperit; unilw hiB fnvutir '. TtiF viiiFjrardl
wera fenced tor protecti'in, though ■ometiino
the hour iBtrmffi How appropriate the
deiciiptioD and pniferl- " The bnar out of the
wood dotb waiito it, and thg wild beast of the
(laid doth devour it Kctura, we beaeecb tliae,
O God of hotU: look down from haaven. and
behold, and viait this vine" (I'a. liii. 13, 15).

JowpliuB ■i>eaki uf a ma(;iiiticent vin« Hculp-
ttind OQ the eaiiteni end of the temple. I'he
bnnchea and tendrils ware formed of giAd, and
iU fruita were invcioul jewebk lllil vine waa
cMried to Koine, and exhibited among the
■piiih of Titus on hia triumph.

VINTAfiE. (See Vine*. Wike.)

VIOL {Amoe »i. 6). aiiiii waa an inrtra-
ment of muwic, and eupnooed to be the uime
with the DBnlti^ry. (ISee MLmiC.) Chantingto
the aound of it wan to make like «oun<U with
the voice, moilulatiuc thti tones ao ■■ to corre-
•iH.nd with tliH Miunde of the inotniment

VU'KK (.lob II. ]i;)-a vcnmnmis »er-
pent, from 2 ti>/> f<.-i-t in Uni,th. lU

rvi.9, 10; xviu. 9; :

iid

apecic

i|nirkly and certainly fat.-J; »> th
anciently rrganled an a special jud^ent frutu
heaven to be bittm by one (Acta iiviii. 1, Gl.
Xo w..nder that ths inhabitantn of Malta tiKik
I'aiil fiirac'Hl when they ntw him uninjiired

Sthu vijier which cIuiiKtohiiiann. Hence
> viper u no criibtem of wh.itover is deceit-
ful nnd deitructivr. Our lATi\ namca many
terouontriea a honle of viiwni (Matt.

..i . ■:■ o., . I,,!,. ii( Tl 14,,.

L 94; i>iiL33: Loke . .

APIIER, AhP, I'HARH, COCKATRICB, SlOFENT.)

VIliCIN. (See All.vz, Imma-iiri.)
VISION (Xum. xiiv. 4). In former tima
God woH pIcsMnI to reveal himwlf and com-
municate hia will in what were called vudoiui,
whiuli were caii*ii) vitlier in the night in
onlinary ulrep (Dan. viL 1), or by day in a
Eminirary trance (Act* ixvi. 13). Ilalnam
njii>i!d Home (J thtwe rcvelationii. The vi«i..na
mentioned in SiTiptiirc are.— To AI>TiJitun
(Gon. XV. 1), lo Jacob (lien. xlvi. '.>), to M<Mei
JKxixL UL 2,3; Acta vii. ;I0.X!|, to Samuel |1
Bam. iii. S-^O). to Nathan (2 Sam. vii. 4. 17),
tn Eliphai (Job iv. IJ-IC), to Iwiab (Iiia. vi.
l-S), to Kiek<el [Kiek. 14-14; viiL 2-14; i. ;
xi. W. 2>; ixivii. I-lOi xL-xIviii.), to Nebu-
chailnezxar (Dan. ii. 28; iv. 6), to Daniel (Don.
a l!l; ViL, viii,. X.I. to Ain.n (Am.« vii. 1-fl:
viii. 1* ; ix. 11, b. Zwliariah (Zech.
w. 2; T. 2; vl 1), to I'anl (Acta is

caiS; ziTn.2S;!Ccr.

.., (Acta it 10, II. 11; t«

Cornellua (AcU X. 3). to Peter (AcU x. 9-17),
toJ.>hu(Rav.i.I2.&c;iT.-xxu.) (SeeDlUM,

iDTERPKETATlOa, TkAKCE.)

VOW (Num. vi. 2). In the Scriptnn in,
thia word meani a xilemn religiou* pimii^
or covenant, bf which one binda bimirll tu do
or laffer certain thing* depending on God iif
power to aocnmpliab it Hence vo*( ven
made with praver, and paid with thankuii-
ing (Num. vi, 2-21; Judt. xi 30, 31; PtliL
6 ; Acta xviii 18). (Ses NaiASiTEa.) Thnsiii
read of Jaoib pled^ng himaelf to devote tha
tenth of hia |irDp«1:y to God, — "And Jki4
vowed a vow, sayii^. If God will be with an,
and will keeu me in this way that I go. Ud
will give me bread to eat, and raiment tn pat
on, «o that I come again to my father't hnvt
in peace; then ahall the Lord be my Cod" (Uea.

regulatiooa by the Mosuc law. When mad;,
they were tu be atriirtly kegit. The winhincr
waa not forced to make the vow; but it bi
made it, no excuse could be taken for it> Wtt-
performance. " When thou shalt vov a nw
unto the Ixird thy Goi thou ehalt not ilai^ t>
pa]r it: for the Lord thy God will aordy »■
mure it of thee ; and it would be on in tbca
But if thou ahalt forbear to vow, it •ball be
no (in in thee. That which ia gone oat o( thy
lip* thou ahalt keep and perform; eveaafna-
will offtrriog, according aa thon baet votfri
unto the Lord thy Uod, which tbiD b^
yised with thy month" (Dent iiiii. S-S^

" ' "' " fftniUy who were in a

certain Benw miuoni coidd not make irreiw-
able vowa The wife and daughten wm »
far amenable to the hiul>tu>d or father |Nim.
XIX. 3-S). (See C^orbah. )

VULTURE (Lev. iL 14)-« filthy, rapa-
cioui bird, unclean by tlie ceremonial law (I>tiit
xiv. 13), but UAcful for destrovin;; aubitiiini
which might othi-rwiae pruuuca f-"'' —

5-Wa™

■atiate tlwB'

6, IS.

3, 0,12; I

They fiock to field* of battle

Helve* upon the unburit-d (Ii._

The extreme aciitenesa of the eenae of Hf<>'
the vulture enable* it to <lL»cem its prrvit
(Treat distance ; and it ia a striking ioAiiia
the accuracy of the Scriptnre wiil*n. tlij
while common tentiment attribute* *~

imnlling the peculiar facultia ti tv

WAF

bird, iti Hebrew name means seeing^ according
to toe spelling in the Sunaritan Pentateuch.
And in the recital of God*s wonders in the
animal ereation, in the book of Job, the
charaeteristic of the ea^le (one of the same
tribe with the vulture) is, that **her eyes be-

WAR

hold afar off.*' The same peculiarity is re-
ferred to, Job xxviiL 7, There is a path
which the vulture's e^e hath not seen;" im-
pl3ring that its vision is most acute and pene-
trating. This bird may be a kite or buzzard.
(See Eaolk)

W

WAFER (Exod. xvL dl)^-* thin cake of fine
floor, used in various offerings anointed with
oQ. (See B£akna.)

WAGES (Gren. xzix. 15) seem originally
to have been paid in kind, as in the case of
Laban and Jacob. Money is mentioned in the
pMmble, Matt. xx. 2— a penny or 7^d. a day.
Vietuals were also someUmes allowea in adcU-
tSon to money. (See Hireling.)

WAGGON (Gen. xlv. 19). Waggons and
rimilar wheeled vehicles, which are considered
bj OS so indispensable in transportation, are
•earcely ever used at this day in the East or in
KsTpt. Niebuhr states that he saw nothing
octhe kind either in Arabia or Egvpt In
ancient times, however, they were well known
■ad frequentlv employed (Num. vii. 3 ; Amos
iL 13). We have figures of rude vehides of
ttia kind on monuments, supposed to be as
ancient as the age succeeding that of Joseph.
(See Chariot.)

WAIL (Ezek. zxxiL 18) — ^to mourn with loud
and violent expressions of distress and despair.

WAIT, LIERS IN. "And the men of
Shechem set liers in wait for him in the top of
the mountains, and they robbed all that came
along that way by them*' (Judg. ix. 25). This
nofiarious practice is common in the East to
tbe present day. A city was thus oftentimes
taken by surprise. Such an ambush, as an
old trick in warfare, is described by Homer : —

* A place for amlnisb fit they found, and stood
Comed with shields beside a silver flood ;
Two spies at distance lark, and watchful seem,
If sheep or oxen seek the winding stream.
Soon the wliite flocks proceeded o'er the plains.
And steers, slow-moTing, and two shepherd swains
Behind them : piping on their reeds they go,
Kor fear an ambush, nor suspect a foe.
In arms the glittering squadron rising round,
Bosh sudden; hills of slaughter heap the ground;
Whole flocks and herds lie bleeding on the plainsL
And aU amidst them, dead, the shepherd swains.**

WALK (Gen. v. 24). This verb is often
employed to represent the whole course of a
man's conduct. " Enoch walked with Grod " —
pleased Grod — held intimate and endearing fel-
kywBhin with theFather of Spirits. To** walk
bj faitn ** is to have the whole conduct guided
bj its influence — by the influence of invisible
realitiea. To " walk after the Spuit " is so to
five as the Spirit ol Grod dictates to us by His
Word.

WALLS (Gen. xlix. 6). The walls of
amdent times were generally built of earth
€r clay, mixed with straw, and hardened in
the sun. Hence it was necessary to build
tbem d great thidcnoss, in order to ensure
permanency. When any breach took

place in such a mass of earth, either b^ heavy
rains or some defect in the foundation, the
consequences were very serious (Ps. IxiL 3;
Isa. XXX. 13). The fact that briclcB were made
in such a rude and perishable manner gives
force to the contrast presented in Isa. ix. 10^ —
" The bricks are fallen down, but we will build
with hewn stones;" and as a portion of straw
entered into their composition, and the earth
of which they were made was dry and porous,
it is not surprising that they could be de-
stroyed by fire (Amos i. 7, 10, 14). Walls were
built up, as in modem engineering, to support
terraces. (See Temple.1 Immense stones
are sometimes found in old walls.

The expression in Job xxiv. 11 is supposed
by some to refer to the low walls which were
built in vinejarda for the vines to run upon :
and they maintain that the passage should
read thus, "They work at mid-day among
their walls on rows of vines." It may be that
oliveyards were enclosed with walls, as we
know vineyards were, and then the passage
would be plain as it stands.

llie walls of vineyards were temporary,
being probably designed chiefly to ^ard the
enclosure against the jackals, which were
numerous in Palestine, especially during the
vintage, often destrojrin^ whole vmeyards and
fields of cucumbers. Hence the bitterness of
the sarcasm of Tobiah (Neh. iv. 3), as if the
wall the Jews were building for the protection
of their capital was scarcely better or stronger
than a temporary vineyard wall to bar out
jackals or foxes.

A "fenced wall" (Isa. ii. 15) is a fortified
wall (See City, DwELLmqs, To^nfa.)

WAR (Gen. xiv. 2). We read of vast
armies in the land of Palestine; for every
citizen was a soldier (2 Chr. xiii 3; xiv. 8, 9;
xvii. 14-18 ; xxv. 5-7 ; xxvi 11-15).

The following cut represents soldiers in the
characteristic ^arb and armour of three different
nations of antiquity.

From the nature of the arms and the
customs of the ancients, their battles were
truly murderous, for they fought hand to
hand. In those times heroes sought through
the whole field for their personal enemies.
Scarcely ever was any quarter given, except
where the vanquished was retained as a slave,
and consequently the number ol killed was
often immense (2 Chr. xiiL 17).
^ Although the military art was comparatively
simple, yet ingenious stratap^ems of various
kinus were practised. Enemies were then, as
now, surprised and overcome by unexpected
divisions of the forces, by ambushes, ud by

659

WAR ^A«

falM ntmti (G«il rir, 15; JoA. vHL Bjlww. I* U nppawd Ui^Hndni B Sml
..^171 .-> ' IwhoihaMid to AtNalmn, "UlteTidbaBft

titj, tbtn ihall ill Imdbnag npn
to tli>t d^, and we will dimwit Ml
(be riva, until theia be not <nt ^ofl
(tone fomid tben^" Tlie cnv moU
only be eflective wbeie the wtlkdh

not well defended: nnd thai, if tti

PrBViim.ly to the invention of fire-MTO»,
it wu (uuiid neeesMary tu Te«oit tn many
comi>Ucati'd end iiDnivIdynwchint!* forcMting
heavy rtune* and other de«tnicti»e miiiilea.
Ws find, buwever, little alluHJon to these in
th«I(ible. A1i..ut the end of the ninth or the
Iiet-inning of the eighth century before Chiut,
Uixiah " nude in Jeniulem en^^e* invented
1^ cunoing men, to be un the towen and
Imlwarlu, to ■hoot Brrowt and great rtottei
witbal~ (3 Chr. xxvi. 15). Thew were
olivi'iUBly aimiUr to those in lue by the Greeki

Among these wai the battering-iam (Eiek.
IT. 1, 2; xxl 22). ThiH wai nothing mure
than a hmg beam of itninjr w<md, luuiJly oak.
It wa* intendeil to batter clown walls; and the
end with which the ajiaault wa» made
anneil with a mass uf heavy mi^tal. in
■hai>e of a ram'i head. Occasionally they
wen- ehanily iwinted at this end. Thew great
IwnnKi wrrc at fint carried by the soldiers, and
tlrivon a^fainst the walls; aft«rward]i they were
l>l««d uj^in wheels ; but in |toc«b« of time

they wen mspended by heavy" chain*,
ratively small force wnuld imp
t effect Bsainiit

a comparativi

ipel them

— . worked the battering-ram were

pnitecttd bv a covering or roof, spread with

■■raethmi; damp and tough (aa wet hide*), to

niiiHt the fire and the wnxoma >4 \^ V«c^.

The ero» "••w i^ao Hw'^et

David was ahooet denvted, and that the ban
of the men of IrmI "were after Ahdaw;*
and that the plan, thoq^ bajndidaai iaital,
allodcd to theiwe of eome weapen rf alhdl
atinflar to t^ crow, which mw woiked t^ MM*
of ropea, M peintadl7 mentaoned inUMOlhB-
wiM otNCora pai^^ (See BAnmn-u>.|
In Older to give « tme dehneatkn rf awn
id to tfaow bow md engine* al wi nn
emi^ciTed, we ihaU giv* a fanet aooimat if Bs
blockade of Jotapata, bmn Joeephnk Tb
hiAorian birnaeU waa an CTa-witaaa aid i
prinoipal actor.

Jotapata waa alniort ill rf k
bnilt aa a pcedpiot^ harng ■
■U the othor aides of it M
way T^Ieya jmnmudf da^ ■■
■teen, inaomndi that thiatab
would Idi^ down wmld kK
their aight faU then brfn it
reached to the bottns. It m
only to be «(»ne at on the MfA
fide, where the ntnurt [art d
the dty was built on tha noo-
tain, aa it end* obliqady U ■
plaiiu This momitaui Joaqta
had enoampaaaed with a ml
when he fortified the c%, tht
its top mJKbt ni>t be ca^aUs cf
being Hdied upon by the (WU»
The dty waa coverBd all ttni
with otner Tnimntaina, and onoU
in no way be aeen till a man came ]«
ujion It Veepaidan, therefore, in tns
to try how he might overcome the nMnl
strength of the place, aa well aa the ImU
defiuice of the Jews, made a reerjntiia •)
proeecute the aiege with vigour. To that al
be called the oommanden that were ssltr
him to a ooundl of war, and oonaultid wilb
them which way tha ananlt might be iiiiiT^
to the beat advantage. And when the nw-
lution was there taken to raiae a bank >pM
that part of the wall which waa pnctudh
hs sent hia whole army abroad to get Ai
material! together. So wh«i thej lud dS
down all the trees on the monntain* i*

adjoined the dty, and had gmthared tocelta*
_ .1 .^____ ..._.. .. idth,yW

, 0-- hnrfkah

ijL\w&n \& n«d the eSecta of the daito M '

d ibeja bron^t h

WAR

sbot [TDm thove them. These hnrdlee
ipread over their banks, ander ooTer of

they formed their worfca, uid ao were
<ir nothing hurt by the darta that wen

upoa tbeni from the wall ; while othen
.. Jie neighbonring hillookj to pieoee, ud
ituallf brought earth to them ; *o that

they were busy three soite of way,

dth,

I idle. Hov

', the Jen

I stoniH from the walls upon Vbe hurdles
b protected the men, with aU eorta of darte.
epaaian then erected, round abont the
enginea for throwing stonea and darts,
nurcber of these engmea was in all 160.
rdered them to fall to woriE^^and dialodge
' that were upon the wall. Th< ~ ~ ~

with a great noise, and
s of the weight of a
t were darted by other
ines differently coo
ted, together with fire,

a vast multitude ol
IS, which made the wall
Dgerous, that the Jews

not only not coma upon
at durst not oome to

parts within the walls
1 were reached by the
ee; for the mnltitude
>e Arabian archen as
tino as all those that
r darts and flung stane*,
I work at the eame tun

the engines. Yet did
he other? lie still when
could net throw at the
mi frem a higher place

fortl

WAK

Ha bade them fix piles and expand

before them the raw hidn of cien, newly
Icillvd, that these hides, by yielding and hollow-
ing themaelvea when the stones atruck them,
might protect them, Uiat the other darts
would slide off them, and the fire that was
thrown would be quenched by the moisture
that was in them. These he set before the
worlnnen, and undcv them these workmen
went on with their woAs in safety, aaid raised
the wall bigbcr, and tiut both by day and br
ni^ht, tdll 20 cubits were added to it. He also
built a good nomber i^ towers npon the wall,
and fitted to it strong battlementa. This
greatly discouraged the Bomaus, who in their
owa opinioni wen already gotten within the

f the cit]^, like priTBte
iB,by partiaB.ana pulled
the hurdles that covered
orkmeD,and killed them

they were thus naked.
1 those workmen gave

the Jaws cast away
irth that composed the
, and burnt the wooden
of it, together with
lordles, till at length
saian perceived that the
1 the works were of disadvantage to

for those spaces of ground afforded the

a place for assaulting the Komaniu ao
lited the hurdles and at the same time
' ■■ r to the other,

looraions of the
{eS

e bank being rused, and brought nearer
ever to thehattlements that belonged to
alls, Joaepbus thought it would be entirely
g in him if he could make no contrivance
position to theirs, and that might be for
itVa preservation. He got together his
1, and ordered them to build the wall
"hen they said that this was im-
ble to be done while so many darts were
ni at thmi, be invested this sort of oovei

one part of the army to
irevented the private eioon

man, and oi
t. When

Greek Warriors.

walls, while they were now at I

at Joaephus's oontrivance, and at the fortitude
of the dtiwDS that were in the beleagnred

The besieged had plenty nf com within the
city, and, indeed, of all other necessaries ; but
they wanted water, because there was no
fonntain in the city, the people being there
usually satisfied with rain-water preserved in
.!.. It is a rare thing in that country to

have

r ; and at this se

the eiege, they were in great distress for some
contrivance to satisfy thetr tbint. Vespasian
fondly hoped that their receptacles of water
would in no long time be emptied, and^ that
tiiey would be forced to deliver np the dty to
him i but Joeephui being resolved to blast suoh

WAR

gnat mimy of thrir cluthm, and haxui llwm

out abuut the battleminita. till the entire B-all
WM i>f a «ud<len all wet viik the runoinj:; down
of the KaCer. At ChiB night the Rimiuii were
iluic<nir«c«i and iiniier oonrtematiuo, when
tbi'y uw them able to throw away in apart xu
much water, fur tbey had Buppwed Uieni not
to have rnriugh tn drink tlicmwlvei.

Ji>*-j.hiu ecjntrived another ulratamn he-
biIeh the fiirejpiinf;, to get jilenty of what they
wanteiL llien) waji t, certain mtigh and un-
even JiUce that could lianily be aacended, and
on that aeeount was not guarded by the lol'
djer«; n Josephun wnt out certain penoiu
along the wiwti'm partii of the valley, and by
them Knt Itttcn to whom he iileoaeil of the
JewB that were out of the city, — ' -—

wontttl in the city

IV er they
indanco; he enjoined
generally along by tlie watch
. _._. . the citjr, and to Civer their
iieh nhevp-aliuiB M had their wool

_D the niufit 1
d»K*. Tills «
their rontrivo
ptccitiit'nii' defile.

Vuiioaian, antmyetl by these uUle* of t]
Jews, and when hi!< bonlu were now Qot f:
from the walla, detenuinud to make una of b

li?

u aaguiy b
the Rimuni brought tho mthsI ranm lor
nlliag an ooelnT Seam' to the wdk. Uut
ther might nacii nidi aa weie npua h ud
endiwvouTod to fnulrmte their attempti. TIkt
threw itimea and lavelioR at tbem, in the En
manner did the udien and ■Uogos come both
ti^ether cluaer to the walL Tbii bnx^kt
matton to such a paMi that ncme of tiic Jevv
durst mount the walls, and then it was thri
the other Bamans broueht the faattenne-iiB
that was caeed with himllea all over, and m th
upper part was secured by skins that oonnd
it, and this both for the security of the vmkcn
and of the engine. Now, at the very £iri
stroke of this engine the vail was shaken, sai
a terrible clamour ma raised by tlie pcopis
within the city, as if thejr were already tatoL
When Joeephua saw this ram still battBiBC
the some place, and that the wall woeld
qaickly be thrown down by it, he resolrrd to
break for awhile the force of the rajiDa
With this deaign he gave orders tu GD neb
with chaff, and to lower them down before Ihtf
place wbero they saw the ram always battiflSK
that the stroke might be turned aside, v that
the idace might feel less of tiie strokes by tk
yielding nature of the chaff. This eratnTsaa
verymuch delayed UieattODptii of the RomsBi:
because, let tbwn remove their engine to rist
part they pleased, thoee that were abore it
removed their sacks, and placed them crcr
icoinst the stroke* it made, insomuch thil
the wall was no way hurt, tQl the Raidub
made an oppo*ite contrivance of long pHa,
and by tying hooka at their ends, cut off Ht
saoka. I<ow when the batteriDi; ram hail that
recovered ite force, and tlie wall, havisj hen
but newly built was giving way. Ji»fnhoI
and those about him had of ti^rwaixi immejiai*
recourse to fire, aaamesnaof decperatedefnce.
Theytookwhat inateiialssocver the>'hldtliit
were but dry, and mule a sally tluee nn,
and set fire to the machines and the himitf^
and the banks of the Bomans thrauelvn:
the Romans well km

[■art isanned wiijia tli'i'ck~pii-c'Hof'm.n. at the
lirail of it, which U ■■> caned on bi )« like the
hniul of a ram. wh-'nce its name iii taken.
"ndii ram in Hlimg in the air by n'|>e< passing
•ivrr it!' niiilrlle. nnd is hung like the tulaiit-u
in a iMiir of senles from anotbir lieam, and
limcnl )rr rtronic plniiks that pan on Imtli
siiim of it, in tlie nature of a cniwi. AVIien
this mm LijiuHeil Imckwanl by a gn«t nuuilKT
of men wilh iinit-<1 f.nro, ii».l then thnist
fnrwnrrl by tlw niiii- mm, with a mighty nniw.
It Imtleni the wall- «illi that ip.n i«rt which
im.,l-.-t-, X..r in (her.- «,v ^»> er so -tmn!,' or i
walls »• br«n.< tliut tan reMat much mure than

on from the -Tcwa' bolduen, and beiic
rental by the flames fmm rmdeiine inr
-...^i for the niatt'riahi being dry, with tiw
bitumen and pitch that were amonc tbem, w
-vos brimstone tdso, the fire caught hnld rf
.■ver)-thing immediately j and what ciBt tbf
Bomons a great deal of pains was in one bov
consumed.

But still Jow|ihuB and thinw with lum.
allhoiiph they fell in rapid and aiip^Iing TOCt*
sion by the dart« and stiinps w hioh the eniiiiiii
threw uiwn them, yet did thev not desert lif
wall, but attacked thoM who mana,-ot lii
ram undsT the protection nS the hurdles, "iii
fire, and inin weapons and atones. That
could do little or Qotliing. but felt themselvx
l>~riietually, while they were rem br tliivr
whom they could not see, for the light uf dxi

WAR
wn flame iliane abnut them, and made them
a moat viaiUe mark to the enemy ax ^ey were
in the day tims. The suginea could not be
Men at a neat dutance, and n what waa
thmwn by them wu bard to be avuided, for
tile (oroe with wfaioh they threw stonei and
daitioften voonded several at a time; and the
violent force of the stanes that were cant by
than *aa in Rreat. that they carried away the
ptiuuwlM of the wall, and broke off the oomere
of the towen ; for do body of men could be so
rtrong M not to be ovecthmwn to the last ruik
bj the lai^uess of the itonvB. And any one
Bay learn the force of these machines by what
happened on ods occauon ; for as one of Chose
tiwt tbcroi Kmnd about Josephus was near tbe
nD, hia head was carried away by such a
ilwiii, and his skull llun^ as far as 3 furlongs.

Joaephus at length took necessity for hia
eonnaellor in this utmost distress, and gave
«tden to pour scalding oil ttpon thoee whose
diields protected them. Whereupon they soon
got it ready, for many assisted tu bring it, and
what they brought was a ^"at quantity,
Uid poured it on all ride* upon the Romans,
■ud threw down upon tbem their Tnsels as
thn wwe ititl hiiainrfnini the heat of the fire.
Hi> K> burnt the S^mans that it dispermd
that Duited bond, who now tumbled down from
tba w^ with horrid painfl, for the oil did
•aiOy nm down the whole body from head to
loot, under Uieir entire armour, and fed upon
their flesh like flame itself, ita fat and unctuous
nature rendering it soon heated and slowly
eooled; and as the men were cix>ped np in
their head-piecee and breastplates, they (xnild
nn way get free from this burning oil— they
oonid only leap and roll about in their pains,
•a they fell down from the bridges they had
laiti And OS they thus were beaten hack, and
ret)i«d to their own party, who still pressed
them forward, they were easily wounded by
thoee that were behind them.

9uch is an account of the horron of a dege
•■ onnducted in ancient times, and how the
fonuidahlB weapoiu of attack were both man-
agod and repelled. The eiege of Jerusalem
waa somewhat similar, though its defence was
not lo well conducted.

But there waa no part nf the ancient mihtary
preparatinns which was more terrible than the
diBrir)t (Exod. liv. 7 : Duut ii. 1 ; Josh. iviL
16; Judg. iv. 3). They were in common use
wlierever there wa.i any cavalry. The oflice
III charioteer waa one of honour and importance.
8« aingi Homer :—

The fe»on>nd "hai

Flam ha iron oa. frdldei wlilrlHl his spear,'

I! Sam. X. 16; 1 Chr. iviii 4; 2 Chr. liL 3;

xi*. 9.) (See CHAttlOtH OP War.)
Walls and tower* were used ia fortifications;

WAB

and the latter ware guarded bysoldieie, and
are called gairiaona 13 Sam. viiL 6: Euk.
iivi. 11). [Saa Ward.)

In conducting a si«e, the Hebrew aimy
was not to cut down fruit trees ; that would
have been useless and wantMi dentmctiDn
(Deut. XX. 19).

As to the order of battle, we bave do certain
knowledge. The prophet alludes to it, Jer.
ilvi. 3, i. Amang all ancient natinns it waa
custoauuy to take previous refreshment of
'"'■ ' '-- *" -■■■ -itrength to the army.

The soldiery a

arrayed themst

id fairest ar

n theii

;f"

impted a i

ostliest garmen
Ecept in cases whe'

imy were common, ai ii

modem timea (Gen. xiv, 15; Judg, viL 18; 1
Sam. xi. II). The most frequent divisions of

. —into tens, hundreds, and thousands;

and each of these had its commander or captait

(Judg. -r-r 111- I q.m ^;i 14. Q IT! Ji 1\

■ Persia. Among the Hef

had a

ID; 1 3am. viiL ]2; 2. Ki n. 4).

method, an^ ■- -""

■ Hebre'

t refer,

the several families, and rp
were under the heads of '
famiUea as their oScen |
(2Chr. xiv.6;xivL 121. ''.'■
The captains of huDdreda
and of thousands were
of high rank, or {so to
speali) staff-officers, who .
were ailtnitted to share l|
in the councils of war (1
Chr. liiL 1). The whole
army h ad its com mauder-
in-chief or captain, "who
was over the host," and
its scribe, or keeper of
the muster-roll (1 Kt. ir.
4; 1 Chr. xviiL IS, 16;
iiviL 32^34; 2Chr.ivii

iiiiii IS the words translated, "he that
counted the towers," probably indicate what
we should call a chief eogineer.

Under David, the army of 288,000 men was
divided into twelve corps, each of which was
oonsequently 24,000 strong, and had ita awn
general, (1 Chr. iivii.1 Under Jehoshaphat
this was altered, and there were five unequal
corps, under as many commanders (2 Chr. xvii
14-19). The cohort had 500 or 600 men^and
the legion embraced ten cohorta. The l^t
troops were provided with arms which they
used at some distance from the enemy. They
are designated, 2 Chr. liv. 8 ; while flie heavy
armed were those who " bore shield and spear
(1 Chr. xiL 21). The light troops were taken
principally from the tribe of Benjamin, aa
appears from the last-cited texts.

Kingi and generals had armonr-bearen,
selected from tlie bravest of their farooritea,
and who not only carried their armour, which
waa in those days a necessary servioe, but
stood by them in th« hour of danger, CHrisd

WAB

their ordcn, and vers not unlike modem
kJjutaDbi (1 Sun. uiL 4}.

The troopg were excited to ardour end
bnverr t? kddresHa from their rrieati, who
were commuidcd to appeal to thera. Such
WM the command of Mcaee : "And it ahaU be,
when je are come nigh unto the battle, that

Uiemaelvt

jelvea were acciutomed to

M (2 Chr. liii. *). Finally (pcrhap« after

the (■Iciifice* had been ofTered), the
IB given by the hoi; tmmpeta (Ni

they were within half a mile of the
to ainK their war-eong. A similar cunom
probably prevailed among the Jews. Such,
at least, was the practice of Jehoshaphat :
"And when he hod consulted with the people,
he appnnted ungen unto the Lord, abd that
■hould piuae the beanty of holinea, h they
went out before the army, and to Bay, P[»iae
the Lord ; for hi> mercy euduteth for ever

Chr. 1

. a).

WAR

Next fonoTcd the Aomt, oi

war-^^, which (he Romana accompanied wi„
the Doue of ihieldi amd apears (truck Tfokntlf
together. One famoni war-ixy ii famfliw to
all the readen of Scriptme, — "The nnad of
the Lord and of Gideoo." The mr-aj vm
common in the East, aa it ia to this day amnf
the Turks. It was the alarm or akovt ■> cfhc
menljoned in Scripture (1 Sam. zrii. S!; 1
Chr. liiL IS; Job Inii. 2S: Jer. i*. 19^
The victon on retnniiig borne w

with the aon^ and dance. Tlie MOg d
Debcnh ii a tane apecimen at the Iriwi^ihil

Elegiea were omnpoaed for the ibm, d
whieh Da*id'a lamemt orar Jonathaa ii n
example. So when the wounded JcaUi sn
brouglit to Janualem, and died of hiswonail^
there waa nnivenal ntoiinung, and dcgka
were oompoaed by Jeremiah on the mdaaeboly
oeeamon. "AndJermiiahlainaDtHlfiirJaBal:

qv^ of Joai^ m their lamcntatiofis to tliB
day, and made them an ordinanoe in Isxl:
and, behtdd, they are written in the !■■■■

'hr. xxxT. 2a). Montuncata ._
a victuiy were sometimes erected
(2 Sam. viiu 13).

The frequent figurative aUusions ._

and weapons of war used by the sacred writers
are obviiiiis without ei]>Liiiation.

Jimephua represents Mnacs as thus laying
down the princigilea cm which the Jews were
to conduct a warlike campaign :—" If it shall
be the fortune of yount^lvcs or your posterity
to undertake a war, God grant that it may
bapiieti without the confinea of your country;
but it the matter miiat be decided by tbe
Bword, yon shall fiiwt send heralds to your
enemies; for before yon engage in battle it
will be neceaaary to parlt^y, and to inform
them that you liave a great army, that you
are furnished with numliera of hordes, that
you have military

r weajHins and slores, and,
t you liiht under the favour
airtance of God. Il they condeacend to
tble conditions, accept them ; but if they

yonr lieutenant him whom younelves shiH
choose, on tbe account of lua camhict iiri
eonrage. When the battle ia over, and Ik
day jmur owil kill those enemies that resitid
yon m the fight, the rest rewtrre as tributaries
except the peni>le of the land of Canaan, fit
they and all their familiia are to be desOnjed;
give your enemies borial by night ; take beeJ,
but especially in war, that no woman nse i
man's apparel, nor man a woman's habit
Forget not the injuries you mSered by tb
AmaleldteB; lead out your armies agaiut
them, and take vengeance of them f<>r tM
wrongs they did you when you were in tb
desert" Yet while tbe Hebrews might In
merciful in their battles, and not bo ferodoai
as the nations around them, their van nn
scenes of fearful horror and bloodshed. TIm
triumph of Christianity ia peace. It will b<
a happy era fur the world when "they thiS
beat their aworda into plowahares, and lltit
spears into pruninghooka ; nation ^all DOt

WAR

The practice of offensive war in modem
times camiot be defended by reference to
•acred history. We have a new and better
dispensation, which breathes forg:ivene88 and
f oroearance ; and the tendency and promised
iroit of which is to banish wan and fightings
from the earth, and make it the abode of
peace and love. (For further information on
this subject, see ARmia, Abmoub, Arms,
Shoe.)

Wars of thb Lord, book or (Nmn. xxi.
14). This ancient book was some record of
military achievements. It seems to have been
• poetical composition, and to have celebrated
those victories which Jehovah achieved for his
people. Its various odes mi^ht be sung by the
nation in the seasons of warlike enterprises.

WABD (Gen. xL 3; Acts xii 10)— a prison,
or an apartment thereof. Also a garrison or
military post (Neh. xii 25), or a class or
detachment of persons for any particular
■ervioe Jl Chr. ix. 23; xxv. 8: Neh. xiil 30).

WARDROBE (2 Ei xxiL 14)-the phu^e
where the roval robes of priests* vestments
were depodtea.

wash; WASHING (Mark vii 3). The
Jews, as we learn from this passage, laid great
•tress on frequent ablutions in the time of
Christ. They supposed that such washing
had in it a religious merit, and proudlv
reproved others who were not so rigid m such
transactions as themselves. As knives and
forks did not exist, the eaters plunged their
naked hands into the morsels: washing was
therefore indispensable. It is not the mere
physical ablution, but the ritualistic merit
atteched to it, that our Lord condemned.
The absurd stress laid upon the ceremony may
be seen in the following rabbinical extracts : —
** Every one who washes his hands must attend
to four things : 1st. To the water, that it be
not unlawful for the washing of hands ; 2d.
To the measure, that there be a quartern for
the two hands; 3d. To the vessel, that the
water wherewith the washing is performed
be in a vessel^ 4th. To the washer, that the
water come with force from him that pours"
IBUehotk Beraehoth, vi 6). "Every one who
eats that sort of bread for which the bene-
is, * Blessed art thou, O Lord our God,
of the universe! who bringeth forth
from the earth,' is bound to wash his
bands at the beginning and end. And although
the bread be common, and although his hands
kuave not been defiled, and he is not aware of
•ay UTicleannfiss upon them, he is not to eat
nntQ be wash both nis hands. And thus, also,
with r^ard to anything that is dipped in fluid,
the WMhing of hands is necessary at the
begiiuoin^'* (J^, vi. 1). **A11 bread that
baa salt m it reciuires washing of hands after
it; lest perhaps it might be the salt of Sodom,
or Mdt of the same nature, and a man might
jMus his himd over his eyes and become
Mind. On this account all are bound to
wmth. their hands at the end of everv meal,
because of the salt But in a camp they are
exempt firom washing at the beghming, because

WAS

thev are oppressed with the fatigues of war,
anu are bound to wash after me^ on account
of the danger" {Ihidj 3). *'A man must be
very careful in pounng water on his hands
three times, for an evil spirit rests upon the
hands before washing, and does not depart
until water be poured on them three times.
Therefore it is necessary, before washing, to
abstain from touching the hand to the mouth,
and the nose, and the ears, and the eyes,
because an evu spirit rests upon ti^em** {Onch
Ckaiim,, § 4). "Though he should only have
enough water to drink, he is to wash his hands
with a part of it, and then to eat, and to drink
the remainder" {ffUchoth Berachoth, vi 19).
And not content with this harsh requirement,
they sentence the despiser of their commands
to excommunication. " It is necessary to be
very careful in the washing of hands, for every
one who despises the washing of hands is guilty
of excommunication" {Orach Chaiim,^ § 158).
"Evei^ one who desmses washing of hands
sinks mto poverty. R. Zerika sajrs, in the
name of R. Eliezer, Every one that despises the
washing of hands is rooted out of the world"
{Pnd.) "Every one who eats bread without
washiiog of hands is as guilty as if he had
committed fornication" (iSMoA, foL iv., coL 2).

It was the duty of the servant to attend
\o his master in this particular service,
and the manner of its performance may be
learned from the phrase, " Elisha. who poured
water on the hands of Elijah" (2 KL iii.
11). The same practice is still continued.
Nowhere is water previously poured into a
basin; but the servant i>oun water from a
intcher upon the hands of his master. The
custom of washing hands before dinner prevails
also to this day. The servant goes round to
all the guests with a pitcher, and a vessel to
receive the water falling from the handtu and
performs the ofiBce here attributed to Ehsha.
The same service is repeated when the repast
is ended. The washing of the feet was and is
a universal practice in the East (see Feet}:
and, corroborative of what^ has been said
under that article, we may give the following
illustrations: —

"Our youthful host now proposed, in the
genuine style of ancient Oriental hospitalit;]^,
that a servant should wash our feet. This
took me by surprise ; for I was not aware that
the custom still existed here. . . . We gladly
accepted the proposal, both for the sake of the
refreshment and of the Scriptural illustration.
A female Nubian slave accordingly brought
water, which she poured upon our feet over a
lam shallow basin of tinned copper : kneeling
betore us, and rubbing our feet with her hands,
and wiping them with a napkin." — Robinson's
Besearthes, iii, p. 26.

"... A slave in my bed-room washed my
feet. I was struck wiui the degree of abase-
ment expressed in the act ; and as he held the
foot in the towel, with his head bowed down
towards iL I remembered the condescension of ■
the blessed Lord. May I have grace to follow
such humility ! ^^lAft ofHtMry Mariin, p. 137.

665

WAS

WanliiTi^ tlie haiulrt in water was on some
oc(-af«iiiii> u Milc-iiiii ]iri>t«'ittatii>n of innocence : —
**\Vluu I'iLite Haw that In.* amlil ]irevail nuth-
in::, hut tli^it rather a tumult waM ni£ule, he
tiHik \\:tt4'r, and wahhtnl his haniU iK-fure the
liiuitituiif, (««iyiiiu% 1 aui inni»eent *■>( the bliMHl
of tlii.o JM-t I'efMin : w^e ye ti» if (Mutt, zxvii.
124). 'i he nicuuin^ i»f the ceremonial is very
obvinus {m.'v uIm* I 'cut. xxi. (J). (See Febt.)

WASll-l'OT {I'H. Ix. S). llie wnnl in this
connct-tinn si ^'ui ties that the Moahiteri shouhl
be rt'ductrd to the nio.it ahjei-t an<i <Iei^Ta4lin'.;
servitude. 'J 'lie wa^h jHit, <ir vvshirl in which
the fret were wuidicJ, was deemed base and
ignolilc

WATCII (Kxod. xiv. 24). The orij,Mnal
(li visit III < f tht: nii^ht was into the lirst, midille,
and iiiiiMiiii;x \\atoli; but aftiT the captivity
the .Ic-wri ailoptnl the custom of Home and
(ireece, \iliich dividrd the twelve hours of thr
ni;;ht into fmir \i:itcliert. li«':;innin^' with six in
the aft«.rn«-iiii {.Matt. xiii. Xt). (Soe Ok.'K-CR0W-
1N«;.) Till" time that ii;ih>ed between the
watihes NeeuiN tn a ]>frsiin that fleeim soundly
as but a >iiii;Ii> menu nt (IV. xc. 4). (See Day.)

^VAT('HKU (Dan. iv. 17. 23). This wonl
is sui'i'osi-d til denote eithrr the Divine Beini;
liiniM-li \r. 'Jl). or his holy niensen^^ers (r. 13).
It imports the special universjil pixtvidence of
(JMJ, l»v \\hich the affairs of the universe are
orderetl. and the rJKe and fall of kin^s and em-
jiiri'M nrv oMitrolh-d. The twelve supi-rior gods
of the (.'huldi-ans were called c<»uiisellor pnls,
ami wiTi- Mi]ipi).-cd t") watch ov^r and interest
thi'Tii-!i-lvi'> ill thi' ininnti'^t air;iir?< ■»! men.

\\ Arr||.\li:N iS.n- v. 7: Na. xxi. 11).
Ill rri>i;i till" u;itcliuirii wri'i> ritpiired to
iuil' ii:ii:t'> tli< sr who wvre n«M'fd in the stri'i-t- ;
niiil li> III-' tlit'V Win- e\titiiii iy \ijil:iut t«i
^:i\i' thi- al.iiiii. anil pr>t«i't llie city ami it-* in-
haMtaii'> tniui vinli in-.- ( l'!/i k. .\\.\iii. 'J-'i). In
tiiii'* «if liaiiri]- tlif watt'liii.i-ii wni! {Nisti-d in
t<i\*iT.i ovi I I hi' ;:at«s it thi; city (Ikl xxi. h;
Ixii. <»). (St'i.- CiiK 'ro\\Fli.)

Tlie p'i>t aii<l vijilaiii'i* of a watchman arc
Will pirtiin-d in '2 .Sam. x\iii. *JI 'J»J.

WA'lilll (ii»-n. .wiii. 4i. The scarcity of
wat«T is one nf tin* ralamitii's (.f the Kit-tern
worM : atnl the di-»tri->-. wliich is nften cx]nTi-
cnci d i>y man and lii-a!*t for want uf it is inde-
serihalili". J'ark, tin- -\friran traveller, trlls us
that wh«ii.aft«'r>«'Vrralda>Mif piivatiiiii, hehiul
falli-n a-li-i |i. hii fainy wnnld cany him to tihe
liuiii\:« I'f -<iiiii' iIiMT and bi-aiitifiil ii\er, wliicli
he >.i rvi.vnl v.iih tran.-i-i.rt, and ea'^'crly ha^;-
teuiil til <iuin«h lis j arehini^ tliirst ; and the
fan« ill] I'l.. It wi.uld \\aki- him to thf «lieadful
di-^aj jiii.iitiiii nt. lliiw adnjiralily does this
illn-ti-.it.- la. x\ix. «!

^V art r l.iin;; of such value, and often of such
Rcanity in ihe Ka^t, tlie Hebrew is rich in
trnus f\jiri>.si\L* of ditffrent colK-cticns and
forms of w.jt. r. uliirh arr not preserved with
jUK'fjiil (iiNtii,i-tiu;-M in thi' Kn;;lish versioiL
Thus they had A«////fr, a river, in our sense,
rendin d .s..ui.linu'.s Hnod, and with thr article,
n iean i n ^ U it • V Y\ er Ya\v\\t aXa:* \ N ucKii\ , tLV^twtwt,-
beU or Wuivv, boiuvUui^a^ T\:u<\v:tvA N^i^'Si:^
\JKXt

WAT

sometimes broolc, and oocanoiuJly river ; PAff,
a stream or rivulet, or bum ; MimI, a bmok;
Tnhth, a conduit; JufnU, a iloo«i; AfAtk^ %
channel ; Zcrrw^ a flcoii ; ^az»^l, nnnini;
waters; ShiUjultth, a channel; £«Aed, npid«;
Shtiqifi^ f1<HMls.

i llien, a^'ain, the Hebrews had A in, s sprisi;
(see AlN, En); Maan^ a ci>llection of Ri!rjL:i>;
l/o<:ci, a fftuntain-head ; Makor^ a spring: Gvl-
folh^ sprinpi bubbling out; Afahtua, ;^i>hifi;
water; fiftrf a well; Apam, a fxind; Af uTf>.
a reservoir; Jiercah^ a tank or i»*k«1; Ctr^ik^
cisti-ms; Mathahim^ trouLihs; B-t, a pool <c
cistern, generally rendered "well;" (M. s
ditch. J or is the s]>ecial name of the Nile:
and another name is Shihor, or the black riier,
and sometimes meaning the Wady Arisfa, (V
river c»f K^'j'pt.

Tn Trov. xxi. 1 tbe original term rendered

rivers sii^ities divisions. |>artitions. sectiou.

and refen to the ancient (.^nental methuds dl

conveying water to orchards and ganJcsa

This was by means of canals or rivulris fluv-

ing in artiticial chaDneLs called in Helveir,

flivisifins — L r., cuts or trenches, which diftii-

liuted the water in every direction— 1<» irrivate

abun«lant1y their otlierwise parched and hamn

M>iL ^Vith a similar allusion, tlw pAlmi^t

i (Ps. L 3) savB of Uie gtxily man, the l»ver d

j the Divine law, that **he shall be like » tret

I phuited b>' the rivers of water (divutinn* ^

i sections of Mater), tliat bringtrtb forth b» frxtit

in his season, and bis leaf shall not eithrr.*

The refert'Hce is doubt lesw tct trees ni«iri-lwd

by artificial irrit^ation, like those in the nridi-

Imirhinnl of I >auiascup. The gjnk-n* are llii».'k

s«'t with fruit trees of all kind-s kvpt fr-'si

and venlaut by the waters of the I'art-l^-

Tliis rivrr. as stx»n as it isLsue:* i>ut fr-m the

i-h'ft of the mountain into the plain, i> initi:«-

«liatrly divided into threv streams, of vhi'.h lb*

' niiddlenio.st and largest runs «lirectly to I >jul^

' c«is thmuj^h a large oiH'n tielil, calK-vl the A'jtr

I />in«'M'Y»MM, and is diistribut*"*! to all theri*'

ti-ms ami fountains in the city. The otbrT

' two, which are taken to l>e the work of art. v«

dniwn rotmd, the one t4) the right hand, iul

the other to the left, on the lK»rders of the gar-

<lens, into wliich thi'V are let out as they i«i»

j bv little currents (divi.-ion*), and so ili>]ri«d

! ail over the vast woo«l ; insomuch that tlh'Pf

is not a garden but has a tine quiek s-i^'iB

running; through it. A travvll r dcM-hloi^

the oranj;e ganlen of the Emir of BeynK-^ uV

serves, that ** it tN»ntains a large quadranir-l*'

plot of ground, dixidcd into sixteen lr«r

s<|uarcs, four in a row, with wa<k>< W'.weO

them. The walks are shaded with • 'nuiLv twa

of a l.inre s])reading size. Everj- one of thr*

sixteen lesser srpiares in the garden w.i« b"*-

' «lered with stone; and in the st'me-wi-rkukfrt

troui^hs, ver>' artificially c<intriveil, f-.-r ce-

vcying the watiT all <»ver the gartlen, itire

btring little outlets cut at every tr*»e f'-r ^

stream, as it passed by, to flow'oiit and »':*ttf

it." With these items of Oriental cu.-tviii ^'

> fore us. we fwrceive at once the p<unt uf tin

A^^^sv\!QroiMa\s^\W^^as.sage, Prov. xxL 1, "T^

WAT

Ing'a heart is in the hand of the Lord, m the
vera of water : he tumeth it whithersoever
I wilL" In Deut xi. 10 it is said of the
nd of promise, "The land whitlier thou
Mst in to poraess it, is not as the land of
gypt, from whence ye came out, where thou
rwedKt thy seed, and wateredst it with thy
lot, as a garden of herbs." The phrase,
watering with the foot,** may refer to the
mstruction of channels and water-courses, like
loae above mentinnecL which was accom-
liahed by the action of the foot in dimng.

0 also in 2 Kl xix. 24, ** I have digg^ and
rank strange waters, and with the sole of my
et have I dried up all the rivers of besieged
laces'* — t. e.. I have dis^ged new channels by
le labours of the spade, have turned the rivers
it of their ancient courses, which consequently
are dried up, and thus have made my army
> drink of stnnge waters, flowing in channels
t which they had never before been accus-
»med. It would with us be a very bold figure
» Bay that Cyrus dried up the Euphrates, the
ver of fiabylon, with nis foot ; but when
iderstood, as now explained, of digging a new
uumel, which was done with proper imple-
ents by the agency of many toousand feet,
le expression would be by no means high-
rought to the imagination of an Oriental
nother, and, as some think, a much more
itural opinion is, that allusion is made to the
achinery for drawing up water, by means of
rope or string of buckets attached to a wheel,
hich was turned like a modem treadmiU.
ee Foot.)

In the hot coxmtries of the East the assua^ng
thirst is one of the most delightful sensations
ml can be felt ; and hence the frequent allu-
ma to it in the sacred writings, (Ps. cxliii. 6 ;
roY. XXV. 25, &c.) Every attention which
imanity and hospitality can suggest is paid
the present day to furnishing travellers with
ftter. We are told that public reservoirs or
lols are opened in Arabia and Egypt ; and in
m Mohammedan villas^es of Palestine bread
id water are furnished cry the inhabitants gra-
itously. In India at this day the natives offer
ater to weary travellers, in honour of their
da. Hence the force and beauty of the allu*
in. Matt. X. 42. Water was commonly
mwn out of wells by females, and trans-
aied, upon the shomder or head, in large
ithem or earthen vessels. (See Conduit.)
bis is still the practice in the East. Almost

1 fanvellers allude to it.

'* Nothing distresses the Bedouin women so
och as fetching water. The tents are but
Idom pitched very close to a well; and if
da be onlv at half an hour's distance from the
mp, the Bedouins do not think it necessary
mt the water should be brought upon camels ;
id when asses are not to be procured, the
omen must carry the water every evening
I their backs, in long water-skins ; and they
• aometimes obliged to seek a second supply
the well.*'— Burckhardt's Notes^ L, p. 35L
Water is a common emblem m Scripture,
id ita general significance is apparent. To be

WBA

«

in " deep waters'* is to suffer; the "troubled
sea** represents the restless wicked. Water
refreshes and revives the thirsty traveller ; sal-
vation is a " pure river of water of life.'* (See

Cl8TBBN,F0DNTAIN8, PoOLS OF WaTKR, WkLLS.)

Water of jealousy. (See Jbaloust.)

Water of pu&iFTiNa — ^that in which the
priest washed at his consecration (Num. viii. 7).

Water op separation (Num. xix. 2)— that
used in the ceremony of offering a red heifer.
(See Heifer.)

WATERSPOUTS. "Deep calleth unto
deep at the noise of thy waterspouts : all th^
waves and thy billows are gone over me (Ps. xlii.
7). This surprising phenomenon was not unf re-
quently seen on the Syriac and Jewish coasts.
It is forcibly alluded to by the Psalmist in the
passage abovd cited. He represents the cala-
mities that came upon him, according to the
prediction (2 Sam. xiL 11), as like a violent
storm at sea, where the torrents that pour
down from above meet the columns of water
that ascend from the depths beneath; the
clouds above calling to the waters below, and
exciting each other to join their force, and
overwhelm the despairing sufferer in hopeless
destniction.

WAVE OFFERING (Exod. xxix. 24).
Portions of certain sacrifices, and also a sheaf
of first-fruits, were to be waved, apparently
toward the four Quarters of the heavens, as if
to denote that Jenovah was no local divinity,
but Lord of all (See Offerino.)

WAX — a well-known substance, easily sof-
tened and dissolved by heat (Ps. xxli 14;
IxviiL 2; xcviL 5; Mic i 4).

WAYFARING MAN (Isa. xxxv. 8; Jer.
xiv. 8). In the latter passage cited allusion is
made to the brief stay of a traveller in the
pla<» where he enjoys a night's repose. There
being no places of public entertainment in the
East, the wayfaring man depends on the hospi-
talitv of his entertainer, and his sojourn is
brief. In the first passage quoted there is a
reference to the breadth and levelness of the
"path of return'* — a stranger on his journey
could not mistake it, for it was a "highway,**
a raised and built causeway, where one needed
no guide, and could not easily blunder.

WEASEL (Lev. xi 29)--generally agreed
to mean the mole. (See M.OLE.)

WEATHER (Job xxxvii. 22). "Fair
weather'* might be rendered golden splendour,
meaning the dayspring; or the clause may
signify that the north is the place of gold.

WEAVER (Exod. xxxv. 35). The art of
weaving was known in very ancient times, and
espediuly in Egypt, where the process, with
the necessary implements of the craft, is de-
picted on the monuments. There the Hebrews
learned i^ and applied it to the formation of
the curtamsj &&, of the tabernacle. Thomp-
son, in his mteresting book On the Mummy
Cloth of Egyptj 9a,y% of a specimen of it, " It
was free from gum, or re»in, or impretnifttion
of any kind, and had evidently been originally
white. It was close and firm, yet very elastic
The yam oi botii^vc:^ ^aA'«<a^A'«^5^ ^cwBaaa^-

te mi^euia' ot&e >iut Inilis Uuiue, the
_ it pTutnctioo of the Dacck loom, luw cmly
100 thn-wli in ui inch in the -wtrp, and 84

IJiitei -

Dieutiiiuril tiy t!ir J. U. WilLLinaon, one of
whi.h h»I m thnwL-. in the wurp, Mul 71
in till' wiKif tu i^OL-b inch, wbils another di*-
|.ln}vil tho wt'mixliiii); numlwr uf 640 (or 270
<lr.ii1>lu UinailH) ID t]ie wup. >nJ 110 in the
Wiaif. IHTT inch ; the teiturr of which may be
■ iitl l.y a i,-.niii«ri«.n iif it with our —

a Vi tlw

..rk.^iL J
; ab"

•liich uv stuck

1«Kintd hnaulOi ot tlw piece to be

. thini stick ii iikctil acrues over

ii'iu; ai^iiit 4 ]'ftriLi frum thi^ia three sticki

tUcni in thu unie muiniT ; and over the
iiriEuntul cnMH-ntickK, the uuuf. Tu krop
the u|>|*eT mill uDilcr w<H>f at a pn/per distance
fmm eiU'h i>tlit-r a Hat Mick in placed betwmfn
them. A piete of wooil si-rvM lu the weaver's
■huttJe, anil a iiLcirt (nuelle'e hum is useil in
iH'Atliiir l>nck th<* thn-iul .rf Dip ahiitlli- T>>-

^ provide 6

each gvett iniut appear '
I^ominious eipnlvon
any one who ibould refm
as appear without it
rigbteuuanea ac« callnl I
the gae*t( inuft »ppekr i
ofthel^mb. {See Mai
WEEK (Gen. xia. 2
panage mean« the wveii
festival ; as if I^ban haij
ceremoniea of the pieae
then I will gire thee B»
lowed b^ another term o
The divuion of time into
had its oTigin at the cr
viii 10, 12f, and bacea o

riTter of the world,
t thii ii not • dinn
like the day numtlk, ot
tioni of the hearenlj b
atUtiwy; and yet in al
East, anuog ancioit lu
any knDwlran of the a
in the nnciutiTatad tt
division ii reocsiiiied, .
week named. [See Sxm

The Jews gave no nan
week, but amply the
second, oc third day;
adopted by many petaoi
especially by the Socit
names of the dayi in oi
from the Saxon langna;
a m jthologioal aignincat

Beaide* weeks of aev

WEL

iv. 12.) The identificatioii of thiB Sjpot
iem timM seenui to be complete. The
■ dug in the rock, and is about 75
eep, and periuuw 9 feet in diiunetcnr.
is a low vault Doilt oyer it, which has
' narrow aperture. At some seasons it
, at others thero are 10 and 12 feet
ier in it. It is distant from the dty
thirty-five minutes' walk. The fields
I are no doubt that "woel of ground
Jacob gave to his son Joseph.** There
Aj fountains round about toe city, and
to it than Jacob*s well; but perhaps
; held in peculiar veneration, so that
1 came to it from the town to draw
At this spot did our Saviour convince
imaritan woman, thrilled her by hit
dence, declared to her the spirituahty of
ind acknowledged himself the Messiah,
d been fatigued with the journey, and
lined upon the well; but at once did he
3e the oi>portanity of doing good to a
1 and perishing sinner.
LLS (Exod. XV. 27). These wero veiy
al in a country of nocks and herds, and
generaUv provided at each placa of
Age. They were deep (John iv. 11), and
ive to dig and preserve, and hence were
able part of the husbandman's property
xz. 17-19). They wero sometimes owned
imon (Gen. xxix. 2, 3). To protect
[rom the sand, and from being used by
they were covered usually with a stone

(Gen. xxix. 2, 8). To
stop them up was, and
still is, regarded as an
act of hostility (Gen.
xxvL 15); and to in-
vade the right of pro-
perty in them was
often the cause of sore
contention (Gen. xxi
25). To such wells the
women repair in the
evening, and in great
numbers, to draw
water is drawn up in a bucket
a rope and i>uirey, or by the
* process represented in the cut. Oxen
netimes used in turning the simple
le for raising the water. If the well oe
nd the traveller *'have nothing to draw
the refreshing draught cannot be en-
In a country where water was so
le and so difficult to be procured, it
appropriate emblem of nch blessings
. iS; xvii 13). The wells referr^ to
)ture, so rendered in our version, are —
hai-roi (Gen. xvi. 14), Bethlehem (2
xiiL 15; 1 Ghr. xL 17, 18), Beer (east
dan) (Num. xxi 16-18), Beer-sheba
ud. 30. 31), ElimjExod. xv. 27), Esek
xvi 20), Hagar (Gen. xxi 19), Haran
:xix. 3, 4), Jacob (John iv. 6), Marah
XV. 23), Itehoboth (Gen. xxvi 22),
(Gen. xxvi 21). (See Gistebn,
DWTAIN8, Pools op Wateb, Watir.)
\XiE (Job vii 12). In the Mosaic

The
ms of

WHI

account of the creation, we are told that
on the fifth day God created great whales
(Gren. i 21). The word perhaps means no
particular species of animal s, but the largest
class of creeping things, whether inhabiting
the land or the water. The geological investi-

Stions of tiie present day aetermine such to
ve existed, of a character different from any
now known; and comparative anatomy proves
their nature to be most accurately aescribed
hv the term great creeping things. This use
01 a general word to denote some nuge monster
is supposed by some to occur in Ps. civ. 26;
Ezek. xxxii 2^ compared with Matt, xii 40,
and also Job vii 12. (See Jonah.)

WHEAT (Judg. vi U). This most useful
and important of aU grains was produced
abundantly in the land of Canaan. In our
translation it is often mentioned under the
general name of com. (See Corn.) Such is
the peculiar nature of Eg3rptian wheat, that
Pharaoh's dream about seven ears of com
coming up upon one stalk {Gen. xli 5), was
accormng to the common appearance of the
grain. Two or three kinds of wheat are stiU
cultivated in Palestine. (See Fan, Harvest.
Seasons, Seed, Threshing-floor, Winnow.)
The figurative allusions to this grain, Ps.
hood. 16; Jer. xii 13; Joel a 24; Matt iii
12, are sufficiently obvious.

WHIRLWINl) (Isa. xvii 13). The fearful
and resistless effect of a whirlwmd in tropical
countries has often been described by travellers.
Its march is ruin, devastation, and death.
Trees and houses are no impeoiment to its
inrogrees. Especially in the desert does it stir
up tiie sand and form it into moving pillars.

" Whilst we were encamped at the village of
Hass^nabad,** writes Mr. Morier, "a violent
wind arose from the eastward. It prevailed
from the morning to about two o'clock p.m.,
when it changed about to the westward. At
the time of the change, whirlwinds were to be
seen in different parts of the plain, sweeping
along the country in different directions, m a
manner that was quite frightful to behold.
They carried away in their vortex, sands,
branches, and the stubble of the fields, and
really appeared to make a communication
between the earth and the clouds. The cor-
rectness of the imagery used by the prophet
Isaiah, xvii 13, when he i^udes to this
phenomenon, is very striking to the Eastern
traveller; and when we read in the Psalms,
* Make them like a wheel, as the stubble before
the wind;* this also is happily illustrated by
the rotatory action of the wnirlwind, which fre-
<|uently impels a bit of stubble over a waste, ^ust
hke a wheel set into rapid motion.** — Moner*s
Second Journey throitgh Persia, dsc. p. 202.

WHISPEREBS (Bom. i 29). Such as
secretly excite suspiaons against othera^ and
propagate an evil report with an affected
aesire to speak of it onfy under their breath.

WIHTED SEPULCHRES (Matt, xxiii
27). It was customary to whitewash the
Jewish sepulchres annually, that tiiey might
be distinctly seen and avoided, inasmuch as

669

WID

coniinB in contect with them WM tlie

of wremoni>ddefilemBSt(Nuia.ili. 16). Thu
pnu:ticii nve thsni ft ne&t aail beautiful appnr-
kuce. atii ptfKutoil i ttriking curitrMt to tbe
dark and offetuive nuiaa of putrefaction within.
WIDOW (1 Tim. V. i). By the Jewish law
(DruL iiv. 5), if B married nun died leaving

t the eatato
and second, tliat

„„jj a perpetuate the

name. The conditioDi of tnicb a marriage
were, thatthefan'-- ■--'■-■--*—"■-- "-■

the land be belong— „ .. ,, ,.

the widow be not [lUt the age of child-bearing.
More difltant relativea were perrmtted to enter
into the aame relation for like purpoiies, aa ii
the case of Bou and Euth. The Moeaic kii
widows but they wen.
;ional feetitali.
Lken in pledge

often severely rebuked, "fhua in Job certain
penona are thua atigniatiied, — '*They drive
away the ait of the fatherleM, they take the
widow's ox for a pledge. He evil entreateth
the barren that beareth not: and doet'
good to the widow" (Jab xiiv. 3, 21).
read in I'a. iciv. 6,— "They sLiy the widow
and the stranger, and mnider the fatheileaa."
The command is, " Judge the fatherleaL
plead for the widow' (Isa. L 17). It is »
special (in " Co turn aside the needy from
Judgment, and to take away the risht from
the poor of my people, that widow* may
rob the

10, 11). Some cnppoae thmt s widow ndi
is contmted with am who wa* a widow a
in form— that is, one wbo had been one rf I
many wivea of a maa — she. on being coavsti
havitur left him, or he having pot bee awui

■pedallf invited to the great nal
Their ciothing could not be tJ

' (I«i

they r
•■\Vo<

, you.

scrilxn an<l I'hanseea. hynocritee! for
devour widows' houses, aiid fur a pret<
make long prayer: thi^rrfore ye shftll reci
the greati;r damnation" (Matt. xiiiL ..,.
Widows were under UcmI's special protection.
" The Lord preserveth tLo atruigera ; he
relieveth the fatherless and widow: but the
way of the wicked be tume'
(I's. cilvi. 9). "A father of the fatherless,
and a judpc of the widows, is God in his holy
habitation" (Ps. liviii. 6). " Leave th^ father^
iesa children, I will preserve them olive : and
IH tliy widows trust in me" (Jer. ilii. 11).
'lie high prieat could not mury a widow.
At the bej^nning of the Christian Cliurch
widows were maintained at the expense of the
<.'harch (Act* vi. 1, 6). The apuetle allowed
such Buppiirt only to those who were "widows
indeed, poor and friendless. Some of them
were "taken into the number" of those sup-
ported, or perhaps enrolled aa deaconesxe-
hut Uiey miiit have been only once marrii
■ixty years of a^e, ajid have led a huly a
useful lite — "WeU reported of for go
work*; if she have brought up children, if
■he have liKlued strongera^ if she have washed
the saints' feet, if she have relieved the
afHicte-i, if she have diligently followed e' ._.
good work. But the younger widowa refuse;
for when they have "begun to wai wantoi
against Christ, they wilf marry" (1 Tim. T
670

WILD BEAST (Lev. xxvi. 22; Mark i. 13).
Beasts of prey were often threateued as a
lutioiud judgment, and they are usually
mentioned in prophetic pictures of desolation
{fam. nii 21, 22). They are named "beasts
of the field ** (Exod. xxiii. 11). It was wisely
■nd by Moses in reference to the settlement
m Canaan, "And the Lord thy Grod will put
oat those nations before thee by little and
little : thou roayest not consume tnem at once.
lest the beasts of the field increase upon thee'*
(Deut. viL 22). Those beasts were often
onnted. During the joumeyings in the desert,
orerr sheep or ox killed for food was to have
its blood poured out at the door of the taber-
imcla of the congregation, but an exception
was made in regard to game, *'And whatsoever
num there be of the cliildren of Israel, or of
the strangers that sojourn among you, which
bnnteth and catcheth any beast or fowl that
may be eaten; he shall even pour out the
blood thereof and cover it with dust" (Lev.
zriL 13). The sluggard is described as one
tbat "roasteth not that which he took in
bunting** (Prov. xiL 27). Hunting is often
med^ in a figurative sense. Thus the fugitive
Dft^id said to Saul his pursuer, ** Now there-
fore, let not my blood fall to the earth before
the lace of the Lord: for the king of Israel is
eome out to seek a flea, as when one doth hunt
ft partridge in the mountains'* (1 Sam. xxvi
SO). The advice of the wise man is, " Deliver
IhyBdf as a roe from the hand of the hunter,
and as a bird from the hand of the fowler**
(IVoy. vi 5). The complaint of the prophet
Mioah is, ** They hunt every man his orother
with a net** (Mic. yii 2). The kings of
Assyria and Persia were passionately fond of
hunting. (See Beast. Fowl, Net.)

WILDERNESS (Exod. xiv. 3) and DES-
BBT. These words do not necessarily import
a mere waste, but rather extensive tracts not
nnder cultivation, yet affording rich and
abundant pasturage (Josh. xv. 61; Isa. xliL
U). The principal tracts of this aescriptdon
were the wudemess of Jericho, Judah, Engedi.
Zxphf Maon, Beer-sheba, Tekoa, Gibeon, ana
Bethaven. (See these under their respective
beads.) (See Desert, Journetinos.)

WILD HONEY. (See Honey.)

WILL OF GOD (Mark iiL 35) siffnifies
other his purpose or pleasure (Eph. L 11), or
his laws (Matt, vii 21), or his revealed will
eontained in the Scriptures of the Old and
New Testament (Rom. xii 2).

WILLOW (Lev. xxiii 40)— a well-known
tree which flourishes best in marshy ground,
and on the borders of water-courses p'ob xL
22; Isa. xv. 7; xliv. 4; Ezek. xvii 5). The
beautiful species known to tis as the weeping
wiUow is called the Babylonian willow, in
allusion to Ps. cxxxvii. 2, "We haiu^ our
harps on the willows in the midst thereof.**
Peniaps some other species may be referred to
in Scripture, for it is not common in PaJestine
at the present day.

Willows, bbook of, in mainn, "valley of
the Arabians** (Isa. zv. 7), the Hebrew being

WIN-

nnfuil k/i-arahim, I'here h a Wjuly calbd
Suf-saf, or Willow, not far from Kerah, south
of the I)ead Sea. It is mentioned by Isaiah
in "the burden of Moab.**

WILL WORSHIP (Col ii 23) means the
practice of such expedients for serving and
pleasin|f God as are not required nor sanctioned
by divme authority; but are such as man
chooses for himself, independently of revela-
tion, such as deism, and the whole system of
idolatry.

WIMPLES (Isa. iii. 22)-supposed by some
to mean a broaa full mantle or snawl, like the
veil which Ruth had (Ruth ul 15), and by
others a veil, coif j or hood, and this last is its
German signification at the present day. (See

CLOTHKa, VAIL.)

WIND (Exrjd. XV. 10). The ecut wind was
injurious to vegetation and dangerous at sea
(Ps. xlviii 7). The north wind was cooling,
and the south wind brought heat (Luke xii.
55), the south-west and the north fair weather
(Job xxxvii. 9, 22; Prov. xxv. 23). The
character of the east wind may be inferred
from Gen. xii. 6; Job i 19: Ps. xl 6; Isa.
XX vii 8; Jer. iv. 11-13; Ezek. xvii 10; xix.
12; xxvii. 26; Hos. xiii. 15. (See EuBOC-

LTDON.)

In some passages, such as in Ps. ciii 16.
"for the wind passeth over it and it is gone,**
a peculiar withering and fatal power is ascribed
to the wind. The hot vdnds of the East seem
to be alluded to — the sirocco, and its more
appalling form, the simoom. This gale is as
hot as a burning oven, and the atmonphere is
loaded with minute particles of sand. The
simoom is yet more mtense, and carries the
poison of death on its wings. The traveUer
buries his face in the sand that he may
not breathe it. Perhaps this was the agent
that destroyed the army of SennacheribL for
Jehovah says, **Behol(f, I will send a Hist
upon him. ** Allusions to the word are
numerous (John iii. 8). (See Cloud, Raik,
Seasons, Whirlwind.)

WINDOW (Gen. vi. 16). In Eastern
houses the windows open upon the court
within, and not upon the street without.
(See Dwellings.) One of the objects in view
IS to escape the dust of the narrow Eastern
streets. This gives a melancholy aspect to the
streets, as nothing but an unbroken line of
blind walls is seen on either side. There is
sometimes a projecting balcony, or porch, in
fnint of the house, carefully closed by lattices
of what is called Venetian work, and opened
principally upon some festival From su^
a place Jezebel is supposed to have been
looking out when she was seized and put to
death by Jehu (2 Ki. ix. 30). And this was
probably called the casement (Prov. vii. 6;
Song ii 9). Glazed windows were entirely
unknown among the Hebrews, and are scarcely
ever seen in the East at the present day. This
is not wonderful : it was not until long after the
Christian era that glass windows were used in
Uiese 6ountries to any extent.

WINE (Gen. ziy. 18). The word wine is

671

WIS

allied to a correiiponding tenii in many other
languages— the Hebrew yauin, the Greek
o7tro«, the I^tin vinum. the Frendi vin,
and the German tm'n. lliere has been some
controversy as to the nature and qualities
of the liquor wliich is called wine in our
Scriptures. The pLiin reader of the Bible will
be satisfied, however, that whatever be the
precise meaning of several Hebrew terms
ren<lered, and perhaps erroneously, by wine,
the lic^uor commonl^ known by that appel-
hition was unquestionably an intoxicating
<lrink (l^v. X. 9; Eph. v. 18; 1 Pet iv.
3). llie severe denunciationn against intem-
I)erance which abound in Scripture, imply
the use and prevalence of an inehriatrng
beverage.

liike all other countries, Canaan had wines
of various stren^h ; and a distinguished writer
(m Jewish antiquities observes, "the wines
in those countries cannot easily be used
without water. ** Another ancient author says,
that '*the wine at Aleppo resembles that of
Cyprus, an<l is so fiery that when drunk
unmixed it causes great inconvenience." It
is verv dear, moreiiver, that intemperance

i»revaijed among the Jews (Isa. v. 11; xxviii.
•K; Ivi. 12), and it is not inconsuitcnt with
any known facts to suppose that their wines
generally had the intoxicating principle.
Whetlier the wine into which our Saviour
miraculously chan^d the water at Cana (John
ii. 3), ]>asse!iHe<l this i>rinciple or not we cannot
know, nor would a decision of the question in
the least de^o^'e affect the duuncter of the
tnuiHnction, any more than it would affect the
pn?Ht riptinii of the a)M>8tle to Timothy (1 Tim.
V. 2.'i). At the HAiue time, the wonl employed
liaH no epithet attached to it, to note any
<liiferf'nce In'tween it and the lii^uor commonly
known by the same designation. And the
jjnKsesH by which the juic^ of grapes, apples,
]>earM, Ac, preserves itself by fermentation, is
as kindly and lK*nevolently provided as the
])roceKrt hy which tliose fruits themselves come
to niaturfty. **llie simpU^st case of ferment-
ation," says Mr. Brande, in his Dictionary of
#SVit/Kf, '*iH that of must, or the expressed
j!iiee of the grape, whicn, when exposed,
either in close or oi>en vessels, to a temi)erature
of al)out 70^, soon begins to give off carbonic
aci<l, and to Ix.'come turbid and frothy. After
a time a scum collects on the surfacOj and a
sediment is dei>osited : the liquor, which had
grown warm, gradually cods and clears, loses
its NWeet tJiste, and is converted into ««n«."
So far as the use of the U^iuid, after this
priH-ess has taken place, tends directly or
mdirectly t*^ the injury ot body or soul, so far
are we forbidden to use it on any pretence or
connideration whatever. The in<iuiry, there-
fore, what the wine of the Bible was in this
reHi>ect, seems t) be without any practical
advuiita'.re, imismuch as the injurious use of
it is forbidden in a thousand forms; and when
it iM)HHeHj*es the intoxicating quali^, the un-
necessary use of it ia inexpedient, if not
siufuL I

e7^

WIN

EMtem traveQeara tell ni that the fiit
vintage osoally begins in the latter part <
August; that they often see the black grapi
spread on the ground in beda^ exposed \
the sun to dry for raisina. While at a littl
distance, one or two, and aometimei as nuo;
as five men, are seei^ with feet and legs biic
treading the fruit in a land of dsteni, o
vat usually about 8 feet square, and 4 fec<
high, with a grated ai>erture near the bottooi
through whioQ the expressed juice runs intc
a vessel beneath (Isa. bdiL 3; Hag; iL IS).
The treaders sung and shouted (IsSb xri. 1%
while the red blood of the prrape flowed arousd
them, and thoroughly stained their garments
(Isa^ IxiiL 1-3; Jer. xxv. 30; xlviii ^; Lam.
Ll5; Rev. xix. 13-15).

It is admitted on all hands that our Engliidi
transIatioQ has not been verv predft; in
defining the meaning of the Hebrew wc-rdi
usuaUv rendered by the general term wine.
The Hebrew language is unusually rich in
vocables denoting the fruit of the vme in ikt
various fonns in which it was preser>-«d or
used. No less than eight Hebrew terms an
in our version rendered wine, either simplj
or with some adjunct

L Yayin, was a generic name, and oocnis 141
Umes in the Old Testament In the maioritr
of these inntanrfn it denotes a fermented sad
intoxicating liquid. It sometimes seems to
mgnify the growing fmit of the vineyud
(Deut xxviii 39; Jer. xL 10-12). Such aiue
of the term is common in other wine coun-
tries. In Grermany the vine-dresser will saj
in spring or summer, *'the wine^ bloi<nu ur
flourishes well; **the wine** will be good this
season.

2. Tiroth is also a genera] term, and occtm

thirty-eight times in the OM Te^stament

Some derive it from a Hebrew word signifying

to pots€s$; supposing that it receives sncfa i

name from the fact that the vinevaiti vus

esteemed an excellent posaestion or inheritancy,

while others aflirm that it receives this

appellation because it takes so decided »

txMsession of the head, or, in other words,

has intoxicating qualities. The latter is ib«

opinion of Gesenius. The term appevs ofta

to mean the solid produce of the wine, and u

freouently used along with the word cum, or

fiela-produce, and oil, or orchard-jiroduce. It

has been said that Tiro^ means always the

solid produce of the vine, because it was s

titheaole article. But the argument is withcnt

foundation. In the Tract on Tith», part L

of the Mishna, it is said ** that wine "" is subject

to tithe ** from the time it is purged,** and tkii

phrase is explained by Bartenora to stzoify

from the time that the wine shall hsre

cast off the kemdlB during iu c2f«rt«MaK«."

Maimonides ^ves a similar explanation. (S«

Surenhusius, i. p. 248). It seems to have bsn

of this tithe of the wine that the Jews were

to drink at the feast mentioned in Deut xiv.

26, unless the distance was so great that tbef

could not oonveniently carry it with them to

the place where the tabernacle was lesraL

WIX

In s

of the ,,as^>y.

means the fruit of tfao vine, irrespective of its
dl*ncter, the preparatioii it has gone thiough,
or the GMnge wUek bm baea uitde Dpon its
■lHii>l»iiiiii or iutDr& Out translators have
in elersB iBsfamees rendered it by "new wine,"
mad in one case "sweet wine;" theSej
Cluldee, Syriac, and Vulgate

ilgato cei

uice (laa

it " berry," and in anot

L), they translate it

ao does the Vuigate in

n Mic. vL IS, the Vulgate
1, mnBt, while in four other placei

signify "new wine" also ii
U. 24; Hm. iv. H; Isa. iiiv. 7-12; Im 8;
Jadg. It 13. comp. with P». dv. 16. Of the
tirrali in Isa. liiL 8, 9, it is said --"They
that hare brought it together shall drink it
in thecouita oE my holineHB." The foUowiog
table shows bow Tiroah is nsad in the Old
Testament, and how it luw been translated in

...

,.„,.

™"-

„,,„„„..„.

,..„..

„™

iH"

7

Clora,Ortli«nl-tn>ll,«DdFloolu,

Corn sad Ordhard-tmit,

TiUwa. Com. OKhsrd-tnilt, Herds, and FlorVi.

*

lis.

H^iii

m

W

::::::

HIL

muiMOoni,udorctasrd-fraii^:.':::: !!:!!"";:*?.'

loUb

ndy.
■mi.

i

wiuL

W.-S--:'??!^:::::;:::::;;;::::::;:::

iL

gsu

I

"

Nbw Winn.

3. The othsT tenns rendered "wine" aie
mfon specific in their nature. One of these
to AacMT, — the word is spelt in different ways,
— irliidi denotes Jermeniation. Bamr is yet
Mm cUef word in Arabia tor wine. This wonl,
tv •oms of its fomu, occurs nine times in the
<M TestameDt. Four of these am in the
hook of Daniel, and two in Ezra, in all of
Vfaidi both the nmple term and the Chaldee
Mlljilnliii hamra, are rendered in our renion
"Wfate." In the other places, our translation

" • (Dent. xixiL 14), renders it " pure," in
[t "red wine." Red wine is more
„ din Eastern cDuntnes than white.

4. Another term, iob<^ is used thrice in the
~" ■" ' "nent, and vanons part* oi the rttb

3X

MtoMUedin

bequently occur. In Isa. L 22 it refen to
wine of a rich quality, whidi had been nude
weak, or diluted with wat«r. In Hob. iv. 18,
the meaning is somewhat similar,^" their tobt
is sour," — their fine wine has become acid and
nndrimcable. Id Nah. L 10, the prophet says,
" For while they be folden t<«ether as tboiie,
and while they are drunken as drunkards, they
shall be devoured as stubble fully dry'— the
phrase referring to such as drink themselves
to utter drunkenness. Sobt has been sumnsed
to be ■ spedes of wine inspissated or boiled
down, sdmilar to the tapa and defnUum of the
LatinjL When the must was reduced to two-
tbiids of its original bulk by this process, i%
waa called by the Latins cm-civuin, -, V^^eo. ■siM

WIN

half, it WM called difrutum ; ^hen only one-
tliirtl remaine<l, it was named mp«- Similar
preparati(>n8 are yet called in rrance sabe,
liieHe preijarationB do not Heem to have been
caHed wineti, neither do they appear to have
l)een much uswl by themaelveB; they were
emi>l(>ycd princiimlly to give sweetness and
flavour and Ktrengtn to the weaker wines.
Perliaps the Hebrew tobe may have been
similarly employed ; the sobe in Isaiah, so far
from bemt; mixed with wine, was circimicised *
with water.

In reference to this liquor. Pliny says,
b. xxiii. c .'tt>,— "Sajia is a thing allied to
wino, the must having been biuled, until a
third i>art nmiains." In lKM>k xiv. c 24 he
treats of the different condiments used in the
preparation of wine: — **And aI«o from mu8t
itsi'if me<licamentrt are made: it is boiled in
order that it may wax sweet by a portion of
its strength. In some ]>laces they lx>il the
must to HaiMi, and ha>ing {xMired it into the
wine, they allnv its harwhness." "Cato,**
acconling to Pfiny, "directs wines to be
prepared with the fortieth part of the lye of
anheK l>oileil with defnitum, for a culeus,** a
K<iman measure containing about 140 gal>
Ions. The two passages last c^uoteil show
what use was mmle by the ancient Romans
of sa]ia and defnitum as condiments for their
win««.

(.'olumella, tn»ating of the preparing of
defnitum, and of its uses, mf>re at largo than
Pliny, sa\'s. — **S<tnie I>oil away a fourth, and
some a tnini of tlio muKt, nor does it ailmit
of a doubt, that slioiild one ntluce it to a
half, he Would ni:ik(> the better sapa, and on
that aecouiit iimre tit for u^e, ko tliat must
fn.)m ohl viuevanls may be cured with paj)a
instead of defnitimi. " "Althou^di carefully
mA4.le, <lffnitiiui, like wine, is w«»nt t*i become
Hour; we sli(t\il«l ther»*for«; n-collect to season
wine with defnituin t»f a year old, whi)»e u'«xxl
f)uality has been a«ii»rtaineil."— c. *20. Then,
after giving some directions as to the m<><le
of jireparing the th frutuni, he says, *'of this
defnitum, thus boiled, a single sextarius is
sufficient for a single uni]»hora."— c. liO. He
ftdils more fully Ch. xxi., *'Iiet must of
the KWi'etest taste be reduced by Ixiililig, t-o
the third ])art, and when l)oiled, it is calleil,
as I said ul»ove, dcfnituni, which, when it has
iM'Conie C4Mil, is transft-rred into vessels, ami
set aside, that it may Ik* used at the end of
a year. It can, however, in nine davs after
it lias cooled, Iw ]iut into wine, yet it is better
not t«) Ik* use<l ft»r a year. One sextarius is
sufficient for two ounces of must, if tlic must
be fn>iu \ineyards on a hill, but if from vine-
yanls in the plain, thret! heininae must be
addetl. AVhen the must is taken from the
vftt, we allow it to rool for two days, and to
Ixicome clear; and on the third day we add
the defnitum.''

5. The Hebrew had also a term signifying

* A nlnnlai Wnu Via \um\ \ri wada q( the Latin
wriiera.

074

WIN

mixed wine, Maeeh (Prov. zxiiL 29, 30 ; Ps.
Ixxv. 8; Isa. Ixv. 11). The practice of mixing
wine was a common one among the andents.
This mixtd vine, often mentioned by the
sacred writers (Ps. Ixxv. 8; I'rov. xxiiL 30),
was not dilated with water, bat on the cod-
tnuy was increased in strength, or improved
in flavour and colour, by a mixture of diu^
herbs, and spices (Song. viiL 2). Saffron
is used at this day amoni^ the Peridans to ^ve
a deep colour to their wines. Some sui^iiie,
however, that the phrase mired trimr deootin
wine rendered stronger by being shaken np
and mingled with the lees.

6. Another term employed is arit, rendtred
in our I'endon three tunes by "sweet wiTK.**
and twice by " new wine." In Sung \m - it
is a]>plied to the iaice of pomegranates. It a
asiiociatcd with drunkenness in Joel L 5 ; and
asis in Isa. xlix. 2G is evidently 8m)(Kw>ed ti
possess an intoxicating quality,— **1 will fetd
them that oppress thee with their own flt^h ;
and they shall bo drunken wiiti their ovn
blood, as with sweet wine" (orw).

For the meaning of o^AisAioA, rendered «ome-
times "flagons of wine," see Flagoxs; f»r
the meanim; of ahemarim, or *' wines on the
lees,** see Lees. The reader is also refernd
to the Articles Dbikc, stboxg; Gkates,

VlNTM.

Wine is also referred to in the New Testa-
ment, where the general term ounn u employed,
and we have also in Acts iL 12, 13, **iiew
wine," or rather "sweet wine." The wine
here referred to pK>8sessed intoxicating quali-
ties, as the inii)if>iis mockers asserted that tb«
apostles were under the influence of inebriety.
^cw vine (J<.>cl L 5) seems also to mean snrcet
wine, wldch was ;>urer and stronger, more ca-
}iable of preservation, and of course much iLi>re
inebriating (Isa. xlix. 20). Of such a ** sweet
wine '* (\dumella says, lxx>k xii. 27, " Gathrr
the grai>cs and e\p<>se them for three da}*? to
the sun; on the fourth, at mid-day, tnsad
them; take the murtum lixivum (that is, tb«
juice) which flows into the lake before yoa,
and when it has ceased to ferment, add i>ae
ounce of ])ounded iris ; strain the wine from its
feces, and pour it into a vessel. ThL« vine
will l>c tictitf firm or durable, and healthy to
the Ixxly." ITie Hebrew term tiroth i» said hj
high Jewish authority to be the correct ren-
dering into that langua^ of the Greek wcird
(fleukM, used in Acts u. 12. Gleuh^ stands
correctly in the Septuagint, Job xxxii. 19^ for
the ordinary Hebrew term jm.Wa.

Christ si)eaks oi wine ait '* the fruit of the
vine;" and the apostle exhorts Timothy to
use a "little wine" for his stomach's fok*.
ITie nature of the wines referred to in the Xe»
Testament ma>r be learned from Luke v. ^.
3^ compared with the correspondent pa«ji£e>
of Matt, and Mark : from Luke v. 39, a<mp>
with John u. 10. The term is also used Bgat'
atively in the Apocalypse.

Thus the Heorews nad a great variety of

wines, and as great a variety otarticles >idd<J

\V)!<I thfi vine. They had many kinds of ^jnp*

WIN
Knd moTtaaea, bnt none of then ■eem to liAve
been called wine. Mr. Homee, nusHonary at
ConiUntiiu^Le, ondoaewellqnalifiedtojndge,

^All that Khich is now oOled wine is the
Eaat ii aa truly wine as Uiat nhiob ii called

Whether

whether tweet or snor, all the known winea
are intoxicating. The boiling which the people
uf certain diatncta chooee to give to their miurt,
for the purpose of secoring a wine that will
keep better, should not be coufounded with
tiie boiling of the same mnirt for the purpose
of riRir'ng sugar and molasses. In the former
caae it is boiled perhaiM half an hour and not
redaced one-twentieth in bulk; in the latter
caae it is reduced more than three-fourths in
qoantity. And hence an ' inspissated wins '
uiould never be confounded with inspissated
gr»pe joice. The fntmer f^ves as on intoii-
cating liquor and the latter a syrup or molasses.
Wb migfit say the same of the sweet wines,
that altbongh by drying the grapes in the
flan, or by boiling the must, the wine is pre-
Mtred sweeter than it would otherwise be,
muHi winea are still intoiicatitig, and some of
them extremely so. In aome districts the
people regard the twiled winea ■■ stronger
Ibaa tlie dmple fermented ones. Those of
moiint Lebanon are stronger tban the majority
cif the winea of France.

"Among the nsaa of the grape which we
luTe not enumerated as existing at the present
day, !■ that of prMsing the juice from the fresh
lipo chiatera into veoaels to be drank imme-
diately. All persons detnr that an/ such pre-
TailiiiK enston eiiabi, althon^ it la admitted
that it is aometimes done for antuemait and
variety, and tor the children of a bmily.
However, no evidence that I have seen ap-
pealed to, of the usages of antiquity would
■ecm to be sufficient to lead ns to anppose that
it was ever a standing usage. We cannot
affirm that the butler ^ PhiuKoh was ever in
tba balnt of {terforming snch an operation. He

wrfcamed ttinadream,h"'— ''— "^ ''

Bbca^, we amply read ( .^. - , ,

intonianoh'Bhand{Qen.xL21). Nordocitlie
iMwnage of Greek or Boman poet*, whan de-
■olbing the Inmry of drinking tha ' Uood of
Am gn^' fiom its ErcA dnaten, whca faeattid

wrtr

by the mlea of ordinary criticdran, imply that
the volaptuariea of those days were s^dsfied
— ith any such abstemiousneas.

"Travellers from northern coonttiea unao-
istomed to any product of the grape but
wine, whenevrr they have met with some of
these liquid and olmoet solid products of it,
have spoken of them as kinds of wine, as if
every liquor of grape must necessarily have that
name. Thus one traveller states that 'the
Turks carry with them on their journeys nn-
fermented wine,^ which we have seen from our

iptioDs could only be some kind of grape
syrup. Br. Du9, of Scotland, travelling in
Frames, mialeads his readers m a oontrary

tion by speaking of wine as mere grape
.._... He apeaks with delight of his having
seen ' the peasanta carrying along, instead in
milk, bowli of the pur« nnadulterated blood of
''--nam,' Nowdthough this waa wine, with
_. . cdd English habits, be would feel no preju-
dice againat the use of it, whether ia the form
of weak claret or atroag Madura."— siuio-
IA4M Sacra, pp. 292, m. 295t The aama
misdonary deacriba a peculiar kind 'of drink,
called Xarrtmt, sometimrs made of the grape,
and sometimea of apples and pomegiwiates.
It is freah juice boiled down so as to reduce it
to one-fourth of the quantity put in. When
not properly taken care of. it occasionally fer-
ments. Mr. Homes adds — " Although m tha
prcaent use of laoguo^ uufenneoted wine i>
an ImpoflBibihty, here is a cooling grape liquor
which is not intoiicBting, and yet the mannnr
of m^dng and preserving it eeeois U

traveller."

The nature of the wines used at the Jewish
feasts does not aeem to admit of much diapat&
Leaven was forbidden at the passover, and
some suppose the prohibition extended Uso to
fermented drinks. Bnt there is no proof that
the Hebrew term teor. the word nsed in the
Mosaic law, was applied to wine as well as
bread. The same is true of the other Hebrew
term, Aomeb. The law iteelf speaks only of
unleavened bread. " Seven days shall ye eat
unleavened bread ; even the first day ye shall
put away leaven out of your housea : for who-
soever eateth leavened bread, from the first
day until the seventh day, that soul shall be
cnt o9 from IsraeL Ve shall eat nothing
leavened ; in all your habitations shall ye eat
unleavened bread" (Eiod. lii. 16, 20). The
Jews, however, understand the prohibition to
extend to the use of fermented liquors mods
from grain. Herschel, himself a Jew, says,
that one of these terms refen«d to, liamttz,
rigniGea the "fermentatioD of com in any
shape, and appliea to bter, and to aD ainritnoua
liqim* diatilfed from com.' These are atrietljr
inUnlietad at the paaaover. The Mi«hn» (■£,
iB.)*an, " This ia the oommou law— «faat«v«r
ia mads of an* qiedea of grun violatea tha
(■aatOTer.** Mumoiudcaxm&Ei^uia^'^'i&'v*"

WIN

WIN

■orer wino to be fennenteil, and capable of \ 1. Sometiineff the mmple jaioe of the gnfte u
intoxication, for hu Mi>*R, "The reaiion that , fermented without any previonu prepantioiL
we do n<»t ix^niiit him [that in, the tnie^t at the The quantity thus niaae is smalli and d'ie«
passovvr] to drink K'twcvn the tliinl and fourth not kee]) weU. It is produced bjr treading the
^i..^»_ ^ 1 i_i. — :„*. .1 . grapea in baskets, through which the juice

nina, and it thus separatea from the skins and
seeds. The quantity of wine pnxiuoed i^ in
weight about half the weight uf the t^np^
prcdae<l. It is harsh and unwhrjlesome, nit
poBsesses rather strcmg intoxicatini^ i>owerK
2. Sometimes the grape juice is denccaUNl (v
boiled down before fermentation. The qtiio-
tity made in this way is very great. Th<*
must is first senarated from the skins, and the
boiling is done oefore fermentation. The effect
it to clarify the must, by causing the crude
substances to rise in the form of a scum, which
is removed^ by a skimmer. As soon aa thii<
ceases to rise, the boiling ia stormed, and the
must set aside for fermentation. The quantity
is usually diminished only four or fire ikt
cent by boiling, and the wine is conmionly
Hwet>t 3. A third process is to diy the graprs
]Hirtially in the sun ere they are tluown int<>
the wine-press. Large quantities are made in
this way. The most approved method is the
following:— The grapes, stems and all, are
spread m the sun nom five to ten days^
until the stems are entirely dry. They sk
then pressed, and the must, with the skins and
stems unwparated. is put into open jan. Dm-
ing fermentation it is stirred every day, in
oraerthat the scum which rises mavsink t»
the bottom, and not, bv contact with the air.
iNintract a soumoss which wi>uld siwil tl:tr
Tkinc. In thirt Ktate it is left a mimtn or !"-.
After wliich it id strained off, and sealed u;>
in ol«»se vessels. The object of leading thV
wine uiK>n the lees, or sediment of skins, we^^U
anil Ht(«niR. is to refine it. It acnuir» a rich..T
colour, and the dried stemn al^soro the mnr an*.l
acritl particles. The hn^rer it i.<* left, within s
limited peri<xl, the better it beci>me& (See I«a.
XXV. G.) (SeeliEEf^) Wine thus made is u.<ually
astringent, and keeps better than cither of thf
kinds above mentioned. Gr&i)ea thus treated
may yield about thirty per cent, of their wt- i jht
in wine. Sometimes, ^Ir. Smith adds, thm-
in a combiiLition of these various i)roc««i>«:-
The practice of adding to the slz^ength of
i^ines oy the infusion of brandy is mdcnovn
in these regions, and drugged wines aiv c*iually
unknown. He says, ** on the other hano. un-
intoxicating ^idnes I have not been able to hear
of. All wines, they say, will intoxicate moK
or less. So in re^ud to fermentation, when
inquiring if there exists any such thing as un-
fermcnt^ wine, I have uniformly been thk*
with a stare of mirprise. The very idea Mt>Di
to be recanled as an absuniity. Both tb**
pa])al and Greek priests use in the Euchazvt
pure perfect wine. If unfcrmented, they vill
not employ it, nor will they use it if the asoe-
tons fermentation has b^^n.

We cannot say that such modes of mina-

facturing wine are common over all the £a^

nor do we know that thev resemble the aointn:

ol '^\\A>\QA^KJs^\\ftwda!Sfc, Tha probability, however, is, that

cups is, that he may not beo^mo intoxicated :
for wine drunk while eating does not inebriate,
but without fiMNl it does inebriate.^ Barte-
nora makes a similar remark, and assigns as
the reason why he may not <Irink between the
third and funrth ciiits, that he may not become
drunk and be renueretl un.ible to finish the
hvmn, viz., a jwrtidu of cxv. cx\'i and cx\'iii
AalmB, which wt-re alwa\'H sung at the Pas*
chal Feast (See Linhtf^nttX *.K>7.)

Hie late I'Ui Smith, American missionary in
Syria, hos t»>ld us, — ** Even in the house of the
chief Ilabl li <if the Si mnish Jewsat Hebn>n I was
once treated with fennenteil wine during the
feast of unleaveneil bre.'v.L I knew it was fer-
mented, not mertly fn^m its tiisto, but becaiine
I hod a discussion uith^ him respecting the
inconsistencv of having it in his house at a
time when he liad pnifesHO«llv banishe<l every
thing that was leavened." llie reply of the
llabbi was— ^* that as the vinous fermentation
was comjdetefl, anil there was no tendency t^)
the acetous, it did not come within the prohi-
bitiiin of the law; and that if any wine was
founil at the Ix'ginninif 4tf the feast, in danger
<if ninnini; int<i the acetims fermentation, it
was in that case removed.*^

ITie Jews, indeiHl, refuse (vcntile wine at
their sacred feasts, as they cannot tell whether
it lias lieen carefully nrejuiriKl. I^>aven may
have N'cn mixt'tl witli it in the process of
manufacture. In (*athoIic countries, t<H>, the
tlew>< are aware that the i'opish priest is <ift<'n
eni|»li»ye<l to sprinkle holy water on the vine-
ynnl— a jiractice wliich they consiientiously
d«'ti'Nt— so that tlioy are <»l»%etl to preiiare
vari nis hpecies <if wiue for thi'nisclvey. Ihey
hoiiietinies use raisin wine, which is thus made :
— Four parts of wanu water by weii;ht to one
of raisins are Irft to soak two «Liys. Then
the raisin 4 are t;ikrn out, bniixi'd, and again
put in, till t)ie fennrntation has Ix'cn sufficient,
ilie result is a mild liiiuor. of exhilarating
(lualities. It is eaili-d in Arabic N^idh^ in
(iistiiiction from Kluimr^ t)ie name forordixiary
femientcHl wiiu*.

Tile early < 'hun;h entertainoil no <loubt, as to
the law of tlit^ Lord's Supper, that wine was
the lirpiid which Christ authorized, and they
hod no doubt either as to the nature of the liquiu
which was to be em]>liiyei1. It was not till the
cftnclusion of the seventh century that some
churehes be^Mii to use //)//«/, and at an earlier
pi'riinl Home vinl«-nt asreties dmnk only water
at the Kueharist ; but neither of th(Mo |)arties
profess«!d to plead the authority or example of
Christ

Mr. Smith, the learned missionary referre*!
to, made it a i>oint, si-verol years ago^ to in-
quire into the naturt! of the wine manufac-
ture in seven districts of ]ifount Lebanon.
The results he published in the A inrrican Bib-
lii}thera Sncra lor ^\a7, li^Vv \Vfe v^foaks of
three different \>tivc«<»w

WIN

they are both a fair sample at onoe of general
praictice and ancient custom.

The wines of the ancients do not, on the
whole, seem to have been as strong as many
modffln wines, which are enforced bv large ijir

fusions of brandy. Milton says of Eve, —

>

**For drink, the grape
She croBhes Inoffensire most and meaths
From many a berry."

We know that in cold temperatares the an-
cient wines sometimes froze. Xenophon, in
his Afuibasis, records that the ten thousand
Greeks encountered such cold and snow in
Bithynia that the wine froze in their vessels.
The ancients, however, used sometimes large
quantities of water in the wine which they
consumed. The thicker wines and the stronger
wines needed to be diluted. By the use of the
fumarium, wine was often weakened. This
f umarium was erected usually over a bath, so
that the heat and vapour were brought to
encompass the wine vessels; or it was an
apartment constructed for the purpose, and
tilled constantly^ with smoke. One of the
famous Greek wines was exposed at midsum-
mer on the roof of the houses for five or six
weeks — a process that was supposed to bring
it to a fragrant maturity. The tamed " Faler-
nian" was not drunk till it was mellowed by
age. The * * Surrentine " was similarly treated.
The wines of the old world, it is apparent, did
not possess the strength of such as circulate
most commonly in thu coun^— too many of
which might ahnost be named chemical com-
positions. The generous " blood of the grapte"
IS vitiated by noxious and stimulating in-
fusions.

Every one who reads the Bible cannot but
see how solemnly and frequently it warns men
against the abuse of these gifts of a gracious
providence. Both in the Old and New Testa-
ments awful denunciations of such a sin occurs.
Intemperance exists to a fearful extent in
countries where the vine does not grow, but
where, among the majority of the people, in-
toxicating dnnks of a hiu:^er and stronger
kind are the national beverages. Christians in
every rank of societr cannot forget the lan-
guage of Scripture : they will beware of " sur-
feiting and (minkenness. There is the more
need, too, that the followers of Jesus should
show an example of uniform sobriety, because
intemperance abounds amons us, ana because
of its peculiarly ensnaring ana dangerous char-
acter. Every reflecting and benevolent man
laments it as a wide-spread evil — creating crime,
leading to the profanation of the Sabbath,
peopling prisons with miscreants, asylums
with lunatics, and hospitahi with incurable
invalids. It is an evil destructive alike to
body and soul; for while it directly induces
many diseases, and exposes the constitution
to the attacks of many others (so that medical
men have marshalled their decisions against it,
as one of the fellest destroyers of the human
race), it rouses into action the fiercest of the
animal passions, and renders inesistibla those

WIN

peculiar constitutional tendencies which reason
might have guided or curbed. It douds the
mind, besots the heart, and indurates the con-
science. ** Death and hell*' are seen following
after it, as if thev yet had power to kill the
fourth part of the earth. Its haunts are
numerous, and its grasp is tremendous. Its
sport ana prey are the life and soul of its
melancholy victims. It is also a hardening
evil, for it steels the heart against every im-
pression which might operate as a remedy:
females even have, through an unfortunate
addiction to intemperance/lost ^e modesty of
women, the fidelity of wives, and the affection
of mothers; ministers of the goepeL^oo, have
been deposed for being drunkards— nave fallen
vanquished by a vice against which they have
often warned others, and have lost station,
influence, health, and character, with a per-
fect consciousness that they had created tneir
own ruin. How frequently have drunkards
braved the certainty of temporal ruin and the
prospect of eternal misery ! With what miser-
able and anxious efforts do they attempt to
aigue themselves out of their fears, by con-
fiding in the devotional fits of their sober
moments, or by forging excuses to palHate
the gratification of tneir depraved appetites!
Warnings from the pulpit are treated as mere
professional denunciations, and even the solemn
anathemas of Scripture have sometimes, idas!
become the theme of their unhallowed nurth.

Intemperance is an insidious evil! lliough
of all our appetites its indulgence is the m^
brutal in form and brutifying in effect, yet
there is something powerfully seductive bo^
in its nature and in those customs by whioh
it is supported. This is its most dangerous
property. Continued indulgence creates at
length a habit which entrenches itself in
the constitution so firmly as to laugh at
every common attempt to dislodge it. In-
toxication produces a teeling of mental release
when restraints are thrown off, and merrr
sensations, mistaken for happiness, are wel-
comed and enjoyed. But though a sad re-
vulsion follows (tor the spirits flag, the head
throbs, and the whole frame undergoes a sick-
ening depression), these cautions are neglected,
however^ in a very short time, and a new
temptation excites fresh desires. This evil is
supported also by many of. the most common
usages of society, both in domestic entertain-
ments and in transactions of business. The
lyre, too, has been timed to its praises; those
strains which touch the finer feelings of the
soul, and fill the breast with high emotion, are
among the most fatal fasdnations in the scene
of revelry — they are the agents which infuse
its luscious sweetness into the cup of death,
and enamour the infatuated of the tempting
draught. The words of inspiration need to
be graven on the heart of society (Prov. xxiiL
29-^). Drunkards, says Paul, shall not '* in-
herit the kingdom of God.**

WINE-PSeSSES (Job xxiv. U). These
were cavities in the ground (Matt xxL S3),
built up or lined with mason work. The^

now fanod in thii form in Fenia, 8 feet aqiura
■nd * f«t iftp- In Ink V. 2 uid Mark xiL L
tiie tCTin vine-jiren nther mEUU the open
pUce or veMrl wliich ruceived thi *

juice IriJin the

, It WM in one of

,__ 1 th*t tiidfon wM thrtshins hli

cmiM for f«r of Iving pliuukml by the Miilian-
il»l.lu,l«. .1 III .

Id the F.Aiit catlu were nnknoim. The wine
WM krl't ia jiui ur fliv-iiui, kod improred by
act (Luk« V. Jui, and by itasdiss on the lee*

It vac ni^msaiy for the liiiuar to remain on
the leci tor a time aft« tbe fumentation had
cvasuL '\\'h«nevtr thia lint {ennentation has
been ilvGu-icnt, the wine niJl have a richer and
■a-ertrr t;ut«. I'nlnn. hovcrer, it underaj a
furthtT f cmientali' <n. the lying upon the lee*
will ni>t 5vcun Btrtnglh or flaiour, but. after
repeated iiulial feniiL'ntatii'n, vill rim intu a
thui at'iit Thid beautifully eiplaiiu Jer.
xlviiLIl.

WISK-VX3SEL3. The Hebrewa, aa wen
■■ the Ureekx. )in.-«en'ed tbvir wine in lai^e
earthen vemielf. it jon, which wrre buried up
to their necki in thr |,i\iund. (See Cell^bii.)
Thri<c jars are quite lat^e, containing often aa
muchafoneof ourlamU The Kiiijt, orneir
wine, after being i»iured into auch veMeli, is
atirred fur alunit twenty daya, thrice a ilay,
with w<i»Jen roJ& Wlicu wine i* to be trana-

flaaluurUitllei; but skin* nre in coramon uh,
a> they were aro^n,- tlie ancienta. lie
]f.'brews t"""^'! e>rn the m'.it. or new win^.
Int-' "kinii; l>iit f'>r tiiL-t iiunwi'tb^y 11*1.-11 aiith ;
IM oen- fn-^h and ll^xlfjc, auJ tli,r.f.ire m.l :
liai-lc ^> >>' U ■ .k.-ii 1 T the tcrmeutati..n of tlio '
li-i-KT l.\[att i^ 171.

'II10 win«^ .>f lA'Uin.0 ami of Helhon. near
Pauiuciiii, werrcelTlTati.-il fi'rtlitir exetllvnce
(Kfk. xxui. !«; ll.w. «v. 7i; on.1 tli.' f.^miT
retainxit>i.'bar.tvt<Tlt>thii>ilay. I5ee 1[klii»S.|

Prinking winv ia buwU (AmiM vi li> in
fuliaifeil t" ri'fiT to the rifhneu and uiai^nili-
Ceih'v of the Ti'mkuI, and not tu the iiuautity •.•t ;

Tlie anei'.'nt Ksyjitian mwle of expressing
the jiiiee i<f ^ra[H.'9 uuiy be leami->t fnqu the
luUuu in j vntC f ruiu a luuuumeut in Memphis. :

BiblM. It b e

WIN

eguiloycd fignrati*^ for tha
and ia TCDdend "■knt," Both
iiL 9; Jer. ii.31;and"qnaiten''inDeQtiiiL
13. We apeak of the wing of » bonae and tb*
winfii of a ahip : aa in MatL it. S; Itt. xiin. L
The word 4)auda alao for the fartheat linut of a
country <* the world (Job xuviii. H; In.
iiiv. IC). The wind haditawingi(2Sam.nn.
11 ; Pa. ciziix. 9) ; and the Sun of Kigbtenn*-
ncn ariaea with healioK under hii win^ )MaL
i*. S|. Wtap an naturslly a >>-nihol fnr
shelter, nni the paalaiiit praya, "Krepmr
ai the amle of the ere, hide me under Uk
shadow of thy winga (Pi. zviL 6); and b<
■aya, "How excellent ia thy loTing-kindnes,
O God! therefore the childrvn of men put their
tnut onder the shadow of thy win^" (Pa
iiin. 71. Every one rememhen the toucLinj
appeal of otir Lord, — *' O Jemaalem, J erDMlem.
thou that liillest the prophets, and utondt
tbem which are sent nnto thee, how oftm

and of the seraphim (Isa. tL 3). In tbe
visicin of Paniel (ch. viL) the lion bad easl**'
wingii, aod the " lenpord had on the liadi ii
it four winga of a fi>» L" Such synibiil*. thiinjil
incon^uua to us, were commoa in the Etet.
Tlie iltuitmtion represents a ninged huma
(See Assyria, Cuuhlr, Xikeveh).

WIXSUW (Isa. ixi. 24). The procew nf

~'~~ win*; amoD^ the Hebrews wad like thai

in wime plafi.'d at the pment day. Tlic

The fruit in (■bu-'-il in a ckith, whieh ii tB-i!<ttHl
aiul Klmimil imtil the lifinor is wrung out intu
• T«w1 Iwl.iw.

WlX(J(I-ev. i. 171 i* the oivan of flight. It
tu often ui-illn niniH-ctii<n with liinU. as in the

Iilirn'i--. ■'liin\oi(o«\ut e^«T"«in?,"andiiHO

WIN

paintingB, and thrown up in the wind, and the
lighter chaff and straw separated, sometimes
by the help of a fan (Isa. xli. 15, 16: Matt,
iii. 12). (See Fan, Threshino-floob.)
WINTER (See Seasons.)

WOM

twig^ (as of the willow or osier kind), twisted
dpsely together while green, and used instead
of ropes. The marginal reading of the above
pass^re is small cords.

i Witness (Gen. xxl 30)-^ne who gives

WISE MEN (Matt. iL 1)— men il learning, | testimony. Two or more were required in

devoted to philosophy, especially to tetronomy,
and to the contemplation and worship of the
Deity. Those magi were of Persian origin, but
hod spread into Arabia and other neighbour-
ing countries of the East, and "vmp distin-
guished from other classes of their oonntrymen
by their peculiar habits and pursuits. They
worshipped only one God; and so blameless
did their studies and their religion appear to
be, that the prophet Daniel, scrupulous as he
was to the hazard of his life with respect to
the Jewish religion, did not refuse to accept
the office which ^Nebuchadnezzar gave him, of
being master of the magi. — chief governor over
ftll the wise men of Baovlon. As they thus
acquired great honour andf influence, they were
introduced into the courts of kings, and con-
salted on all occasions. They also followed
them on warlike enterprises: and so much
importance was attached to thfiir advice and
opinions, that nothing was attempted without
their approbation.

Ma^ came from the East to salute and
worship the infant Jesus. They might be of
Jewish extraction, as Daniel himself was an
archimagus. The ancient prophecies and
other divine lessons had taught them to expect
the birth of the illustrious Kedeemer. Science
and philosophy never appear in a more be-
coming position than when they bend at the
Saviour's feet. (See Darius, Jesus, Persia.)

WrrCHCRAPT (1 Sam. xv. 23), WITCH
(Deut xviii 10), WIZARD (Lev. xx. 27). A
man who pretends to supernatural power, so
that he can foretell future events, cure diseases,
call up or drive away spirits, or disclose in-
formation beyond the reach of the natural
powers, is called a wizard. A woman of like
practices is called a witch; and the evil art
itself is called witchcraft. No sin is more
severely denounced by the sacred writers, not
only under the Mosaic dispensation (Exod. xxii.
18; Dent, xviii IL 12), but under the Gospel
(GaL V. 20). As Jehovah was king, the witch
who consulted an idol was introducing a new
king, or a pretender to the throne. Those
who consult such foolish and wicked pretenders
are partakers of their guilt, and are abominable
in God's sight (Lev. xx. 6; Nah. iii 4). A
famous pretender to supernatural power lived
at Endor. This woman was a necromancer;
she prophesied by means of the dead* It was.
however, on this occasion a real appearance of
Samuel, who uttered a genuine prediction.
The prophet was sent to rebuke Saul — came
not at the woman's bidding— for she was startled
and alarmed at the supernatural apparition.
If we take the narrative as a simple record,
we can have no doubt that for a wise end
Samuel was pennitted to revisit the world.
(See Divikation, Saul, Sorcery.)

WITH8 (Judg. xvi 7)-a band of pliable

judicial mvestigations (Deut. xvii 6~, 7), and
when the sentence of stoning was pronounced,
they were required to commence the process
of execution (Acts vii 58). (See Stoning.) A
false witness was liable to the punishment
which was due to the offence on behalf of
which he had given testimony. The word is
also applied to monuments of covenante, or
solemn and public transactions (Gen. xxi 30;
xxxi 47; Josh. xxiv. 26). (See Pillab,
Testimony.)

The witness of the Spirit with our spirit
(Rom. viii 16) denotes the consciousness, more
or less distinct, of the operations of the Spirit
upon the mind, enlightening the understan(ung.
and inclining the subject of them to do the wul
of Grod. The Spirit enables us to produce the
fruits of adoption, and our perception of them
becomes through nim a proof of our sonship.

The expression, '* faithful witness** (Ps.
Ixxxix. 37), is supposed to refer to the moon
(Jer. xxxiii 20) that rules the night, and will
remain as long as the night itself, which, by
the terms of God's covenant, shall not cease
(Gen. viii 22).

John often exhibits the Gospel in the light
of a testimony (1 John v. 9) ; ana Christ himself
is ciJled ** the taithful ana true witness *' (Rev.
i 5 ; iii 14), not only to the glory and perfection
of the Father, but also to his own divine
mission J and to the universality and perpetuity
of his kingdom.

WIZARD. (SeeWiTCHO

WOE (Num. xxi 29). This term often de-
notes a feeling of compassion or sympathy
(Matt .xxiv. 19), or a simple lamentation, as,
"Alas for me!" (Ps. cxx. 5.) In other con-
nections it is equivalent to the threatening of
punishment (Hab. ii 6, 9, 15, 19 ; Zech. xi 17).

WOLF (Isa. xi 6) — a fierce, cruel, ravenous
animal, in size and general appearance resem-
bling a dog, and a most terrible enemy to sheep
(Isa. Ixv. 25; Matt, vii 15; x. 16; John x.
12: Acts XX. 29). The rapaciousness of the
trioe of Benjamin was foretold by Jacob by a
comparison with the wolf (Gen. xlix. 27; see
Judg. XX. and xxi : and comp. 1 Sam. ix. 1,
and XX. 31 ; Acts ix. 1 ; Rom. xi. 1 ; PhiL iii
5). The sacred writers also illustrate the
cruelty of Israel's oppressors by an allusion to
the wolf (Ezek. xxii. 27); and the sallying
forth of the evening wolf in search of prey
(Hab. i 8) is emblematical of the destruction
which awaits wicked men (Jer. v. 5, 6). The
allusion^ Zeph. iii 3, "they gnaw not the
bones tiU the morrow,'* is to the circumstance
that the wolf in its greediness often seizes on
more than it can consume.

WOMAN (1 Cor. xi 8. 9)— the companion
and helper oi man, and d^ express command
made subject to him (Gen. iii 16). The word,
when used as a term ot «aJL^&5sa.^<^^^^a^\s^'^&3ii>^

woo WOR

XV. 2**, inii'li'i» no di!«ri'<iK'«'t, but ;,Teat tender- ' wrmlil brin? ri^hteousne^a and strength. Bn

ne!«!« ami o>urt(><y. It wiv* tliun that oar his Word shall be cunfouuded and l^r-u^bt t>

Savi»«ir adtlns-i-il Man'umliT tlif must tuuch- cnufurtion, with their idoLi, all the natioiu tLd

ini; lin.Mnu-'tiinots (.b-lm xx, Vt). In early attacked his jK'oplo. /h tAf llVrl o/VaA *hall

tinu-4 M-i-uifU had uTiiilvr frvt'doin : then; wan all the sev<l of Israel be ju^itified and ^Lill

ni» h:iri'iii. and the ht-xes miivjlol freely t.*- jrh»r>'." In Gen. xxxL 13 the an-^ nf Je-

g^.-thfr (din. xxiv. C5; xxix. 11). lliey went hi>vah nroelaimn himself to be the G^-J to

aU'iit oivnlv carrk-inLT watt.-r (tien. xxiv. VtU whom Jacub vowed his vow at C-?theL Now,

tentleil tin- ff'-ekH (i \vn. xxix. ♦">), iT'iiared fmnl ac<MrtHn};: to the Tirj,nini of Onkeloii. it w&» ^^

(tJen. xviii. <"•). ami wvn* im-fi-nt at meals, the M'ord of Jak tliat the vuw of Jacob ttm

S«> als<i in tarlv KjOl''- riiaraiih'i* da^jcrhter aildresiMd : ** And Jacob voiveti a vow. i«a>-jij.

went to iuith.' in the Nile; an»l wonirn i«ir- If the Word of Jtth will be my help, and ^ill

ticiitnteil in th<'ir feast ^. Hut for centuiii.-^ keep me in thi^i \i-ay in which I am j^-in::.

wcuien in th- K;i>t have K-en i-nslavwl and 4c.. then fhnll the ll'oni of Jafi be my (i yi,"

di'.TiuK'd. aijil f. ri'e«l ti> live in (k'clnsinn. These l^'uwai;e4 ttbow that the ancient Je->vi-h

which it i-^ a («trau-^er in heathen countrii-d. name was therefore* commonly applied to th«
I'inus WKinii were devttt^slly attacheil to i becond pen*i>n of the Trinity— the promiKd
Chri-t in t!i«.' tla}"s i if his fle-ih. They were the ■ 1 Jeliverer— lioth in the aposti^hc a^e and in tha;
la.-t at the cn«s* an-1 th" tirst at the ?cpulohre. ' which preceded it. It w plainly used by tb*
Wunl,. (SeeSHEFP.) evan^'eUst to desijniate the Me-fi.iah : b'lt fri

"Wl »K1>— /-".■/"* (J«»l:n i. 1)— one of the titles jirevalent wa* it* nse among the Gentile.- :il-i%
of Je*in rhri-t. It i-* ni't ver\* e:ii»y to undtT- that the evangelist is iiarticulr.r to d-.-sac
f>tanil tli<* ori.'iu of tliiA apiK*lIatii<n which is ' clearly the true dix-trine res<iH;ctin^ him Vj
t.'i\ent»i'hri-t. Itsmeanin-.,', h-wiver, i-^ltothj whom it was applied; and no lan^a^^e can
obvinus ami apiiroi'riatv. •lesus, a.^ the Wonl I more clearly exj»res«» the idea of etemily tJi^l
of iSixt. h:\si flivlareil <I<>d to the world. Hi' in I ^elf -existence than the lan^ru^'je he emplV.-i :•»
there^t-al'Ti-f liiviuity, the vltibleinuvfof the . describe the Ix'in^ and attribut<.-s of* iLs

Thi-yu-tl:i-plir:iM', \V..|-.l..f Jail. .-r.K-h.ivah. I WOIIKS (I's. exlv. \i). The "^\^vVi -l
vi-ry i-ft- n wl.iii tlif >ii:ii"!'' tinii .lrh<>vah mmIv inHl'' ur-.- the thing's cn-atcd and s;tivcr:n\i '■}"
i-i fii-jV >••■ I in th«' »»ri>in:il Il-^r-w, K-j-- hi-« wisdom and {xiwer.
i'".illy il'thi-T;'- '.T.-i-t-ii-'- tlii.-' <.'.!■ Mii.l««i-uti- 111 \Vmi;k>, goo1» (Kph. ii. l^j, aj't i'V.,.j .'.-

wl. I'll . I. ■!..■% :i!i i- n-i-n -■■:.!>'l a-* 1'. :i:,' pr-'-'-nt ]>riiCtt.d fr-ni li)Vi« t*' t^i ', an-i ar.* ai.'jf i::

with l;ii |M ■ jl- , :■-' i\\' ali'u' liii!.- li t' ti.'iii. •■^niirncc to his law. anil fr!.»m a ri,".ijr-.i tulii*

ur-j-i akiii.:^^ :*'.'-■ -ni. It isai'i'."rl:Ti.-t«'lli-ni, -:l'»ry.

tlii-i W..:il . f u .' L ii 1 wis. I t:.ll^i-l V. ;i!i A'l::i:i " NVe are Mve<l by f.iith; "luit faith v,'r.hiv.:

in par..ii ■■. \v1;'i'im\«. :.-i .1 v. i;h Al-ialiiin. '.'axe works i» ih-ad" ■ i. f., it is withnut auv eviivnrr

tli»- i:iwi!i Siii.ti, ;iii'l w.ix th-' <I"i of the .Irw- (if life. Wurks c.-nstitute the eii-Kucf, aui

i-h e!:'irili. Ti-r txaiii]-)-, in the .1 ni'^al' ni ili'ti-miim* the ^t^l•nc:tll and cli:ir:ict<r, i-f liiliL

Tar^-.iii. (;« Ti, i. -7 i' par.nOir >i>l a< fil!i\\««: - W« >lM.il.> (1 Sam. ii. S». Thii» tenu is u-tnl

•'Aii'iti- M .■■/■■'"./•."'■ <'i«at'<l man in liiT«o\\n ly the sa'.'red writers in a variety of t.-a^r-.-.

llkini'i- i'l a !:k' iii-'i fi" ■■]•: tl:r 1 r. -nivi'f Je- raeh of which may i^rtliuarily lH''di'tvniiiii"l

h'lV.ihcri.iv-lli. him." (i< n. \!\. 'Jl, in wliich by it.s ci'iinection. Anion.; tlu-:n lusy le

vi-r-i' >vi' p 111 that "Jt." •' \ii r.iiiii il »)|u.n Sii'l-ni niontii»neiJ the followinjjr :- -The lial-itable iar^-i

ar.'l up' II *J •i:i"riah lr:i.:-ti'nc aii'l liii" /i-'/w |l*s. xxxiii. l<) ; time IIki. \1v. 17; Mitt.

,'■ ■ ■-•■■f i-Mt I f 111 .iVtii." is t!iM> p:iraphr.iMil in wviii, *2S)) ; pn•^•'nt e\i>ti.-nce (Jnlin L \*\ ;

tlic f'i'li'wiiu' \\\\': it 7i.';'.i!ii.r: "Ainl th«' future existentv iMark X. ;1<I) ; the nation.- aui

If' ■■/■■/ .■f"./i; > :.t li'V.mipi'U tljcui -'ilphur aihi kino louw subject to Home in the timei-fo-r

tiri.- fp-m ti-.'- pit •> itv-t. i,f J.i\ ,,nt nf ln.a\'U."' SaMuur (Luke ii. 1) ; an imlctinlte n"nu:<r

l-.i. \lv. l** -'• i" paraplira-i-.i in the Tai,-uni of i.lnhii xii. li^ ; Acts xix. 1*7 > ; olo!**.* i>f thi

Jiii.ithati. •" Tlii-i' thiir^-* >.i\\\\ t/.'.'i. wli«" Jewii^h di>r]>ensatiim c<tnnected with the tinal

ciiMi- •! tii>- hi -awn.- : (ii-d hiiKsi If whu f<<un-Ji.ti oins'.iiiimatiun of all things (Matt. xxiv. :->':

the tartli. and made it, tVc. J.'-\ nnf-* m;' the corrupt sentiment, dispusi ti on, and praoticrs

li ■'.'/, ;tnd If >!• .-.'.\nl, .ill ye who ; r:- in th«f of sinnerri (Jiiii. i. '27; 1 John iv. ;"»». Tl?

ind" **i till- t:irth: by n.y \\\»T'\ 1 ha.i swurn: phrase, *'the worM to come" (Heb. iL o; vi

thf ilnPf i-i LT'iii' f.-rtli fp-rn me in ri-:h- ."ij, tii-.niiHeA the Christian disiK-n-ati-in, Mil

ti '-^li- -*. an! >h;dl U'-t K- in vain: bccau-L- \\ a- the name which the Jcw* usiully i:p'jej

I'lf'P- lue every knre >ljall l'»w and i-vt-ry to thr ftLTe i»f the Me^^iah.

ti-n^ue >w«MT. \\vi>\W\\.\ve v^'i*A\ *Avd t' me WlHi^IS (Kxod. xvi. 20)— a hin-'o cbis? «-f

(the \»ropbel\ t\ia\, ly Oa >V«i,d i.j Jui«. \m ^sassa^Jk&'^UiCjut any uf the senses 1a lun-niia to

•

WOR

other animals, except feeling. Various Hebrew
terms are so translated, such as may si^poify
moths, maggots, or larv» of difiFerent kmds.
From the circumstance that one or BMjKe
sx>ecieB of worms are found in -pvlfteiyiDg flm,
we have the figurative expressions khJob xix.
26; xxL 26; xxiv. 20; Isa. xiv. ll.™winff to
the constant accumulation of filth and putrefac-
tion in a valley near Jerusalem, it was always
alive with worms,- and fires were miiiAtained
day and night to consume the lORftces of
pestilence. Hence the alluMon, Isa^ l^vi 24 ;
Mark ix. 44, 46, 48. At an advanced stage
of some diseases worms are bred in the flesh

gob vii. 5 ; xviL 14). This was the disease of
erod (Acts xii 2^), and, as history informs
us, of Antiochus Emphanes, and of Sylla, the
Homan dictator. The meanness of the worm,
and its liability to be trodden down unnoticed,
afford the illustrations in Job zzv. 6 ; Ps. xxiL
6 ; and Isa. xli. 14.

WORMWOOD (Dent. xxix. 18)— a phmt of
which there are several species in Palestine,
and all distinguished for intense bitterness,
and probably some mav be not only bitter ana
nauseous, but positively hurtfuL Hence it is
often joined with or used in the same sense as
gall and hemlock, to denote what is offensive
or injurious (Deut. xxix. 18; Prov. v. 4 ; Amos
V. 7 ; vi 12). To be obliged to use it as food
expresses the extreme of suffering (Jer. ix. 15;
xxiii 15; Lam. iii 15, 19).

WORSHIP (Matt, ii 2). This word, as
used in our Bible, has various significations.
In most instances it means simplv an act of
respect (Matt. ix. 18; Acts x. z5). and does
not imply any religious emotion. Where the
act respects tne Divine Being, the only proper
object of religious worship, the connection
shows it (John iv. 24; Heb. i 6; Rev. xxii. 9).
It is used, however^ in relation to idol-goos
(Dan. iii. 5, 12, 14; Acts xix. 27).

WORSHIPPER. " When the town clerk
had appeased the people, he said. Ye men
of Ephesus, what man is there that knoweth
not how that the city of the Ej^esians is a
worshipper of the great goddess Diana, and
of the image which fell down from Jupiter?"
(Acts xix. 35). The term rendered "wor-
shipper** in tnis verse is n€oeoru«— literally
temple-sweeper, and it came to signify keeper
or guardian of tne temple. The title was given
to certain cities on account of the veneration
paid by them to certain divinities. It occurs
on a medal of Nero*s time in r^^ard to Ephesus
and Diana, struck about the period that the
Ephesian riots took place. (See Ephesus.)

WRITING. The origin of writing, like
that of language, is involved in obscurity; and
there is great probability in the supposition
that both were imparted to mankind by divine
revelation. In the fifth chapter of Genesis
mention is made of "the book of the genera-
tions;** an expression which would seem to
imply that written documents were then in
use, as the term book would have been most
inapplicable to a merely traditionsoy recollec-
tion of the generations of Adam. The book of

WRI

Job. is considered by some to be the most
aitf ent written document extant ; and in the
days of that patriarch letters and books were
Jsiown to his countrymen, who were a people
rauke distinct from tne Hebrews (see ch. xix.
^, 24; xxxi 35). Job is supposed by Hales
to have lived at most 200 years before the
exode. But long before that period tiie art
of writing was known to the Egyptians,
who, it is now ascertained, possessea this
knowledge from the earliest era. According
to Clement of Alexandria, there were three
kinds of writing practised in Egypt, and
existing remains confirm this accoimt. 1. llie
hieroglyphic or monumental character. 2.
The meratic^r the character emplo]red by the
priests. 3. The demotic, or encnorial, which
became the hand in general use. As no
documents in this latter mode of writing are
known which bear an earlier date thaoi that of
the Ptolemies, the conclusion has been very
generally arrived at, that it is of comparatively
modem origin. The hieratic is a running form
of the hierogljrphics, in which a rude ouUine
represents the figure which occurs in the
manuscripts found in the tombs of Efinrpt.
The hieroglyphic was the original mode of
Egyptian writing, of which the other two are
corruptions. It is wholly composed of pictorial
representations, and conveys ideas partly by
direct imitation, partly by symbohcal char-
acters, and partly also bv arbitrary signs.
Originally, there can be no doubt, hieroglyphio
writing represented ideas entirely by pieces
of the object intended to be expressed. Thus
we find on the monuments that the picture of
a man represented a man. and that of a horse,
a horse. But this mode of communicating
ideas is necessarily very limited and imperfect,
and could express only a smidl portion of that
which occurs to the mind. The picture of a
man, for example, could not represent what
man was meant ; and to denote tnis it became
necessary to employ symbolic or figurative
characters, — that is, characters representing
the form of one object, and conveying the idea
of another, as when courage is representedby
a lion, andf a crown is put lor its wearer. The
symbols employed were of various kindi^
^metimes a part is put for the whole. Thus,
the head of an ox is employed to repreeent^an
ox ; the head of a goose to represent a gooses
Two arms, the one with a snield, the other
with a battle-axe, denote an army ; and a pair
of arms holding an oar signifies a rower. The
cause is often put for the effect, the effect for
the cause, and the instrument for the labour
produced. Thus the picture of the sun is put
for the day, of which it is the cause; a month
is represented by a crescent, with its horns
turned downwaras; fire, by smoke issuing
from a chafing dish; Mid writing, by the
combination of the reed, inkhom, imd palette
employed by the sacred scribes in writin^^
the hieroglyphics. Sometimes the symbol ia
employed m oonsequenoe of some fancied
resemblance between it and the idea ^— thus,
contemplation or viaioiL ia dsiaoiia^j^Vsi ""^^ ^s^<^

WRI

WM

of the hawk, becanae that hiid was nippowdrUie lotnijn«Hcatf Upper
to po— CM the power of ming upon the ikn. I i>ap3rnii. Lower Eg;^pt.

A mother is represented by a vulture, becaoae
that bird is said to nourish its yonng with Hi
own blood; a king, by a bee, because thsi
insect submits to regular government; and a
priest by a jackall, to indicate his watchfulness

•ndatuftol
y, tiie Egyp.

A Tuft,

called Ake, stood for A.

An Esgle,

— Akhom, — A.

A Field,

- Koi,

— K

A Cup,

A Hand,

A Lion,

— Klapht, — K

— Tot,

— Ijabo,

— T.

- L.

i

0

A Beetle,

— Thore, — Th.

An Egg,

— Souhe, — a

An Owl,

A Mouth,

— Mouladj, — M.

- Ro.

A Water tank, — Sheii, —

over sacred things. In some cases the emblem
nned must be considered completely arbitrary.
Thus, a hatchet signifies a god ; an asp, royalty.
Osiris is repreaented bv a throne and eye: »

■on, by a bird TeafcImi^MQa «k ^QK»fe\ wid __^

phynciaii, by a apedea ol ^uOl. K\scux^^V\^«^T^ica&^\&»a«niii^ where it has long bees

6sa

.^'

tians empLoyed vanoos ^ctorea of phyaoil
olqecti to represent^ not ideas, but ktten of
words. Tha principle oa whidi this was doM
is very rftoiple. It consisted in rmwyntiiy a
•oond h^ the pictorial image oT a phyiica]
obpecA, of which toe name nad foi
initial aiticnlation or first letter tba
word which this picture was inteaded
to expreasL Thus, as in the cat, the
I picture of a lion, Uie name of vhick
in Egyptian was Itobo, was employBd
to denote the sound or letter L; tk
tuft of a reed, called ^1;^ stood for J;
and a band, called Toi, stood for f .
This princiiile has originated manj
Semitic alpnabeta— as the Hebrev.
the Arabic, the PhcEnician, sad
those of some other nations. Tbtem
I^onetio hieroglvphics were fr»>
cpientl^ cmployea, and the annend
is portion ot an alphiUiet^

The key to the hieroglyphie is-
soripti<nis which covered the vaDi
of the Eg3rptian monuments bat
been disoovcsvd only within thea
few years. For many ages thej
wers a sealed book wluch no mu
could open. Myitey had restol
upon them even in the days d
Ilome*B greatness, though it vai
then jsenerally supposed that they
contained * summary of tnitfai
known only to the priests of sndeBt
Egypt. Prior to the commeiKe*
ment of the present century tbe
researches of travellers and anti-
quaries had done little beyond estab-
lishing the existence of these in-
teresting remains of antiquity,
without affording much eue of
value regarding them. Their origin,
object, and meaning were envekved
in the profoundest darknena. ITm
difficulty of deciphering these in-
scriptions was mcreaaed bv tbe
ignorance in which we were left si
to the language they were meant to
represent; and it was not till 1808
that the learned work of Quatrdmere
demonstrated that the language d
ancient Egypt was identical witb
the Coptic, which ceased to be
spoken about a century ago, thcm^
as a dead langua^, it is still wd
in the Ck>ptic Christian Liturgies is
Egypt. This fact having been
ascertained, one great obstacle to
Sh. the deciphering ot the hieroglvi^
inscriptions was removed, and the
key ot these mysterious symbols. »
long sought for in vain, was at len^
disooverea by the accidental disinterment,
near Rosetta, of a block of black bassH
which for ages had Iain under ground. Tfat
interesting monument is now deposited is

— R

XER
familiar to the r"l>li^ hiH.t tlio name of the
Koaettk etone. It exKibits the remaiiis uf
three iiiscni>tioiu, one below the otbar. The
npponHHt U in hieroglyphics, aod mach
Biiitilated ; the aecond is in toa chuacter
Mr^led in the Greek tnuuUtion tuck^jal, or
WritiDa of the cooctr; ; the third

uid pnrports to be a ^^^^^^

.__.»_. ^^.^ — and Heyoe, and
■■cenained to be ■ decree of the '
niaria of £g7Pt, coaf erring divine
bononn upon Ftolsmy Epiphanea.
To our learned oountryioan, Dr.
Hmnaa Yoang. however, belonga
tb* credit of having diacovered the
' ' "' en tal legends.

celebiMed Champollion

I bavins thus been
Uy applied bj the
o the deciphering of

^TDupa of hieroglyphics enclosed
m an oblong frame or rin^ : and it
bad been conjectured mtn gi«at
planaibility that these RTOups of ,
onknowD charactera were prob-
ably proper names. With these,
lAcxetore, Dr. Yonng reHoWed
to begin, in the hope that if
be could only obtain the knowledge of a
atngle name enclosed in one of these rings,
tbs decomposition of it into its primary
elements or letters would give him the nucleus
of an alphabet, which future investigations
might easily extend. In the Greek version of
thu inactiption there occur the proper names
.i4tcxi>nder and Alexandria ; and on examining
tbe part of the hieroglyphic inscription oorre-
apoDding in its relative ntiiation, he found
tiro weU-marked groups of characters do^y
tqaembling each other, which he therefore
ocnuideTed as representing these names. An-
other group is repeated twenty-nine or thirty

M^T.IZ^

Hi

1

1

Hleroglyphio Bspresentitloo of (he Karnes and Titles of

Theee laboriona inveBtigations elncidated iMrt
less than fourteen hieroglyphic characters ; and

fonrth asBcmblage of characters
teen times in the hieroglyphi
Mpeeing in freqnency with tne i
rtotaKV in the Greek version, and (
oacnrring in passages oorrespqnding
nlatiTe sitnationi andb^a similai compaiuon
tbe name of Egmt was identified. The whole
of the hieroglyphic inscription was in this way
decil^iered, and found to correspond exactly

found fonr-
ioscription.

means of deciphering the whole of tiie inctorial
representations which for many successiva
generations were sculptured on these interesting
remains of antiquity.

It is the prevailing opinion that the Israelites
were acquainted with letters when they were
in Egypt as bondmen ; aud wlien they took
possession of the laud of Canaan they found
a city called ftr^otA-jqiAcr, which means the
city of boolu or Mttri, and indicates the eiist-
encB of the art among that people. Through
all the Mosaic historj books aod writing are
mentioned as in familiar use. The practice of
employing an amanuensis was much mora
common m ancient days than now. Henca
Paal notices it as a special circumstance that
he wrote the letter to the Galatians with hii
hand(GaL vi 11). This fact also eiplaiu

TARN, LINEN. "Solomon had horaes
Irongbt out of Egypt, and linen yam : the
king's merchants received the linen yam at a
price " (1 Ki z. 28). There ia a diversity of

FiLLAB.)

X, T

ofnmoB as to the meaning of this term. There
is very Mrons reason to doubt the correctsen
of the rendering in our translation. The
Hebrew term here employed ia not thna
translated in any other place. Some make it
ft proper name of some district in E^:^^

lierfUke _

enfcliihe. Lo to tbyi queatum,
aiinawere trew enjAisbe, he muata aniuwcTe
tii.w. noil nut no. Itut and if the (luextion bi
nskul Lyu thuD lo; Ix not an heretynue meti
._ . — .... . ... _. ... ....,„ enpil^h. T<

ur true cncliih.
.1. And a \jki
ilillvri-iicv in thiTU Ivtwimu tliLve two ftdacriiei
,ar und iin. Via if the qui-^tuion 1>e« fraincd
mto Tim lull hy the afKnuoliuu in thyii fashion.
If ail hfri'ti<iiie falwJjr tnkmdatt: the newe
ti<«t.imi'Dt intci cngliHhe, ti) moke hyi (kIw
hen-nyvH ntiiie y'' wurcle of Goildc, be hyi
iHM.ki'K worthy to Twbum.tl? TothisuneWk
:i-1ii'.l in thvH wy«v, yf he wtl aunawere tn

ii^:!!-]!!', liL' niUbt annnwenj ii/, and nnt i/t
I'lit iiiiwe if the cjiiotinD be otkeil hym thi_
lo by the n*(,Titiue: If an berrtilio falwjiy
tranhlnti' the newe tntament in to enelishe,
til muki- bys fnlw biTenyii nrmo tlie word of
(iinl, lie U'lt hilt bokn well wnrtfay to be
liiirai-<IT Tu thyi iiuwtinn in thyii faahlon
franitil. if be wyll aiuutwerE trev englyihe, he
iiinye ni>t annawere >»', but he must ftonaireTe
'let. niul Kay vn niary be they, luthe tin
trunHbitiiin anil th» tnuulatuur, nod bI tlut
wyll h.,l,ie wvth them."

YKAlt (Cvn. xvii. :il). Tliat upoce erf time
when-ill tilt' Hnn finiHliefl hin cnur»c through ijl
the Ni^niK nf tlie zodiac cirele uf the heavens,
I'linnistinj; of the four oeiuunii of iij>riug,

the fourth year iti addiit t<iFebruary,

'i<inji that yenr to be called Ita/i-iicar. By thia

'ear U'c atill rif^kiin i)ur timo : hut an it includeB

^u^e ii thua variously

UAer follows the Het
inatance a«{Teec with Ju

The phrue, " from
under" (Matt ii 1«), i
under thirteen montha
on the leoand year of I
whoae acs did not re
(See MosTH, Week.}

Ykar, tallow, in
aqricultural labour wm

traveller, and the wild
Thi. waa-L For the i
For the prcservatiun tj
To make the people pr
depeodnice. Tho uat
take can of been and I
nutnnfaotnTfl dotbea, aj
Thia ycai waa to be relii
in. 10-13). {See Feju

YeAB of JUBIIXE. (I

YOKE (Gen. xxni.

with t

J It, a

It tbiiB became a 11^
■uMection, impiiaonnie
while the removal of i
cunetponding deliverani
ing the yoke alao leprc
authority (Jer. v. 6; K!
also denotea a certain q
yoke of oien oould pin
10)— and rendowJ in nai

ZAC

bononr. The king's friend or favourite in
Eastern goyemment is often the yirtual ruler
of the state — the secret adviser and prompter
of royalty.

ZACCHJEJJS—just (Luke six. 2)— a rich
•Tew resident in Jericho, and chief officer of
the tax or tribute collectors in that place, and
hence he is called a sinner; for the Jews
regarded all publicans or tax-gpatherers in this
lighL His curiosity to see Ghnst was so much
excited that he took pains to climb into a tree
by the road-side, that he might have a fair
view of him as the crowd passed. Jesus,
knowing his character and motives, prooosea
to spena the day with him, to which Zaccnaeus
Klaaly assented. His mind was probably
Drought itt once under the influence of the
Spirit of God, and on that very day he and
his family became interested in the salvation
of the Gospel (Luke xix. 1-10). The expression,
** Forasmuch as he also is a son of Abraham,"
probably denotes that he was not only a
natural descendant of the patriarch, but that
he had now become a partaker of the like
faith and pramises. ZaccnaBUs, when the crowd
iu-ound him b^an to murmur, said in self -vin-
dication, "Behold, Lord, the half of my goods
I ^ve to the i>oor ; and if I have taken any
thing from anv man by false accusation, I restore
him fourfold '' (Luke xix. 8). The words are
ordinarily taken as the expression of a vow
as to his future conduct from that time for-
ward; but probably they are a description
of his past life, an assertion that he was not
stained with the vices of his official class, and
an answer to the charge contained in the
previous verse: — "When they saw it, they
all mumrared, saying, That ne was gone to
be guest with a man that is a sinner** (Luke
xix. 7).

ZACKARIAH— remembered by Jehovah (2
Ki. xiv. 29) — was son and successor to Jeroboam
XL , king ca IsraeL He reigned but six mont^
and then fell by the hand of Shallum. who took
the throne (2 KL xv. 8-11 : oomp. Amos. viL
9). The name was a very common one.

ZACHARIAS. L (Matt xxiii 35.) (See
Zbchabiah.)

2. (Luke L 5) A priest of the family of Abia
(see Abia), the father of John the Baptist.
The character of himself and his wife is given
TIB in the simplest yet most expressive language.
They were a simple and pious pair, marked by
an honest integrity and a pious harmony of
Hfe, attentive to the means of grace^ and ear-
nestly desirous of the divine favour (Luke i 6).
The birth of John was announced to him in a
miraculous manner, and seemed so beyond the
range of probability that his faith failed, imd
he auBked for some extraordinary sign that the
promise should be accomplisheo. He was im-
mediately deprived of the power of speech,
and remained dumb until the eighth day after
the birth of the promised child ; when being
asked to give the infant a name, in obedience
to the angelic direction, be called him John :
and forthwith the power of speech was restored
to him, and he employed it in a strain of the

ZE6

•most devout oratitude and praise. His excited
spirit pourea out its raptures in the style
and measure of tiie old Hebrew bards (Luke L
57-80).

ZABOK—jvst (2 Sam. viii 17)— the succes-
sor of Abiathar in the Jewish priesthood — was
the son of Ahitub, of the family of Eleazar, and
eleventh in descent from Aaron. He had high
place under Solomon (oomp. 1 Sam. ii 30-36;
1 KL ii 27, 35). Various other persons of the
same name are mentioned in Scripture. (See
Abiathar, Solomon.)

ZAIMON—shadv (Judg. ix. 48)— or SAL-
MON (Fs. Ixviii4l4)— a hiU near to Shechem,
which, it appears from the above passage in
Psalms^ was covered with snow, ii literally
taken, it is supposed to be white from the bones
of the slain in the battle ; but the true render-
ing is, " In the Almighty^s scattering kings in
it, or when he does so, * * it snows in Zaknon " —
a play upon the meaning of the word, which
signifies ^shadow;'* perhaps from the forest
covering its sides.

ZAMZUMMIMS (Dent u. 20), or ZU-
ZIMS (Gren. xiv. 5) — ^a tribe of people earlier
than the Caananites, of gigantic stature and
strength, who inhabited the country east of the
Jordiui and the Dead Sea. They were called
also Bephaim, were attacked and routed by
Chedorlaomer, and afterwards expelled by tiie
Ammonites.

ZANOAH— inor»A(Jo8h.xv.34,56). There
were probably two cities of this name, both in
Judah — one m the valley or low country, per-
haps Zanna; the other in the moimtains, or
interior, perhaps Sandto.

ZAPm^ATH-PAANEAH ((Jen. xlL 45)—
the name given so appropriately by Pharaoh
to Joseph, and which in Coptic is said by some
to signify a revealer of secrets; but more cor-
rectiy by others, to denote saviour or suslainer
of the age.

ZAPHON (Josh. xiii. 27), or SHQPHAN
(Num. xxxii. 35) — one of the cities of Gad, situ-
ated in the valley.

ZAREJy— embowered (Num. xxL 12)— or
ZEBED (Deut. ii 13)— a brook rising in mount
Abarim, and emptying itself into the "Dead
Seik south of Amon, m the land of Moab—
perhaps the Wady-el-AhsL On its banks the
Israehtes encamped at the end of their journey
from Egypt to the promised land.

ZAREPHATH. (See Sarepta.)

ZABETAN (Josh. iii. 16), or ZABTANAH
a Ki. iv. 12), or ZABTHAN (1 Ki vii 46),
or ZEBEDA (1 Ki xi 26), or ZEBEDA-
THAH (2 Chr. iv. 17), or ZEBERATH
(Judg. vii 22) — all supposed to denote one and
the same place — viz., a town on the west bank
of the Jordan, at the place where the Israelites
crossed when the waters were gathered into a
heap on either side. It probably was near
Betnshean, and opposite to Succoth, and was
distinguished as the birthplace of Jeroboam.

ZEHEDEE— go<f< gift (Mark i 20)— was
the husband of Salome, and father of two
apostles. Zebedee was above the rank of a
day labourer. He had hired servants with.

ZEB

ZKC

him in the Ixiat when hi^ sons were Ruminoned vnloable in leading him in the vay of dntv,

Hwjiy M :ii»«»>tk"«, uiul his wife was enableil,
out itf h«T al'iiiiiliiuw, ^> iiiiniittvr to the wants
«if tin- Ktsli'vliHT.
ZKIU)l.M--/<//r»»irtii (flrn. x. 10^— or ZE-

snd to the attainment of pnv|terity. PomIUv
he was father of the 'wife of Ahaz, and ^TanJ-
father of Hezekiah (2 Ki. xviiL 12 ; 2 t'hr. xxix.
1). He may have been the son uf Jeberechiah,

lUUl.M (Ucn. xiv. 'J)— iHK- i>f the citicA of t)ie i nientione<i in Isa. viiL 2.

:i. Another person of this name was the wm
of Sherechiah, whom iRaiali trtuk fi>r a ''f:iiin-
ful witiieH8" of his interooome ^-ith **thet
prophetcvit," on occasion of the conceptii^ of
nis typical son. Ho was ]irr»bably a dewend-
ant ox Asuph (2 Chr. xxix. l.'f).

4. Zechariah, *' the M>n of Berechiah. the »ti
of Iddo," comes next in order. He i« rankni
eleventh amon^; the minor pD>)thf.-trt. In Kzn
V. 1 and vL 14 he is Ktvleci sxui]dy, *'th(r mm
of Iildo, " m<wt proliably lx'caUf<e his father,
Berechiah, hatl died in i-arly mauboi^I, and. in
accordance with Jewi.-fh custom, lii* i^-ne-
alo{<y is traced at once to hiif j;Tandf.itht.T hli\
who would be better known. He ap|war» t"
have Iteen a descendant of Levi, ana wai^ thu^
t-ntitled to exerci!*e the priestly, aai he di-i ti<
pnmh«?tic, office (Xeh. xii. 10). '

Zirchariah entered uiH>n hi:? pr«iphetic d'.iti^
in the ei^lith mouth of the :M.-cond year «'il
Darius. This was about the inrritxl wlicn j-^rr
nuMtiun was iin«t granted to the uit-n cf •! ud:.i
to return fn^m their captivity in BnliyKrD: sn-,
the great 1>usini*ss of the setT wa;« to enoiuriv^
and htiniulate the disi)irited people, mit only?'
shake themselves from the lianfls of the joh
of Bahyhm, but to arise to8]aritual hfeaO'.
activity, and retitore all that was truly oioil
lent in the land and C4'>mmnn wealth <»{* •Tnii'-iih
Jewish traditii>n n-hites that tin- pn-jihr't r'i-
in hii* native country*, after *'a life iirdnn-v-
to many day.-i,'' and was Inirivd by the .-itJe ^-i
Haj,'4ai, hi** a.-*six*iato in olhco.

'riir iii>i»k uf Zfchariah oiK-n** with a l.rlt!
intn>«Iu«.-tii>n, extcmlinjj to r. «'• nf ib. L, ii
which aIIu.«<ion is mtule to the sin and puni'L
ment of the fathers of tlio ca[it:vi'-!. and '
piiinted exhortation ^veu them t" h*: i;nli>'
their ancestors in all that wam unholy in iLeJ
character and n-bfllious in tht-ir c- mdnct,

ITn-U folloM-s a serioaof \ i<i» ins, m Lich vxtcn'i

to the eml of ch. yi.^ wh»'r»?in an- eet f'^rh

undtT several striking and U^autiful t.-mM-.r^^

thefitnihsiif that time for (jckKs fiilrillin'j hi

J . )»n>nurtert to restrire and build *Ieru*:dom: th'

lace att:i«lv'«l tin- prii^t. inni Ntmi'd hnu to j dostniction of the euemie.'^ of hi* iio'iJo; th:

death. In tin* tnh" spirit of tin- theocnwv he 1 c»»nver»iun <»f he:ithen natii>ns ; the ailvoiit ■.'

ai>lM:ili-.l t«» **tli«* ^'^l at kin;,'" of .Tudufi to ■ Mi-.s.siah - the Branch; the outiN«urJij; aii.

uvi-n^t' hi-* nninliT - "The Li»nl liKik u]^»n it : bU»ssitl eiTivts of the Holy Spirit's inriuvui^s

and ri^juii-"' it." ('Iiri>t

this vrif\ii:is nutrafTt' in

xi. ol, whip' In- ealls Zirliariah the son of

J>:intchi:is, whu was niobt pnjbal^ly the son of

•Icliiiiaiia.

L*. /.fi-hariah. a jx-rsrin who livetl in Judah

in tin* time nf T //.iah. J.ittle is n*conled

eithiT I if hi'i iM-rs«in, eharat-ter, c)r office. We

an- told (li rhr. xxvi. r>) that he "had under-

Htainlin'.,' in vi.<«iiins of (iimI,'* an expression

iilain th-stroved with S<Mloni and Gomorrah,
ts ]Mir<iti«in \A untvrtain ; but there is a olace
eallid Talaa Siliium iK-twet-n Kerak and the
l»iad Sra. Tln-n- w:l«» also a city and valh-y
of til is name in the lot of Beujamiu (I 8am.
xiii. 1>< : Nfh. xi. 'M).

ZElU'KrX- hiKiUtf'vm (("Ji-n. xxx. 20)— or
ZAIU'J.ON (Kl-v. \li. f<» -the sixth son of
Ja<.'«>l> and Lrah. The itortion of his descend-
ants in tl)e ]in>nii-tMl lauil was assi^oied pro-
phi-tirally by hi> futln-r and their anoefiti>rs.
A i)iirtit>*n of tli<' oukI l.<don;fi'd t^^ Zebulun,
and he i)om>c>.<i'i1 a havni for bhijis (GeiL xlix.

Zrnrr.T'N, tiiihk t>K, possosseil that iinedis-
trirt of <';iaTiaM wliieh lav U-twren the sea of
Calili'f ^Matt. iv. U) ami thti Me<literranean;
iNinndMl .^ioutli by Iss.-ii}iar and north by
Aslnr an«l NajihtalL The last trilw alli«Hl
itst.'lf to the trilie <if Zebulun, and joineil the
fonvs of Barak antl Deborah against the army
4if dabin (find:,'. V. IK).

El«»n. a juiljerif Isnn-l, wa'of this tribe, and
was burii'd within its Kiunds l.lud^. xii 12).

ZKi'IlABIAH. The wonl means rtmcm-
f'ti'id «•/ Jihortjfi^ or irhum Jrhnmh rtmcmhrrt.
The name fn^fpn-ntly »K*curs in tlie sacred
writin-.'s, andw:us Imnie by many individuals.
/echiiiiah and Zaehariali are <inly different
^I". llin::- of t]:«- >anif Wurd. (See ZACirAHIAII.)

1. /i-i'hari.ih, tin- Hon, or more lik«'lv tlie
^.Tand.-i'n, of .b lii.iaila, prie.st of the Lf)rd m the
tinii-si>f ^\lia/i:.li and tloash ('J Chr. xxiv. 10).
,\ft» r tln-d-atli i-f tlie M-nt-raMe.Iehoiada. who
liiLil l-iiTi thi' frii-nil, ]ipitictor, and ;^uido of
.l<-a>}i. til"' kin^'and pi-i-jile "h-ft tlie house oi
thi- I.ord (l.idi'f th<irfatliiTs. and served inn- es
and ]■''>'>."' Z'.ihariah. the kin>.''s ouusin. who
ni'W l,l!i il tin- prit-t's nlhri-, wa>i lired with in-
ili.'i-ati'-n, ;■ n- 1, uni'i-rth"' Spirit's intluenee.ron-
di-nin<-d anil d<-nouni'i-d the iniiiuiiousrelM'lHon
lH>iliiif inonareliand •^nhjei-ts. This ri)US4.'d their
«nu'»T. and 4-v«'n "witliin tin* fi»urts of (iixI'm
o\iii }iiiii-.i" *'li"tWfi n the sdtar and the t^ni-
iih-" tl.f nn.'rat<-ful Kim: and infnriatetl ]^ipu-

b jifolably alludes b) and the iniport.ince and safety of m.tintainis.
^Iatt. xxiii. iio; Luke a strict, jier>evering adherence to the wi-rsLij
" ' • » ^* ' and servjce of Jehovah, in acconlance with lh<

principles and laws of the J^Iosaic ixL.<titutes.

Ch. vii. contains an inquiry of the ]h>-{'1^
coneeminj? the propriety <if *c*»mmfmorat:sj
thi'ir return to Jerusalem )>y sacred reiijd«/i
services, to which the Lotd, by the pp-'j.diei
answers in the affirmative. Up ti> the end ul
ch. XL there follows a number of pn.Hlioti>-ci
^hieh inav sinijdy denote endnent piety, but . referring ti> the times of Alexander and ih<
more UktAy TeU'r^ U) a s^K'cies of prophetic I Maccabees, and showing the saft-tv anil tri'
knowled'c^e. IVw <:o>inaA\A\ji^3i^'«>»a\&Nii&.\'«uaQ.vha of the cho8en people. Notice is al*)

e of traogcnption ; i moat

ZED

dosing chaptera contain a oheering view oE th*
elories that ftwait Iera«l "in the Utter daj-,''
when fidelity to the M««aiah shall display itsell

first anil second portions oE Zechariah's pro-
phecies there is conaidecablfl difierence of style
kud allurion : and some have on this acfCTUit aa
cribed the latter liklf to another author, though
there ar« many connectiog points of aiiailaiit]'
between the two parts. A difficulty has alvas^
been felt about the quotation from ZecK li 11^
found in Matt, xivii, 9, bat there assi^ped to
Jeremiah, The MSS. present a vanety of

teadings in the place, and some cban^

have crept in, in the o -• * '

perhaps the evangelist ^_^ .._, ___

prophet," no proper name being added, as
Augustine testifies ; or the copyist might mis-
take Zpiou, the contraction for Zechanah, for
Ipioii, the contraction for Jeremiah.

6. The last of the name in sacred history
was the father of John the Baptist. He
wae a piicat of the course of Abia (see 1 Chr.
zxiv.), tnach distinguished for his piety. (See

ZED AH, or ZED AD— irom* {Num. luiv.

a A comparison of this passage with Ezak.
viL 15 showB the place to hare been on the
north-eastemfrontierof thelandof Israel; but
its eiact pcmtion is not known. A place of
irimilflr name is fomid BO milea north-eaat of
Baalbeck.

ZEDEKIAS—JthoTah'tiaitia (2 KL iiiv.
17}— the last king of Jiidak was the bod of
Jonah, and the uncle of Jehoiachin, his im-
mediate predecessor on the throne. Bis pro-
changed it to Zedekiah. Me commenced his
roign at twenty-one, and reigned eleven years
(2 Chr. iixvi. II). He is represented as a
weak or wicked man; and the nation during hia
teiga was remarkably bold and obdurate in sin.
For this cause the prophet Jeremiah was com-
tniasioned to threaten them with severe jodg-
■uente, which were visited upon them in the
most fearful manner. He joined in a general
alliance of the neighbouring kingdoms against
Nebuchadnezzar, and specially made a treaty
with Egypt, so that the Babylonian monartji
at once marched his army into Judea, and
took all the fortified places but Tarshish and
A^ekab. In the eleventh year of bis reign, on
the ninth day of the fourth month (July),
Jerusalem was taken, after a siege of aiiteen
months, with all its horrors of famine. The
king and his peo^e endeavoured to escape by I
night ; Imt the Chaldean troops puTiuine them,
UwT were overtaken in the jilain of jBricho. ■
Zedekiah waa seized and earned to Nebuchad-
neoar, then at Hiblah in SyriL who reproached
iim with his perfidy, caused all his children to
be B_ain before his face, and his own eyes to be
put out ; and then loading him with chains of
bran, he ordered him to be sent to Babylon (2 ,
KL XXV, 1-11; 2 Chr. utivi. 13, 30). It is
worthy of ipeoial remaA that two pn^ibedes, |

of Zedek

declared to him — "Those eyes shall behold tha

king of Babylon, and he slull speak with thee

mouth to mouth, and thou shaltso to Babylon."

But Ezekiei says, ch. la 13, " I will bring him

. : !and of the Chaldeans ; yet

hough he shall die there."

! correct. He saw the king

■ I ' ' . ! . was captured ; but the des-

j' .1 j. i: I'll III- "^< - ; and though he was carried

<-.i|itnv I 'I 1;.iIa:'<ii. and died there, yet, being

-i J III !■■■■!, li"Ti- v,-i--,iwit (Jer. mii.4,B; iixiv.

:; ■ . ■iiiir. I-'-.' I- iii- 13: see also Jer. IDx. 22J.

There were two or three false pmphets of this

jt manner (1 Ki. xxii. 11-37).

ZEEB— v»i/(Judg. vii. 25). He, alongwith
Oreb, was a leader of the great Midianite
invasion, the kings being Zebih and Zalmnn-
nah. The two leaders were llain at places
named after them in subsequent Umes— Oreb
at the rock Oreb, and Zeab at the wine-press
ofZeeb.

ZELAH (Joeh. ivliL 28)-a dty of Ben-
jamin, which contained the family burying-
Slac<« of Kish, and where the bones of Saul and
onathan were interred.

ZELOP H EH AD— thename probably means
firit-bom (Num, uvi. 33)— was of the tribe o(
Manasseb. He died in the desert, and his
family conmsted only of daughters. A special
law of inheritance was ordained on their ao-
connt. As, however, they were to inherit the
patrimony, they could not marry out of their

ZEL0TE3. (See SrifON.)

ZEMAEAIM,M;0IINT{2Chr.iiii,<)— waa
in mount Ephraim. A city of the name name
was in the territory of Benjamin (Josh, xviii,
32). It seems now to be called Es-Sumra.

ZEMARITE (Gen. x. 18). The Septua^nt
and Vulgate connect it with Samaria ; but the
conjecture has no foondation. It seems to
have belonged to Phtenida. (See Naiiohb,
DiTiBioN or '

ZENAN

ZKNAS , .

'*lawyer,"Bs perhaps . _., „

the study of Jewish law.

ZEPHANTAH (Zeph. I I). The word
means "defended of Jehovah." Aa a proper
name it was much used among the Jews. In
Scripture the following are mentioned : —

1. Zephaniah, one of the Kohathites, the
wventh descendant in that line from Levi, tho
son of Jacob (1 Chr. vi. 36).

2. Zephaniah. theson of Maaseiahtheprieat.
He filleS tlia office of second priest while Ser-

pontificate, during the rei^ oE

phet, to inquire of the certainty of the cc
woes which he had denounced, and to i~
the seer's intercassiDn with Jehovah ti
hii threatened judgments. Zephani

11

ZKr

cninT>anv vnt\\ a niiiubtT of caT*tiTe Jews, wm
niitto lifAtli hy till' kinj,' of liabvlon, "in Rib-
Jjih, in tht* bni.1 of Haiiiath'* (2 Ki. xxv. 18;
Jcr. xxi. 1; xxix. '-'">, S*.*; xxxvii. 3: lii. 24).

8. Thtf nrxt Zi'i«haiiJfth waa *'tbe ivm of
rii.«»hi, th«* 81 HI iif < lidalijili. the turn of Amariah,
the siiii I'f Hezekiah." N«> details of hi* hin-
tory an' u'ivrn in the 8acR><l vohimc We are
merely iufoniied that he wa* called to perform
the ilutien i»f a prophet ** in the davBof Jotdah,
the »»«m of Amon. kins» of Jiirtah." This
enaMes ih to fix the au'e of his writincrs l»e-
twe«'n the yi-ars B. c. t\V2 and R C. Oil, and
more i«irtii-nl:iily fmm the fact that he fnri'tela
(eh. i. 4, T)) the* removal of every remnant «>f

idolatry, whidi tlosiah effected in the com- thekinganamed Utiarken, of theti\'e:ity-H<:.3

ZIK

ZKPH ATHAH, VALLEY OF (2 Chr. xir
9-lH), was in the BoTith-wei>teni KectiuD ol
the territory of Jndfh. near ^ran?.ab,ih, amli;
memorable for the battle uf the Jews with tk-
Kthiopianx. Tiiore was also m city of thi:
name (ZephaUi) ihithin the bounds of Suno<^i
(Jude. L 17).

ZERAH (2 Chr. xiv. Oi-an AraTim kinir
who with an immenfie anny inTadcd the k'og
dom of Jadah in the rex^ off A,sa. The jd"-^
kins; of Judah, dependinip on the arm K.i th«
Loni, went out ai^ainst him widwut f'.'&r. ui>.
ohtiined a si^nial \"ictf*ry. The praviT of As.
on this) occa<iun is worthy of all ailmirati< n (:
Chr. xiv. 11). Zcrah may have bi-en cro o

mencfinent of hi.s nn.'n ; and from the fact
that he i»rnlii't'i (ch. ii. \\\) the overthrow of
N ineveh, which liappen*'d in JoKiairi<eight<'onth
yi'ar, we ap? j»n^ty safe in fixin.'.r the date of
the>e prophei-ifn .it a )H.Ti<Ml not latiT than the

dynasty. Other persona of the same nsjU'.' an

found m Scripture.
ZRRED. (^ee ZARro.)
ZERKDxV- (See ZARET.xy.)
ZEUEDATHAH. (See Zacetan.)

twelfth yiarnf the "j,'.mkI kin-r." Zephaniah ZEKESH— jw^J, in Persian (E^th. v. 10
v.as tluTffiir> ri»ntfniiNirary with Jeremiah, to ,' the wife of Haman, and his counsellor au-l iu
wht.iii tlie wiinl ««f the 1^* ml came in the thir

teeutli Vfar f 'f J« -Miah's monarel)^, and d< mhtle^ifl,
in eoiiipaiiy with hi."* prophetic c<ilh-ai;ne, he
ili'l mueh to aiil their Hnvfreii^rn in bauiHhin^
id^'^\vn^^^ij» fiiim tin* realm.

'I'he writin -M uf thii* pn>i»het are ))rief, but
wri^'hty and iTii]in-<.-ive. I' nan the be^dnninjof
till r. 7 of eh. iii. it i** a liook of dcnunci-
ntii»n and \v«n». Tlie tinu-r* ileniandixl iwvere
tiili'lity: anil /i>phn n in h eertaiidy cried aluuiL
and spared nut. In ch. i. the iniquitieH of
Jnd;»h an«l the inhahitantrt of Jenisalem art*
ill" -.;iliji'i-*i.-» I f sjHiial rrpr<ibatii»n. Several

stiurator in iniquity.

ZEUUBnABEL— A/>rn tn BihvUn {\ C1:r
iiL l!0-or ZOROBABKL (M.itt. i 12| -vi;.
the leader of the first a^lony of .Fewit that rr
turned from the captivity in Babylitn (IItt
ii. 2), and was of the family of I^avi'd. thno,:
Neri and Nathan. Matthew g^vini; it thr.in.l
Jechoniah and Solomon. To him O^TUik O'::
mitteti the luicred vessels that were to be re
turned to Joru^aleni. He was ap])i4LDteil ji >Trr
nor. and he laid the foundations of the temiib
(Zech. iv. 6-10), and was chiefly in-ttrunii'DU
in re-storinif the usual reliiiious rite* tif tS
hpi I i-s iif tli«-ir uii'i'i- priiiiiineiit tra:\5»crr*ssion« j nation. He loved hia neople, and la]^'"i:v:i :■
:■!*«• «1- :j..uii<-ril with iiin>t terrible thn'ut».'nin:,'rt. j re-erect that Bacreil c^filice in which the ii-il
.I!-<:i]M. w;is iiiipiw^il.li". "The whole land I of their fathers was t*) he wiir»hipi>eiL H'li-
>]:;tll In.' diAi-uii-d with the tin* of GodV ji*al- \ jrii>n and patiiotism adume'l his clurac:«x
• u-y." Ch. ii. i-Mnt.'in-i the diM-m of si.me of j (Ezra iii. '2-i:t.) (See Temi'LU.)
tin* stiiT- 'in.iiiu' i.;'t:<'ii.:. rm thi* l*hilistiniN, I ZKlIl'IAH (1 Chr. ii. \'.\. 17) — »«c- -^
till- Mi'-ilti^-i, anil tli*' Ainni'Miiti'"*, who slumld J David'i* two nirters, and mother **l Abi^hni.
li<> r>wi pt WW :; V M itli ttu* bcxim of d<. >tni('tion ; ' Joab, and .-\Kahel. It i^n rvmarkabh* tli.tt •^^^ i-
:inil i\\ ■• th«' i!<-<.il;i{ii.iisthat wiTei*«Hin b» ovrr- I never called a daughter of Jessk* ; but .\l :^"-;ll.
lal.-i' Niu' VI ii ami i;thi.<]iia. in nrdtr that men j her eistt^r. is ealletl a dau.i^hter of Naha^h, ii; i
iiji_'lit h ::ni fn-iii tln'se terriliii- jn'l;,ani-ntjj the | lx)th are named ^'nijiters of the Mmj« of Jt-?*--'

Slime make this Xaha«h i*y I»e kin.: i-f tb:'
Amnionit«;i*, and tlie first husbanil of .b.-.W;

duty and hafiry I'f wiir:*liipj»in'.; Jehovah.

A'^';iin. in tip' lH«.nniMn.r "f eh. iii. <1ih's the

J in 'pi:* t ]'iiiM- fiiitli i-tir.M'.H up>>n JenisaU-m and yniii. It is not stAtod who Zeniiah's hi.-l i!i i

Its tyr.jnii'u;-* princes, it < unjust jml^'es. it.«» un- wa«. (See >rAllASll.)

YAWX—i'tatt'tv {'1 Sam. xix. 17)- .-i .Mrv..r.:
of Saul, whom l>avid ai>iKnnted a »*ort ••! ^t■ \^-

faitlifnl |r. plirt'j. and it>< saenlf;;innM i^riests,
ln-eause th- y pnilitril in t, I nit rathi*r becanie
innn- I'urnipt, in thi- |in -enre uf the liOnl, ami
<le.-pite thr jnd.'iiii-nt-i !»•• wa-* wurkinvr anumd
nni! ill thi- nii«l t uf thiiii. Ti'Wanls the cK«Ne
of thf «.r:u-]«' th»' pri-spii't bri-'lit<ii.>«, Israel is

anl to MephiNifheth, and wIuj actt-d a tn a/i
erous jiart (2 SanrL ix. 2-1*2). (St.* Mr.riiiL ■

KHFTH 1

ZICUIU. At le.ist twtlve i-rs^^n* of thi*

e.\h"i-U-i t'l w;iit upi'ii tlie L'-iil. an<l a^suri'd . name, but of nt)ni»te, are fi»un»l in Surij-fu-.
of haf. tv :iinl aiTi-ptaniM'. The di'ijH-rvjil jshaH ' Yet the name meaxi.s ** reiuumU.Tt'd,'* i-r
1m' ---atli'i-i •! into oni'; inii|uity and ilt-i:i.-it Khali illustrious.
nil iiifi'i- ]iri'vail aini-n,' the i-ln-M-n piiiple ; the Z1IH>X. (Siv SlltuN.)

<iii.l of liivr .Nhall ilwill anmn:,' tliein and pro-
tect t'.fni ; and jiiyand ^dadni ss shall prevail
thif.:u-]i.,iit. all thi'ir Imnler.-*, "tliaukpj-'iviiijLf,
and till' viiim' iif mrhidy."

4. Z plianiah, tlir father of two per-jonM (»f

ZIF. (SeeMiiNTH.)

ZIKLA(j~7)/Y*fff/ (Josh xix. 5)— a ci:y i:i
theMiuthem extremity of the territory of J ilLi::.
thoui^di alhitted to Siiiie<.m. In tHe time it
Saul it wari in the handrt of the Philiotir^o ;

poin«* 11' 'te Muou.; the eaptivis who returned I and A chi«h, their kin:,', ^nranteil it to Duviiia-
froui liabyVm i7ied\. \v. \v\\v\V [ a tcmiiorary re»dence when he waa flecii^r

ZIL

from the persecution of that wicked monarcli
(1 Sam. xzTu. 6). During the absence of
David and the principal men on a campaign,
the Amalekites burned the city, and made the
women and children pritoners. David pursued
them, under divine oirection, and surprised the
Amalekites, and not only defeated them, but
recovered all thai had been taken, (1 Sam. zxx.y
Its site has nofe been identified. Some woula
place it at Azln^iOO miles south-west of Hebron.
ZILLAH-r<*rtl»w (Gen. xiv. 19)— wife of
Liamech. Her companion's name, Adah, sig-
nifies loveliness.

ZILPAH (Gen. «xx. 9)— the handmaid of
Leah, and the mother of Gad and Asher.

ZIMRAN (Gen. xxv. 2) was the eldest son
of Keturah. Some would identify his descend-
ants with the Zamarim, a tribe in the heart
of Arabia.

ZIMRI (Num. xxv. 8)— the Simeonite who
sinned so defiantly, and was shun by Phinehas
in his tent, that tent, as the word implies, being
of a domed shape.
ZIMRI. (SeeOMBi.)
ZIN, DESERT OF (Num. xx. 1), or WIL-
DERNESS OF (Num. xiiL 21)- not to be con-
founded with Sin. It lay to the west of the
Arabah, and south-west of the Dead Sea. It is
often mentioned in the journeyings of the Israel-
ites, and is connected with some of the most
interesting events of that period.

ZION— jwnny (Ps. cxxxiii 3)— or SION
(Dent iv. 48). Tne last name seems to have
been applied to mount Hermon. (See Her-
MON.) Both names are applied principally to
the hill or fortress (called the ** castle of Zion"
1 Ghr. XL 5) which was taken from the Jebu-
aites byJoab, one of David's chief captains.
Thither David removed from Hebron, whence
it was caUed the "city of David" (2 Sam, v. 9 ;
▼i. 10). It was the southernmost of the hills
<yii which Jerusalem was built, having the
▼alle;r of Kedron on the east, and the valley
of Hinnom or Gehenna south and west, Acra
■to the north, and Moriah north-east. On it
was erected Solomon's palace, called "the
house of the forest of Lebanon:" and after-
ward the magnificent palace ot Hercd, de-
stroyed by the Romans. The temple and its
courts on mount Moriah were called Zion (Ps.
Ixv. 1 ; Ixxxiv. 7), and the appellation is appro-
priated figuratively to the church, whether on
earth or m heaven, as the living temjile of
Jehovah (Isa. il 3 ; Heb. xiL 22 ; Rev. xiv. 1).
Zion is to be revisited — God shall build and
repair it, and exhibit his glory. His promise
shall come to pass.

Two rabbis, approaching Jerusalem^ observed
ft fox running upon the hill of Zion ; and
Rabbi Joshua wept, but Rabbi Eliezer laughed.
"Wherefore dost thou laugh?" said he who
wept. "NajjTj wherefore dost thou weep?"
demanded Ehezer. **I weep," replied the
fiabbi Joshua, ** because I see what is written
in the Lamentations fulfilled; because of the
mount of Zion, which is desolate, the foxes
walk upon it." '* And therefore," said Rabbi
£liezer, "do I laugh; for when I see with
2t

ZOA

mine own eyes that God has fulfilled his ihretU-
enings to the very letter, I have thereby a
pledge that not one of his promises shall fail,
for He is ever more ready to show mercy than
judgment " (See Jerusalem. )

2«iON, DAUGHTER OF (Isa. L 8), means Jem*
salem, and is so called because Zion was the
original, or mother settlement. Hence also
the kindred expressions, " sons of 2iion" (Zech.
ix. 13), "childrai of Zion," &c. (Joel iiL 23).

' ZIOR (Josh. XV. 54) — a village in the moun-
tainous district of Judah. and it may be iden-
tified with a hamlet called Sair, which lies
more than 5 miles north-east of Hebron.

ZIPH f Josh. XV. 24). There were two
cities of this name in the lot of Judah— one
south, and towards the border of £dom (Josh.
XV. 66), the other (Josh. xv. 24| a few miles
from Hebron on a hill, on the border of the
" wilderness of Ziph " (1 Sam. zxiiL 13-24),
into which David fled from Saul, and concealed
himself. The latter was prooably the one
which Rehoboam fortified (2 Chr. xi. 8).
There is a hill about 3 nules south of Hebron
called Tell Zif.

ZIPHRON (Num. xxxiv. 9)— in the vicinity
of Zedad. (See Zedad.)

ZIPPORAH (Exod. ii 21)-the wife of
Moses, and one of the daughters of the priest
of Miaian. One of her children does not seem
to have been circumcised at the proper tame:
on which account the Lord was so mspleasea
with Moses, that his visible punishment
warned Zipporah of the neglect. At once, but
not in a good spirit, she performed the rite;
and hoping that her nusband would now be re*
stored to health, she cast the foreskin at his
feet, and said, "Behold a spouse of blood art
thou to me." In consequence of this incident,
probably she and her children were sent back
to her father ; and Moses did not join them till
the people came to Rephidim (Exod. xviiL 2).

ZOAN—low (Num. xia 22)— by the Greeto
called TaniSf and by the Arabs San — ^was one
of the oldest cities of the world, founded only
seven years later than Hebron, and siloafed on
the Tanaitic arm of the Nile. S<mie4dentify
it with Avaris, the capital of wq Hyksos
kings. It was evidently the residence of a
line of princes (Isa. xix. 11-13; xxx. 4), and
probably the place where Moses wrougnt tl^
Egvptian miracles (Ps. Ixxviii. 12, 43). Ere^
kiel prophesied against it (Ezek. xxx. 14$. Its
ruins still present numerous pillars and obelisks,
as evidences of its former magnificence. Many
of its remains are said to belong to the Hyksos
neriod. The twenty-first and twenty-third of
ManeUio's Egyptian dynasties are calledXauiti^

ZOAR — small {Gren. xiv. 2)— a snudl city,
originally called Bela^ is supposed by many to
have been at the south-eastern extremity sf
the Dead Sea, in the mouth of the valley of
Kerek. Travellers have noticed peculiar mins,
which may have belonged to the ancient city.
But some would place it at the north of toe
Dead Sea. It was near Sodom ; but the locali^
of Sodom cannot be distinctly ascertained. It
was the boundary of the vision voachas£eilt«^

I

I

ZOB

Motet from Fissfah; but we cannot reaton from
thU till the site of Pit^ and Ncbo be defin-
itelr fixed. lU king, with four othert, rebelled
against Chedorlaomer, and was conquered.
It was afterward threatened with the aame
dettructiun at Sodoin, but Hi)ared at Lot's re-
queHt, who fieri tti it for safety from the itorm
of divine wrath (Gen. xix. 20, *i2). It it men-
tione<l bv Isaiah (xv. 5), and by Jeremiah
(xlviiL M), It was ajii>arently connected
witji Moao ; and Jasepfiut regards it as an
Arabian city.

ZOB AH, or ARAM-ZOBAH (1 Ram. xiv.
47) -a town and province of Syria, lying along
the Euphrates, north of Damascus, and ex-
tentling towwos Aleppo, whose king, Uadar-
ezer, was imltten by David when he went to
recover hia border on the Euphrates (2 Sam.
viiL 3). Some regard it as Aleppo ; others at
Nisibis. The name is found on some of the
Asnyrian inscriptions. (See A ram. )

ZOHBLETH, THE STONE OF a KL i
9)— the scene of Adonijah*s treasonable corona-
tion feast. It was near En-rogeL (See Eir-
bocrl).

ZOPHAB (Job ii ll)-one of JoVs three
frienflt. He it called the Naamathite, i>rob-
ably because he dwelt in Naamah (Jodh. zv. 41),
a town assigned to Judah. Only^ two of Zo-
phar*t a<ldiV8ses are contained m Job, and
they are characterized by bitter vitupera-
tion, exi)rcfV8ed in bold figure and vehement
style. He mistook completely the character
en Job, and hurled a;;ain4t him as a hyixxaite
the fiercest denunciations. He does not
hldccd nay so U) Jt)!) ] personally, but he draws
a i>icturu iu which he means to iK>rtray the
amictt'd i>atriArcli.

ZurillM, THE FIELD OF (Num. xxiii.
14)— the 8i><)t on ris^'ah where lUdiiam ha^l his
tec«)nil survey of the Israeliti.Hh encampment.
It hoH not been i<]entitie(l; but Konie would
coniUH't it with Mizi>ali-Moab. Torter sayt*.
referring to Main or Baalmeon, **Ari.mna
tlie ruiuH of Ma'iu ia a fertile plain. Rtill culti-
vated by the Araltd ; and thirt aifonlfl an addi-
tional argument for the identification of this
place with J'U'Hth. l^lok is said to have
Drought Baalaui * into tlio cuftiratcd Jield (the
Hebrew hotf this meaning) of Zophim, to the
&J0

znz

top of Piwali* (NmxL xzia 14)." Tivtnu
tajra that he haa ditcovered Pitfpk or raUMr
Nebo, becante from the tommllxmrred to ho
could tee "the utmost tea,** and that it ii the
only tpot in the neiglikiariiood from whidt a
elimpse of the Meditetiwnean coA be obtained
Detween the hilla north-west of TninaViin

ZORAH— Aoni«e*t nest UtA, xix. 41), or
ZORAN — a city belonn^ originilH to
Judah, and afterwaxdt to Dan, mar the boim-
daiy Une between them; the birthpUce of
Samton (Judg. xiiL 2), and probably fortified
bv Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 10). It is calkd
JBoreak (Joth. zv. 33), and itt inhabitants are
called ZoriUMn. Chr. a 54), and Zorwthita (I
Chr. iv. 2). It may be reoognized in a place
called £furaA, aboat 9 mfles west of Jenisalem.

ZOROBABEL. (See Zercbbabei.)

ZUPH (1 Sam ix. 5). The land of Zupk
probably derived itt name from Zuph. one of
the ancettort of Samuel the prophet (1 Chr. vi
35). Ramath, which wat withm the province
of Zuph, wat thence called Bawtath-Zapkm,
or Samathaim, Some identify it with Soba,
7 milet west from Jemaalem (1 Sun. L 1).
(See Rama, Zophim.)

ZXTB^Hant (Joth. xiiL 21)— a MidianitisI
prince (Num. zxv. 15) who wat slain, witt
othert, by the Itraelites, when the Midianita
tufifered the judgments of Grod for their aim
(Num. XXV. 17jJ.8).

ZUZIMS. Thesepeople belonged to an earl^
race, akin to the KmiwM and Haiims, am
Avimt, who held the land prior to the latei
racet of Moab, Ammon, and Canaan. Tli«i
wero oimnected -with the Rephaim, who aft^
ward settled on the west of the Jordan. Th<
Zuzim may be the same as Uie Zamzummim.
The name which they gave themaelved we dc
not know. The Ammonites called them Zud-
zummim, which may mean turbulent, refdvi
under a foreign yoke and a violent dispaew*
sion; and the ejuthet Znsim may mean pm
minent onns or giants. '* Tliey were a peo;Ji
great and many, and tall at the AnakinM'
(Deut iiL 21). Such a record carries us bad
to old timet, and shows that tiie Canaanitea
Moabitet, and Ammonitet had no aborigisa
right to the territory — ^that they were onl]
tecond in potseaaion ca it. (See Zlmxcmmdo.,

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